Tribology in Industry 4-2016
Tribology in Industry 4-2016
Tribology in Industry 4-2016
VOLUME 38
DECEMBER 2016. 4
Vol. 38, N 4 (2016)
Tribology in Industry
Journal of the Serbian Tribology Society
www.tribology.fink.rs
Tribology in Industry
Contents
a
RESEARCH C. FRAGASSA, L. GIORGINI, A. PAVLOVIC, G. ZATTINI: Acid Aging Effects on Surfaces of PTFE
Gaskets Investigated by Thermal Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 435
A. ANAND, K. VOHRA, M.I. UL HAQ, A. RAINA, M.F. WANI: Tribological Considerations of Cutting
Fluids in Machining Environment: A Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 463
S. PORIA, G. SUTRADHAR, P. SAHOO: Wear and Friction Behavior of Stir Cast Al-TiB2 Metal Matrix
Composites with Various Lubricants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 508
5
I. PEKO, B. NEDIC, A. OREVIC, D. DZUNIC, M. JANKOVIC, I. VEZA: Modeling of Surface
Roughness in Plasma Jet Cutting Process of Thick Structural Steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 522
S.H. DIN, M.A. SHAH, N.A. SHEIKH: Effect of CVD-Diamond on the Tribological and Mechanical
Performance of Titanium Alloy (Ti6Al4V) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 530
B.T. PRAYOGA, S. SUYITNO, R. DHARMASTITI: The Wear behavior of UHMWPE against Surface
Modified CP-Titanium by Thermal Oxidation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 543
Tribology in Industry
RESEARCH
www.tribology.fink.rs
Bologna, Italy.
Keywords: ABSTRACT
Polymeric materials
This paper investigates the effect of a prolonged acid attack on the
PTFE
surface of PTFE by Thermogravimetric Analysis (TGA) and Differential
Gaskets
Scanning Calorimetry (DSC). PTFE is very non-reactive, partly because of
Ultrasonic cleaning process
the strength of carbonfluorine bonds and for its high crystallinity, and,
Surface Degradation
as a consequence, it is often used in containers and pipework with
TGA
reactive and corrosive chemicals. The PTFE under analysis is
DSC
commercialized by two alternative producers in form of Teflon tapes.
These tapes are adopted, as gaskets, in process plants where tires moulds
Corresponding author: are cleaned by acid solutions inside a multistage ultrasonic process. In
Cristiano Fragassa this case, PTFE shows, in a relatively short operation time, inexplicably
Department of Industrial Engineering, phenomena of surface degradation, which could be related, in general
University of Bologna, terms, to an acid attack. But, even considering the combined effect of
viale Risorgimento 2, ultrasonic waves, temperature, humidity and acid attack, the PTFE
Bologna, Italy. properties of resistance nominally exclude the risk of the extreme erosion
E-mail: cristiano.fragassa@unibo.it phenomena as observed.
The present experimental research aim at investigating this
contradiction. A possible explanation could be related to the presence in
the cleaning solution of unexpected fluorides, able to produce
fluorinating agents and, thus, degrade carbon-fluorine bonds.
Considering more the 300 chemical elements a tire compound consists in,
it is really complex to preserve the original chemical composition of the
cleaning solution. In this research PTFE samples have been treated with
different mixtures of acids with the aim at investigating the different
aging effects. The thermal analysis has permitted the experimental
characterization of PTFE surface properties after acid attack, providing
evidence of the degradation phenomena. In particular, the different acid
treatments adopted for accelerating the aging of gaskets have
highlighted the different behaviour of the PTFE matrix, but also
differences between manufacturers.
2016 Published by Faculty of Engineering
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C. Fragassa et al., Tribology in Industry Vol. 38, No. 4 (2016) 435-444
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C. Fragassa et al., Tribology in Industry Vol. 38, No. 4 (2016) 435-444
use in UMCS by means of mechanical tests and two different manufacturers, one Italian (IT) and
micrographs. It showed a not negligible one Chinese (CH), have been investigated.
difference between the two situations [16]. Specimens have been immersed in the solution
and maintained in oven at 80 C for 1.500 hr. This
Table 1. Acid compositions (in accordance with approach was intended to reproduce the worst
accelerated aging procedure detailed in [17]). process situation represented in the process line
H2O Sol. I Sol. II by the most aggressive acid bath, with almost pH
#
%wt 1 solution of sulfamic, hydrochloric and
1 50 40 10 hydrofluoric acids and, simultaneously, a
2 90 10 0
temperature between 70 and 80 C.
3 80 20 0
4 87.5 10 2.5
5 77.5 20 2.5 With the aim at reducing the number of
6 67.5 30 2.5 experiments, two specific combinations of acid
7 85 10 5 attacks have been investigated (#6, #9). A
8 75 20 5 comparison with new, untreated samples (#0)
9 65 30 5 have been also implemented (Table 2). These
10 70 30 0
samples have been selected representing
respectively the most and least aggressive
Then, a comparative study on the PTFE surface
treatment as preliminary identified by the
properties, after accelerated aging in controlled
microscopic observations performed by a Hirox
environment was also realized and detailed in
3D Multifocal Microscope Model HX7700 (Fig.
[17-19]. In particular, it [17] describes the
2) and by the Fourier Transform Infrared
aggravated conditions of heat, acid attack (with
Spectroscopy (FT-IR) investigation [18].
an almost pH 1 solution composed by a mixture
of sulfamic, hydrochloric and hydrofluoric acids, Table 2. List of samples analysed by TGA and DSC.
and, simultaneously, a temperature between 70
Treatment
and 80 C) used to speed up the normal aging Sample Label
# Sol.I Sol.II
processes of PTFE gaskets in the way to
correctly represent their utilisation inside the A - - Chinese-New
0
B - - Italian-New
UMCS plants. Besides, [18] describes the effects G 30 % 2.5 % Chinese-6
of aging on PTFE chemical surfaces by Fourier H
6
30 % 2.5 % Italian-6
Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FT-IR) I 30 % 5% Chinese-9
9
permitting preliminary considerations regarding J 30 % 5% Italian-9
the use of PTFE in UMCS conditions and its aging
mechanisms. The current research intends to At the end of the aging treatment, the specimens
merge further experimental results by useful were extracted from oven, cleaned, dried and
thermal analysis. With the aim at allowing a investigated by Thermogravimetric Analysis (TGA)
quick comparison with the previous results, all and Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC).
conditions used in the former experiments (e.g.
for accelerating the PTFE chemical surface Changes in physical and chemical properties of
degradation), are maintained and summarized the polymers have been measured by TGA as a
in Table 1. function of increasing temperature (considering
a constant heating rate) [20-22]. This technique
has permitted to investigate physical and
2. MATERIAL AND METHODS chemical phenomena, such as degradation
temperatures and absorption of low molecular
In Table 1 are reported the different chemical weight moieties. In particular, in the present
compositions used to speed up the aging work, TGA has allowed the characterization of
processes by acid attack. Different combinations materials through the analysis of characteristic
for Sol. I (sulfamic acid 15%wt, hydrochloric acid decomposition patterns and the evaluation of
0.1%wt) and Sol. II (hydrofluoric acid 1%wt) degradation mechanisms and reaction kinetics.
have been evaluated with the aim to compare the By TGA, it has been also possible to verify the
effects of the two solutions in different ratios. For presence (or absence) of organic/inorganic
each of these combinations, PTFE specimens by contents.
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C. Fragassa et al., Tribology in Industry Vol. 38, No. 4 (2016) 435-444
a) b)
c) d)
Fig. 2. Examples of micrographs used for a preliminary selection of treatments and samples under investigation:
a) Italian #6; b) Italian #9; c) Chinese #6; d) Chinese #9.
This information has been useful for completing atmosphere has been switched to air in order to
the chemical analysis and corroborating oxidize any eventual organic residue [26].
alternative hypothesis on the material
structures. The choice of the inert atmosphere has been
made to avoid the introduction of thermo-
By Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC), it is oxidative phenomena during the analysis. DSC
possible to analyse the difference in the amount has also performed under nitrogen atmosphere,
of heat required to increase the temperature of on 4-5 mg of polymeric material, using a TA
samples and references (as a function of Q2000 instrument, set to run two heating scans
temperature). By observing this difference, it has from -80 C to 360 C at a heating rate of 10
been possible to measure the amount of heat C/min. Only experimental results from the
absorbed during thermodynamic transitions, second scan have been used for the purposes of
investigating subtle physical changes (phase this work [27].
changes, melting) [23-25].
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C. Fragassa et al., Tribology in Industry Vol. 38, No. 4 (2016) 435-444
thermal decomposition to a slightly higher melting), that could be associated with a slightly
temperature (Fig. 3a), according to the DTG higher degree of crystallinity. In fact,
(Derivative Thermogravimetric Analysis) curves crystallization and melting enthalpy in PTFE are
obtained (expressed as maximum degradation rate supposed to be directly proportional [31].
temperatures). A DSC result also shows a very
similar behaviour between the two materials (Fig. Table 3. Thermal analyses results of new samples.
3b). Both the samples exhibit two partly Chinese Italian
Manufacturer
overlapped crystalline phase transitions, typical of A (#0) B (#0)
PTFE at atmospheric pressure centred at 21/22 C Decomposition T
C, peak 571 576
and 30 C, in agreement with literature [28,29]. C, onset 543 551
TGA
Weight Loss %wt 100.0 99.5
3.5 Residue @ 750 C %wt 0.00 0.87
100 Onset T C 15 16
transitio
3.0 1st peak T C 21 22
Phase
90
ns
80
Italian New 2nd peak T C 30 30
Chinese New 2.5
DSC
70
H J/g 8.4 7.9
Melti
60
Weight (%)
ng
50 1.5 H J/g 34.2 32.2
40
1.0
30 Results obtained by thermal analyses of the new
20
0.5
untreated gaskets are reported in Table 3.
10 0.0
0 3.2 Treated samples (#6, #9)
-0.5
0 200 400 600 800
Temperature (C)
Samples subjected to acid treatment #6 and #9
a)
were analysed both at the surface and in the
0.8
Chinese New core of the gaskets. TGA thermograms (Fig. 4
Italian New
and Table 4) show four different weight losses,
with the first three that could be probably
0.6
attributed to compositional changes due to the
acid treatments. The last one is, instead, due to
Heat Flow (W/g)
0.4
the complete pyrolytic decomposition of the
PTFE chain, via depolymerisation at monomers.
In Table 4, TGA analysis results are summarized.
0.2 The first three weight losses show different
trends depending on the acid treatment applied.
0.0
-50 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
Amongst samples subjected to treatment #6 (#G
Temperature (C) and #H), the surface samples behave in a very
b) similar manner, both in weight losses
Fig. 3. TGA (a) and DSC (b) thermograms of Chinese temperatures and entities. The Italian core and
and Italian untreated samples (#0) (exo-down). surface samples show the same weight loss
temperatures, but their entities are generally
In Table 3, onset temperature and total enthalpy slightly lower (Figs. 4a and 4b). The principal
change are reported considering the two observation regards the core of the Chinese
thermal transitions as a single event. The second sample subjected to treatment #6, which
thermal event observed in both manufacturers undergo one single weight loss, in the same
samples, centred at 327 C, is the main melting manner to what happens to the related Chinese
of PTFE according with literature [30]. The new untreated sample. This fact is consistent
difference in the onset melting temperature with the FT-IR analysis previously executed,
could be considered negligible. which have highlighted the simultaneous
presence of highly degraded surface as well as
Chinese sample shows a fairly higher enthalpy nearly unmodified areas in the core of Chinese
value for both events (phase transitions and sample subjected to treatment #6.
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C. Fragassa et al., Tribology in Industry Vol. 38, No. 4 (2016) 435-444
Samples subjected to treatment #9 (#I and #J) surface samples show instead similar behaviour.
show a similar trend. The core samples exhibit Temperatures of this main weight loss are quite
lower weight loss entities which occur at slightly consistent between core and surface but differs
lower temperatures when compared to the of 7 to 15 C between Chinese (lower T) and
surface samples. Comparing Chinese and Italian Italian (higher T). In any case, both onset and
samples, the weight loss temperatures of peak temperature measured are generally
Chinese core sample are higher than the Italian higher than those of new samples.
one, while the entities do not seem to have a
particular trend (Figs. 4c and 4d). Samples subjected to treatment #9 show coherent
values for Chinese and Italian samples, both in
The last and more abundant weight loss, entities and temperatures (peak and onset) of the
attributable to the depolymerisation of PTFE at weight loss, which are all very similar between the
its monomer, varies in entity from 81.9 to 100 two manufacturers (Figs. 4c and 4d). Even in this
%wt according to the previously three weight case, all the degradation temperatures measured
losses. Residue at 750 C also varies between 0 are higher than those of untreated samples.
and 4,78 %wt.
The simultaneous higher residue and lower
Samples treated with acid attack #6 do not entity of the last weight loss (related to the PTFE
exhibit a precise trend (Figs. 4a and 4b). Chinese decomposition) exhibited by the samples
core sample behave similarly to the related subjected at #9 treatment, seems to indicate that
untreated sample, and exhibits lower residue the aforementioned acid attack resulted in a
than the surface sample. The Italian core and more aggressive aging rather than #6 treatment.
