Music For Film
Music For Film
Music For Film
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L The Material
From the time of' the first public demonstration of a Lumiere
Cinematographe, for which a pianist is said to have improvised an
accompaniment, until today's wide-screen features with their multi-
channeled, tape-recorded scores, there has always been music for motion
pictures.' The pictures have fostered an abundant and rich variety
of music making, which for more than eight decades has affected us
in ways both simple and subtle. Yet most of us have a very poor knowledge
of what film music is all about. Why should there be this discrepancy?
Why are the facts of film music not widely understood? Why should
Peter Odegard, in a review of two recently published musicological
reference works, have to take both to task for all but ignoring film
music, "the most widely dispersed repertoire being performed today,
and hence in its peculiar way, the most influential"?2
The answer, first of all, derives from the nature of the medium.
Because film communicates (at least potentially) through a conjunction
of visual and auditory signals, research into film music requires an
understanding of not one but two nonverbal systems of communication,
as well as the problematical jargons with which we attempt to describe
each of them in speech. In this age of specialized studies, few scholars
have been able to master more than half of the subject. Those in
film have been preoccupied with the broad essentials of its history
Martin Marks is in the Ph.D. program in music history at Harvard University, and is engaged
in writing a doctoral dissertation on music for silent films.-Ed.
'Inventors August and Louis Lumiere were the first to project motion pictures for public amusement,
within the Salon Indien of the Grand Cafe on the Boulevard des Capucines, Paris, 28 December
1895, according to Kenneth MacGowan, Behind the Screen: The History and Techniques of the Motion
Picture (New York: Dell, 1965), pp. 80-81. Although the presence of a pianist at the premiere
is asserted in many books, few give more specific information; but Oscar Messter, who premiered
films in Berlin during October 1896, wrote in his autobiography Mein Weg mit dem Film (1936):
"Ich kenne kein offentlichen Filmvorfuhrungen ohne Begleitmusik"-cited by Konrad Ottenheym,
"Film und Musik bis zur Einfuhrung des Tonfilms," Diss. Friedrich-Wilhelm, Berlin 1944, p. 3.
2Review of the Dictionary of Contemporary Music, ed. John Vinton (New York: Dutton, 1974) and
The New Oxford History of Music, Vol. X: The Modern Age, 1890-1960, ed. Martin Cooper (London:
Oxford, 1974) in Journal of the American Musicological Society 19 (1976): 155.
282
and theory, with the result that music has been granted mostly cursory
consideration.3 The subject also stands on the periphery of musicology.
That discipline, little older than film itself, has emphasized the historical
study of Western fine-art and folk idioms, along with the ethnological
study of music in other cultures; relatively little attention has been
given to recent music in the professional and popular idioms-the
idioms through which film music usually communicates.4 Even as
musicological attention to recent music grows, moreover, film music's
share remains minimal. The reference works reviewed by Odegard
are good examples; and more generally, when music textbooks bring
up film music, they do so only to mention a respected composer's
venture into the film world.5 Otherwise, this peculiar hybrid idiom
is ignored.
Film music is indeed a peculiar subject, not only because it straddles
two disciplines, but also because its material poses many problems for
the researcher. This is a point that even Odegard apparently overlooks.
Through his choice of words he associates film music with concert
music as comprising a "repertoire," from which (presumably) selections
are "performed." Between these two kinds of music, however, a funda-
mental distinction must be made: unlike concert music, film music
does not usually come out of, or go into, a repertoire; it exists only
as an accompaniment to a film. (One may, however, speak of a repertoire
of arrangements of film music for concert use, sheet music sales,
soundtrack albums, and so on.) Furthermore, since the invention of
synchronized sound, film music has been heard not in continuous live
performance, but through mechanical reproductions of many fragmen-
tary performances assembled by recording "engineers." In other words,
there not only is no repertoire of film music, there also are no "pieces
of film music" at all-only pieces of film, with music photographically
or electromagnetically inscribed on a band alongside the image. The
primary material of film music, both for the audience and the researcher,
is not a recording or a score, but the film itself.
3But music has fared somewhat better at the hands of theoreticians than historians, as in the
chapter "Music," in Siegfried Kracauer's Theoryof Film: The Redemption of Physical Reality (London:
Oxford, 1960), pp. 133-56; for other examples, see nn. 40-43.
Charles Seeger defines these idioms in "The Music Compositional Process as a Function in a
Nest of Functions and in Itself a Nest of Functions," a revision of a 1966 essay in his Studies in
Musicology (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1977), pp. 139-67. On the
problems of using words to describe music, see his "Speech, Music, and Speech about Music," pp.
16-30.
5As in Daniel Kingman's American Music: A Panorama (New York: Schirmer, 1979), in which
film scores of Copland, Bernstein and Thomson are discussed. William V. Austin's Music in the
20th Century(New York: Norton, 1966) indexes the following names under "film music": Auric-Cocteau,
Chaplin, Copland, Eisler, Hindemith, Honegger, Milhaud, Prokofiev, Shostakovich, and Stravinsky.
It would thus appear that for scholarly inquiry into film music to
advance, film ought to be studied with music at the center of observation
rather than on the periphery-but this is far from an easy thing to
do, at least when inside a theater. As we view a film, our minds must
contend with the ever-changing content of the moving image and the
soundtrack. The individual elements (not just music, but also lighting,
camera angle, editing, and so forth) are submerged into the flow of
images on the screen. Hence the engrossed audience rarely perceives
these elements consciously; it is simply carried along by the stream
of sights and sounds.
The film-viewing experience is in some fundamental sense a passive
one; yet film study, like the study of any subject, requires an active
state of mind. This problem has been formulated in many ways, but
perhaps never more eloquently than by Walter Benjamin in his profound
study of "The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction."
That essay, while primarily concerned with the political implications
of twentieth-century art, contains this illuminating passage on the
psychology of film perception:
Let us compare the screen on which a film unfolds with the canvas of a painting.
The painting invites the spectator to contemplation; before it the spectator can aban-
don himself to his associations. Before the movie frame he cannot do so. No sooner
has his eye grasped a scene than it is already changed. It cannot be arrested. Duhamel,
who detests the film and knows nothing of its significance, though something of
its structure, notes this circumstance as follows: "I can no longer think what I want
to think. My thoughts have been replaced by moving images." The spectator's process
of association in view of these images is indeed interrupted by their constant, sudden
change. This constitutes the shock effect of the film, which, like all shocks, should
be cushioned by heightened presence of mind.6
Film's ability to "arrest" our contemplative faculties, advises Benjamin,
should be countered by a "heightened presence of mind." For the
purposes of film study, however, such mental preparation may not
suffice. Even the most attentive (in the analytical sense) viewer has
great difficulty in comprehending all there is in a film-likewise in
remembering just what has been seen and heard after leaving a theater.
One must find other ways of taking the film in. For example, it helps
both to see a film many times over and to see many films, because
repeated viewing dulls the "shock effect" of the medium. One can
also use special viewing machines such as movieolas, which facilitate
frame-by-frame analysis. (Indeed, such machines can be said to convert
a film into a succession of paintings that "invite the spectator to
bThe essay first appeared in the Zeitschriftfir Sozialforschung, V (1936); the translation by Harry
Zohn is in Benjamin's Illuminations, ed. Hannah Arendt (New York: Schocken, 1969), p. 238.
7A Grammar of the Film: An Analysis of Film Technique, rev. ed. (1950; reprinted. Berkeley and
Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1969), p. 3.
8Raymond Bellour, "The Unattainable Text," Screen 16, no. 3 (1975): 20-cited by Claudia Gorbman
in "Vigo/Jaubert," Cini-Tracts, 1, no. 2 (1977): 65-80.
9The distinction comes from Roger Manvell, "Screenwriting," The International Encyclopediaof Film
(New York: Crown, 1972), p. 449.
'But even the writer's best ideas may not be written down, according to Gore Vidal; citing his
comical adventures in Hollywood, he illustrates the serious difficulties involved in answering the
question "Who Makes the Movies?" New YorkReview of Books, 25 November 1976, pp. 35-39.
film study." "Useless" is too strong a word. Even the vaguest of scripts
can be preferable to reliance on frequently unreliable memories. Petric
is right, however, to push for more accurate publications. There are
too many scripts that try to pass themselves off as plays or novels
(or still worse, "novelizations") instead of as what they really are:
inadequate but necessary transcriptions of what we see and, to a lesser
extent, hear.
The cue sheets that composers use are much less widely known than
scripts, but in principle they are little different, being a kind of setting
down of sequences from a film in shorthand. Their function, however,
is quite special: to link the music to the rest of the film. In the silent
period cue sheets provided a series of suggestions for music to be
used in accompaniment, "cued" to the titles and action on the screen.
(These will be discussed further below, as part of the literature of
film music.) Sound film cue sheets, normally prepared by a film's "music
editor," describe the action, dialogue and (some) sound effects of scenes
for which the composer is to write music. Often the composer works
solely from these cue sheets after first viewing the film; hence,
they become important clues to the compositional process, telling us
what details the composer thought deserving of musical emphasis.'2
Often details from cue sheets are copied into scores of film music,
as an aid to the conductor during recording sessions. This combination
of cue sheet and score may actually provide a more detailed transcription
of (segments from) a film than does a script. By themselves, however,
scores pose certain problems for research. In the silent period a score
was like a Platonic "ideal." That is, it was shadowed more or less faithfully
in each theatrical cave, with fidelity to the text dependent upon such
matters as the number of musicans available and the taste of the music
director. Indeed, most silent film music consisted of improvisations
and compilations of preexistent pieces. Original scores were unusual
(though we do not really know how unusual, since no attempt at a
count has been made). As Charles Berg has noted, the very concept
of an "original score" was ambiguous, since many a score said to be
"original" was actually a mixture of new and old music "composed
by" (read "arranged by") a compiler.'3 In short, music for the silent
""From a Written Film History to a Visual Film History," Cinema Journal 14, no. 2 (1975): 21.
This issue is given over to a "Symposium on the Methodology of Film History," sponsored by the
International Federation of Film Archives in Montreal, 1974; in the "Transcript of Discussion,"
pp. 47-64, several participants challenge Petric's point of view.
For examples of sound film cue sheets, see the manuals of Dolan, Hagen, Skiles, and Skinner
listed at the end of this article. (N.B., in most cases in the notes I give only abridged references
for books devoted to film music; full citations are given in the Bibliography, Section III.)
'3See Charles Berg, Investigation of the Motives for and Uses of Music to Accompany the American
Silent Film, 1896-1927 (New York: Arno, 1976), p. 158.
'4The problem, and various attempted solutions, are discussed by Gorbman, "Vigo/Jaubert" (n.
8); in the survey of the literature below, I shall describe one of those attempts, by Manvell and
Huntley in The Techniqueof Film Music (1957).
5See Ken Sutak, "The Investment Market in Movie Music Albums," High Fidelity (July 1972);
62-66.
'6Clifford McCarty's PublishedScreenplays:A Checklist,Seriff Series [of] Bibliographies and Checklists,
no. 18 (Kent, Ohio: Kent State University Press, 1971), lists 388 films, with an introductory survey
of the history of screenplay publications; Manvell, in "Screenwriting" (n. 9), lists seven complete
shot-by-shot analyses of films.
