Electrical Handbook Formula Book Sample
Electrical Handbook Formula Book Sample
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HANDBOOK
&
FORMULA BOOK
for
GATE, IES, JTO, PSUs & SSC
ELECTRICAL
ENGINEERING
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Tel: 011-26514888
ISBN: 978-93-5156-854-4
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It would be very fruitful if the students go through this book every day.
We are presenting this book by considering all the facts which is required
to get success in the competition.
R. K. Rajesh
Director
Engineers Institute of India
eii.rkrajesh@gmail.com
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CONTENTS
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Why IES?
Indian engineering services (IES) constitute of engineers that work under the
govt. of India to manage a large segment of public sector economy which
constitutes of Railroads, Public works, Power, Telecommunications, etc. IES
remain the most sought-after careers for the engineering graduates in India. A
combined competitive examination is conducted by UPSC for recruitment to the
Indian Engineering Services. The exam constitutes of a written exam followed
by an interview for personality test.
Why GATE?
Many public sector undertakings such as BHEL, IOCL, NTPC, BPCL, HPCL, BARC
and many more PSUs are using the GATE score for selecting candidates for their
organizations. Students who qualify in GATE are entitled to a stipend of Rs 8,000
per month during their M.Tech. course. Better remuneration is being offered for
students of M.Tech./ME as compared to those pursuing B.Tech/B.E. A good rank
assures a good job. After joining M.Tech. at IITs and IISc, one can look at a salary
package ranging from Rs 7lakh to 30lakh per annum depending upon
specialization and performance. Qualifying GATE with good marks is also an
eligibility clause for the award of JRF in CSIR Laboratories.
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1
NETWORK THEORY
CONTENTS
4. RESONANCE . 16-18
5. TRANSIENTS 19-22
9. FILTERS . 33-36
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1. NETWORK BASICS
Current: Electric current is the time rate of change of charge flow.
dq
i (Ampere)
dt
t
Charge transferred between time to and t q idt
to
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R
Compression of wire results in decrease in resistance: R'
n2
Capacitor: All capacitors are linear and bilateral, except electrolytic capacitor which
is unilateral.
t
Cdv(t) 1
Time Domain: i(t) = v(t) i(t)dt
dt C
1
In s-domain: I(s) = sCV(s) I(s) V(s) =
sC
Capacitor doesnt allow sudden change of voltage, until impulse of current is
applied.
It stores energy in the form of electric field and power dissipation in ideal capacitor
is zero.
1
Impedance Zc =-jXc & Xc = ; Xc Capacitive reactance ; = 2f
C
Inductor: Linear and Bilateral element
t
di (t ) 1
L
Time Domain: v(t ) L i (t ) v(t )dt
dt
Impedance Z L jX L & XL L
1
In s-domain V(s) = sL I(s) V(s) I(s) =
sL
Inductor doesnt allowed sudden change of current, until impulse of voltage is
applied.
It stores energy in the form of magnetic field.
Power dissipation in ideal inductor is zero.
+ +
Input Output
V1 N1 N2 V2 port
port
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N1
Where K Turns ratio.
N2
Transformer doesnt work as amplifier because current decreases in same amount
power remain constant.
Gyrator:
I1 I2
Ro
V1 V2
R o Coefficient of Gyrator
V1 R o I 2 V2 R o I1
If load is capacitive then input impedance will be inductive and vice versa.
If load is inductive then input impedance will be capacitive.
It is used for simulation of equivalent value of inductance.
Voltage Source:
In practical voltage source, there is small internal resistance, so voltage across the
element varies with respect to current.
Current Source:
In practical current source, there is small internal resistance, so current varies with
respect to the voltage across element.
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Dependent Source: Voltage or current source whose values depend upon other
parameters like current, voltage.
The handling of independent and dependent voltage source is identical except.
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2
CONTROL SYSTEMS
CONTENTS
4. STABILITY . 53-55
9. COMPENSATORS .. 69-72
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1. BLOCK DIAGRAM
Open Loop Control System:
In this system the output is not fedback for comparison with the input.
Open loop system faithfulness depends upon the accuracy of input calibration.