100 100
90 Chinese New 90 Italian New
Chinese 6, Surface
80 80 Italian 6, Surface
Chinese 6, Core Italian 6, Core
70 70
60 60
Weight (%)
Weight (%)
50 50
40 40
30 30
20 20
10 10
0 0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800
Temperature (C) Temperature (C)
a) b)
100 100
90 90
Chinese New Italian New
80 80
Chinese 9, Surface Italian 9, Surface
70 Chinese 9, Core 70 Italian 9, Core
60 60
Weight (%)
Weight (%)
50 50
40 40
30 30
20 20
10 10
0 0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800
Temperature (C) Temperature (C)
c) d)
Fig. 4. TGA thermograms of Chinese samples (left) and Italian samples (right), subject to treatment #6 (upper)
and #9 (lower). New untreated, Surface and Core thermal traces are reported.
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Tab. 4. Summary of TGA and DTG results for both treated and new samples.
1 2 3 4
Position Residue
Sample Weight Loss T Weight Loss T Weight Loss T Weight Loss T Onset T
Sampled
(%) (C) (%) (C) (%) (C) (%) (C) (C) (%)
A Chinese #0 Core - - - - - - 100.0 571 543 0.00
B Italian #0 Core - - - - - - 99.2 576 551 0.87
Surface 1.66 100 1.61 212 2.24 261 92.6 571 541 1.69
G Chinese #6
Core - - - - - - 100.0 575 548 0.00
Surface 1.24 105 1.64 213 2.74 269 93.9 586 556 0.01
H Italian #6
Core 0.97 109 1.92 219 1.45 264 90.5 583 557 4.64
Surface 3.90 117 4.96 225 5.44 278 81.9 575 550 3.57
I Chinese #9
Core 1.04 112 2.35 215 3.90 275 90.2 584 552 2.02
Surface 4.55 118 4.98 226 3.77 273 85.2 574 548 1.34
J Italian #9
Core 1.25 102 1.69 210 2.56 271 89.7 585 550 4.78
0,8 0,8
Chinese New Italian New
34,2 J/g 32,2 J/g
0,6 0,6
0,4 0,4
0,2 0,2
Heat Flow (W/g)
0,4 0,4
0,2 0,2
0,8 0,8
Chinese 6, Core Italian 6, Core
31,4 J/g 31,0 J/g
0,6 0,6
0,4 0,4
0,2 0,2
-50 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 -50 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
a) b)
0,8 0,8
Chinese New Italian New
34,2 J/g 32,2 J/g
0,6 0,6
0,4 0,4
0,2 0,2
Heat Flow (W/g)
0,8
Heat Flow (W/g)
0,4 0,4
0,2 0,2
0,8 0,8
Chinese 9, Core Italian 9, Core
33,0 J/g 29,3 J/g
0,6 0,6
0,4 0,4
0,2 0,2
-50 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 -50 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
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DSC analyses of treated samples show the same different acid attacks. In particular, different
pattern recorded by new samples, with the combinations for Sol.I (sulfamic acid 15%wt,
presence of crystalline phase transitions peaks hydrochloric acid 0.1%wt) and Sol.II
located at the same temperatures (both peak (hydrofluoric acid 1%wt) have been considered
and onset), with significant variations in the as accelerating aging factors with the aim to
enthalpies (H) of both the 1st and 2nd thermal compare the effects of the two solutions in
events (Table 5 and Fig. 5). A decrease in these different ratios. Experimental measures have
melting enthalpy values is related to a reduced been performed by Thermogravimetric Analysis
crystallinity of the PTFE, which in turn could be (TGA) and Differential Scanning Calorimetry
the result of the presence of defects in the (DSC). Two series of PTFE gaskets, produced by
polymer chain due to degradation. The results two different manufacturers (one from Italy and
reported in Table 5 show a relative pronounced other from China) have been treated and
variation in the phase transitions enthalpy of compared with new untreated samples. The
Chinese samples centred at around 21-22 C, samples have been analysed to evaluate
highlighting also a higher decrease in both different behaviours in response of the various
surface samples enthalpy (treatment #6 and #9) acid treatments. Experimental TGA and DSC data
with respect to the corresponding core samples. have highlighted different behaviours for the
Instead, Italian surface samples exhibit H PTFE matrix (core and surface), but also
similar to their corresponding core samples. differences between Teflon manufacturers.
Furthermore, treated samples show slightly These results denote a rather clear evidence of
lower values of H when compared with the progressive degradation of PTFE by chemical
corresponding new samples. attack. Specifically, thermogravimetric analysis
(TGA) data seems to indicate a slightly higher
Finally, the lower H associated to the first amount of degradation in samples subjected to
phase transition has been measured for both aging treatment labelled as #9, especially in the
Chinese and Italian samples subjected to case of the Italian samples. DSC analysis shows
treatment #6. that the treatment #6 is responsible of a
generally higher decrease in phase transitions
The measured melting enthalpies are much enthalpies, as well as of the melting enthalpies,
more variable in entity amongst the samples, but particularly in the case of Chinese samples. In
the trends are quite similar to those observed fact, the lower enthalpies exhibited by treated
for the previously discussed phase transitions samples are sign of a more marked reduction of
(Fig. 5). Melting enthalpies variation of the their crystallinity degree. This fact could be a
treated samples, with respect to the consequence of a greater presence of defects in
correspondent new untreated samples, are the polymer chains, possibly induced or
slightly higher for Chinese samples (1-7 J/g, Fig. enhanced by the chemical attack. These results
5, left) rather than for Italian ones (2-4 J/g, Fig. are generally in accordance with those
5, right). However, a little difference could be previously obtained by FT-IR analysis on
pointed out in the behaviours exhibited by the samples treated in the same manner [18].
samples of the two manufacturers in relation to However, regarding the superficial and internal
the treatment: a Chinese sample seems to be homogeneity, our experimental data suggest
more susceptible to treatment #6 (i.e. lower that in all cases Chinese samples exhibit a
enthalpies), while Italian samples show slight slightly inhomogeneous degradation after the
lower H values after treatment #9. treatments.
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Vol. 38, No. 4 (2016) 445-453
Tribology in Industry
RESEARCH
www.tribology.fink.rs
S. Kumar a, A. Mukhopadhyay a
a Mechanical Engineering Department, Jadavpur University, Kolkata- 700032, India.
Keywords: ABSTRACT
Wear Sliding wear characteristics of some heat treated SS-304 stainless steel
Heat treatment against EN-8 steel in dry condition have been studied in the present
Micro hardness experimental work. Samples of SS-304 stainless steel have been heated in
Feritscope a muffle furnace in desired temperature and allowed to dwell for two
Tribo testing hours. The heated specimen are then cooled in different media namely
inside the furnace, open air, cutting grade oil (grade 44) and water at
Corresponding author: room temperature to obtain different grades of heat treatment.
Microstructures and corresponding micro hardness of the samples have
Abhijit Mukhopadhyay been measured along with Feritscopic studies. Wear characteristics have
Mechanical ngineering Department, been studied in a multi tribo-tester (Ducom) in dry sliding condition
Jadavpur University, against EN-8 steel roller. Speed, load on job and duration of test run have
Kolkata - 700032, India. been considered as the experimental parameters. The wear of the samples
E-mail: m_obiji@yahoo.com have been obtained directly from Winducom 2006 software. Mass loss of
the samples before and after operation has also been considered as the
measure of wear in the present study. All the samples have been slid
against EN-8 steel roller with fixed experimental parameters. The data
have been plotted, compared and analyzed. Effect of microstructures as
well as micro hardness on the wear behavior has been studied and
concluded accordingly.
2016 Published by Faculty of Engineering
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S. Kumar and A. Mukhopadhyay, Tribology in industry Vol. 38, No. 4 (2016) 445-453
AISI SS-304 stainless steel has been selected as For annealing some samples have been heated
test material for the present experimental work. from room temperature to 950 C and allowed to
The material has been procured directly from dwell for 2 hours at that temperature inside the
the market. Samples of size 20 20 8 have furnace. At the end of the operation the furnace
been prepared as per the dimension has been switched off and the samples have
requirement for the experiments in tribo tester. been allowed to cool inside the furnace, that is,
The chemical composition of the as received furnace cooling.
material has been indicated in Table 1.
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S. Kumar and A. Mukhopadhyay, Tribology in industry Vol. 38, No. 4 (2016) 445-453
Some test specimens have been heated from microscopic observation as well as for the
room temperature of approximately 30 C up to measurement of micro hardness.
a temperature of 950 C and allowed to dwell at
that temperature for 2 hours (soaking time). 2.3 Micro hardness measurement
Rate of increment of temperature has been
selected as 10 per minute for all the cases. At Micro hardness of the samples has been
the end of the operation specimens have been measured in a micro hardness tester LM 248
taken out of the furnace and allowed to cool in AT (LECO, serial no. XM8 116, Michigan).
open air to attain room temperature. This is the Included angle of the pyramid shaped diamond
process of normalizing. indenter is 136. All the tests have been
conducted at a magnification of 500X, test load
Sudden cooling from elevated temperature is of 100 gf and dwell time of 10 sec. Two
known as quenching. This has been indentations have been made at two different
accomplished by dipping the heated samples in points on each sample and the average value has
an oil bath maintained at room temperature. been considered as the representative micro
Samples have been heated up to a temperature hardness. Figure 2 shows the set up for micro
of 950 C with a dwelling time of 2 hours as hardness measurement.
before and then dipped immediately inside an
oil bath maintained at room temperature.
Cutting grade oil (grade 44) has been used as the
quenching medium in this case.
2.2 Observation of microstructure Amount of delta ferrite on the base material has
been de by magneto inductive testing equipment
Physical properties and mechanical behaviour, Fischer Feritscope FMP 30 (Finland) as shown
in particular, of a material depends on the in Fig. 3. A feritscope is used to measure the
microstructure. An optical or electron ferrite content in austenitic and duplex steel.
microscope can be used to reveal the
microstructure. In the present study a trinocular
microscope (Radical) has been used for the
purpose. The surface of each sample has been
polished using five grades of emery papers,
courser to finer. Finally a felt polishing machine
has been used to polish the surface with aqueous
aluminium oxide (Al2O3) solution to give a
shinny, smooth and mirror like appearance of
the surface of the sample. The surface roughness
has not been measured in the present work.
Standard nital solution, a mixture of 3 % nitric Fig. 3. Feritscope FMP 30 (Finland) with probe.
acid and 97 % ethyl alcohol, has been used to Magnetic induction method is the basis of such
etch the polished surface of the samples for measurement [15,16,26]. Proportions of delta
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S. Kumar and A. Mukhopadhyay, Tribology in industry Vol. 38, No. 4 (2016) 445-453
ferrite, strain induced martensite and any other 1800 sec of the said parameters have been
ferrite phases can be measured by this method. selected for the wear test. Weights of all the
Testing has been done on heat treated samples of specimens have been measured before and after
size 20 20 8. Ten readings have been taken in the wear test using an electronic analytical and
ten different places on the surface of each sample precision balance (Sartorius BSA 223S, Germany;
and the average value represents the maximum range is 220 gm with a readability of
corresponding reading. This test is based on the 0.001gm). Difference of the two values indicates
fact that the austenite is nonmagnetic and the the weight loss of the specimen due to wear [23].
delta ferrite is magnetic.
Friction and wear tests of the samples have been Micro hardness values of the heat treated
carried out in a multi tribo tester TR-25 samples at different matrix or region have been
(DUCOM, India) supported with Winducom furnished in Table 2. The values of the micro
2006 software. Block-on-Roller configuration of hardness indicate the probable microstructures
the tester has been utilized for this purpose. The of the particular region. This is further supported
samples have been slid against EN-8 stainless by corresponding micrographs. The micrographs
steel roller of 50 mm diameter and hardness of of all the heat treated samples at two
55HRC. Wear is measured in terms of magnifications namely 500 and 400 have been
displacements in microns with the help of a linear furnished in Fig. 4 (a) (j).
voltage resistance transducer in this set up [17].