'7For information on the project, contact Gillian Anderson, music reference librarian at the library;
see also "Early Film Music Collections in the Library of Congress," Main Title (published by the
Entr'acte Recording Society) 2, no. 2 (1976): 8.
'8See Arthur Cohn, "Film Music in the Fleischer Collection of the Free Library of Philadelphia,"
Film Music Notes 7, no. 3 (1948): 11-13.
'9See the lists in Motion Pictures, Television, and Radio: A Union Catalogue of Manuscript and Special
Collectionsin the WesternUnited States, ed. Linda Harris Mehr (Boston: G. K. Hall, 1977)-the only
book in which film music holdings have been indexed; some recent acquisitions of California State
and the Library of Congress are mentioned in Notes 33 (1977): 577-79.
20Page Cook assesses the Newman Library in "The Sound Track," Films in Review 17 (1976):
369- 72.
2'See Robert Fiedel, "Saving the Score-Wanted: A National Film Music Archive," American Film
3, no. 1 (1977): 32, 71.
22These are listed in the International Film Guide, 1979, ed. Peter Cowie (London: Tantivy Press,
1978), pp. 400-404. An excellent, though now dated guide to several important American archives
and libraries is "Our Resources for Film Scholarship," Film Quarterly16, no. 2 (1962): 34-50.
23To cite one example: the British Film Archive (est. 1935), though among the world's largest
and oldest, has obtained scores for only half a dozen films. The extraordinary collection of the
Museum of Modern Art, acquired over many years, is largely a result of its longstanding tradition
of screening silent films with live music.
24Roger Manvell, "The Explosion of Film Studies," Encounter37, no. 1 (1971): 67-74; Jean Cohen,
"The Visual Explosion: The Growth of Film Literature," Choice (March 1973): 26-40.
* * *
25See, however, Win Sharples, Jr.'s excellent compilation of sources in Cinema Journal (1978),
cited with other principal bibliographies in the Bibliography, Section I.
26Zofia Lissa's "Literatur uber den Tonfilm," in Aesthetik der Filmmusik (1965), pp. 9-16, cites
about fifty mainly theoretical works; Harry Geduld's "Film Music: A Survey," Quarterly Review of
Film Studies 1 (1976): 186-204, is an uncritical introduction to a few books on music and musicals,
and also soundtracks. I have been unable to consult Alicja Helman's survey of the literature in
Kwartalnikfilmowy no. 2 (1961), but her study of "Probleme der Musik in Film," Film (Frankfurt)
5 (1964): 687-707, contains very thoughtful discussion of much theoretical literature.
27The most recent extended discussion of the history of synchronized sound is Geduld's The
Birth of the Talkies: From Edison toJolson (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1975). Kurt London
reviews some of the experimental devices used in the silent period to achieve synchronization in
Film Music (1936), pp. 66-70: see also Samuel Peeples, "The Mechanical Music Makers," Films in
Review 24 (1973): 193-200.
28Two books on silent film theaters are Dennis Sharp's The Picture Palace and Other Buildings
for Movies (London: Hugh Evelyn, 1969) and Ben M. Hall's The Best Remaining Seats: The Story
of the Golden Age of the Movie Palace (New York: Bramhall House, 1961). Hall's is much the less
technical; it gilds the subject with nostalgia, but reveals more about music in the most splendid
of the "palaces."
29Berg sketches the early history of cue sheets (to about 1915) in his Investigation (1976), pp.
102-12; Hofmann reproduces five examples in Soundsfor Silents (1970), and Max Winkler explains
his own important role in their development (though he was not, as he claims, their "inventor"),
in "The Origins of Film Music," Films in Review 2, no. 10 (1951): 34-42, reprinted in Limbacher,
Film Music (1974), pp. 15-24.
30The first editorials on film music were "The Musical End" and "Musical Accompaniments for
Moving Pictures," Moving Picture World 5 (1909): 7-8 and 559. The first column of "Music for
the Picture," ed. Clarence Sinn et al., is in 7(1910): 1227, and the last in 39 (1919): 1359. Important
early articles are Louis Reeves Harrison, "Jackass Music," 8 (1911): 124-25, and W. Stephen Bush,
"Giving Musical Expression to the Drama," 9 (1911): 354-55.
the editors ran letters on these matters from across the country. In
this way the column-and others like it-became national forums on
film music, drawing together thousands of isolated musicians (like
Eugene Ahern) who welcomed the chance to communicate with others
of their profession.31
Cue sheets, anthologies, columns, and handbooks all first appeared
at very nearly the same time (around 1910). The sudden development
of a literature seeking to improve music in the theater, by example
and advice, is a phenomenon partly to be explained in economic
terms-as in these words from the editorial introduction to the first
column of "Music for the Picture": "The demand for good music is
such that it is now as much of a rivalry between exhibitors to brag
of their good orchestras as it is of bragging of [sic] the quality of
their pictures."32 The sentence, despite the grammatical lapse, makes
sense. At the time, theaters were growing rapidly in number and size.
Pictures were becoming both more popular and more respectable. "The
growth of picture houses in America in the period 1910-20 was
phenomenal. 'Movie Madness' pervaded society, and by the middle
of the decade it has been estimated that 25,000 picture theaters were
in use and the average daily attendance was in the region of six million
people."33 To compete for the widening audience, theater managers
installed spectacular organs, expanded their orchestras and musical
shows, and hired better musicians. "Good music" became one of a
theater's selling points (just as specially composed scores were often
used to promote important films like The Birth of a Nation). In response
to competition, managers became entrepreneurs and film music and
its literature thrived.34
It continued to thrive until the end of the silent film. Cue sheets
and manuals became more detailed and sophisticated, anthologies more
encyclopedic (like Rapee's). At the same time, musicians within the
trade and critical observers from outside never ceased to ponder how
to "reform" film music. Various kinds of reform were envisaged: the
introduction of more "classical" music into the theater (with better
playing), more original scores, and better systems of compilation whereby
the music would produce a much greater dramatic effect.35
31See Berg's account of this and other columns in Investigation, pp. 112-23.
32J[ohn] M. B[radlet], Moving Picture World7 (1910): 1227.
3
Sharp, The Picture Palace, p. 70.
34Moving Picture World contains many articles that establish a correlation early on; see especially
James S. McQuade's account of the budding career of the silent film's greatest theatrical entrepreneur,
Samuel L. ("Roxie') Rothapfel, "The Belasco of Motion Picture Presentations," 10 (1911): 796-98.
35See, e.g., Carl Van Vechten, "Music for the Movies," in Music and Bad Manners (New York:
Knopf, 1916), pp. 44-54; Sherwood K. Boblitz, "Where 'Movie Playing' Needs Reform," Musician
(June 1920): 8, 29; and Richard Holt, "Music and the Cinema," Musical Times 65 (1924): 426-27.
Van Vechten wanted a new kind of music, but he was very unspecific as to what kind it should
be; Boblitz stressed the value of playing classical accompaniments as a means to educate the young;
and Holt lambasted nearly all movie music, with kind words only for an original score (film not
named) by Eugene Goosens.
36Becce was the most prominent of the three, as composer of a number of original scores and
of the popular Kinothekanthologies; his career is traced by Hans Thomas in Die deutsche Tonfilmmusik
(1962), pp. 81-83. Music and literature of all three authors is indexed by Herbert Birett in
Stumm-Filmmusik(1970).
37On the plight of silent film musicians see Maurice Mermey, "The Vanishing Fiddler," North
American Review 227 (1929): 301-7; on publishers, see Winkler's "Origins" (n. 29).
38Musical Quarterly 15 (1929): 281-96. "Music for the Movies" is the first article on film music
to appear in this journal-one example of how the sound film brought forth a new literature from
new quarters and quarterlies; for others, see nn. 44, 52, and 53.
Potamkin was one of the writers who remained loyal to the silent
film. Indeed, many theorists had based their reasoning on the premise
that the medium was purely a visual one, and sound seemed to them
to be a blemish on that purity. But there were many others who welcomed
the transformed medium with enthusiasm. Sound triggered "an ava-
lanche of manifestos," full of prophecies, speculations, and attempts
to establish principles governing sound.39 A trio of Russian film-
makers-Eisenstein, Pudovkin, and Alexandrov-set the tone with their
brief manifesto-like "Statement on the Sound Film" of 1928: "The
first experimental work with sound must be directed along the line
of its distinct non-synchronization with the visual image."40 They were
disturbed by the prospect of an excessively literal use of sound-its
use, in other words, merely to confirm things already visible on the
screen-because such mechanistic synchronization threatened the theory
and practice of montage as it had been developed during the twenties.
Though more progressively minded than Potamkin, these writers, too,
felt their loyalties divided.
In subsequent films, however, they left the esthetic of silence behind,
and Eisenstein and Pudovkin continued to amplify and revise their
ideas in many books and articles.41 Parallel to their efforts, Rudolf
Arnheim published his theory of Film als Kunst, a complex work with
a complex section on sound. He incorporated some of the Russians'
terminology-using such words for sound as "contrapuntal" and
"asynchronous"-but also wrote in favor of more "naturalistic" uses
of sound.42 Like Arnheim, Bela Balazs stressed film's naturalistic
character when combined with sound, in his own treatise, Der Geist
des Films; and he even foresaw the day when musical accompaniments
would become naturalistic too: a "program music" made from abstract
and natural sounds, into "symphonies of noise."43
"9The phrase is Marian Hannah Winter's, in "The Function of Music in the Sound Film," Musical
Quarterly27 (1941): 153. Winter cites as an example Guido Bagier's Der kommendeFilm: eine Abrechnung
und eine Hoffnung (Stuttgart: Deutsche Verlag-Anstalt, 1928). Cf. the sources summarized in Thomas's
overview of the time "Zwischen Stummfilm und Tonfilm," Die deutsche Tonfilmmusik, pp. 11-17.
40Zhisn Iskustva, 5 August 1928; the English translation is from Sergei Eisenstein's Film Form:
Essays in Film Theory, trans. & ed. Jay Leyda (1947; reprinted. New York: Harcourt, n.d.), pp.
257-60.
41See the Bibliography of Eisenstein's writings in English in The Film Sense, trans. & ed. Leyda
(1947; reprinted. New York: Harcourt, 1970), pp. 269-76-and in the same book, the essay on
Prokofiev's music for AlexanderNevsky,"Form and Content: Practice," pp. 155-216. Vselvod Pudovkin's
essays from the thirties are gathered in Film Techniqueand Film Acting, trans. & ed. Ivor Montagu,
rev. ed. (1958; reprinted New York: Grove, 1970). See esp. "Asychronism as a Principle of Sound
Film" and "Dual Rhythm of Sound and Image," pp. 183-93 and 308-316.
42See the section on "The Sound Film" in Film, trans. (from Film als Kunst, 1930) L. M. Sieveking
and Ian F. D. Morrow (London: Faber, 1933), pp. 201-208.