Closed Loop Control System: It is also termed as feedback control system. Here the
output has an effect on control action through a feedback. Ex. Human being
Transfer Function:
C(s) G(s)
Transfer function =
R(s) 1 + G(s)H(s)
Open Loop:
Closed Loop:
1. As the error between the reference input and the output is continuously measured
through feedback. The closed system works more accurately.
2. Closed loop systems is complicated to construct and it is costly.
3. It becomes unstable under certain conditions.
4. In terms of performance the closed loop system adjusts to the effects of non-
linearity present.
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Transfer Function: The transfer function of an LTI system may be defined as the
ratio of Laplace transform of output to Laplace transform of input under the
assumption
Y(s)
G(s) =
X(s)
The transfer function is completely specified in terms of its poles and zeros and
the gain factor.
The T.F. function of a system depends on its elements, assuming initial conditions
as zero and is independent of the input function.
To find a gain of system through transfer function put s = 0
s4 4
Example: G(s) = 2 Gain =
s 6s 9 9
If a step, ramp or parabolic response of T.F. is given, then we can find Impulse
Response directly through differentiation of that T.F.
d
(Parabolic Response) = Ramp Response
dt
d
(Ramp Response) = Step Response
dt
d
(Step Response) = Impulse Response
dt
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2. Moving a
summing point
after a block
3. Moving a
summing point
ahead of block
X1 X1 G X1 X1 G
G G
4. Moving a take
off point after a
block X1 1/G
X1
X1 X 1G X1 X 1G
G G
5. Moving a take
off point ahead X 1G
X 1G G
of a block
6. Eliminating a X1 X2
G
feedback loop
1GH
(GX1 X2 )
Signal Flow Graphs:
It is a graphical representation of control system.
Signal Flow Graph of Block Diagram:
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pk k
Masons Gain Formula: Transfer function =
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3
DIGITAL ELECTRONICS
AND CIRCUITS
CONTENTS
7. COUNTERS 103-105
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A number system with base r, contents r different digits and they are from 0 to
r 1.
Decimal to other codes conversions: To convert decimal number into other system
with base r, divide integer part by r and multiply fractional part with r.
A x2 r 2 x1 r x0 y1 r 1 y 2 r 2
(110101.11) 2 0011
0101 (35.C)16
.1100
Octal to Binary and Binary to Octal: Same procedure as discussed above but here
group of 3 bits is made.
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Codes:
In BCD code each decimal digit is represented with 4 bit binary format.
Eg : (943)10 1001
0100
0011
9 4 9 BCD
Gray Code:
It is also called minimum change code or unit distance code or reflected code.
+ + + +
MSB 1 0 0 1 0 Binary
MSB 1 1 0 1 1 Gray
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7777 5321
2456 1
7's complement 8's complement
5321 5322
1s complement 010.001
010.001
1
2'scomplement
010.010
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4
MICROPROCESSORS
CONTENTS
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1. MICROPROCESSOR BASICS
A Microprocessor includes ALU, register arrays and control circuits on a single chip.
Microcontroller:
A device that includes microprocessor, memory and input and output signal lines on
a single chip, fabricated using VLSI technology.
1. 8085 MPU:
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It has 40 pins, requires a +5V single power supply and can operate with 3 MHz
single phase clock.
It has six general purpose register to store 8 bit data. These are B, C, D, E, H
and L. It can be combined as BC, DE, and HL to perform 16 bit operations.
Flags: 5 flags
Flag Register:
D7 D6 D5 D4 D3 D2 D1 D0
S Z AC P CY
Carry Flag (CY): If an arithmetic operation result in a carry or borrow, the CY flag
is set, otherwise it is reset.
If the result has au even number of 1s, the flag is set, otherwise the flag is reset.
Sign Flag (S): Sign Flag is set if bit D7 of the result is 1. Otherwise it is reset.
Program counter (PC): It is used to store the l6 bit address of the next byte to be
fetched from the memory or address of the next instruction to be executed.
Stack Pointer (SP): It is 16 bit register used as a memory pointer. It points to memory
location in Read/Write memory which is called as stack.