All the tests have been carried out at an average It is well known that AISI 304 stailess steel
room temperature of 30 C and humidity of undergoes a martensitic transformation under
approximately 85-90%. All the samples have cyclic loading conditions [16,24,25]. There are
been cleaned thoroughly with acetone to remove three prominent matrix or zone in the
any trace of oil, grease, dirt or dust. Based on microstructures namely white, black and mixture
different research studies [3, 18-22 and of white and black. Micro hardness values have
references there in] rotational speed of the wheel measured in those zones or regions. Comparing
(rpm), load on job (N) and duration of test run the micrographs and corresponding micro
(sec) have been identified as the most important hardness values, as tabulated in Table 2,
parameters for the wear test in multi tribo tester following analysis can be made:
and corresponding values of 375 rpm, 25 N and
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S. Kumar and A. Mukhopadhyay, Tribology in industry Vol. 38, No. 4 (2016) 445-453
Figure 4 (a) and (b) indicates the boundary. Carbide deposition is also prominent
microstructures of sensitized sample where on the grain boundary. Oil quenched sample
white and black matrix in both the figures shows the presence of ferrite as evidenced as
indicates the formation of martensite. Mixture of black band [cf. Fig. 4 (g)]. The entire black
martensite and carbide is present in the black matrix here represents carbide. Figure 4 (h)
matrix or region and some part contains ferrite, shows the existence of austenite (white), ferrite
where as white matrix or region is austenite in and carbide. In case of solution annealed
case of air cooled samples as indicated in Fig. 4 samples the existence of austenite and formation
(c) and (d) respectively. Microstructures of of ferrite has been revealed from Fig. 4 (i).
annealed samples have been depicted in Fig. 4 Figure 4 (j), on the other hand, indicates the
(e) and (f). Figure 4 (e) indicates that austenite formation of martensite inside the grain
has been transformed into ferrite and carbide boundaries. It is needless to be mentioned that
(chromium carbide). White matrix in Fig. 4 (f) austenite already contains carbon.
reveals the presence of austenite within grain
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
(e) (f)
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S. Kumar and A. Mukhopadhyay, Tribology in industry Vol. 38, No. 4 (2016) 445-453
(g) (h)
(i) (j)
Fig. 4. Micrographs of different heat treated SS-304 samples showing the microstructures of (a) sensitized
sample at 500 (b) sensitized sample at 400 (c) normalized sample at 500 (d) normalized sample at 400 (e)
annealed sample at 500 (f) annealed sample at 400 (g) oil quenched sample at 500 (h) oil quenched at 400
(i) solution annealed sample at 500 and (j) solution annealed sample at 400.
Different types of heat treated SS-304 stainless on the hardness of heat treated samples. The
steel contain mainly austenite (approximately hardness of the heat treated samples may be
95 %), carbide, martensite (less than 1%) and - assumed to be affected by austenite, carbide and
ferrite (less than 1%). Fischer Feritscope martensite (very little). Hardness, again, is
measures the bcc percentage in the heat treated related to micro hardness of ferrite austenite,
samples [26]. Presence of bcc structure is mainly carbide and austenitic phases. Micro hardness
due to martensite and -ferrite. Table 3 indicates values have already been presented in Table 2.
the percentage of bcc phase in different heat
treated samples. Ten measurements have been Weight loss data due to wear have been
taken in ten different places on the surface of furnished in Table 4, whereas Table 5 indicates
each sample and the average values have been wear (micron) data as obtained directly from
considered as the representative data in this Winducom 2006 software at different time
regard. It has been revealed from the above intervals. Corresponding curves have also been
table that quantity of -ferrite is less than 1% in drawn in Fig. 5.
all the cases. Thus, -ferrite has very little effect
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S. Kumar and A. Mukhopadhyay, Tribology in industry Vol. 38, No. 4 (2016) 445-453
Table 5. Wear (micron) of different heat treated samples in regular time intervals.
Heat Treatment Wear (micron) in different time intervals (sec)
300 600 900 1200 1500 1800
Sensitized 86.152 94.262 107.793 125.043 151.501 164.972
Annealed 111.040 117.157 116.397 117.201 120.968 123.966
Normalized 31.712 40.092 48.325 60.933 73.133 91.218
Oil quenched 139.965 177.901 204.43 218.06 224.054 231.011
Solution annealed 134.974 168.633 189.968 199.537 205.777 210.34
From Table 2 it has been revealed that samples. Though oil quenched sample contains
normalized sample has good hardness owing to carbide (CrC) but quite likely the percentage is
the presence of austenite, carbide (CrC) and very low. Hence, this sample has little resistance
mixture of martensite and carbide. So it has lesser against wear. Weight loss data (gm) of the worn
amount of wear than all other heat treated samples have been given in Table 4. It has been
samples. The wear follows almost a straight line revealed that the weight loss data and the wear
path (cf. Fig. 5). Sensitize samples contain higher (micron), as obtained directly from the
amount of martensite. Thus, more hardness is Winducom 2006 software, are in good
obtained in sensitized samples resulting less agreement. Thus, it is justified to consider the
wear rate as is evidenced in Table 5. The wear is, weight loss data as a measure of wear.
however, gradually increasing with time (cf. Fig.
5). On the contrary, annealed samples have more
amount of carbide. These samples also have good 4. CONCLUSION
amount of hardness. Initial wear is somehow
more than that of sensitized samples. But the Some important findings of the present
wear is almost stable with time and follows a experimental work have been furnished below:
straight line path. Sensitized, annealed and
Some important heat treatments of SS 304
normalized samples have less amount of wear
stainless steel have been done utilizing in
than oil quenched and solution annealed samples
house facilities. This is a great value
as the hardness of oil quenched and solution
addition in conceptual learning process.
annealed samples are far less than sensitized,
annealed and normalized samples. Ferrite and Microstructures and corresponding micro
austenite phases are prominent in majority of the hardness of different matrix has been
portions of oil quenched and solution annealed appraised and evaluated accordingly.
451
S. Kumar and A. Mukhopadhyay, Tribology in industry Vol. 38, No. 4 (2016) 445-453
Presence of - ferrite and martensite, that [8] R.A. Lindberg, Processes and materials of
is, bcc structure is less than 1% in all the manufacture. New Delhi: Prentice-Hall, 1974.
heat treated samples. [9] F. Han, G. Lin, M. Hu, S. Wang, D. Peng and Q.
Normalized samples have minimum wear Zhou, Softening interstage annealing of
austenitic stainless steel sheets for stamping
whereas oil quenched samples have
processes, Journal of Cent, South University, vol.
maximum wear. Wear of normalized 19, pp. 1508-1516, 2012.
samples is minimum, however there is a
gradually increasing trend. [10] M. Sharma and A. Kumar, Study of effect on
mechanical properties of SS 304 at different
Annealed samples show medium wear ranges of carburization temperature, IJCSCE,
with a stable trend. Special issue on NCRAET-2013, pp.13-17, 2013.
Weight loss data are in good agreement [11] X. Meng, J. Zhang, J. Zhao and W. Han, Influence
with wear data, as obtained directly from of annealing treatment on microstructure and
Winducom 2006 software, in the present properties of cold sprayed stainless steel
study. coatings, Acta Metall. Sin. (Eng. Lett.), vol. 24,
no. 2, pp. 92-100, 2011.
[12] A.K. Tanwer, Effect of various heat treatment
Acknowledgement processes on mechanical properties of mild
steel and stainless steel, AIJRSTEM, vol. 8, no. 1,
The present experimental work has been pp. 57-68, 2014.
accomplished in the frame work of the [13] S.A. Tukur, M.S. Dambatta, A. Ahmed and N.M.
laboratories of Mechanical engineering Muaz, Effect of heat treatment temperature on
department and partly in Metallurgical and mechanical properties of the AISI 304 stainless
Material Sciences department of the Jadavpur steel, IJIRSET, vol. 3, no. 2, pp. 9516-9520, 2014.
University, Kolkata, India. Any kind of assistance, [14] Stress reliving heat treatments for austenitic
whatever little it may be, from any individual is stainless steels, available at
sincerely acknowledged by the authors. http://www.bssa.org.uk/topics.php?article= 76.
[15] S.A. Gigovi-Geki, M. Oru and S.M. Goji,
Determination of the content of delta ferrite in
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Vol. 38, No. 4 (2016) 454-462
Tribology in Industry
RESEARCH
www.tribology.fink.rs
M. Radovanovi a
a University of Ni, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Aleksandra Medvedeva 14, 18000 Ni, Serbia.
Keywords: ABSTRACT
brasive water jet cutting
Multi-objective optimization of process performances (perpendicularity
ulti-objective optimization
deviation, surface roughness and productivity) when cutting carbon
Perpendicularity deviation surface
steel EN S235 with abrasive water jet is presented in this paper. Cutting
Roughness
factors (abrasive flow rate, traverse rate and standoff distance) were
Productivity
determined when perpendicularity deviation and surface roughness are
minimal and productivity is maximal. Multi-objective genetic algorithm
Corresponding author: (MOGA) was used for the determination set of nondominated optimal
Miroslav Radovanovi points, known as Pareto front.
University of Ni, 2016 Published by Faculty of Engineering
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering,
Aleksandra Medvedeva 14,
18000 Ni, Serbia.
E-mail: mirado@masfak.ni.ac.rs
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M. Radovanovi, Tribology in Industry Vol. 38, No. 4 (2016) 454-462
In AWJ cutting high pressure pump via carbide. Water is pressed out of the orifice in
accumulator and high pressure tubing directs form of very thin jet at a high speed. Speed of
the pressurized water to the cutting head. Types water jet can calculate using equation:
of pumps and levels of pressure are classified by
water jet industry as: 2p . (1)
v wj
w
Low pressure, p<10000 psi (p<690 bar,
p<69 MPa) where are: vwj-speed of water jet in m/s, -
Medium pressure, 10000<p<15000 psi correction factor (0.9-0.98), p-water pressure in
(690<p<1030 bar, 69<p<103 MPa) Pa, w-density of water in kg/m3.
High pressure, 15000<p<40000 psi Abrasive particles are added to water jet in
(1030<p<2760 bar, 103<p<276 MPa) mixing chamber of the cutting head. There are
Ultra high pressure, 40000<p<75000 psi two methods to add abrasive particles to water
(2760<p<5170 bar, 276<p<517 MPa) jet: suspension and injection. The suspension
method (direct, indirect or bypass) is used in
Hyper pressure, p>75000 psi (p>5170 bar, industry only at pressures of up to 70 MPa.
p>517 MPa). Today the injection method is mainly used for
industrial applications with operating pressures
There are two types of high pressure pumps: of up to 400 MPa. The high velocity of the water
direct drive pumps and intensifier pumps. Direct jet creates a Venturi effect or vacuum in the
drive pumps generally are found in industrial mixing chamber located immediately beneath
applications with pressure to 380 MPa. These the orifice. Abrasive particles are metered from
pumps use an electric motor to turn a crankshaft a mini-hopper through a plastic tube down to
that moves three or more pistons that create the the cutting head and are sucked into the water
water pressure. But, the most common pumps in jet stream in the mixing chamber. Abrasive
industrial applications are intensifier pumps. particles are accelerated with high speed water
Intensifier pumps are called intensifiers because jet. Abrasive particles are mixed with the water
they use the concept of pressure intensification jet creating abrasive water jet. Speed of abrasive
to generate the desired water pressure. These water jet can calculate using equation [2,4]:
pumps use hydraulics to apply a certain amount
of oil pressure on one side of a piston of a certain v wj . (2)
v awj
diameter. On the water side of the pump, the m
1 a
diameter of the piston is much smaller. The mw
difference in the surface area between the
hydraulic side and the water side gives a Where are: vawj-speed of abrasive water jet in
multiplication factor, or intensification, to the m/s, -momentum loss factor (0.65-0.85), vwj -
pressure from the oil side. Most intensifier speed of water jet in m/s, ma-abrasive mass flow
pumps have an intensification ratio of 20 times. rate in kg/s, mw-water mass flow rate in kg/s.
Intensifier pumps generally are found in
pressure applications to 600 MPa. With Abrasive water jet is focused by a focusing tube.
intensifier pump can be achieved hyper Focusing tube directs the abrasive water jet to
pressure. Water jet pumps are specified in either cut the workpiece. Abrasive water jet cuts
horsepower (HP) or kilowatts (kW) to indicate workpiece along the programmed contour using
the size of the electric motor that creates the CNC (computer numerical control) motion
force to pressurize the water. High pressure system of the machine. Scheme of the AWJ
pumps power range is from 15 HP (11 kW) to cutting is shown in Fig. 1. [2,3].
200 HP (150 kW). Most common AWJ machine
tools are with power between 30 HP (22 kW) For evaluation of the AWJ cutting, the greatest
and 100 HP (75 kW). Cutting head consists of influence has a group of geometric characteristics
orifice, mixing chamber and focusing tube. of the workpiece issued in cutting process. The
Orifice is with diameter of 0.15 to 0.35 mm and geometric characteristics are: form accuracy,
is made of sapphire, ruby or diamond. Focusing dimensional accuracy and cut quality. Cut quality
tube is with diameter of 0.54 to 1.1 mm, length relates to form of kerf and cut surface. Terms in
of 50 to 100 mm, and is made of tungsten AWJ cutting, according ISO/TC 44 N 1770 [5], are
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M. Radovanovi, Tribology in Industry Vol. 38, No. 4 (2016) 454-462
shown in Fig. 2, where are: Ra-surface roughness, Response Surface Methodology (RSM). Two
f-pitch of drag line, g-burr, hf-fine cut, hr- objectives (material removal rate and surface
remaining surface, n-drag line, rk-edge radius, s- roughness) are optimized by using Grey Relation
jet direction, sb-jet affected zone, t-workpiece Analysis (GRA).
thickness, u-perpendicularity or angularity
tolerance. Cut quality limits AWJ cutting Chakravarthy P. and Babu N. in [7] studied
application. The perpendicularity deviation and abrasive water jet cutting of granite. They have
surface roughness of the cut are the most investigated the effect of factors (water
significant characteristics of the cut quality. pressure, traverse rate and abrasive flow rate)
on performance (depth of cut). In order to
determine the Pareto front for the multi-
objective optimization problem with three
objectives (cost of production, rate of production
and consumption of abrasives) they have
applied a new approach based on the principles
of fuzzy logic and genetic algorithm (GA).