43See "Tonfilm," in Der Geist des Films (1930; reprinted. Frankfurt: Makol, 1972), pp. 142-85.
Balazs's first book on film, Der sichtbareMensch,oderdie KulturdesFilms (Vienna: Deutsch-Osterreichische
Verlag, 1924) also contains a brief section on "Musik ins Kino," pp. 143-44; ideas from both books
are incorporated, in revised form, into Theoryof the Film: Characterand Growthof a New Art, trans.
Edith Bone (1952; reprinted. New York: Dover, 1970), pp. 194-241.
44The following are the most theoretical articles from Die Musik: Ali Weyl-Nissen, "Stilprinzipien
des Tonfilms-Versuch einer Grundlegung," 21 (1929): 905-7; Walter Gronostay, "Die Technik
der Gerauschanwendung im Tonfilm," 22 (1929): 42-44; A. Lion, "Erreichtes und Erreichbares:
Zur Frage der Naturlichen Klangwiedergabe im Tonfilm," 22 (1930): 473-74; and Franz Benedict
Biermann, "Tonfilm und Musik," 24 (1931): 250-54. From Melos, see Hanns Gutman "Der tonende
Film," 7 (1928): 6-9; Bagier (cf. n. 39), "Der akustiche Film: Sein Wesen und seine Bedeutung,"
7 (1928): 163-66; Hans Luedtke, "Filmmusik und Kunst," 7 (1928): 166-70; Becce, "Der Film und
die Musik: Illustration oder Komposition," 7 (1928): 170-72; W. Mechback, "Grundgedanken zur
Filmmusik," 8 (1929): 24-29; Adolf Raskin, "Grundsatzliches zum Klangfilmproblem," 8 (1929):
249-51; Gronostay, "Die Moglichkeiten der Musikanwendung im Tonfilm," 8 (1929): 317-18; Kurt
London, "Kinoorchester und Tonfilm: Organisationsfragen der Filmmusik," 9 (1930): 247-50, and
"Filmstil und Filmmusik," 11 (1932): 404-6; and Leonhard Furst, "Filmgestaltung aus der Musik,"
12 (1933): 18-22.
45Cf. Constant Lambert, "Mechanical Music and the Cinema," Music, Ho! (New York: Scribners,
1934), pp. 256-68. (See also n. 56.)
46From the essay "La Conquete de l'ubiquite," (in Dc la musique avant toute chose, 1928), trans.
Ralph Mannheim in Valery's Aesthetics(New York: Pantheon, 1964), p. 225; Benjamin cites a passage
from this essay at the head of his own (n. 6).
47See, e.g., these reviews of the 1928 and 1929 Baden-Baden Music Festivals, where many films
with avant-garde scores were screened: Heinrich Str6bel, "Film und Musik: Zu den Baden-Baden
Versuchen," Melos 7 (1928): 343-47; Oscar Thomson, "More Fun, Less Music," Modern Music 6,
no. 1 (1928): 38-40; and Strobel, "Die Baden-Baden Kammermusik, 1929," Melos 8 (1929): 395-400.
Other reviews in Melos are: Hans Mersmann on Der blaue Engel 9 (1930): 188; H[ellmuth] G[6tze]
on "Vier Tonfilme," 10 (1931): 371-72; and London on "L'Arlisienne: Ein Tonfilm mit Musik von
Bizet," 11 (1932): 53-54. For a very good discussion of the avant-garde's approach to film music,
both in the late silent and early sound periods, see Dietrich Stern, "Komponisten gehen zum Film,"
in Angewandte Musik der 20erJahre, ed. Stern (Berlin: Argument-Verlag, 1977), pp. 10-58.
were apt to be inserted into any kind of film, no matter how awkward
the context.) By 1931, moreover, the public's appetite for musicals
was exhausted; and their decline in popularity coincided with the general
abandonment of accompanimental music.48 (One rationale for the
spreading silence was that in the "naturalistic" context of the sound
film music was as out of place as the stylized, exaggerated gestures
and facial expressions of silent film actors.) Owing to this downward
turn of affairs, when musicians wrote about music they dwelt mostly
on the exciting, exceptional examples of creative use of sound, and
on the theoretical future rather than on the immediate present. Of
the movies as they were, they had formed a pretty low opinion.49
In the mid-thirties, however, opinions and opportunities began to
improve. From Hollywood, in 1933, came Forty Second STreet and King
Kong-two movies less important in themselves perhaps than as signals
of "comebacks" of both musicals and background scores. (The songs
of the former were by Al Dubin and Harry Warren; the music of
the latter was by Max Steiner.) In each case, the comeback was made
with a fresh set of techniques that quickly became established as
conventions. Commercial film music was back on its feet, and in the
following year Hollywood granted it official recognition with the institu-
tion of the Academy Awards for outstanding scores.50
Recognition of a more inquiring kind was granted at the first
International Congress of Music (ICM) in Florence, 1933, where a
session was held on "La Musica e il film."51 This marked the beginning
of a new outpouring of literature across all of Western Europe. A
special issue of La Revue Musicale was devoted to "Le Film Sonore."52
New periodicals were established: Cinema Quarterlyand Sight and Sound
in Great Britain, Bianco e nero in Italy; and each of them published
many articles by composers, critics, and theorists.53 From the city of
48My overview of the early sound period follows Thomas, Die deutsche Tonfilmmusik, pp. 11-30;
and Manvell & Huntley, The Technique of Film Music, pp. 31-53; see also The Movie Musical: From
"Vitaphoneto "42nd Street"as Reported in a Great Fan Magazine [i.e., Photoplay,from 1926 to 1933],
ed. Miles Kreuger (New York: Dover, 1975).
49Leonhard Fiirst, "Musikkritik und Tonfilm," Melos 12 (1933): 92-97.
5See "Academy Award Winners and Nominees for Music: 1934-1972," in The CompleteEncyclopedia
of Music and Jazz: 1900-1950, ed. Roger D. Kinkle, Vol. 4 (New York: Arlington House, 1974),
pp. 2029-39; in the early years, awards went to the studio's music department, rather than to the
composer(s): see Frank Varity, "The Sound Track," Films in Review 15 (1964): 295-97, 300.
'See the Atti del primo congressointernazionaledi musica, Firenze, 30 aprile-4 maggio 1933 (Florence:
Le Monnier, 1935), pp. 209-216, for the session on "La musica e il film." (Furst's paper for this
session was a re.working of his Melos article cited in n. 44.) There was also a session on "Radio,
Film, Grammofono"-see esp. Adriano Lualdi, "Due novi vie per la musica: Radio e film," pp.
43-52.
52 [No.
151], December 1934. There are nineteen articles under four headings: "Esthetique,"
"Technique," "Dessin anime," and "L'Ecran pedagogique." More than a third of the issue is given
over to these articles by composer Arthur Hoeree: "Essai d'esthetique du sonore," pp. 45-62; "Le
Travail du film sonore," pp. 63-79; and with Honegger, "Particularit6s du film Rapt," pp. 88-91.
53Sight and Sound, begun in 1932, was published by the British Film Institute from 1934, and
at that time commenced to run articles on film music, including: Ernest J. Borneman, "Sound Rhythm
London, moreover, came the first two books on music in the sound
film.
Leonid Sabaneev's Music for the Film: A Handbookfor Composersand
Conductors (1935) and Kurt London's Film Music: A Summary of the
Characteristic Features of Its History, Aesthetics, Technique and Possible
Developments(1936) were as different as their subtitles suggest.54 Each
had its own antecedents. Sabaneev's handbook revived the tradition
of the silent film manuals, avoiding abstractions (except, to some degree,
in a chapter on the "Aesthetics of the Sound Film"), and describing
in practical terms each stage of the film-scoring process. London's
summary followed Erdmann and Becce in attempting to survey the
whole subject systematically.55 Yet in one respect the two books were
very much alike: they shared a fascination with the concept of "Music
for the Microphone." The theme was a popular one in the literature
of the time (like that of "Mechanical Music," to which it was closely
related), but it was Sabaneev and London who gave it the most play.56
Each author explained in detail how the acoustics of the recording
studio altered the sounds (for better and worse) made by instruments
alone and in groups. From these observations, each tried to generate
idiomatic principles of film composition and orchestration. As it turned
out, however, neither their observations nor their principles endured
for long. Recording technology was changing so rapidly that large
portions of each book soon became obsolete.57
and the Film," 3, no. 10 (1934): 65-7; John Grierson, "Introduction to a New Art," 3, no. 11
(1934): 101-4; and M. D. Calvocoressi, "Music and Film: A Problem of Adjustment," 4, no. 14
(1935): 57-58. Cinema Quarterly (Edinburgh) ran from 1933-35, then merged with the monthly
WorldFilm News (WFN ); under both titles it featured many articles by composers, including: Alexandr
Hackenschmied, "Film and Music," trans. Karel Santar, 1 (1933): 152-55; Walter Leigh, "The Musician
and the Film," 3 (1935): 70-74; and Hanns Eisler, "Music and the Film: Illustration or Creation?"
WFN (May 1936): p. 23 [cf. Becce's art., n. 44]. Bianco e nero began at the Centro sperimentale
di cinematografia in Rome, 1937, and offered many theoretical studies beginning with Sebastiano
Luciani, "La musica e il film," 1, no. 6 (1937): 3-17.
54Compare London's subtitle with the first sentence of Prendergast's book, quoted on p. 000.
55London, however, did not make the connection; all he says of the Handbuch is that it "dealt
with directions for cinema conductors playing musical accompaniments to silent films, which soon
after became superfluous . . ." (p. 12).
56"Film music," wrote Walter Leigh, "must be written specifically for performance through the
microphone, with full regard to its various needs and possibilities"-from "Music and Microphones,"
WFN (August 1936): 40; Benjamin Britten gave Walton's score for As You Like It a negative review,
complaining that "One cannot feel that the microphone has entered very deeply into Walton's scoring
soul," in WFN, (October 1936): 46. Other examples: Eric Sarnette, "Musique et electricite," La Revue
Musicale [No. 151] (December 1934): 80-87; Libero Innamorati, "I problemi della registrazione
musicale," in the Atti del sec. cong. . . . 1937 (Florence: Le Monnier, 1940), pp. 261-64; Carlos
Chavez, Toward A New Music: Music and Electricity (New York: Norton, 1937); and, from more
technical points of view, W. F. Elliott's Sound Recordingfor Films (1937) and Ken Cameron's Sound
and the DocumentaryFilm (1947), both published in London by Pitman.
57London's book, though published one year after Sabaneev's, became obsolete sooner, because
it was based on developments prior to 1933; cf. George Antheil's reviews: "Good Russian Advice
about Movie Music," and "On the Hollywood Front," both in Modern Music 13, 14 (1936, 1937):
53-56, 107-8.
"8Nine papers on film music are contained in the Atti of the second ICM (n. 56); its other theme
was "Music and the Public." Besides Ottenheym's dissertation there were two others-unavailable
to me-by Wilhelmine Fey and Friedrich Robbe (see Bibliography III).
59See, e.g., "Music in the Movies Wins New Place" (in the Academy Awards), Musician 40, no.