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8085 Signals:
Address lines:
There are l6 address lines AD0 AD7 and A8 A15 to identify the memory
locations.
Call us at +91-9990357855
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5
ELECTRONIC DEVICES &
CIRCUITS
CONTENTS
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Leakage Current (I o )
Also called minority carrier current or thermally generated current.
In silicon it is in nano ampere range and in germanium it is in micro ampere range.
Io doubles for every 10C. For 1C, Io increases by 7%.
Io is proportional to the area of the device.
Advantages of smaller Io:
(i) Suitable for high temperature applications
(ii) Good Thermal stability
(iii) No false triggering
Energy Gap: Difference between the lower energy level of conduction band (CB)
E C and upper energy level of valance band (VB) E v is called as energy gap.
Metals: VB and CB are overlap to each other.
This overlapping increases with temperature.
e is both in CB and VB.
Insulators: Conduction band is always empty. Hence no current passes. Band
gap: 5 eV 15 eV.
Semiconductor: Energy gap is small and it is in range of 1 eV.
At room temperature current can pass through a semi conductor.
Energy Gap Ge Si Ga As
Eg T 0 7.85 eV 1.21 eV XX
Eg T 300 K 0.72 eV 1.1 eV 1.47 eV
Energy gap at temperature T
For Ge Eg(T) 0.785 7.2 104 T
For Si Eg(T) 1.21 3.6 104 T
Energy gap decreases with temperature.
dv volt
Electric Field Intensity
dx meter
drift velocity v m2
Mobility of charge carriers
electric field intensity sec
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Mobility Vs curve
< 10 3 constant
10 10
3 4
1/ 2
1
10 4
T m
Mass Action Law: In a semi conductor under thermal equilibrium (at constant
temperature) the product of electrons and holes in a semiconductor is always constant
and equal to the square of intrinsic concentration.
[no po ni2 ]
no Concentration of e in conduction band
Po Concentration of holes in valance band
ni Intrinsic concentration at given temperature
ni2
Majority carrier concentration =
Minority carrier concentration
Eg
Intrinsic concentration n AoT e
2
i
3 2 KT
Drift Current: It is flow of current through the material or device under the influence
of voltage or electric field intensity.
Total current density in a semi conductor
J Jn Jp
(Total current) (Current carried by e ) (Current carried by holes)
Jn Jn Jn
current due to e
e drift current density
e diffusion current density
dn
For e J n nqn qDn A / cm2
dx
dp
For holes J p pq p qDp A / cm2
dx
e diffusion length Ln Dn cm
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6
ANALOG ELECTRONICS
CONTENTS
6. OSCILLATORS . 188-191
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VFL
Full load current = I FL =
RL
If Zener current is maximum then load current is minimum and vice versa.
Vi VL
For satisfactory operation of circuit I I z min I L I z min I L
Rs
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2
V
r rms 1
Vdc
Peak value
Crest factor =
RMS value
DC power output
Rectifier Efficiency = 100%
ACpower input
DC power output
TUF =
AC rating of transformer
Im Vm
Idc , Vdc
Im Vm
RMS value of current and voltage: I rms , Vrms
2 2
2Im 2V
Idc , Vdc m
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Vm Im
RMS value of current and voltage: Vrms , I rms
2 2
TUF = 0.692
Bridge Rectifier: All the parameters are same as full wave rectifier except
Peak inverse voltage = Vm Transformer utilization factor = 0.812
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7
SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS
CONTENTS
7. Z TRANSFORM . 225-228
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Parabolic signal:
At 2
x(t ) u(t )
2
At 2
,t0
x(t ) 2
0 , t0
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t2
, t0
unit parabolic signal x(t ) 2
0 t0
,
1 1
(t ) u t u t
2 2
Triangular signal:
|t |
1 , | t | a
x(t ) a
0, | t | a
Signum Signal:
1, t 0
x(t ) sgm(t )
1, t 0
sgn(t ) 2u (t ) 1
sgn u (t ) u (t )
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8
COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS
CONTENTS
3. NOISE . 245-246
8. RADAR .. 256-257
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1. ANALOG MODULATION
Modulation is the process of placing the message signal over some carrier signal to
make it suitable for transmission.