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M. Radovanovi, Tribology in Industry Vol. 38, No. 4 (2016) 454-462
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M. Radovanovi, Tribology in Industry Vol. 38, No. 4 (2016) 454-462
Some of the most important performances in levels) with center point. Control factors are:
AWJ cutting are perpendicularity deviation, abrasive flow rate (ma), traverse rate (vf), and
surface roughness and productivity. standoff distance (h). Control factors and their
levels are shown in Table 1. [12]
Perpendicularity deviation of the cut surfaces
(kerf taper) is distance between two parallel Table 1. Control factors and levels
straight lines (tangents) between which the cut Levels
surface profile is inscribed, and within the set Code Control factors
-1 0 +1
angle (e.g. 90 in the case of vertical cuts).
A Abrasive flow rate, ma (g/min) 300 500 700
Perpendicularity deviation includes and the
flatness deviations. B Traverse rate, vf (mm/min) 50 100 150
C Standoff distance, h (mm) 1 3 5
Surface roughness is a measure of the
technological quality of the cut. Commonly Three control factors are arranged in design of
arithmetic average roughness (Ra) was used to experiment with 9 runs (8 runs are for base
describe surface roughness. Ra is defined as the design and 1 run for center point). Measured
arithmetic value of the profile from centerline performances are: perpendicularity deviation
along the sampling length. (u) and surface roughness (Ra). Perpendicularity
Productivity is defined as: deviation has measured using optical
microscope Metkon and surface roughness has
Q tvf . (3)
measured using surface measuring instrument
where are: Q (mm2/min)-productivity, t (mm)- Hommel Tester T500. Design of experiment with
material thickness, vf (mm/min)-traverse rate. factor levels and measured values of
performances, is presented in Table 2.
Productivity in contour cutting of sheets is
defined as cut surface productivity, i.e. surface of Table 2. Design of experiment and results.
the cut in unit of time. The goal in contour Control factors u Ra
cutting is to have maximum cutting length with Run
A B C (mm) (m)
minimum kerf width.
1 -1 -1 -1 0.07 4.12
2 -1 -1 1 0.11 4.50
3. EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH 3 -1 1 -1 0.17 5.18
4 -1 1 1 0.14 5.13
Experimental research was planed and realized 5 1 -1 -1 0.20 4.23
in order to define regression equations for 6 1 -1 1 0.21 4,45
performances (perpendicularity deviation and
7 1 1 -1 0.30 4.99
surface roughness) in correlation of factors
(abrasive flow rate, traverse rate and standoff ... ... ... ... ... ...
distance). The equipment used for 9 0 0 0 0.26 4.22
experimentation was abrasive water jet cutting
machine Hydro Jet Eco 0615 with high pressure Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was carried out to
pump of 150 MPa, power of 7.5 kW and water find the relative effect of factors and interactions
flow rate of 2.4 l/min. Cutting head was on performances perpendicularity deviation and
composed of orifice made of sapphire with inner surface roughness. If p<0.05 the factors have a
diameter of 0.35 mm and focusing tube made of significant effect on performance. If p>0.10 the
tungsten carbide with inner diameter of 1.02 factors have not an effect on performance. If
mm and length of 76 mm. Jet impact angle was 0.05<p<0.10 the factors have a moderate effect
90. All experiments were conducted with water on performance. Analysis of variance for
pressure of 150 MPa. Abrasive material was perpendicularity deviation (u) is shown in Table
Garnet mesh 80 ( 177 m). Workpiece material 3. Standard F table value at 95 % confidence
was carbon steel EN S235, thickness of 6.5 mm. level is F0.05,1,3=10.13.
Design of experiment was conducted using full From Table 3 can see that factors: abrasive flow
factorial design 23 (three factors each on two rate, traverse rate and standoff distance have a
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M. Radovanovi, Tribology in Industry Vol. 38, No. 4 (2016) 454-462
strong (clearly statistically significant) effect on Table 4. Analysis of variance for Ra.
the perpendicularity deviation with contribution Source DF SS MS F p %
of 90.28 %. Traverse rate is the most significant Main effects 3 1.33330 0.44443 4848 0.000 65.39
factor affecting the perpendicularity deviation
A 1 0.06845 0.06845 746 0.000 3.36
with contribution of 51.04 %. Abrasive flow rate
affects with contribution of 34.70 % and B 1 1.26405 1.26405 13789 0.000 61.99
standoff distance affects with contribution of C 1 0.00080 0.00080 8.73 0.060 0.04
4.54 % on the perpendicularity deviation. Some 2-Way
3 0.03225 0.01075 117 0.001 1.58
interactions have significant effect on the Interactions
perpendicularity deviation. Interaction abrasive AB 1 0.02645 0.02645 288 0.000 1.30
flow rate-traverse rate affects with contribution AC 1 0.00080 0.00080 8.73 0.060 0.04
of 1.27 %, abrasive flow rate-standoff distance BC 1 0.00500 0.00500 54.55 0.005 0.24
affects with contribution of 5.67 % and
3-Way
interaction abrasive flow rate-traverse rate- Interaction
1 0.02000 0.02000 218 0.001 0.98
standoff distance affects with contribution of
ABC 1 0.02000 0.02000 218 0.001 0.98
1.90 % on the perpendicularity deviation.
Curvature 1 0.65340 0.65340 7128 0.000 32.04
Table 3. Analysis of variance for u. Error 3 0.00028 0.00009 - - 0.01
Source DF SS MS F p % Total 11 2.03922 - - - 100
Main effects 3 0.07184 0.02394 261.23 0.000 90.28
A 1 0.02761 0.02761 301.23 0.000 34.70
Traverse rate is the most significant factor
affecting the surface roughness with
B 1 0.04061 0.04061 443.05 0.000 51.04
contribution of 61.99 %. Abrasive flow rate
C 1 0.00361 0.00361 39.41 0.008 4.54 affects with contribution of 3.36 %. Standoff
2-Way
3 0.00584 0.00194 21.23 0.016 7.34 distance has moderate effect with contribution
Interactions of 0.04 %. Some interactions have significant
AB 1 0.00101 0.00101 11.05 0.045 1.27 effect on the surface roughness. Interaction
AC 1 0.00451 0.00451 49.23 0.006 5.67 abrasive flow rate-traverse rate affects with
BC 1 0.00031 0.00031 3.41 0.162 0.39 contribution of 1.30 %, traverse rate-standoff
3-Way distance affects with contribution of 0.24 %,
1 0.00151 0.00151 16.50 0.027 1.90 abrasive flow rate-traverse rate-standoff
Interaction
ABC 1 0.00151 0.00151 16.50 0.027 1.90 distance affects with contribution of 0.98 % on
the surface roughness. Interaction abrasive flow
Curvature 1 0.00010 0.00010 1.14 0.365 0.13
rate-standoff distance has moderate effect with
Error 3 0.00027 0.00009 - - 0.34 contribution of 0.04 % on the surface roughness.
Total 11 0.07957 - - - 100 Regression equation for surface roughness, with
DF-degree of freedom, SS-sum of square, MS-mean square, coefficient of determination of R2=99.99 %, is:
F-variance ratio, pvalue, %-percent contribution
R a 3.01125 0.0017125m a 0.015325v
Regression equation for perpendicularity 0.1325h 0.00001325m a v 0.000225m a h (5)
deviation, with coefficient of determination of 0.0015vh 0.0000025m a vh
R2=99.65%, is:
u 0.106562 0.000434375m a 0.00283125v f
0.0090625h 0.0000031875m a v f (4) 4. MULTI-OBJECTIVE OPTIMIZATION
0.000009375m a h 0.0000006875m a v f h
Procedure of multi-objective optimization has
Analysis of variance for surface roughness (Ra) is four phases. First phase is mathematical
shown in Table 4. Standard F table value at 95 % modelling of performances in correlation of the
confidence level is F0.05,1,3=10.13. factors. Second phase is determining
optimization problem. In second phase
From Table 4 can see that factors: abrasive flow objectives are selected and constraints are
rate and traverse rate have a strong (clearly defined. Third phase is selection of method for
statistically significant) effect on the surface solution of optimization problem. Fourth phase
roughness with contribution of 65.35 %. is solution of optimization problem.
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M. Radovanovi, Tribology in Industry Vol. 38, No. 4 (2016) 454-462
Constraints:
ma ,min ma ma ,max
vf ,min vf vf ,max
h min h h max
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[10] K. Bouzakis, R. Paraskevopoulou and G. water jet using Taguchi method, Tribological
Giannopoulos, Multi-objective optimization of Journal BULTRIB, vol.4, pp. 47-54, 2014.
cutting conditions in milling using genetic
[14] P. Jankovi, M. Radovanovi, J. Barali and B.
algorithms, in: 3rd International Conference on
Nedi, Prediction model of surface roughness in
Manufacturing Engineering - ICMEN-2008, 1-3
abrasive water jet cutting of aluminium alloy,
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parameters, Dissertation, University Vasile
Predictive models of traverse rate in abrasive
Alecsandri of Bacau, Romania, 2011. water jet cutting based on RA and GA, Academic
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Correlation between Surface Roughness no. 1, pp. 107-112, 2012.
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roughness of carbon steel machined by abrasive
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Vol. 38, No. 4 (2016) 463-474
Tribology in Industry
RESEARCH
www.tribology.fink.rs
Keywords: ABSTRACT
Tribology The paper presents a review to highlight the tribological aspects of
Cutting fluids cutting fluids in machining environment. In this study, different
Lubrication machining processes viz. turning, grinding, drilling and milling have
Machining been considered with a special focus on grinding process. The cutting
fluids are primarily used as coolants and lubricants in the various
Corresponding author: machining processes. Different cutting fluids and the health hazards
associated with their use have also been represented in this research
A. Anand article. The paper also highlights the role of work materials and the
Department of Mechanical Engineering, cutting tool materials from tribology point of view. The literature
SMVD University, revealed that the development of biocompatible cutting fluids, recycling
Katra, J&K, India. of cutting fluids, cutting fluids for high temperature tribological
E-mail: anand.ankush13@gmail.com applications, studying the wetability characteristics with addition of
nanoparticles, etc. can be taken up as study in order to enhance the
tribological properties of the cutting fluids.
2016 Published by Faculty of Engineering
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A. Anand et al., Tribology in Industry Vol. 38, No. 4 (2016) 463-474
practice in a machining environment. In a metal extreme pressure (EP) additives. In the present
cutting process, the tribological aspects to be industry, the cutting fluids commonly used are
considered in a machining process are area of water based emulsifiable oils and straight
contact, stress distribution factor, interfacial cutting oils. However, some semi-synthetic and
temperature, etc. Various research studies have synthetic based cutting fluids have also been
been carried out in the area of tribology in developed to improve cooling and lubrication
machining systems [3-5]. The conventional characteristics in a machining environment
approach for selecting a cutting fluid in a [13,14]. Various parameters play an important
machining environment is actually on the basis role in the selection of cutting fluids.
of performance characteristics and also the
economical factors. Various researchers have Owing to the increasing manufacturing costs, the
developed different cutting fluids for machining present day designers and manufacturers are
processes [6-9]. In these research studies, the shifting from conventional cooling systems to
researchers have taken into consideration new cooling systems [15,16]. However, a
mechanical performance and environmental thorough knowledge of tribology in a machining
impact as the parameters for a cutting fluid. environment is essential, and therefore the
designers and manufacturers need to
Owing to the global environmental consciousness understand the tribo concepts in terms of heat
among the end users and the stringent removal, cooling, wear reduction, lubrication
environmental legislations machinists are in aspects, and corrosion aspects involved therein.
search of cutting fluids which pose minimal
threat to the environment without compromising 2.2 Types of Cutting Fluid
the performance of these fluids [6]. Moreover the
disposability of these cutting fluids is another This section describes the various types of
challenge faced by the researchers as they cutting fluids used in a machining environment.
contain hazardous waste in the form of chemical
or toxic matter [10]. Hence an optimal cutting Straight Cutting Oils: These type of cutting
fluid with all the attributes is the need of the fluids are a combination oil-based extreme
present times. This paper is structured in a pressure additives which improve the
manner that it focuses on the various types of the performance characteristics of the base oil to
cutting fluids developed by researchers, work perform the desired cooling and lubrication
material considerations thereof, tool material activities. Generally applied in un-diluted state,
considerations, health factors associated, non the characteristic feature of these cutting fluids
traditional cutting fluids and minimum quantity is that they do not mix with water and therefore
lubrication for various machining processes from do not form an emulsion with water. Apart from
tribological point of view. exhibiting good lubrication properties, effective
anti-seizure qualities, they offer good corrosion
resistance [17]. However, at cutting speeds mist
2. CUTTING FLUIDS IN A MACHINING and smoke formation has been reported. These
ENVIRONMENT cutting fluids are best suitable for heavy duty
machining operations and also in some grinding
2.1 Role of Cutting fluids applications. The poor heat dissipation in case of
high speed cutting restricts their use. The higher
The cutting fluids are primarily used for cooling initial and disposal cost also is a limiting factor
and lubrication purposes in a metal cutting due to which straight cutting oils find
operation. Over the last century, water was used application in the cases when other types of
mainly as a coolant due to its high thermal fluids are not viable.
stability and availability [11,12]. However, its
use is being slowly replaced due to the corrosion Water Emulsifiable Oils: Also known as soluble
aspects and also due to non-satisfactory oils, these cutting oils form an emulsion but are
lubrication characteristics. The development of not completely soluble in water. These are oil
cutting fluids which were oil based have also led based concentrates, which contain emulsifiers
to the use of cutting oils (lubricants) for which permit them to mix with water and form
machining purposes, with the addition of an emulsion. To improve the lubrication
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characteristics, additives are also added as in coolant to the tool, which has internal channels
case of straight cutting oils. These cutting oils through which, liquid nitrogen is supplied under
also contain some rust and corrosion inhibitors. controlled pressure.