1 (1935): 14; Douglas Moore, "Music and the Movies," Harper's 171 (1935): 181-88; and Antheil,
"Hollywood Composer," Atlantic Monthly 165 (1940): 160-67; also, Prendergast cites many articles
from the New YorkTimes and Herlad Tribune.
60The titles of the sources contrast in the same way: Jaubert's essay comes from Footnotesto the
Film, ed. Charles Davy (New York: Oxford, 1937), pp. 101-115; and Steiner's from We Make the
Movies, ed. Nancy Naumburg, (New York: Norton, 1937), pp. 216-38. see also Herbert Stothart's
"Film Music," in Behind the Screen, ed. Stephen Watts (New York: Dodge, 1938), pp. 139-44.
61As in these articles: Darius Milhaud, "Experimenting with Sound Films," 7, No. 2 (1930): 11-14;
Hans Heinsheimer, "Film Opera-Screen vs. Stage," and Richard Hammond, "Pioneers of Movie
Music," 8, no. 3 (1931): 10-14 and 35-38; Virgil Thomson, "A Little More about Movie Music,"
10 (1933): 188-91; Ernst Toch, "Sound-Film and Music Theatre," 13 (1936): 15-18; and John Gutman,
"Casting the Film Composer," 15 (1938): 216-21.
62"On the Hollywood Front" ran through vols. 14-16 (1936-39) and continued as "On the Film
Front" under Paul Bowles, 17-18 (1939-41) and Jean Latouche and Leon Kochnitsky, 19 (1941-42);
as "Films and Theater," under Bowles and Elliot Carter, 20 (1942-43); as 'Theater and Films,"
under Carter, 20-21 (1943); and back "On the Hollywood Front," under Lawrence Morton, 21-23
(1944-46). Morton gives a fine summary of Antheil's views in 22 (1945): 135-37.
63In his autobiography, Bad Boy of Music (New York: Doubleday, 1945), p. 314. Cf. Oscar Levant's
characterization of the place as "pretty much a closed shop for specialists," in his own autobiography,
A Smattering of Ignorance (New York: Doubleday, 1940), p. 111. Both of these books, along with
Hans W. Heinsheimer's Menagerie in F Sharp (New York: Doubleday, 1948), tell a great deal about
film music in Hollywood in the forties.
64See the credit listings in Clifford McCarty's Film Composersin America (1953). Kubik wrote that
"composers in the documentary field have more often been allowed the luxury of writing what
they have felt than have our colleagues in the more commercial films," in "Music in Documentary
Film," Writer'sCongress:Proceedingsof the ConferenceHeld in October 1943, by the Hollywood Writers'
Mobilization Committee (Los Angeles: Univ. Cal. Pr., 1944), p. 256.
65As expressed in the chapter on "Music in the Film," Our New Music (New York: McGraw-Hill,
1941), pp. 260-75. An earlier version of this chapter appeared in Moder Music 17 (1940): 141-47,
under the ambivalent title "Second Thoughts on Hollywood."
66For explanation of the book's complicated history, including why Adorno's name did not appear
on the first edition, see his "Postscript" in the reprint edition published in 1971 (Freeport, New
York: Books for Libraries Press)-this postscript being a translation of "Zum Erstdruck der Original
Fassung," appended to the German edition published in 1969 as Kompositionfur den Film (Munich:
Rogner & Bernhard) under both authors' names. A summary of these matters is given under Eisler
in Bibliography III.
67See "Film Music-Work in Progress," Modern Music 18 (1941): 250-54.
8See Lawrence Morton's review, "Hanns Eisler: Composer and Critic," Hollywood Quarterly [HQ]
3 (1948): 208-211.
69"The Screen's Influence in Music," in Music and Dance in California, ed. Jose Rodriguez (Hollywood:
Bureau of Musical Research, 1940), p. 124. Cf. the claim that "the great and the near-great of
the musical world are finding their way to Hollywood to try their skill in the new medium"-from
an anonymous pamphlet on The Men Who Writethe Music Scores(Hollywood: Motion-Picture Producers
and Distributors of America, 1943), p. 2.
70For other Kellerian thrusts, see "Film Music: Some Objections," and "Hollywood Music: Another
View," Sight and Sound [S & S] 15 and 16, nos. 60 and 64 (1946 and 1947): 136 and 168-69;
see also nn. 71 and 73.
71In England, criticism was written on a regular basis by Ernest Irving, "Film Music," Tempo
nos. 1-3 (1946-47); Keller, "Film Music," Music Review vols. 9-17, 19-20 (1948-56, 58-59), Music
Survey vols. 1-3 (1949-51), and Musical Times vols. 96-97 (1955-56); Antony Hopkins, "The Sound
Track," S & S, Vols. 18-19 (1949-50); and John Huntley, "The Sound Track," S & S, 19-24 (1950-55).
In America the critics were Antheil et al. for "On the Hollywood Front" (n. 62); Kurt London,
"Film Music of the Quarter," Films nos. 1-4 (1939-40); Walter Rubsamen, "Music in the Cinema,"
Arts and Architecture,June 1944 to January 1947; and Lawrence Morton, "Film Music of the Quarter,"
HQ 3-7 (1947-52). Also, Film Music Notes contained criticism in every issue from 1941 to 1957.
They were all very much interested in seeing film music improve, but
their common goal did not prevent them from sparring just as much
as composers over such issues as the relative merits of American and
European film music, and the state of the art in Hollywood. The critic
who described that state with perhaps the nicest blend of wit, sympathy,
and insight was Lawrence Morton.72 Morton engaged in his share of
debate, especially with English critics.73 His writing, however, is distin-
guished from everyone else's by its pointed precision. Morton expressed
precisely what he thought, without the hyperbole that seemed to come
naturally to a writer like Keller. Moreover, rather than summarily
condemn or approve, he gave reasons for his opinions and rested them
on solid factual ground.
This is most obvious in his pioneering study of "The Music of Objective:
Burma," published in Hollywood Quarterly, 1 (1946): 378-95. In this
article for the first time a score is analyzed cue by cue. After listing
the six main themes, Morton describes every one of the twenty-four
"separate compositions," with several score excerpts provided. Then
he concludes the article with this assessment of the composer and his
milieu:
"Musicality" is an inclusive term, and it is not axiomatically applicable to everyone
who writes music. A wit once remarked that "the only difference between Alban
Berg and other Viennese atonalists is that Berg was musical." Franz Waxman is
one of no more than a dozen composers for whom the same can be said in Hollywood.
It was a polemical age. Sweeping evaluations were common. But Morton's
analysis makes every attempt to define the Waxman score's "musicality"
(harmonic, thematic, and structural) in terms of the relationship of
music and drama. Few other critics were able to justify their opinions
with such carefully marshalled evidence-although Frederick Sternfeld
followed Morton's lead with four comparable but less compelling
articles.74 Earlier on in his article, Morton called himself "counsel for
72See especially the balanced perusal of both sides of the question "Film Music: Art or Industry?"
in Film Music Notes 11, no. 1 (1951): 4-6.
73Two examples: (1) Morton's "Rule, Britannia!" in HQ 3 (1948): 211-14, was a negative review
of both Huntley's British Film Music (1947) and Cerald Cockshott's pamphlet on Incidental Music
in the Sound Film (London: British Film Institute, 1946), and Cockshott responded with "Comments
on a Review," in the next issue of HQ 3 (1948): 326-27; (2) Antony Hopkins described American
film music as "orchestration run riot" in "Music: Congress at Florence," S & S 19 (1950): 243-44;
Morton replied to the charge in his column on "Film Music of the Quarter," HQ 5 (1951): 282-88;
the reply was reprinted (incomplete) with a rebuttal by Hopkins in S & S 20 (1951): 21-23; Keller
got into it with "Film Music and Beyond: The Dragon Shows His Teeth," Music Review 12 (1951):
221-25; and Morton showed his teeth once more with "Composing, Orchestrating and Criticising,"
HQ 6 (1951): 191-206.
74Sternfeld analyzed Hugo Friedhofer's score for The Best Years of Our Lives in "Music and the
Feature Films," Musical Quarterly33 (1947): 517-32; Miklos Rozsa's for The Strange Love of Martha
Ivers in "The Strange Music of Martha Ivers," HQ 2 (1947): 242-51; "Gail Kubik's Score for C-Man,"
HQ 4 (1950): 360-69; and "Copland as a Film Composer [for The Heiress]," Musical Quarterly
37 (1951): 161-75.
7'For its various titles and a description of its contents, see Bibliography III.
76Paulo Milano, "Music in the Film: Notes for a Morphology,"Journal of Aestheticsand Art Criticism
1, no. 1 (1941): 89-94; [Claude] Roland-Manuel, "Rhythme cinimatographique et musical," in Cinima:
Cours et confirencesd'IDHEC (Paris: L'Institut des hautes etudes cinematographiques, n.d.), pp. 3-5;
Robert U. Nelson, "Film Music: Color or Line?" HQ 2 (1946): 57-65; Pierre Schaeffer, "L'Elment
non-visuel au cinema," Revue du Cinima 1, nos. 1-3 (October-December 1946): 45-49, 62-65, 51-54;
and Nazareno Taddei, "Funzione estetica della musica nel film," Bianco e nero 10, no. 1 (1949):
5-11.
77Herrmann, "Score for a Film" [i.e., Citizen Kane], New York Times (25 May 1941): Section
9, p. 6; Deutsch, "Three Strangers," HQ 1 (1946): 214-23. Each composer explains how he wrote
his score. Such articles appeared in virtually every issue of Film Music Notes, beginning with 1,
no. 1 (1941), in which Herrmann's article is reprinted.
lywood; and at the end, the Seventh ICM in Florence-this one entirely
given over to film music, primarily as seen through the eyes of film
composers in Europe.78
From the "Hollywood Front" to the Florence Congress, the literature
expanded impressively. What had come awake with full force was the
urge to explain film music-its functions, it methods, its quality, and
its possibilities for improvement. Yet though in a general sense the
range of the literature was always broadening, taken piece by piece
its narrowness is undeniable. Most writers were caught up by ideas
and music of the moment and did not attempt to catch the overall
drift. Retrospective views were rare enough;79 scholarly work was rarer
still.80 So it is not surprising to read this description of the literature
by Morton, written in 1953:
If the truth be told, it is not very distinguished. Some of it is pertinent but uninteresting,
or interesting but fanciful; much of it is mere reportage, spot news; little of it has
any permanent value. As opinion, as judgement, it represents a varied assortment
of ant's-eye views of film-music events in isolation, a great deal of special pleading,
and a still larger amount of prejudiced derogation. Its short-comings have not prevented
it, however, from being made the basis of broad generalizations. These exist, for
the most part as catch-words, epithets and imprecations. They do not reflect, in
any true sense, a general view with either critical or historical perspective.8'
Morton's "general view" of the literature covers a lot of ground, including
his own: as a critic, he too was obliged to view "film-music events
in isolation." And what is his study of "The Music of Objective:Burma,"
if not "special pleading" (indeed, by a "counsel for the defense") on
behalf of Franz Waxman's virtues as a film composer?