1. Size of antenna required for receiving the wave is reduced if signal is transmitted
at high frequency.
3. The interference of noise and other signals can be reduced by changing the
frequency of transmission.
Amplitude Modulation
Amplitude Modulated Signal:
x m ( t ) Am cos m t
xc ( t ) Ac cos c t
x (t ) Ac cos c t Ac K a xm (t ) cos c t
xm (t ) message signal
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Bandwidth = 2 f m
Ac2 2 Ac2
Ptotal = Pcarrier + PLSB + PUSB Pcarrier PLSB PUSB
2 8
PSB 2
AM 100% AM 2 100%
Pt 2
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2 2
Pt 1 Pc I tIC 1 Ic
2 2
In DSB-SC the carrier signal is suppressed at the time of modulation. Only side-
bands are transmitted in modulated wave.
2
Bandwidth = 2 f m Transmitted Power Pt Pc
2
s (t ) Ac m (t ) cos 2 f c t Ac m (t ) sin 2 f c t
2
Bandwidth = f m Transmitter Power Pt PC
4
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Vestigial Sideband (VSB) modulation: In this modulation one side band and
vestige of another sideband is transmitted.
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9
ELECTROMAGNETIC
THEORY
CONTENTS
7. ANTENNAS 286-286
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a r a z
a
For Cylinderical: A
z
A A Az
a r a a
2
r sin r sin r
For Spherical: A
r
Ar rA r sin A
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10
MEASUREMENTS
&
INSTRUMENTATION
CONTENTS
3. AC BRIDGES 296-298
6. Q-METER .. 303-303
7. TRANSDUCERS 304-306
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1. MEASURING INSTRUMENT
CHARACTERISTICS
Generalized Measuring Instrument: The block diagram of generalized measuring
system may be represented as:
IMPORTANT DEFINITIONS:
Accuracy: Closeness with which an instrument reading approaches the true value of
the variable being measured. It can be improved by recalibration.
Precision: It is a measure of the degree to which successive measurement differ from
one another.
It is design time characteristic.
High precision does not mean high accuracy. A highly precise instrument may be
inaccurate.
Ex: If reading are 101, 102, 103, 104, 105. Most precise value is 103
Resolution: The smallest change in measured value to which the instrument will
respond. It is improved by re-calibrating the instrument.
Sensitivity: It is ratio of change in output per unit change in input quantity of the
instrument. It is design time characteristic.
Drift: It means deviation in output of the instrument from a derived value for a
particular input.
A Am AT
2. Relative Error: r
AT AT
A
3. Percent Error: % r 100
AT
Instrument Error is generally given in percent error.
Standards of EMF:
(a) Saturated Weston cell is used for Primary standard of emf.
Its emf is 1.01864 volt, maximum current drawn is 100 A. It contains
CdSO 4 crystal and its internal resistance is 600 to 800 .
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(b) Unsaturated Weston cell is used for secondary standards. Its emf is 1.0180
to 1.0194 volt and does not have CdSO 4 crystal.
Standard of Resistance:
Maganin (Ni + Cu + Mn)
Nickel 4%
Magnese 12% [High Resistivity and low temperature coefficient]
Copper 84%
Inductive effect of resistance can be eliminated, using Bifilar winding.
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11
ELECTICAL MACHINES
CONTENTS
1. TRANSFORMER 310-330
2. DC MACHINE 331-346
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1. TRANSFORMER
Definition: A transformer is a static device that transfers electrical energy from one
electrical circuit to another electrical circuit through the medium of magnetic field
and without the change of frequency.
Construction of Transformer:
Core Type:
1. In core type construction, both the limbs are provided with windings and the core
is surrounded by windings.
2. For a given output and voltage rating, it requires less iron but more copper.
3. Cross-section area of both limbs is equal.
4. These are used for high power applications.
5. These are suited for high voltage, small kVA rating.
For example: 15 kVA, 2200 / 1100 V
6. Cost of insulation is less.
Shell Type:
1. In shell type, only middle limb is provided with winding and the windings are
surrounded by core.