These fluids are characterised by the properties
of better cooling efficiency, low viscosity, non- Dhar et al. have investigated the cutting
flammability and non-toxicity, ease of temperature, tool wear, surface roughness in
reclamation and low initial and disposal costs. case of machining steel by using liquid nitrogen
However, they also offer low lubricity, mist as the cutting fluid wherein significant
formation. These type of cutting oils are the improvement in the surface finish and tool wear
most commonly used oils in present day has been reported [22]. Stanford et al. carried
machining scenario including grinding out a similar investigation on the turning
operations [17-19]. operation of a plain carbon steel by using liquid
nitrogen as a coolant. In this study authors have
Synthetic Fluids: These cutting fluids are the reported 55 % reduction in the flank wear [23].
chemical fluids containing synthetic water- The use of liquid CO2 as a cutting fluid has been
soluble lubricants, which provide the necessary reported in various research studies [24,25]
lubrication characteristics. These cutting fluids wherein reduction in the tool wear and
also contain some rust and corrosion inhibitors, oxidation wear has been observed [25]. The use
biocides, and surfactants but do not contain any of CO2 as a coolant has resulted in doubling the
oil. Synthetic fluids offer resistance to rancidity, tool life in case of machining of titanium alloys
have good cooling properties, low viscosity, non- [24]. Jerold et al. have observed that the use of
toxicity, biodegradability, etc. However, when liquid CO2 as a coolant results in better tool life
used in heavy duty applications often encounter as compared to the liquid nitrogen [26]. It is
the problem of insufficient lubricity. Various clear from the reviewed literature that Liquid
tribological investigations have revealed that nitrogen and Liquid CO2 have been used as
synthetic fluids are an appropriate choice in the cryogenic fluids however the studies on other
future. Another issue with the application of cryogenic fluids like liquid argon , liquid helium
synthetic fluids in machining is the non- have not been reported much.
compatibility of grinding operations in a
manufacturing system. Moreover, poor
lubrication properties are the major cause of its 3. WORK MATERIAL CONSIDERATIONS
non-compatibility when synthetic fluids as
coolants are used. An important area of concern with respect to the
role of cutting fluid is the work materials under
Semi-Synthetic Fluids: These cutting fluids a given machining environment from tribology
contain up to 25 % of oil which is added to the point of view. The cutting fluid to be used must
concentrate solution. An important characteristic facilitate the machining processes involved so as
of these fluids is that upon dilution with water, to ensure its compatibility with a wide variety of
they form a very fine emulsion. To improve the materials. From tribology point of view various
lubrication characteristics, oil is added. The issues research studies have been carried out [27-30].
related to the use of synthetic fluids led to the In case of materials like cast iron, the brittle
development of semi-synthetic fluids. behaviour during machining often leads to its
breaking and formation of small chips. The
Cryogenic Coolants: Another improvement in influence of friction between cutting tool and the
the cutting fluid technology is the development chip is less on account of the small size chip
and use of cryogenic fluids. Apart from thermal formation. The use of emulsion based cutting
and environmental benefits cryogenic fluids fluids enhances some machining characteristics
offer better wear reduction capabilities. Having like surface finish quality and, also restricts the
a temperature of the order of 196 0C, these formation / coagulation of foreign matter during
fluids are used primarily in difficult-to-machine the machining operations [28,30]. Sulphur
materials, chip formation and chip breaking added oils are used in the machining of stainless
being the major issues associated with them steel materials, which lead to stains over the
[20,21]. The use of liquid nitrogen as a cutting machined surface [28,30-31]. Water based
fluid involves applications where it acts as a cutting fluids are used in machining of heat
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resistant and difficult-to-cut steel alloys, due to Hamdan et al. [35] carried out the performance
the involvement of higher temperature in evaluation of different types of cutting fluid in
cutting zone area. However, sulphur based the machining of AISI 01 hardened steel using
mineral cutting oils may also be used in some pulsating jet minimum quantity lubrication
machining operations [28,32]. Easy to machine system. In this study, research was carried out
materials like aluminium and aluminium based using three cutting fluids namely neat oil,
alloys when subjected to machining, no major soluble oil and semi-synthetic cutting fluids
issues on account of temperature are under minimal quantity lubrication (MQL)
encountered. The use of waterless cutting fluids, system with the application of high velocity
prevent the formation of built up edge [28,32]. cutting fluid in narrow pulsed jet forms. The
In the machining of copper and copper based results clearly proved that soluble oil gave the
alloys, the emulsion based cutting fluids or thin lowest cutting forces and does not change with
mineral oils are preferred, however for variable velocities.
machining of brass, high pressure additive
cutting oils are used [28,32]. Tsao [36] carried out an experimental
investigation on cutting fluid effect in milling an
aluminum alloy. The experiment shows that
adding sulfurous boric acid ester cutting fluid
reduced tool wear by 12.5 % for hard coating
tungsten carbide end mills and also decreases
the milling force by 10 %. Saravanakumar [37]
performed an experimental analysis on cutting
fluid dispersed with silver nano particles. The
research focuses on the performance of the
cutting fluid after inclusion of suitable additive,
in the form of silver nano particles, in the cutting
fluid to improve its thermal and tribological
properties. The results have shown a
considerable reduction in tool tip temperature, a
Fig. 1. Nozzle positions [20]. 8.8 % reduction in cutting forces for the cutting
forces with the inclusion of nano particles and
For the machining of difficult-to-cut materials 7.5 % improvement in surface roughness. Hung
such as titanium alloys, generation of high et al. [31] experimentally analyzed the effect of
temperature, is a matter of concern while cutting fluid on the machinability of metal
carrying out the selection of a cutting fluid. The matrix composites. The effect of cutting fluid on
selected cutting fluid must have both cooling the machinability of aluminium-based matrix
and lubricating characteristics. It has been composites reinforced with SiC or AI2O3
observed that lubrication properties of selected particles was investigated. The researchers have
cutting fluids are preferred when low cutting concluded that pressurized and copious cutting
speeds are selected. For composite materials, fluid has no effect on tool life due to effective
the cutting fluids influence the surface chip flushing and lack of lubricating film.
roughness quality [33].
Patrick et al. [34] studied the effect of cutting 4. TOOL MATERIAL CONSIDERATIONS
fluids on the mechanical properties of mild steel
in a turning operation. In this study, the authors In a machining operation like grinding, the
have used soluble oil, water and palm kernel oil commonly used grinding materials are
as cutting fluid for turning operation using abrasives. However, on account of the heat
Tungsten carbide and HSS as cutting tools. In generated during the grinding operation and the
this study, the researchers have reported that presence of forces, the use of cutting fluid from
palm kernel oil as a cutting fluid exhibits very tribology point of view is very significant as it
good qualities including good chip formation, may affect the life of the abrasives used and the
reduced heat generation and comparatively surface finish characteristics. A wide variety of
good surface finish. materials are available for carrying out the
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machining processes, including the grinding grinding environments. It was observed during
operation [39,40]. However, it becomes this research work that water-based emulsions
necessary to choose a particular cutting fluid- have better cooling. However, it leads to
tool material combination so as to get an generation of higher grinding forces and is not
optimized machining parameters. For materials able to prevent damage to the workpiece.
like tungsten carbide, waterless cutting fluids
are preferred [41]. It is important to consider Table 1. Grinding fluid characteristics by Webstar et
that in case of cutting tool materials, the cutting al. [31].
fluids have a significant role to play. The Semi- Soluble Straight
Characteristics Synthetics
generation of high heat in the interface of cutting synthetics oil oil
tool (grinding tool) and workpiece material, Heat removal 4 3 2 1
Lubricity 1 2 3 4
causes wear of the tool at a much higher rate
Maintenance 3 2 1 4
lowering the tool life and further leading to poor Filterability 4 3 2 1
surface quality [28,29]. Some typical grinding Environmental 4 3 2 1
materials like cubic boron nitrate (CBN) and Cost 4 3 2 1
polycrystalline diamonds (PCD) may also be Ranking Scale: 1-4 where,
used for machining operations [42]. The 1-Worst , 2 Good , 3- Very Good, 4- Best
economic constraints and the high temperature
associated with these materials restrict their Silva et al. [48] carried out an experimental
use. However, such materials are generally used investigation on thermal and rheological
in finishing operations to achieve high behavior of eco-friendly metal cutting fluids The
dimensional accuracy and surface finish research evaluated the thermal and rheological
characteristics [28,29]. performance of two chemically modified
cottonseed oils epoxidized fluid and
However, with a particular reference to grinding hydroxylated fluid, against unmodified
process, some researchers have suggested cottonseed oil and commercial cutting oils. The
rankings of cutting fluids based upon their results clearly depict that hydroxylated and
various properties. Webstar et al. [43] have epoxidized fluids offer better thermal resistance
carried out a study of four cutting fluid types as than commercial cutting fluid without causing
used in a grinding process as shown in Table 1. char formation, and former two fluids are more
In this research study, the researchers have efficient in lubricating and cooling the drill bit
highlighted the characteristics of these fluids. and part, thus causing less wear. Another
The work carried by Bardie was a further research study carried out by Ozcelik et al. [49]
extension to the studies done by Gr et al. [44]. It investigated the effects of vegetable-based
was observed that no such fluid can be cutting fluids on the wear in drilling to
suggested which may act as an ideal alternative. investigate the performances of three VBCFs
It was further suggested that the parameters developed from crude sunflower oil, refined
such as heat removal, filterability, cost and sunflower oil, refined canola oil and commercial
environmental aspects may be considered semi-synthetic cutting fluid and compared the
altogether. Breingsmeir et al. [45] showed that tool wear, thrust force and surface roughness in
with the increase in oil additive concentration, drilling operation of austenitic stainless steel
there is a decrease in the grinding energy and with HSSE tool. The researchers reported that
temperature, however the wheel life increases, CCF (canola based cutting fluid)-II is the best
later on established and confirmed by Yoon and cutting fluid for drilling of AISI 304 stainless and
Krueger [46]. These researchers have observed gives the best performance due to its higher
that diluted synthetic fluids had a grinding ratio lubricant properties. Mayr et al. [50] performed
(G-ratio) of 2.5 and 7.5, semi-synthetics had G- an experimental investigation to observe the
ratios between 2.5 and 6.5, and soluble oils had influence of cutting fluid on thermal behavior of
G-ratios between 4 and 12. Undiluted cutting 5-axis machine tools in precision machining. The
fluids had G-ratios between 60 and 120. Minke generated graphs illustrate that measured
[47] carried out a research study on the role of temperatures are higher without using cutting
coolants in a grinding process. In this research fluid and cutting fluids can also reduce the
study, the researcher has compared oil and chances of errors of the machine tool.
water based cutting fluids under different
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the author observed that the coated wheels do with a high heat flux. Shaji and Radhakrishnan
not require added lubricity of the oil and the [68] carried out an experimental investigation
CBN wheels operate satisfactorily because they on surface grinding using graphite as a lubricant.
perform adequately with water-based fluids. The The authors used graphite paste with water-
author also observed that coated wheels soluble oil as a lubricant in a grinding process
perform better than the traditional wheels, due and compared the performance of graphite-
to their compatibility with the environmentally- assisted grinding with dry grinding and
friendly water-based coolants. conventional wet grinding by varying the
workpiece material, dressing conditions and
Choi et al. [61] carried out a comparison of the cutting fluid application. In this research study
cooling effects of compressed cold air and the authors observed that the tangential forces,
coolant for cylindrical grinding with a CBN grinding zone temperatures and specific
wheel. The authors reported that the energies are lower with the graphite paste when
effectiveness of cold air was nearly comparable compared to dry or coolant grinding but the
with conventional wet-grinding for shallow system has problems with wheel clogging and
depths of cut; however, the surface roughness grinding ductile materials. Yokogawa et al. [69]
would increase as the tensile surface residual carried out a research work on improving
stresses would appear upon increasing the grinding performance of BN wheels by dual-fluid
depths of cut as a result of the lack of lubrication supply method. During this research study, the
through the grinding zone. Inoue and Aoyama authors used a dual cutting fluid method in a
[62] carried out an experimental investigation cylindrical grinding operation using mineral oil
on application of air cooling technology and as a lubricant in the grinding zone and used
minimum quantity lubrication to relief grinding water to cool the workpiece. The experiments
of cutting tools. The authors used cold air at -33 were carried out with a removal rate of 1200
C with a cooling air output flow of 320 Nl/min mm2/min, a wheel speed of 3600 m/min, and a
at a pressure of 200 kPa. The lubricant was CBN wheel. Coolant water was applied to the
salad oil and was supplied at 6 m/min. The underside of the workpiece via a positional
results from this setup were compared with dry nozzle, (Fig. 3). The results showed that surface
grinding and grinding with an oil-based fluid. roughness of the workpiece dramatically
During this experimental investigation, the improved. With conventional cutting fluid
authors concluded that when the depth of cut applications the surface roughness was
exceeded 0.1 mm, the oil-based cutting-fluid approximately 3 mm Rz but with the dual cutting
grinding exhibited the lowest temperature rise. fluid application the surface roughness dropped
It was observed that conventional oil-based to under 1 mm Rz for the same removal.