We shall return to the question of the literature's value, permanent
or otherwise, later in this article. For the moment, let it be acknowledged
that Morton's description contains a good deal of truth. Moreover,
it applies just as well to much of the literature written since. There
have never ceased to be "ant's-eye views" of contemporary events, and
82Contrast, e.g., Cook's damning of composers who write "noise" instead of music (Neil Hefti,
Quincy Jones, et al.) in Films in Review 19 (1968): 162-63, 166, with his effusive praise of Scott
Lee Hart in 26 (1975): 235-39. Principal contributors to "The Sound Track" have been Gordon
Hendricks in 3-5 (1952-54); Edward Connor, 6-10 (1955-59); T. M. F. Steen, 12-13 (1961-62);
and Page Cook, 14-29 (1963-79).
83Articles on silent film music include: Winkler, "The Origins of Film Music" (n. 29); John Griggs,
"The Music Masters," 5 (1954): 338-42; McCarty, "Film Music for Silents," and "Victor Herbert's
Filmusic," 8 (1957): 117-18, 123, and 183-85; John Ripley, "Song Slides," 22 (1971): 147-52; Peeples,
"The Mechanical Music Makers," (n. 27); and a column on "authoritative source material," 27 (1976):
493-94, 499. For studies of American composers, see Theodor Huff, "Chaplin as Composer," 1,
no. 6 (1950): 1-5; Dmitri Tiomkin, "Composing for Films," 2, no. 9 (1951): 17-22; Jack Jacobs,
"Alfred Newman," 10 (1959): 403-414; Harry Hauer & George Raborn, "Max Steiner," 12 (1961):
338-51; Anthony Thomas, "David Raksin," 14 (1963): 38-41, and "Hugo Friedhofer," 16 (1965):
496-502; Ken Doeckel, "Miklos Rozsa," 16 (1965): 536-48; Rudy Behlmer, "Erich Wolfgang Korngold,"
18 (1967): 86-100; Cook, "Bernard Herrmann," 18 (1967): 415-30, "Franz Waxman," 19 (1968):
398-412, and "Ken Darby," 20 (1969): 335-56.
84See especially, Ernest Irving, H. Keller, and Wilfred Mellers, "Film Music," in Grove' Dictionary
of Music and Musicians, 5th ed. (New York: MacMillan, 1955); Edmund Nick & Martin Ulner,
"Filmmusik," Musik in Geschichteund Gegenwart(Cassel: Barenreiter, 1955); George van Parys, "Film,"
Encyclopidie de la musique (Paris: Fasquelle, 1959); and Roman Vlad, "Musica per film," La musica,
1: Enciclopedia storica (Turin: Ed. Turinese, 1966).
85Its only predecessor was Claire Reis's Composersin America: Sketchesof ContemporaryComposers
with a Record of Their Works, rev. ed. (New York: MacMillan, 1947), a book praised by Morton
as the first reference work to put "Film Music in the Mainstream," HQ 3 (1947): 101-4-but it
is a general work, with limited space afforded to film musicians. The only successor is James L.
Limbacher's Film Music: From Violins to Video (1974), a book more inclusive and up to date, but
so flawed that it must be used with the greatest caution. McCarty, though obviously not an unbiased
observer, nonetheless wrote a devastating review of Limbacher for Notes 31 (1974): 48-50.
86See Gorbman's dissection of this and other methods of transcription, referred to above (n. 8).
The films analysed in this way are Henry V, pp. 96-107; Louisiana Story, pp. 117-25; Julius Caesar,
pp. 130-32; and Odd Man Out, pp. 139-49.
The bibliography is extensive, and owing to its chronological ordering, has been very helpful
to the writing of this survey; but it contains many errors and inconsistencies, and these have not
been corrected in the second edition (1975). Some examples are given in the eleventh entry under
Bibliography I.
correlate them with the rest of the text, for they are not included
in the index. In short, the book is a hodge-podge, which cannot be
swallowed altogether. It contains morsels both tender and tough, rather
like an untrustworthy pot-pourri.
Before The Techniqueof Film Music, the number of books that followed
this recipe was small: Erdmann & Becce's Handbuch (1927), London's
Film Music (1936), and to some extent Eisler's Composingfor the Films
and Huntley's solo British Film Music (both 1947). Compared to this
rate of one or two such books every decade, the subsequent pack has
crowded one another's heels. Here is a list of the nine that followed
Manvell & Huntley's Technique:
Georges Hacquard, La Musique et le cinema (1959).
Hans Thomas, Die deutsche Tonfilmmusik (1962).
Henri Colpi, Defense et illustration de la musique dans le film (1963).
Zofia Lissa, Aesthetikder Filmmusik (1965).
Francois Porcile, Presencede la musique l'icran (1969).
Tony Thomas, Music for the Movies (1973).
Irwin Bazelon, Knowing the Score (1975).
Mark Evans, Soundtrack(1975).
Roy Prendergast, A Neglected Art (1977).
Most of these books have suffered from the same kinds of problems:
diffuseness of approach, lack of focus, and a consequent clumsiness
of organization and language. Colpi and Porcile, for example, are both
uneasy combinations of history, theory, criticism, and biographical
dictionaries (though the latter are very useful). The works of Tony
Thomas and Evans are primarily historical surveys of American sound
film music, with descriptions of the lives and works of several prominent
composers. Bazelon's Knowing the Score is divided into two parts: a
section of abrasive polemical criticism, jumping from film to film, and
a series of interviews with fifteen composers. Of all these writers, perhaps
Evans uses language most carelessly; and the following description of
Newman's style may be taken as an example of this kind of literature
at its weakest:
Often countermelodies, in a lyrical mode appropriate for an operatic aria, would
be offset against the main theme. Newman's melodies were characterized by wide
leaps, often harmonized in thirds or sixths. Like Strauss, he knew how to manipulate
the colors of the harmonic palette. His scores are always tonal, his uncanny ability
to use deceptive cadences, to alternate between major and minor, and to infuse
his music with a breathless, surging quality of emotionalism accounts for much of
its unique quality [p. 52].
One wonders, among other things, whose arias (with "counter-melodies")
Evans has in mind; and what is "unique" about a composer whose
88See, however, my negative review of Prendergast, "Focus!" in Pro Musica Sana (published by
the Miklos Rozsa Society) 6, no. 4 (1978): 14-18.
"Anthologies: Biamonte, Musica efilm (1959-see n. 78); Engmann, Filmmusik: eine Dokumentation
(1968); and Limbacher, Film Music (1974), first half. Reference works: Hippenmeyer,Jazz sur films
(1973); Limbacher, Film Music, second half; and Meeker, Jazz in the Movies (1977). Biographies:
Tiomkin & Bucanelli, Please Don't Hate Me (1961); L. Korngold, Erich Wolfgang Korngold (1967);
Lazarou, Max Steiner and Film Music (1971); Porcile, Maurice Jaubert (1971); Previn & Hopkins,
Music Face to Face (1971), Hugo Friedhofer: An Oral History (1974); Palmer, Miklos Rozsa (1975);
and Johnson, Bernard Herrmann (1977). Manuals: Mancini, Sounds and Scores (1962); Dolan, Music
in Modern Media (1967); Hagen, Scoring for Films (1971); and Skiles, Music Scoring for TV and Motion
Pictures (1976).
90Another retrospective work of somewhat less weight is Hofmann's Sounds for Silents (1970). One
should also be aware of a group of books comprising a separate category of their own, viz., "studies
of music in the modern media"; some examples: Die drei grossen "F" (1958), Prieberg, Musica ex
Machina (1960), Jungk, Musik im technischen Zeitalter (1971), and Bornoff & Salter, Music and the
Twentieth Century Media (1972). These books continue to offer variations on the theme of "music
and the microphone," referred to above (n. 56).
91Arno Press, for example, has brought out five: Lang & West, Musical Accompaniment of
Moving
Pictures (1920; 1970); London, Film Music (1936; 1970); Rapee, Encyclopedia (1925; 1970);
Huntley,
British Film Music (1947; 1972); and Rapee, Motion Picture Moods (1924; 1974).
are in progress.92 As was noted in the first part of this article, many
libraries and research centers are taking a more active interest in film
music and its materials.93 Finally, the literature is being enriched by
articles heretofore in short supply: close scholarly looks at special
problems.
In the fifties and sixties, the periodical literature was of three main
types: (1) the topical, typified by "The Sound Track" column of Films
in Review; (2) the retrospective articles designed to reawaken interest
in some part of film music's past (as in the examples cited in note
83 from the same periodical); and (3) probings of abstract problems
by composers and theorists.94 Since 1970, however, a new strand has
been weaving through the periodical fabric, spun out of articles that
combine careful scholarship with a sensitivity to fundamental ques-
tions-questions which must be addressed if film music research is
to advance. Most of these articles have been the work of three writers
(the third trilogy to be named in as many paragraphs)-Douglas Gallez,
Fred Steiner, and Claudia Gorbman.95 Most of their articles have been
96Cf. Michael Little's semiological analysis of the "Sound Track [of] The Rules of the Game," CJ
13 no. 1 (1973): 35-44.
The 1975 edition of The Techniqueof Film Music contains discussions of "Four Films since 1955,"
chosen for their "different approaches toward film music": The Devils, with both seventeenth-century
French music and original work by Peter Maxwell Davies; 2001: A Space Odyssey,with prerecorded
works by Johann and Richard Strauss, Khatchaturian, and Ligeti; Second Best, with a somewhat
more traditional score by Richard Arnell; and Zabriskie Point, with an amalgam of popular music
by groups such as the Rolling Stones and Pink Floyd. Of more recent examples one could cite
the synthesizer-based score by Giorgio Moroder for Midnight Express and Denny Zeitlin's superb
blend of music and sound effects for Invasion of the Body Snatchers.
98Examples are Obsession (1976), in which the music by Bernard Herrmann deliberately recalls
his score for the film's "double," Vertigo (1958); L'Histoire d'Adile H. (1975), for which Francois
Porcile constructed a score entirely out of compositions by film composer Maurice Jaubert; and
Star Wars (1977), with, at least in John Williams' main title music, distinct echoes of Korngold's
swashbuckler style.
9The four American societies established in recent years are the Max Steiner Music Society (1965),
the Miklos Rozsa Society (1971), the Entr'acte Recording Society (1974), and the Elmer Bernstein
Filmmusic Collection (1975). Each offers both recordings and a journal, called, respectively, the
Max Steiner Music Society Newsletter,Pro Musica Sana, Main Title, and Film Music Notebook-all listed,
with further information, in Bibliography III. Foreign societies, clubs, and soundtrack newsletters
are listed by Sharples in his 1978 bibliography for CinemaJournal.
to move in both directions. But given its present state, will it be able
either to recapture the past or to keep abreast of the present?
Charting the literature in this way, we have only skimmed its surface.
Each of these currents has for a time been on top, but a more detailed
study would reveal them all mixing and guiding the general flow. Still,
we have seen enough to make clear that the literature is heterogeneous
and abundant. Much of it has been written for a lay audience, some
for professionals; some of it is technical, much of it is not; it has been
written by composers (they have perhaps contributed the most), critics,
filmmakers, theorists, interested observers, and scholars (who have
certainly contributed least). Hence, it is difficult to generalize about
its usefulness for research. One must place every piece of literature
into its context, defining the position of the writer with respect to
his or her audience.