2. Amount of copper required is less.
3. Cross-sectional area of the middle limb is twice to that of outer limbs.
4. These are used for low power applications.
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5. These are suited for large kVA ratings but low voltage.
For Example: 150 kVA, 400/230 V
Figure (i)
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E 2 N2 m sin(t 90 )
N m
(E 2 ) rms 2
2
(E 2 ) rms 2 f N 2 m (ii)
E1 E 2
From equation (i) and (ii),
N1 N 2
i.e., voltage per turns are equal in primary and secondary windings.
From figure (i) we have, E1 V1 and E2 V2
V1 E1 N1 I
Hence, a 2
V2 E 2 N 2 I1
Key Points:
1. Emf induced in the windings are radians ahead by the core flux.
2
2. Any change in the secondary current of the transformer causes a change in primary
current so that the flux remains constant.
3. Infinite permeability of the core signifies that no magnetizing current is required
for establishment of flux.
Ideal Transformer:
Properties
(i) Resistance of the windings of transformer is zero.
(ii) Magnetic leakage flux is zero.
(iii) The permeability of the core of transformer is infinite.
(iv) Efficiency is 100%.
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12
POWER SYSTEMS
CONTENTS
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1 2
Kinetic energy (KE): mv (Jules)
2
dw du
P u = work, w = energy
dt dt
Electric parameter:
Let v 2V sin t
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i 2I sin(t )
In Phasor representation
v V 0 , i I
S = P+jQ = VI cos + jVI sin = VI* (for this relation Q will be positive for
lagging VAR)
P = Active power
Q = Reactive power
P 3 | VP || I P | cos P 3 | VL || I L | cos P
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Q 3 | VP || I P | sin P 3 | VL || I L | sin P
VP = phase voltage
VL
Note: in connection VP & IP IL
3
IL
connection VP VL & I P
3
Hyrdo power:
P = gWh(watt)
g = 9.81 m/s2
h= head of water
Tidal power
A = area of basin
Wind power
Load Curve: It is graph between the power demands of the system w.r.t. to time.
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(i) Base Load: The unvarying loads which occur almost the whole day.
(ii) Peak load: The various peak demands of load over and above the base load.
Operational factors :
Maximum demand
1. Demand Factor =
Connected load
Average demand
3. Load factor
Maximum load
Average demand
5. Plant Capacity factor
Installed capcity
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Note:
1. Load factor can be defined for a period such daily load factor, monthly load
factor, annual load factor etc.
2. Practically load factor is less than 1.
3. Practically diversity factor is greater than 1.
4. Both factors should be high for economical use.
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13
POWER ELECTRONICS
CONTENTS
CYCLO-CONVERTERS .. 497-500
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Definition: Power electronics deals with control and conversion of high power
applications.
Key Points:
2. In power electronics, the devices are utilized as switch while in signal electronics
devices are used as switch and amplifiers.
Four Modes of Switching Action:
1. Forward Blocking Mode
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Power Diode
VI Characteristic:
Important Points:
1
(1) Q R trr I RM
2
di IRM
(2) [ta trr ]
dt trr
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1
(3) The reverse recovery time (trr ) decides the switching frequency of diode. f
trr
VI Characteristic:
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Important Point:
SCR supports three modes of switching i.e. forward blocking, forward conduction
and reverse blocking mode.
2. Holding Current (I H ) : It is that value of the anode current below which SCR is
turned off. (i.e., it regains its forward blocking capability)
Note: * IL 2.4 IH
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14
ELECTRICAL MATERIALS
CONTENTS
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1. STRUCTURE OF MATERIALS
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OA OB OC
h ,k ,
OA OB OC
Example:
1.
OA
h 2
OA
2
OB
k 0
OC
0
( h, k , ) (2, 0, 0)
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2.
OA
h 1
OA
OB
k 1
OB
OC
1
OC
( h, k , ) (1, 1, 1)
3.
OA
h 1
OA
OB
k 0
OC
l 0
(h, k , l ) (1, 0, 0)
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