cutting-fluid grinding has an advantage over
cooling-air and minimum-quantity lubricant Shaji and Radhakrishnan [70] carried out
application in terms of temperature rise control another experimental investigation on the
for large depths of cut. application of solid lubricants in grinding on
graphite sandwiched grinding wheels. Slotted
Xu et al. carried [63-67] out a research on heat wheels were used with graphite impregnated
transfer characteristics in grinding contact zone into the slots. Three different wheels with
with radial water jet impinging cooling. The varying numbers of slots: 10, 15 and 20 were
authors worked with a radial cooling used. Compared to conventional dry- and wet-
mechanism. It was found that by using grinding, the normal forces with the graphite
perforated electroplated CBN grinding wheels slotted wheels came out to be more or less the
with radial jets, where the fluid is forced from same or even slightly higher at low feed rates,
the cooling holes at high pressure, the fluid but at increased feed rates, these forces were
tends to break the boundary layer. The authors higher in most cases. The results showed that
were able to improve the critical heat flux and the surface roughness, residual stresses and
the cooling effect in the contact zone which hardness profiles were greatly improved with
increased overall efficiency. The temperature of the graphite wheels. These experiments were
the workpiece surface in the grinding zone was performed with small depths of cut and do not
steadily kept below the film boiling temperature represent a considerable improvement over
of 100120 C for water based coolants, even more traditional cutting fluid application. Shetty
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et al. [71] carried out tribological investigation 7. MINIMUM QUANTITY LUBRICATION AND
of discontinuously reinforced aluminium TRIBOLOGY
composites based on the orthogonal arrays.
During the past few years, a new trend in the use
of cutting fluids technology in a machining
environment is MQL (minimum quantity
lubrication). MQL is being adopted nowadays for
high speed machining operations. This type of
advanced lubrication systems in a machining
environment plays a vital role particularly in
large cutting fluids application and dry
machining. Minimum quantity lubrication (MQL)
also known as Near Dry Machining (NDM) or
semi dry machining is an alternative to
traditional use of cutting fluids. In MQL, there is
a use of very small quantity of lubricant for
lubrication or cooling requirements. Minimum
quantity lubricants (MQL) systems generally
consists of cutting fluids (coolants and
lubricants) which are non-soluble in water.
Fig. 3. Dual cutting fluid setup [49]. These fluids however, reduce the health hazards
associated which may affect the health of the
machinist [75]. Some research studies have
In this tribological investigation, the tests were revealed that use of MQL technique enhances
carried out under dry, oil and water based lubrication and also leads to minimum power
emulsion and steam lubricated (cutting fluid) consumption in a grinding process (grinding
conditions. Both The tool wear and surface power). The wear rate of the grinding wheel also
roughness were found to be less for steam reduces in a significant way [76].
cutting in this investigation.
Tawakoli et al. [77] investigated the the
Anjaiah et al. [72] used a pressurized steam jet performance of MQL technique in a grinding
approach to tool wear minimization in cutting of operation. In this investigation, the researchers
metal matrix composites by full factorial design have considered both hard steel 100cr6 and soft
of experiments. In this experimental analysis, steel 42CrMo4 for investigation. It was observed
the researchers have observed that pressurized that for LB8000 MQL oil with wheel speed 25
steam jet plays a significant role on the tool m/s and depth of cut 25m the improvement in
wear. Kuram et al. [73] carried out a research surface quality in MQL grinding is more
study on the optimization of the cutting fluids significant in comparison to dry and fluid
and parameters using taguchi and ANOVA in grinding. Dhar et al. [78] investigated the effect
milling. In this research study, the researchers of MQL technique to grind 16MnCr5 alloy steel
have considered two different vegetable based on the cutting performance compared to
cutting fluids developed from refined canola and completely dry cutting and flood cooling with
sunflower oil and a commercial type semi- respect to grinding temperature, surface
synthetic cutting fluid. The optimum conditions roughness, chip morphology. The results
for tool wear and forces were studied. Walter indicate that the use of minimum quantity
Belluco and Leonardo De Chiffere [74] carried lubrication (MQL) by cutting oil (VG-68) leads to
out a research study on testing of vegetable lower surface roughness compared to dry and
based cutting fluids by hole making operations, wet environments. Silva et al. [79] investigated
using vegetable oil as cutting fluid for drilling the performance of MQL system to grind ABNT
operations, involved drilling, tapping and 4340 steel (HRC 60) with alumina wheel. It was
reaming operations and results indicated that found that, MQL system leads to finer surface
while reaming, higher cutting speeds had a finish and higher compressive residual stress
strong impact on part accuracy and at smaller compared to dry and conventional cooling.
cutting speeds, the effect considerably reduced. Sabahudin et al. [80] in his research study
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broadly discussed the application of marginal Cutting Fluids and its types
amount of coolant instead of large coolant fluid
Health hazards with cutting fluids
used in machining, known as Minimum Quantity
Lubrication (MQL) machining. The study Work material considerations with cutting
revealed that the MQL machining leads to lesser fluids
cutting forces, less strain hardening and a
favourable chip formation process. Tool material considerations
Minimum quantity lubrication in grinding
systems
8. FUTURE SCOPE
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Tribology in Industry
RESEARCH
www.tribology.fink.rs
Keywords: ABSTRACT
Steels
In industry, the sliding mechanical systems are subject to friction and
Hardness
wear phenomena. These phenomena can be the origin of a reduction of
Friction coefficient
the efficiency of the mechanical system even to be responsible for its
Wear rate
incapacity. Generally, the materials of the parts which are moving relative
Surface damage
(tribological couple) of these systems are low alloy steels and carbon
steels, thanks to their good mechanical and tribological properties. The
Corresponding author: present work aimed to study, the surface wear and damage induced by
Abdelmalek Elhadi dry sliding of hard carbon steel AISI 1055 (disc) against tempered low
Department of Mechanical alloy steel AISI 4140 (pin) with different hardness and applied loads was
Engineering,University of Mohamed investigated. The results revealed that the interaction between the
Boudiaf, Msila, Algeria applied load and pin hardness result in complex thermo-mechanical
E-mail: elhadimalek65@gmail.com behaviour of the worn surfaces. When a lower hardness pin is used, the
main wear mechanisms observed on the discs were abrasion, adhesion,
and oxidation. When a higher hardness pin is used, the wear of the discs is
governed by delamination, oxidation, and plastic deformation. In
particular, third-body wear occurs at high applied load resulting in higher
wear rate of high hardness pins compared to low hardness pins.
2016 Published by Faculty of Engineering
475
A. Elhadi et al., Tribology in Industry Vol. 38, No. 4 (2016) 475-485
addressing the wear mechanism regimes have increase the wear rate, or they can isolate the
generated a large number of research topics in surfaces and have a protective role so that
friction and wear by sliding fields [7]. reducing the wear rate [22]. Others [12]
attributed the change in the frictional regime to
The main steel selection criteria for parts the cyclic formation/detachment of coarse
submitted to wear is usually based on the debris in the case of low hardness/ductile
surface hardness of the component [8]. materials. It has been shown that a decrease in
the friction coefficient with an increase in
Many variables may affect the wear mechanism normal load can be attributed to an increase in
which makes it a complex phenomenon. Among frictional heating of the slider and a consequent
these variables are service conditions (such as decrease of material strength [23].
mating partners, normal load, sliding speed,
temperature and surface finish of the couple As only few studies have addressed the effect of
tribological parts), environmental parameters tempered martensite on the wear behaviour in
(atmospheric or sea environment) and other dry sliding conditions, the present study aims to
factors like lubrication or corrosion [1,9]. The investigate the wear behaviour of low alloy steel
wear rate can also be related to other factors AISI 4140 against carbon steel AISI 1055, which
such as microstructure and its features, are commonly used in the manufacturing of the
hardness, work hardening index, fracture, and parts of the sliding mechanism. The analyses
fatigue properties [10-13]. were made by performing pin-on-disc wear
tests, under various loads for fixed sliding speed.
The difference in hardness of the mating parts Different pin (AISI4140) hardness were tested
has a decisive influence on the contact surfaces while the disk hardness (AISI1055) was kept
life. Several studies have investigated the effect harder than the pin. Such study of wear
of hardness on the wear mechanisms of behaviour with different heat treatment may
unlubricated sliding wear of steels [14-16]. It is provide a proper selection of
well reported that sliding wear is driven by typicalhardnesssteel for sliding application.
abrasion, adhesion, and delamination processes
[17]. On one hand, the process of delamination is
caused by the nucleation of voids. Their growth 2. MATERIALS AND METHODOLOGY
and subsequent coalescence are favoured by
strained material under severely sliding 2.1 Materials
conditions [18, 19]. On the other hand, the
abrasion and adhesion wear mechanism may be The materials chosen in this investigation are
attributed to the fragmentation of the softer AISI 4140 and AISI 1055 steels for the pin and
material which cause to form wear debris. It was disc, respectively. The chemical compositions of
reported that fragment formation is the result of both steels are displayed in Table 1. The pins
the local increase of dislocation density; were quenched and tempered to 33HRC and
consequently, fragment can be formed after 39HRC while discs were quenched and
strain accumulation. tempered to 52HRC. The microstructures of the
pins are composed mainly by tempered
Experimental results have been reported that martensite for both steels with the presence of
the small debris particles created by plastic some bainite for low hardness (33HRC) one as
deformation (abrasion, adhesion, etc.) are shown in Fig. 1.
trapped in the contact zone and cannot be easily
removed [17]. Thus, the situation changes from 2.2 Methodology
two to three bodies contact conditions
consisting of two counterparts and the debris Dry sliding wear tests were conducted according
[20]. The third body particles affect the to the ASTM G99-5 (2010) standard using a pin-
displacement in the contact zone and thus affect on-disc system (Fig. 2). The linear sliding
the coefficient of friction [21]. Due to the energy velocity was kept constant at 0.5 m/s for all
dissipated in the contact (mechanical and tests. All wear tests were carried in air at
thermal), the wear particles can oxidized and ambient temperature and relatively humidity of
become hard abrading oxides which thus ~35 %. The normal load was varied between 15
476
A. Elhadi et al., Tribology in Industry Vol. 38, No. 4 (2016) 475-485
and 35 N. A sliding time of 900 s was selected for by a precise electric-balance (10-4 mm). The
the tests, allows reaching a steady state in worn surfaces were analysed with 3D measuring
friction. Before each test, both the disk and the laser microscope (Lext OLS4100 from Olympus)
pin were cleaned with acetone, and each and a HITACHI S-3600N scanning electron
specimen was tested on fresh track. The test microscopy (SEM).
pins were weighed initially, and at the end of
each wear test. They were wiped clear of wear The friction coefficient was calculated as the
particles, degreased and re-weighed. The ratio between the friction force and the normal
difference in weights of test pin, before and after load. The average value from steady state regime
the experiment, determines the weight loss, was considered. The start of the steady state
which was used for calculating the volume of regime was selected as the sliding time at which
material lost. The latter was studied as function the standard deviation of friction coefficient
of the applied load for each steel samples. The became lower than the 10 % of its average value.
worn mass of the pin specimen were measured
Table 1. Nominal chemical composition (Wt. %) of AISI 4140 and AISI 1055 steel.
Element C Cr Mo Mn Si P S
AISI 4140 0.38 - 0.43 0.80 - 1.1 0.15 - 0.25 0.75 - 1.0 0.15 - 0.30 0.035 0.040
AISI 1055 0.50 - 0.60 0.60 - 0.90 0.040 0.050
(a) (b)
20 m 20 m
Fig. 1. Optical microstructures of AISI4140 steel tempered at a hardness of (a) 33HRC and (b) 39HRC.
Fig. 2. Pin-on-disc system: (1) Pin; (2) Pin holder; (3) Test disc; (4) Support; (5) Speed reducer; (6) Normal load
(dead weight); (7) Load cell for frictional force.