Because Prendergast and Morton, in their negative assessments, failed
to do this, they underestimated the literature's value. When Morton,
in 1953, described the literature as mostly "mere reportage," "ant's-eye
views" and "special pleading," generally with no "permanent value,"
he had in mind the third current of writing, which had predominated
in America for nearly twenty years. The primary example of the kind
of literature Morton wished to see-the "general view" written from
"either a critical or historical perspective"-was London's Film Music
(1936), a book very much out of date. Since the fifties, such views
have become more common; and if they in turn seem "not very
distinguished," it is partly because they do so little with the literature
that precedes them. The perspectives of books by writers such as Bazelon,
Evans, and Prendergast are too closed-in. Prendergast complained of
A Selective Bibliography
of Film Music Publications
Note: Items with an asterisk are discussed in the text of the article.
I. Bibliographies
"Sound," "Music," and "Music for Si- Music, Silent Film Music Publications,
lents," pages 516-20. Occasional brief and Books Containing Film Music Refer-
summaries. ences. Extensive, but error-prone and
inconsistent. Examples: McCarty's Film
The Film Index: A Bibliography; Vol. 1: The
Film as Art, by the WPA Writers' Program. Composers in America is dated 1954 in-
stead of 1953, and its reprint is not
Ed. Harold Leonard. New York: Museum
mentioned; Skinner's Underscoreis dated
of Modern Art and H. W. Wilson, 1941. from its 1960 reprint rather than the 1950
"Music: Silent Era," pages 202-7; "Sound original; Biamonte appears to be the
Era," pages 207-11. American and Brit- author of Musica e film, rather than the
ish sources, mostly cultural and trade editor; and a whole 1971 issue of Film-
magazines. Detailed summaries. makers Newsletter is said to be "devoted
to the subject of film music," but it
Film Literature Index, 1974-. Ed. Vincent contains only a few articles on sound.
J. Aceto et al. Albany: Filmdex, SUNY,
1975-. Robert U. Nelson & Walter Rubsamen,
Entries under "Music." Favors popular comps. "Literature on Music in Film and
Radio." Hollywood Quarterly: Annual Com-
American periodicals. munications Bibliography,Supplement to vol.
Film Music. British Film Institute Book 1 (1946): 40-45.
Library, No. 5. London: British Film Insti- See Rubsamen below.
tute, 1977.
The New Film Index: A Bibliography of
Selections from the Catalogue (q.v.), plus
Magazine Articlesin English, 1930-1970. Ed.
some new items. Richard Dyer MacCann & Edward S. Perry.
Georges Hacquard, comp. "Bibliographie," New York: Dutton, 1975.
in his La Musique et le cinima. Bibliographie
"Sound," pages 63-68, includes "Techni-
internationale de musicologie. Paris: cal Aspects of Sound," "Theory and
Presses universitaires de France, 1959, pp. Function of Film Music," "History of
101-4.
Music," "Technical Aspects of Music,"
Mostly French sources from the thirties "Case Studies and Criticism," and "Dub-
to the fifties. bing." Arranged chronologically within
each section, with summaries.
International Index to Film Periodicals,
1972-. Ed. Karen Jones. New York: Edmund Nick, comp. "Literatur," from the
Bowker, 1973, 1974; St. Martin's Press, article "Filmmusik," in Musik in Geschichte
1975-. und Gegenwart.Cassel: Barenreiter, 1955.
Entries under "Music" and "Sound." An- Mostly German sources, including gen-
notations. eral works on film.
Francois Porcile, comp. "Bibliographie
Zofia Lissa, comp. "Bibliographie," in her
Aesthetik der Filmmusik. Berlin: Henschel, sommaire," in his Presence de la musique a
l'ecran. Paris: Editions du CERF, 1969, pp.
1965, pp. 409-24. 329-31.
Hundreds of items, listed chronologically
French sources from the forties to the
from 1881 to 1964; many from the Soviet
sixties. (Cf. Hacquard.)
Union and Eastern Europe. Incorporates
many of the entries from Manvell & Roy Prendergast, comp. "Bibliography," in
Huntley (see below) as they stand. his A NeglectedArt: A Critical Studyof Music
in Films. New York: New York University
Roger Manvell & John Huntley, comps. "A Press, 1977, pp. 254-60.
Select Bibliography," in their Technique of
Film Music. 1957; 2nd ed. New York: Hast- An eclectic range of mostly American
ings House, 1975, pp. 291-302. sources keyed to each chapter.
Mostly British sources, arranged chrono- RetrospectiveIndex to Film Periodicals, 1930-
logically in four divisions: Books on Film 1971. Ed. Linda Batty. New York: Crown,
Music, Articles and Reports on Film 1975.
"Music," pages 311-12. Less extensive tides on Music in the Cinema." Cinema
than either the Critical Index or the New Journal 17, no. 2 (1978): 36-67.
Film Index. Some brief annotations.
Over 400 sources, divided into "Refer-
RILM Abstractsof Music Literature, 1967-. ence Works, Including Bibliographies,"
Ed. Barry S. Brook. New York: Interna- "Books," and "Periodical Articles," plus
tional RILM Center, City University, supplementary lists of film music
1968- periodicals, columns in periodicals, film
music clubs, soundtrack sources, and
Entries under "Dramatic Arts (Including films on film music. Many annotations.
Film)," indexed under "Film Music." The most recent of bibliographies, wide-
World-wide coverage of musicological
sources. ranging (though weak on foreign
periodicals), and mostly accurate.
Walter Rubsamen, comp. "Literature on Mario Verdone, comp. "Nota bibliografica,"
Music in Film and Radio: Addenda (1943- in La musica nel film. Ed. Luigi Chiarini
48)." Hollywood Quarterly 3 (1949): 403-3; & Enzo Masetti. Rome: Bianco e nero edi-
reprinted, combined with the Nelson & tore, 1950, pp. 139-45.
Rubsamen bibliography in Hinrichsen's
Musical Yearbook6 (1950): 318-31. Of value principally for Italian sources.
Subject headings: "Music for the Silent John V. Zuckerman, comp. "A Selected
Film," "The Function of Music in the Bibliography on Music for Motion Pic-
Sound Film," "Recordings and Repro- tures." Hollywood Quarterly 5 (1950): 195-
duction of Film Music," "History of Film 99.
Music," "The Sound Film as an Audio-
Visual Experience," "Criticism of Film Unique headings: "Psychological Articles
on the Effects of Music," "Professional
Music," and "Legal Rights of Film Articles . . . by Critics, Composers and
Composers." Musicians," and "Bibliographies and
Win Sharples, Jr., comp. "A Selected and Sources of Information on Film and
Annotated Bibliography of Books and Ar- Radio Music."
Note: The following lists contain no more than samplings of these types of
literature, selected to suggest the range of such publications. References to
many others can be found in the books by Berg and Birett, cited in section
III.
Ascherberg'sIdeal Cinema Series. 8 vols. Lon- the Organ Especially Adaptedfor Moving Pic-
don: Ascherberg, Hopwood & Crew, 1928- tureswith Practical Suggestionsto the Organist.
29. 2 vols. New York: H. W. Gray [1919].
Forty-eight numbers, six per volume, Thirty numbers, fifteen per volume, with
each volume by a different composer: the "classics" in the first and the "mod-
Walford Hyden, Philip Cathie, Reginald erns" in the second. Each piece is provid-
Somerville, Walter R. Collins, Herman ed with a "synopsis" of its affective
Finck, Percy Elliot, H. Baynton-Power, character.
and Arthur Wood. Piano and orchestra
parts.
John L. Bastian. The Theatre:Dramatic and
Lacey Baker, comp. Picture Music: A Collec- Moving Picture Music. Chicago: Bastian
tion of Classic and Modern Compositionsfor Supply Co., 1913.
The Hawkes Photo-Play Series. London: be Added Violin II, Bass & Harmonium.
Hawkes, 1922-28. London: Augener, 1921-1923.
Among the largest collections: 120 Twenty-five loose leaf nos. An example
numbers in twenty loose-leaf albums, of how publishers converted stocks of
normally one composer per album. Mul- salon music (e.g. Liselotte: Valse, by Leon
tiple arrangements. Adam) to use in cinemas.
M. L. Lake & Lester Brockton, comps. Carl Schirmer'sPhotoplaySeries: A LooseLeaf Col-
Fischer'sLoose Leaf Motion Picture Collection lection of Dramatic and Descriptive Musical
for Piano Solo. 3 vols. New York: Carl Numbers . . . Arranged for Small or Full
Fischer, 1915, 1916, 1918. Orchestraand Playablefor Any Combination
of Instruments Which Includes Violin and
Forty-five numbers, fifteen per volume. Piano. 7 vols. New York: G. Schirmer,
Lake composed and arranged volumes 1915-1929.
1 and 2, Brockton volume 3. Includes
thirteen "Hurry"s and ten "Agitato"s. Seventy numbers, ten per volume, by J.
E. Andino (2), Irenee Berge (3), W. W.
PianOrgan Film Books of Incidental Music, Bergunker (6), Gaston Borch (5), Arcady
Extractedfrom the WorldFamous "Berg"and Dubensky (4), Edward Falck (2), William
"Cinema"IncidentalSeries. 7 vols. New York: Lowitz (6), Otto Langey (21), Adolf Minot
Belwin, n.d. (4), Hugo Riesenfeld (3), Domenico Sa-
vino (10), and Walter C. Schad (4). Several
Approximately 42 nos. republished numbers were reprinted in Rapee's Mo-
under new headings: Dramatic and tion Picture Moods.
Pathetic (7), Neutral Love Themes (7),
Emotional Music (5), Western Music and Julius Seredy, comp. Carl Fischer Analytical
Galops (7), Animated Cartoonix (5), Orchestra Guide: A Practical Handbookfor
American, Indian and Mexican Music (6), theProfession.New York: Carl Fischer, 1929.
and Preludes (volume incomplete).
Even more extensive than Rapee's Ency-
Composers most frequently represented:
Morris Aborn, Gaston Borch, Chas. K. clopedia, although limited to the music
Herbert, Sol P. Levy, and Adolf Minot, published by Fischer alone. Over 300
subject headings, with extensive cross-
plus sixteen others. references, "every number listed accord-
*Erno Rapee. Encyclopediaof Music for Pic- ing to Mood and Form, with indications
tures.NY: Belwin, 1925; reprint New York: of Time, Key, Tempo and Duration" (title
Arno, 1970. p.). Because of its late date, the index
affords a comprehensive survey of the
Motion Picture Moodsfor Pianists and output of this active film music publisher.
Organists. New York: G. Schirmer, 1924; Extensive advertisements at the end of
reprint New York: Arno, 1974. the book.
The latter book is an anthology of about Julius S. Seredy, Chas. J. Roberts and M.
270 pieces, arranged and indexed under Lester Lake, comps. Motion Picture Music
fifty-two headings; the former is a much Guide to the Carl Fischer Modern Orchestra
more "encyclopedic" index, listing nu- Catalogue. New York: Carl Fischer, 1922.
merous compositions under each of its
detailed headings ("Abyssinian Music," Much less extensive than the above cata-
"Aeroplane," "Aesop's Fables-See logue, with only nine general headings
and some subdivisions; but expressly
'Comedy Pictures'" [sic]). Rapee com-
posed and conducted in several of New prepared for motion picture use, and
York City's largest theatres and sought interspersed with many paragraphs that
in these two expansive works to condense cover important problems for the silent
and summarize his "six years' experience film musician (e.g., the use of silences,
in the Motion Picture game" (Moods, p. well-known songs, leitmotifs, etc.). Many
advertisements.
iii).
J [ohn] S. Zamecnik. Sam Fox Moving Picture
Ernest Reeves, arr. Augener's Cinema Music Music. 4 vols. Cleveland: Sam Fox, 1913
for Piano, Violin & Violoncello,to WhichMay (vols. 1-2), 1914 (3), and 1923 (4).
Ninety-six numbers (25, 24, 21, and 26), brought out by Fox, most of them con-
for piano, by one of the most prolific taining pieces composed or arranged by
of silent film composers. This was the Zamecnik.
first of numerous film music series
B. Performance Manuals
*Eugene A. Ahern. What and How to Play Picture Theaters. London: Kinematograph
for Pictures. Twin Falls, Idaho: n.p., 1913. Weekly, [1912]; 2nd ed. London: E. T.
Bernard Barnes. From Piano to Pipe Organ: Heron, 1914.
An Instruction Book Writtenfor the Pianist An exhaustive manual for its early date.
Who Wishes to Become an Efficient Organist. Both editions contain lists of music pub-
Educational Library for the Music Student, lishers.
no. 17. New York: Belwin, 1928.
Edith Lang & George West. Musical Ac-
Scattered references to motion picture
companiment of Moving Pictures. Boston:
playing, but heavy emphasis on "Organ Boston Music Co., 1920; reprint New York:
Tricks and Effects . . . accepted as a
Arno, 1970.
perfect accompaniment to the Motion
Picture" (Barnes' "Introduction"). For the advanced performer, with de-
tailed advice on technical problems such
George W. Beynon. Musical Presentationof as thematic development, the require-
Motion Pictures. New York: G. Schirmer, ments of individual genres, and the
1921.
proper use of the theatre organ.
One of the most detailed sources on the
history and practice of silent film music, Ernst Luz. Motion Picture Synchrony: For
by a composer/compiler of broad Motion Picture Exhibitors, Buyersand Orches-
experience. tras. New York: Music Buyers' Corp., 1925.
P. Kevin Buckley. The Orchestraland Cinema Proposes a new method of "cueing mo-
Organist. London: Hawkes, 1923. tion pictures" according to a complex
"Symphonic Color Guide." The method
Technical treatise on a fairly simple
apparently never caught on, but the
level. author remains noteworthy as a compiler
G. Roy Carter. Theatre Organist'sSecrets: A of scores for many Metro films of the
Collectionof SuccessfulImitations, Tricks and twenties.
Effectsfor Motion Picture Accompanimenton
the Pipe Organ. Los Angeles: published by [T. J. A. Mapp]. The Art of Accompanying
the author, n.d. the Photo-Play.New York: Photo-Play Musi-
cal Bureau, 1917.
A loose leaf pamphlet. More technical
details than in Barnes. Sixteen pages of "ideas and suggestions
based on the practice of some of the
Hans Erdmann & Giuseppe Becce. Allge- leading New York Theatres" (p. 3).
meines Handbuch der Filmmusik.
May Shaw Meeker. The Art of Photoplaying
(See under section II-A.) . .In Operating Any Photoplayeror Double
Frank Fruttchey. Something New: 400 Self- TrackerPiano Playersfor Theatres. St. Paul:
Help Suggestions for Movie Organ Players. n.p., 1916.
Detroit: n.p., n.d. How to accompany pictures using player
A book of maxims, seemingly designed piano rolls.
for the player who has never considered
what he is doing. May Meskimen Mills. The Pipe Organist's
Complete Instruction and Reference Work on
W. Tyacke George. Playing to Pictures: A the Art of PhotoPlaying. [Philadelphia]: n.p.,
Guidefor Pianists and Conductorsof Motion 1922.
*Theodor Adorno & Hanns Eisler. Jack Bornoff & Lionell Salter. Music and
Kompositionfur den Film. Munich: Rogner the Twentieth Century Media. International
& Bernhard, 1969. Music Council Publications in Music and
The first edition of this work to be pub- Communication, vol. 3. Florence: Olschki,
1972.
lished under both authors' names. See
Eisler below. "Cinema et musique (1960-1975)." Ed.
Alain Lacombe. Special issue of Ecran no.
*George Antheil. Bad Boy of Music. New 39 (September 1975).
York: Doubleday, 1945.
A chronology, a round table, four articles,
Chapter V, "Hollywood," pages 281-368. and a biographical dictionary.
Yves Baudrier. Les Signes du visible et de
Gerald Cockshott. Incidental Music in the
l'audible; Premiere Partie: Le Monde sonore. Sound Film. Pamph. London: British Film
Paris: IDHEC, 1964.
Institute, 1946.
Three very philosophical chapters. Sec-
ond part apparently never published. (See n. 73.)
"Colonna sonora." Ed. Glauco Pellegrini &
*Irwin Bazelon. Knowing the Score. New Mario Verdone. Special issue of Bianco e
York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1975. nero 28, nos. 3/4 (1967).
*Charles Merrell Berg. An Investigation of Five articles, a filmography of Pellegrini,
the Motives for and Realization of Music to and reprints of eight earlier sources: four
Accompanythe American Silent Film, 1896- "Documente," and four "Testimonianze."
1927. Ph.D. dissertation University of Iowa,
1973; New York: Arno, 1976. *Henri Colpi. Defense et illustration de la
musiquedans lefilm. Lyons: SERDOC, 1963.
The best work to date on this period,
although many topics and sources are Robert Emmett Dolan. Music in Modern
treated in a superficial manner. Media. New York: G. Schirmer, 1967.
*Herbert Birett. Stummfilm-Musik: Ma- Manual. Part 2, "Films," pages 51-144.
terialsammlung. Berlin: Deutsche Kine- Die drei grossen "F": Film-Funk-Fernsehen.
mathek, 1970. Ed. Heinrich Lindlar & Reinhold Schubert.
Musik der Zeit: eine Schriftenreihe zu Hopkinson & Blake, 1975; reprint New
Musik und Gegenwart, NS, vol. 2. Bonn: York: Da Capo, 1979 (Pap.).
Boosey & Hawkes, 1958. *Robert R. Faulkner. Hollywood Studio
Anthology; fourteen articles, philosophi- Musicians: Their Work and Careers in the
cal and technical. Recording Industry. Chicago: Aldine-Ather-
ton, 1971.
*Hanns Eisler. Composingfor theFilms. New
York: Oxford University Press, 1947; re- Wilhelmine Fey. Die Verwertungmusikscho-
print Freeport, New York: Books for Li- pferischer Werke (insbes. bei Funk, Film und
braries Press, 1971. Schallplatte). Dissertation Munich, 1941;
Wiirzberg: Triltsch, 1941.
The text of this book was originally writ-
ten in German, by Adorno & Eisler, in Cited in the Nelson & Rubsamen bibliog-
1944. For publication by Oxford in 1947, raphy, under "Legal Rights of Film
it was translated-with significant Composers."
changes-by Eisler in collaboration with "Film Music." Ed. John L. Fell. Special issue
George MacManus and Norbert Guter- of CinemaJournal 17, no. 2 (1978).
man. Adorno withdrew his name from
this edition with Eisler's consent, seeking Articles by Charles Berg on jazz and
to avoid the kinds of political problems *Douglas Gallez on Eisenstein and
the latter was experiencing with the Unit- Prokofiev, plus the Win Sharples, Jr.,
ed States government. After Eisler re- bibliography.
turned to Germany, he brought out a *Film Music Notes.
German edition (East Berlin: Henschel,
1949), but it was much revised in accor- The first periodical devoted to film music,
dance with anti-American and pro-Soviet edited by Grace Mabee, published under
doctrine, along with a desire to make the various titles: Film Music Notes 1-10
language more popular in style. Subse- (1941-51), Film Music 11-15 (1951-55),
quently, however, Eisler gave Adorno and Film and TV Music 16-17 (1956-57).
publication rights to the book, and the The contents included news items, gen-
latter brought it out as Kompositionfur eral articles, and many reviews of current
den Film (Munich: Rogner & Bernhard, film scores, frequently with score ex-
1969). What Adorno was in fact publish- cerpts, and more often than not by the
ing was the original German version, for composer. An index to volumes 6-11
the first time, with both authors named; (1947-52) is in 11, no. 5 (1952): 19-23;
and he explained the book's complicated volume 12 is indexed in 13, no. 1; 15
history in a postscript, "Zum Erstdruck in 16, no. 1; and 16 in 17, no. 1.
der Originalfassung" (pp. 212-13). Al-
*"Le Film Sonore: L'Ecran et la musique
though the 1971 Books for Libraries en 1935." Special issue of La Revue Musicale
Press edition contains a translation of this
[no. 151] (December 1934).
postscript, the text remains identical to
the 1947 Oxford version. Thus an Eng- (See n. 52.)
lish translation of the original Adorno-
Eisler text still awaits publication. Film Music Notebook.
Publication of the Elmer Bernstein Film
Hartmut Engmann, comp. Filmmusik: eine Music Collection, P.O. Box 261, Calaba-
Dokumentation.Munich: Wolfgang Gielow, sas, CA. 91302. Edited by Eve Adamson.
1968. Four issues per year, beginning with
An anthology of short excerpts, all trans- volume 1, number 1 (Autumn 1974).
lated into German, connected by short Some excellent articles, especially those
editorial paragraphs. by *Fred Steiner. The Notebookhas also
provided a filmography of a leading Hol-
Entr'acteNewsletter. lywood composer in every issue, and has
coordinated its new recordings with
(See Main Title.)
these. Composers dealt with in the first
*Mark Evans. Soundtrack: The Music of the ten issues are Max Steiner (vol. 1, no.
Movies. Cinema Study Series. New York: 1), Elmer Bernstein (vol. 1, no. 2), Franz
Waxman (vol. 1, no. 3), Bernard Herr- sertation University of Missouri at Kansas
mann (vol. 1, no. 4), Miklos Rozsa (vol. City, 1976.
2, no. 1), Alfred Newman (vol. 2, no. Esther S. Hanlon. "Improvisation: Theory
2), David Raksin (vol. 2, no. 3), John and Application for Theatrical Music and
Green (vol. 2, no. 4), Alex North (vol.
Silent Film." Ph.D. dissertation University
3, no. 1), Leigh Harline (vol. 3, no. 2),
of Cincinnati, 1975.