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A. Elhadi et al., Tribology in Industry Vol. 38, No. 4 (2016) 475-485
Friction coefficient
0.6
The variation of the friction coefficient over the
sliding time can be seen in Fig. 3. The evolution 0.4
of the friction coefficient experiences a running- Pin_33HRC
in period during the first hundreds of seconds 0.2 Pin_39HRC
followed by a relatively steady state friction
regime. The duration of the running-in period is 0
10 15 20 25 30 35 40
found to vary with the applied load and the pin Applied load [N]
hardness. For the steady state period, the
Fig. 4. Effect of the applied load on the average
friction coefficient curves exhibit different
friction coefficient with relative standar deviation.
behaviours, involving low and high friction
plateaux. This is specifically true for the low
The average values of the friction coefficient,
hardness pins and applied loads of 20 N, 25 N,
measured in the steady-state condition (from 600
and 35 N (Fig. 3a). This phenomenon is observed
to 900 sliding distance) are plotted vs. applied
only at applied load of 25 N for high hardness
load in Fig. 4. The average values of the friction
pin (Fig. 3b). Moreover, the frequency of the
coefficient are in the range [0.5, 0.8] which is
transition from one regime to another over the
generally found in dry sliding friction of steels
sliding time varies with the applied load and the
[12,7]. The applied load affects the friction
pin hardness. The observed friction coefficient
coefficient in different manner and no specific
evolution with time and applied load suggests
trend was observed, particularly for low hardness
that changes in the wear mechanism and/or
pins. In fact, the high hardness pins have seen
temperature at the contact interface may be
their friction coefficients decrease with increasing
taking place for different applied load as
the applied load. Whereas the low hardness pins
suggested by [12].
have seen the opposite. Compared to the low
hardness pin, the high hardness pin produces
high friction coefficients except for the highest
applied load (35 N). Thus, SEM analysis will be
done in the next section to highlights the actual
wear mechanisms operating in the proposed
frictional systems and try to rationalize the
obtained results.
7.E-06
6.E-06 Pin_33HRC
Wear rate [mm/mm]
Pin_39HRC
5.E-06
(a) 4.E-06
3.E-06
2.E-06
1.E-06
0.E+00
10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Applied load [N]
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A. Elhadi et al., Tribology in Industry Vol. 38, No. 4 (2016) 475-485
hardness pins. This finding is in disagreement the presence of oxygen and chromium indicating
with the classical theory of sliding wear which that this layer is mainly composed of
postulates that the harder is the material, the agglomerated and compacted oxidised third
higher is its wear resistance, unless specific body particles of oxide from the pin material.
wear mechanisms took place during sliding as
argued in [12,24]. Studying the wear For high hardness pin used at applied load of 20
mechanisms of pin and disc under the tested N, the track worn surface presents micro-
conditions will provide some explanations for grooving and smooth surface with ploughing
this behaviour. marks (Fig. 10a). A close examination of the
ploughing marks indicates the presence of
3.2. Worn Surfaces analysis severe plastic deformation and cracking (Fig.
10b) which was note visible for low hardness
In order to identify the wear mechanisms, worn pin at the same applied load. Moreover, micro-
surface of pins and tracks have been analyzed by chipping and resulting fine particles were
optical microscopy and SEM techniques. Figure 6 observed on the formed micro-grooves (Fig.
displays examples of optical images of worn pins 10c) attesting the high shearing and rupturing
and tracks. For the highest load (35 N), the worn mechanisms in agreement with a higher Youngs
surface of the high hardness pin is larger (Fig. modulus which will increases the contact
6b) than the low hardness one (Fig. 6a). pressure when high hardness pins are used even
Moreover, the high hardness pin experiences at low applied load (20 N). EDS analysis
high level of oxidation (Fig. 6b). The worn area confirmed that these particles are mainly
of the tracks follows the same trend depicted in composed of oxidized material from the disc as
Figs. 6c and 6d. Moreover, Fig. 7 shows that the no/very few chromium element has been
wear track is significantly larger and deeper for detected (Fig. 10d). At applied load of 35N
the high hardness pin than for the low hardness induces severely damage on the track surface as
one for the same loading condition of 35 N. can be seen in (Fig. 11a). The main damage
features include delamination (Fig. 11b) and
SEM observations allowed the identification of severe plastic deformation (Fig. 11c). In the
typical damage features into the worn surfaces micro-delamination features, small flakes of
as a function of normal load and pin hardness material are pulled out from the surface (Fig.
(Figs. 8, 9, and 10). For low hardness pin and the 12b). As for the load 20 N, the adhering material
applied load (20 N), the worn profile (Fig. 8a) for the higher applied load (35 N) is mainly
presents a rough surface with damage features composed of the disc material as confirmed by
constituted mainly by local adhesive scars (Fig. the EDS spectrum in Fig. 11d.
8b) and particles (Fig. 8c). The presence of
chromium and molybdenum (Fig. 8d) indicates Additional EDS analyses were performed over
that these particles come from the pin material. larger areas (~1 mm 1 mm) in the wear track
It is suggested that these debris are the results of to highlights the effect of the applied load and
the micro-chipping and fragmentation of the low pin hardness on the main wear mechanisms. The
hardness pin material most likely induced by EDS spectrums give evidence of oxidative wear.
cumulative plastic shearing as suggested in One can observe significant interaction between
Lepesant et al. [25]. When the highest load is the applied load and pin hardness regarding the
applied (35 N), the worn surface of the track amount of oxygen on the wear products (Fig.
becomes smoother with abrasion marks that can 12). In fact, the oxygen content decreases when
be described as micro-ploughing and relatively increasing the applied load for the low hardness
narrow scars in the direction of sliding are pin, the inverse been true for the high hardness
formed and some adhered material layers are pin. Figure 13 displays the effect of applied load
found (Fig. 9a). SEM micrograph (Fig. 9b) and pin hardness on the chromium content. It is
highlights the plastic deformation on this layer clear that the applied load do not affect the
where the plastic flow lines and some micro- chromium content. However, the high hardness
cracks are visible suggesting that the surface pin produces lower chromium content into the
material has underwent high contact stresses worn track as compared to the low hardness
during sliding. Once again, EDS analysis reveals one.
479
A. Elhadi et al., Tribology in Industry Vol. 38, No. 4 (2016) 475-485
(a) (b)
1 mm 1 mm
(c) (d)
Fig. 6. Optical images of worn surfaces at load of 35N: (a) Worn pin tempered at 33 HRC, (b) Worn pin tempered
at 39 HRC, (c) Worn disc with pin tempered at 33 HRC, and (d) Worn disc with pin tempered at 39 HRC.
Height [m]
(a)
Height [m]
480
A. Elhadi et al., Tribology in Industry Vol. 38, No. 4 (2016) 475-485
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
Fig. 8. (a) SEM micrographs of worn tracks with pin tempered at 33 HRC and applied load of 20 N, (b)
Delamination (zone A), (c) Adhering particle (zone B), and (d) Corresponding EDS spectrum.
+
A
(a) (b)
(c)
Fig. 9. (a) SEM micrographs of worn tracks with pin tempered at 33 HRC and applied load of 35N, (b) Adhering
layer, and (c) Corresponding EDS spectrum.
481
A. Elhadi et al., Tribology in Industry Vol. 38, No. 4 (2016) 475-485
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
Fig. 10. (a) SEM micrographs of worn tracks with pin tempered at 39 HRC and applied load of 20N, (b) Plastic
deformation (zone A), (c) Micro-chipping and fragmented debris (zone B), and (d) EDS spectrum of zone C.
A
B
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
Fig. 11. (a) SEM micrographs of worn tracks with pin tempered at 39 HRC and applied load of 35N, (b) Adhering
particles and delamination (zone A), (c) Plastic deformation (zone B), and (d) EDS spectrum of the adhering
particle (zone A).
482
A. Elhadi et al., Tribology in Industry Vol. 38, No. 4 (2016) 475-485
10.00
8.00
Lepesant et al. [25] argued that, in a specific
friction conditions, compacted oxide particles
6.00 from the pin, can plastically deformed to form a
4.00
layer, referred to as a glaze layer. It is shown
that the matrix strength of the pin material has
2.00 to be considered to know whether the oxides
0.00
from the glaze layers are protective, or not,
Pin at 33HRC Pin at 39HRC against wear [26]. If the matrix is strong enough,
Fig. 12. Oxygen content versus pin hardness at the oxides formed during friction have a positive
different applied load. influence on wear. On the contrary, if the matrix
is not strong enough, the oxides from the glaze
0.40 layer do not protect the surfaces from wear and
Load=20N Load=35N they may even act as an abrasive third body. In
0.35
the present study, we suggested that the oxides
Chromium content [%]
0.05
4. CONCLUSIONS
0.00
Pin at 33HRC Pin at 39HRC
The present study investigated the wear
Fig. 13. Chromium content versus pin hardness at mechanisms of tempered low alloy steel against
different applied load.
hardened carbon steel under dry sliding wear.
Based on the obtained results, the following
The wear mechanisms operating on the pin conclusions may be drawn:
surface are strongly related to those operating
on the track side and several scenarios can In specific tribological conditions, low
operates as the interaction between the applied hardness pin can perform better, than high
load and pin hardness result in complex thermo- hardness pin in terms of dry sliding wear
mechanical behaviour of the worn surfaces. This resistance.
change of mechanisms can explain the unstable Wear mechanisms of the hard track
trend of the wear rate and friction coefficient material (disc) should be considered as
with regard to the applied load and pin three-body contact wear which is mainly
hardness. When high load is applied (35 N), the governed by the hard particles detached
high hardness pin induces high level of disc from the worn disc and pin.
material loss in the form of small debris. These
debris, which are harder than the pin material Under high applied loads, it is shown that
generate in turn high level of wear rate by when high hardness pins are used, the disc
abrasion on the pin surface. The same generates amount of particles/debris that
mechanism is applied to the low hardness pin significantly increases the wear of the pin.
but with low level of generated debris volume This can be avoided by using a pin with a
resulting in lower erosion rates. For the high slightly lower hardness.
hardness pin, the wear mechanisms are The obtained results can be considered as
governed by delamination, oxidation, and plastic a preliminary investigation for improving
deformation and fracture. In the case of low the performance of the sliding mechanism.
hardness pin, the main wear mechanisms
observed were abrasion, adhesion, and
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A. Elhadi et al., Tribology in Industry Vol. 38, No. 4 (2016) 475-485
484
A. Elhadi et al., Tribology in Industry Vol. 38, No. 4 (2016) 475-485
[23] S. Kumar, A. Bhattacharyya, D.K. Mondal, K. [25] P. Lepesant, C. Boher, Y. Berthier and F. Rezai-
Biswas and J. Maity, 'Dry sliding wear behaviour Aria, 'A phenomenological model of the third
of medium carbon steel against an alumina disk', body particles circulation in a high temperature
Wear, vol. 270, no. 5, pp. 413-421, 2011. contact', Wear, vol. 298-299, pp. 66-79, 2013.
[24] Y. Wang and T. Lei, 'Wear behavior of steel 1080 [26] S. Wang, M. Wei and Y. Zhao, 'Effects of the tribo-
with different microstructures during dry oxide and matrix on dry sliding wear
sliding', Wear, vol. 36, no. 2, pp. 213-217, 1997. characteristics and mechanisms of a cast steel',
Wear, vol. 269, no. 5-6, pp. 424-434, 2010.
485
Vol. 38, No. 4 (2016) 486-495
Tribology in Industry
RESEARCH
www.tribology.fink.rs
Keywords: ABSTRACT
Alloy white cast iron
The effects of destabilization treatment and destabilization followed by
Castings
cryogenic treatment have been evaluated on the microstructural
Optical microscopy
evolution and sand-water slurry erosion behavior of Cr-Mn-Cu white cast
Erosive wear
irons. The phase transformations after the destabilization and
Corrosion
cryotreatment have been characterized by bulk hardness measurement,
Cryogenic treatment
optical and scanning electron microscopy, x-ray diffraction analysis. The
static corrosion rate has been measured in tap water (with pH=7) and the
Corresponding author: erosion-corrosion behavior has been studied by slurry pot tester using
sand-water slurry. The test results indicate that the cryogenic treatment
I. Chakrabarty
has a significant effect in minimizing the as-cast retained austenite
Department of Metallurgical
content and transforming into martensitic and bainitic matrix embedded
Engineering, Indian Institute of
with ultra-fine M7C3 alloy carbides. In contrast, by conventional
Technology (Banaras Hindu
destabilization treatment retained austenite in the matrix are not fully
University), Varanasi 221005 India.
eliminated. The slurry erosive wear resistance has been compared with
E-mail: ichakraborty.met@itbhu.ac.in
reference to destabilized and cryotreated high chromium iron samples
which are commonly employed for such applications. The cryotreated Cr-
Mn-Cu irons have exhibited a comparable erosive wear performance to
those of high chromium irons. Higher hardness combined with improved
corrosion resistance result in better slurry erosion resistance.