Jerry Fielding (vol. 3, no. 3), Henry
Mancini (vol. 4, no. 1) and Bronislau Hans W. Heinscheimer. Menagerie in F
Kaper and Dmitri Tiomkin (both in vol. Sharp. New York: Doubleday, 1948.
4, no. 2).
Two chapters on Hollywood, pages 209-
Reginal Foort. The Cinema Organ: A De- 256.
scription in Non-Technical Language of a Jean-Roland Hippenmeyer. Jazz sur films:
Fascinating Instrumentand How It Is Played. 55 annees de rapportsjazz-cinema vus a travers
[1932]; 2nd rev. ed., Vestal, New York:
Vestal Press, 1970. plus de 800 films tournis entre 1917 et 1972.
Yverdon, Switz.: Editions de la Thiele,
Properly belongs under section II-B ex- [1973].
cept for its late date; but most of the
book concerns the workings of the organ (Cf. Meeker, below.)
and Foort's career, rather than film music Charles Hofmann. Soundsfor Silents. New
as such. York: Drama Books Specialists, 1970.
Hugo Friedhofer: An American Film Insti- Hofmann played accompaniments at the
tute/ Louis B. MayerFoundation Oral History. Museum of Modern Art. His short book
Interviewer & comp. Irene Kahn Atkins. is informative and well illustrated, and
TS in the Feldman Library of the AFI, 1974. comes with a recording of performances
made during screenings at the Museum,
Comprehensive, detailed and witty rem- 1968-69.
iniscences, with an outstanding film-
ography. *John Huntley. British Film Music. London:
Skelton Robinson, [1947]; reprint New
Richard Henry Gerrero. "Music as a Film York: Arno, 1972.
Variable." Ph.D. dissertation Michigan State
University, 1969. (See n. 73.)
A study of the value of music as an Edward Johnson. Bernard Herrmann: Hol-
influence on learning in an instructional lywood'sMusic-Dramatist.Triad Press Biblio-
film. graphical Series, no. 6. Rickmansworth,
Eng.: Triad, 1977.
*Georges Hacquard. La Musiqueet le cinema.
Bibliographie internationale de musicolo- Klaus Jungk. Musik im technischenZeitalter:
gie. Paris: Presses universitaires de France, von der Edison-Walze zur Bildplatte. Bui-
1959. chereihe des Sender Freie Berlin, no. 11.
Berlin: Haude & Spener, 1971.
Among the weaker general views of the
subject. Scattered sections on film in this short
overview of all the new media and their
Earle Hagen. Scoringfor Films: A Complete
Text. New York: EDJ Music, 1971. problems for music.
*Hans Keller. The Needfor CompetentFilm
Fifteen technical chapters, using excerpts Music Criticism. Pamphlet. London: British
from scores for the I Spy television show Film Institute, 1947.
(by Hagen and Friedhofer) as illustration.
Followed by a symposium on "The Psy- Luzi Korngold. Erich Wolfgang Korngold:
chology of Creating Music for Films," Ein Lebensbild.Osterreichische Komponis-
featuring Friedhofer, Jerry Goldsmith, ten des xx. Jahrhunderts, vol. 10. Vienna:
Quincy Jones, Alfred Newman, and Lalo Elisabeth Lafiti & Ost. Bundesverlag, 1967.
Schifrin.
George A. Lazarou. Max Steiner and Film
James C. Hamilton. "Leith Stevens: A Criti- Music. Athens, Greece: The Max Steiner
cal Analysis of His Works." D.M.A. dis- Music Society, 1971.
Oscar Levant. A Smatteringof Ignorance. NY: Focuses on the ties between commercial
Doubleday, 1940. theater and Hollywood, but very little on
film music.
Chapter 3, "A Cog in the Wheel," pages
89-144. See n. 63. David Meeker. Jazz in the Movies: A Guide
to Jazz Musicians, 1917-1977. London: Ta-
*Louis Levy. Music for the Movies. London: lisman, 1977.
Sampson Low, 1948. Contains 2,239 entries. Supersedes Jazz
in the Movies: A Tentative Index (London:
James L. Limbacher. Film Music: From Vio-
lins to Video. Metuchen, New Jersey: Scare- BFI, 1972).
crow Press, 1974. "The Men Who Write the Music Scores."
Part 1, an anthology of fifty-two short Pamphlet. Hollywood: Motion Picture Pro-
articles (many of them excerpts); part 2, ducers and Distributors of America, 1943.
a series of indexes of composers and Useful information on scoring personnel
films. Useful but unreliable. (See n. 85.) and methods in the early forties. (See
n. 69.)
*Zofia Lissa. Aesthetikder Filmmusik. 1964
in Polish; German trans. Berlin: Henschel, Music and Dance in California. Ed. Jose
1965. Rodriguez; comp. William J. Perlman. Hol-
*Kurt London. Film Music: A Summary of lywood: Bureau of Musical Research, 1940.
the Characteristic Features of Its History, Wide-ranging anthology on matters of
Aesthetics, Technique and Possible Develop- theory and practice, including film music
ments. Trans. Eric S. Bensinger. London: (6 articles), plus a biographical dictionary.
Faber, 1936; reprint New York: Arno,
1970. Music and Dance in California and the West.
Ed. Richard Drake Saunders. Hollywood:
Main Title. Bureau of Musical Research, 1948.
Quarterly Newsletter of the Entr'acte Format similar to 1940 volume.
Recording Society, P.O. Box 2319, Music in Film and Television: An Internation-
Chicago, IL. 60690. Ed. John Stephen al Selective Catalogue, 1964-1974. Comp.
Lasher. Irregularly published 1974- and ed. International Music Centre, Vien-
1978. Now replaced by the Entr'acte na. Paris: Unesco Press, 1975.
Newsletter. The society has issued many
outstanding recordings. Lists films and tapes of operas, concerts,
educational programs, and experimental
Henry Mancini. Sounds and Scores:A Practi- programs.
cal Guide to Professional Orchestration.New
York: Northridge Music, 1962. Musica e film. Ed. S. G. Biamonte. Rome:
Edizioni dell' Ateneo, 1959.
*Roger Manvell & John Huntley. The Tech-
nique of Film Music. Focal Press Library of Thirteen papers read at the XX Mostra
Communication Techniques. London: Internazionale d'Arte Cinematografica di
Focal, 1957; 2nd ed., revised and enlarged Venezia, plus eight more from the *Sev-
by Richard Arnell and Peter Day, New enth International Music Congress at
York: Hastings House, 1975. Florence (1950).
*Clifford McCarty. Film Composers in *La musica nelfilm. Ed. Luigi Chiarini, and
America: A Checklist of Their Work. Los comp. Enzo Masetti. Special double issue
Angeles: Valentine, 1953; reprint New of Bianco e nero, 11, nos. 5-6 (1950); also
York: Da Capo, 1972. published the same year in book form
One-hundred (Rome: Bianco e nero editore).
sixty-three composers,
with their film scores listed by date. Published on the occasion of the Seventh
Florence Congress, and also the XI Mostra
Robert Guy McLaughlin. "Broadway and Internazionale. Twenty-seven papers.
Hollywood: A History of Economic In-
teraction." Ph.D. dissertation University of *Konrad Ottenheym. "Film und Musik bis
Wisconsin, 1970. zur Einfihrung des Tonfilms: Beitrage zu
einer Geschichte der Filmmusik." Disserta- Friedrich G. Robbe. Die Einheitlichkeit von
tion, Berlin Friedrich-Wilhelm, 1944. Bild und Klang im Tonfilm: Untersuchung
iiber das Zusammenwirkungder verschiedene
A little known but very fine contribution.
Sinnorgane und seine Bedeutungfur die ton-
Christopher Palmer. Miklos Rozsa: A Sketch filmische Gestaltung. Dissertation Hamburg,
of His Life and Work. London: Breitkopf 1940; Hamburg: Niemann & Moschinski,
& Hartel, 1975. 1940.
Chapter 4, "Film Music," pages 28-47. Cited in the Nelson & Rubsamen bibliog-
raphy under "The Sound Film as an
Francois Porcile. Maurice Jaubert: Musicien Audio-Visual Experience." The literature
populaire ou maudit? Paris: Les Editeurs on this important topic is small; so it is
francais riunis, 1971. to be regretted that this work is difficult
The best biography of a film musician to consult.
to date. Thoughtful and scholarly pre- *Leonid Sabaneev. Music for the Films: A
sentation. handbook for Composers and Conductors.
* Trans. S. W. Pring. London: Pitman, 1935.
. Presence de la musique a l'icran.
Paris: Editions du CERF, 1969. Stanley Schwartz. "Film Music and Attitude
*Roy M. Prendergast. A Neglected Art: A Change: A Study to Determine the Effect
Critical Study of Music in Films. New York: of Manipulating a Musical Soundtrack upon
New York University Press, 1977; also Nor- Changes in Attitude toward Militarism-
ton Paperback, 1977. Pacifism Held by Tenth Grade Social Stu-
dies Students." Ph.D. dissertation Syracuse
Andre Previn & Antony Hopkins. Music University, 1970.
Face to Face. New York: Scribner's, 1971.
(Cf. Gerrero above.)
The two men converse and compare SCN: SoundtrackCollector'sNewsletter.
careers.
Soundtrack, P.O. Box 3895, Springfield,
Fred K. Prieberg. Musica ex Machina: ziber MA 01101, or Luc Van de Ven, Editor,
das Verhaltnisvon Musik und Technik.Berlin: Astridlaan 165, 2800 Mechelen, Belgium.
Ullstein, 1960. Interviews, reviews, short articles and
"Filmmusik," pages 234-43, plus many superb international discographies.
related chapters. Marlin Skiles. Music Scoring for TV and
Motion Pictures. Blue Ridge Summit, PA.:
Pro Musica Sana.
Tab Books, 1976.
Quarterly Publication of the Miklos R6zsa The most recent manual, concisely writ-
Society, 319 Ave. C, No. 1 1-H, New York, ten, and especially valuable because it
NY 10009. Ed. John Fitzpatrick. Twenty-
includes interviews with several Hol-
six nos. to date (Spring 1979), beginning
with vol. 1, no. 1 (Spring 1972). The focus lywood composers.
is always on Rozsa, in print, on disc and *Frank Skinner. Underscore. Los Angeles:
on tape; but other composers and re- Skinner Music Co., 1950; reprint New
cordings receive consideration. The soci- York: Criterion, 1960.
ety is not to be confused with John The only manual to proceed by tracing
Stevens' Australian-based Miklos Rozsa
Cult (which also publishes a newsletter). the composition of one film score.
The Max Steiner Music Society Newsletter.
F. Rawlings. How To ChooseMusicfor Ama-
teur Films. London: Focal Press, 1956; 2nd P.O. Box 45173, Los Angeles, CA. 90045.
ed. London: Focal Press, 1961. Ed. Albert K. Bender. Forty-nine
numbers published from 1965 to 1976,
A throwback to the catalogues and man- supplemented by ten Max Steiner Annuals.
uals of the silent film period, except that At present the organization continues to
recordings are the subject, rather than publish The Max SteinerJournal. An indis-
music in live performance. pensable series of sources for information