2016 Published by Faculty of Engineering
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S. Gupta et al., Tribology in Industry Vol. 38, No. 4 (2016) 486-495
morphology and the matrix phase are the two moving dislocations. The tetragonality becomes
influencing factors contributing to maximum very low as a consequence. A strong interaction
wear resistance, toughness and corrosion. in between the time dependent strain field of
Discontinuous plate like eutectic M7C3 carbides dislocation and the segregated carbon atoms is
along with tough matrix embedded with fine produced. The segregated carbon atoms form
secondary alloy carbides are preferable for such clusters at nearby dislocations forming nuclei
applications [5,7]. A thin passive layer is formed for carbide precipitation during subsequent
on the surface due to high percentage of warming up to room temperature or tempering.
chromium in the solid solution [8,9]. These uniformly dispersed secondary carbides
are responsible for the improvement of
Beside the developments in the high properties on deep cryogenic treatment.
chromium and nickel-chromium irons there
has been continuing interest in the The aim of the present article is to study the
development of substitute alloy irons to effect of destabilization and cryogenic treatment
provide either a partial or total replacement of on the microstructural evolution and
costly and scarce alloying elements viz. Ni, Mo consequent erosive wear behavior of Cr-Mn-Cu
etc. A new class of chromium manganese white cast iron in sand-water slurry media.
alloy irons has been developed with
manganese, a cheaper alloying addition to
produce a predominantly austenitic matrix in 2. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
as-cast condition by suppressing pearlitic
transformation [10-12]. Copper addition to The alloy irons were melted in a basic lined high
chromiummanganese irons reported to be frequency induction furnace. Cylindrical test
beneficial because of its partitioning tendency bars and wear test samples were cast in sodium
to austenite phase and it enhances resistance silicate CO2 bonded sand moulds with a pouring
to aqueous corrosion [13-17]. temperature of 1773K (1500 0C). For
comparison of wear behaviour high chromium
The as-cast austenitic matrix is conventionally iron specimens were also cast; the chemical
destabilized by a destabilization or compositions analysed in ARL optical emission
destabilization treatment to transform as-cast spectrometer are shown in Table 1.
austenite to martensitic and/or fine bainitic
matrix embedded with fine secondary carbides Table 1. Chemical compositions of alloy irons cast.
[1,2]. But even after such conventional Alloy irons C% Mn% Si% Cr% Cu%
destabilization the retained austenite cannot be a)Cr-Mn-Cu iron 2.8 4.8 1.87 9.2 3.1
totally transformed. Cryogenic treatment is b) High Cr iron 2.9 0.53 0.32 16.3 -
successfully employed especially in tool steels
[18-32] and high chromium cast irons [33-37] to Optimum destabilization temperature ranges
minimize the retained austenite content as far as and time for as-cast Cr-Mn-Cu irons were
possible. The consequent improvement in wear selected based on isochronal and isothermal
resistance has been attributed to i) heat treatments. Initially the as-cast samples
transformation of retained austenite to were subjected to isochronal heat treatment for
martensite, ii) conditioning of martensite at low a fixed period of 1 hour in the temperature
temperature and iii) enhanced volume range of 973K (700 0C) to 1373K (1100 0C) in
percentage of refined secondary carbide 373K (100 0C) steps and followed by air cooling
precipitation. In a recent study, Shaohong Li et. to room temperature. In the optimum
al [31] have verified the mechanism of the temperature range thus found from the
refined carbide precipitation by internal friction isochronal treatment, the samples were
method and transmission electron microscopy, isothermally treated for various soaking times
in tool steels on deep cryogenic treatment. The and subsequently either air cooled or quenched
high internal stress developed from austenite to in liquid nitrogen bath and kept immersed for 30
martensite transformation is responsible for minutes for the cryogenic treatment. The wear
modification of carbide precipitation. The samples were heat treated at the optimum
martensite lattice contraction causes to temperature {1023K (750 0C)} and time (9
segregate interstitial carbon atoms at the nearly hours) obtained from isochronal and isothermal
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S. Gupta et al., Tribology in Industry Vol. 38, No. 4 (2016) 486-495
treatments. High chromium irons were treatment conditions of the test alloy specimens
subjected to conventional destabilization at can be well assessed with reference to the high
1273K (1000 0C) for 9 hours and subsequently chromium iron samples under identical
cryotreated. The microstructures of the alloy conditions. Cylindrical wear specimens (10 mm.
irons observed under optical and scanning diameter x 50 mm. length) were ground with
electron microscopes. The bulk hardness at emery paper number 1000, cleaned with water
different heat treatment conditions were and acetone, dried and fitted in the holding disc
measured in Rockwell C- scale with 150 kgf load. of the test rig. Specimens with similar heat
treatment condition were placed at the
The retained austenite contents in a few selected
samples were measured by x-ray diffraction
analysis with Cu K radiations. To avoid the
effect of texture the samples were continuously
rotated. The carbide volume percentages
present in the alloys at different conditions were
measured by electrolytic extraction of carbides.
The carbide volume percentages thus
determined were computed to estimate the
retained austenite content in the matrix. A bath
with 5 % concentrated HCl in ethyl alcohol was
employed with sample as anode and a stainless
steel plate as cathode for electrolytic extraction.
The extraction was continued for about 20 hours
with a current density of 5 mA/cm2 and the
extracted carbides were collected in a glycerine
layer from the bottom of the bath. The volume
percentages of the extracted carbides were
calculated after drying at 343K (70 0C). Fig. 1. Slurry erosion test set-up.
The static corrosion rate of the alloy irons was Two diametrical opposite position at the holding
measured as per ASTM standard (ASTM G-1-72). disc to avoid any biasness. The sand-water
Mirror polished rectangular specimens (10x10 slurry was prepared with 60 % silica sand
mm.) were cleaned with water and acetone, particles by weight in plain tap water. The
dried and weighed in an electronic balance. The details of the silica sand eroding particles are
samples were suspended in a glass beaker with shown in Table 2.
tap water (pH=7) for 168 hours at room
temperature. After this period of immersion, the Table 2. Details of silica sand used for slurry erosion
specimens were again cleaned thoroughly with test.
water and acetone, dried and reweighed. The Shape Average Micro-hardness,
Erodent
static corrosion rates were computed from the (Roundness)a size, m Kg/mm2
expression, Silica sand 0.79 325 1100-1150
a according to Rittenhouse sphericity scale
Corrosion rate [ in mg/decimeter2/ day (mdd)] =
K.W /(A.T.D) The specimens were rotated in the slurry for a
where, K= 2.4 x 106.D; W= weight loss in g total duration of 24 hours at 500 rpm which
nearest to 1 mg; A= surface area in square cm corresponds to a linear speed of 4.5 m/s. After
nearest to 0.01 cm2; T= duration in hours; D= every 6 hours of test run the specimens were
density of the material in g/cc. taken out, cleaned, dried and the mass losses
were noted. After 24 hours run the samples tips
The erosive wear performance was evaluated in were cut off, cleaned ultrasonically in acetone
a slurry pot tester as shown in Fig. 1. Although and examined under scanning electron
the effect of impact angle of the slurry particle microscope for worn-out surface topography.
impingement cannot be evaluated by this set up,
the relative wear performance in different heat
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S. Gupta et al., Tribology in Industry Vol. 38, No. 4 (2016) 486-495
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S. Gupta et al., Tribology in Industry Vol. 38, No. 4 (2016) 486-495
gets depleted of carbon and other alloying shown in Fig. 7 and the EDS spectra obtained
elements with consequent fine alloy carbide from secondary carbides is shown in Fig. 7a.
precipitation.
ii) The martensite start temperature (Ms) of
the alloy depleted austenite matrix is raised
and during subsequent air cooling the
matrix transforms to martensite embedded
with fine carbides.
iii) On further increase in temperature, the
austenite gets stabilized again because of
the higher solid solubility and the
precipitates are also coarsened resulting in
a drop in hardness.
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S. Gupta et al., Tribology in Industry Vol. 38, No. 4 (2016) 486-495
cooling. This trend can be justified with the areas of fine bainites are formed as evidenced by
retained austenite percentage measured from the SEM.
XRD analysis (Fig. 8) and the corresponding
optical and SEM micrographs in Figs. 6 and 9 3.2 Static corrosion rates
respectively. The EDS spectra from secondary
carbides is shown in Fig. 9a. The static corrosion rates of destabilized and
subsequently air cooled or cryotreated Cr-Mn-
Cu and high chromium alloys in tap water (pH
=7) are shown in Fig. 10. It is evident from the
figure that cryotreated alloys are having a lower
rate of corrosion than those of destabilized and
air cooled alloys.
491
S. Gupta et al., Tribology in Industry Vol. 38, No. 4 (2016) 486-495
chromium alloy irons. The hardness perhaps harder phase compared to the matrix. The
plays a vital role in decreasing the wear rate. matrix regions have worn out preferentially
The corresponding microstructures obviously leaving the carbide regions to support the load
have a great influence on the wear loss. A fine of eroding particles. In all the worn out surfaces
Grained predominantly martensitic matrix with plough marks are prominent in the matrix
least amount of retained austenite embedded phases (Figs. 12a and 12b).
with fine and hard alloy carbides exhibit very
good wear resistance. The better wear
resistance of cryotreated samples can be
attributed to three factors:
I. Due to reduction of retained austenite and
its conversion to higher percentage of
martensite in the matrix. This provides
stronger support to the hard and fine
secondary alloy carbides during erosion.
II. More homogeneous precipitation with high
volume fraction of finer alloy carbides.
III. Cryotreatment produces refined martensitic
matrix causing a fine grained strengthening
effect which improves wear resistance
further.
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S. Gupta et al., Tribology in Industry Vol. 38, No. 4 (2016) 486-495
The as-cast Cr-Mn-Cu alloy shows fine cracks cryotreated high chromium iron. Not only higher
formed in the matrix. These cracks might have hardness but improved corrosion resistance
led to spall formation and hence material contributes to better slurry erosion property.
detachment (Fig. 13).
It is evident from the SEM images of the
worn out surfaces that, the predominant
mechanism of material removal during slurry
erosion is by ploughing. In as-cast irons cracks
are formed around the matrix leading to spall
formation. In case of cryotreated iron matrix
being harder, no preferential erosion between
matrix and carbides are occurring and hence a
smoother worn out surface is revealed.
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S. Gupta et al., Tribology in Industry Vol. 38, No. 4 (2016) 486-495
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Tribology in Industry
RESEARCH
www.tribology.fink.rs
Keywords: ABSTRACT
Friction
In recent decades appeared the considerable interest in the use of the
Wear
antiwear, anticorrosion and restoration technologies in friction units,
Lubricant
including the internal combustion engines. These technologies allow
Wearless friction
reducing the friction coefficient and the wear of friction surfaces during
Servovite film
the operation without disassembly of the components and assemblies.
Coating
The present work involves the studies of the tribotechnical characteristics
Running-in
of the friction pairs when using the antiwear antifrictional (AWAF)
composition, injected in the lubricating medium. The results show, that
Corresponding author: injection of the AWAF composition in the lubricating material does not
V.N. Duradji cause the changes in the microstructure and microhardness of the surface
National University of Science and of friction pairs, friction coefficient decreases in 1.5 2 times, the amount
Technology "MISiS", Leninskiy of wear of the rubbing parts is close to zero. The obtained effect is causes
prospect 4, 119049, by the establishing of the selective transfer process (wearless friction)
Moscow, Russia with the formation of the servovite film. Application of this composition
E-mail: vnduradji@mail.ru allows to improve efficiency of machines and equipment, considerably
reduce the content of CO and CH as well as solid impurities in the engine
exhaust gases, and reduce the running-in time of the diesel engines.
2016 Published by Faculty of Engineering
496
V.N. Duradji et al., Tribology in Industry Vol. 38, No. 4 (2016) 496-507
friction surfaces and the external environment dependence of the film formation efficiency on
(lubricant), and consequently, the formation of the concentration of metals in the environment,
new structures based on self-organizing low resistance of the dispersions of metal
processes is possible [3]. Based on this powders, high purity powders, etc.), due to
phenomenon new metalplacking additives were which their application is mostly limited to
developed, which are injected into the lubricating plastic lubricants for the certain friction units.
materials, reduce the friction energy costs and
significantly improve the wear resistance of the It is of interest to obtain cladding layers with
rubbing parts of machined and mechanisms. To natural friction geomodifiers based on
this group of substances, apparently, can be serpentinite, and establish the possibility of
attributed antiwear antifriction composition their use in the form of additives for lubricants:
based on mineral serpentine. in oils and lubricant greases.
Known the metalplacking lubricants[3-5], whose AWAF composition is powder with the
operating principle consists in forming in areas dispersion: from 40 microns to 10 microns 15
of actual contact of the protective films based on %; from 10 microns to 1 micron 20 %, the rest
a soft metals (Cu, Sn, Pb, Zn and other), which of the composition is less than 1 micron (Fig. 1 a,
decrease the force impact and the wear intensity b). This composition does not dissolve in oils and
of the mating surfaces. However, these materials other carriers and does not enter with them into
have a number of disadvantages (the chemical reactions; does not change the viscosity
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V.N. Duradji et al., Tribology in Industry Vol. 38, No. 4 (2016) 496-507
of the oil, due to its very low concentration in it machine SMC-2 and mainly by means of friction
(0.05-0.1 g/l); it is not an abrasive material. machine MTU-01. Universal friction machine
Harmless both in the initial state (powder) and in MTU-01 is intended for testing on friction and
the process of the running-in. wear of the metallic and non-metallic materials in
terms of the various lubricants application (oils
and plastic lubricants). A special feature of the
friction machine is usage of original friction unit
block in the friction installation, which allows
keeping the parallelism of the friction surfaces
during the operation, and to use as a drive a
commercially available bench-drilling machine.
The testing time varied from 1 to 8 hours. The
pressure on the friction pair was varied in the
range 1-5 MPa, the linear speed of rotating rollers
was varied from 1 to 2 m/s (1000 RPM for
consistent greases and 600 RPM for oils). The
friction torque was determined using the load
cell. The registered parameters were recorded
and processed using a PC. The change in weight of
the samples is determined by weighing on a
laboratory scales VLE134 and electronic scales
model Sartorius 1201. The surface quality was
controlled visually (the presence of scratches,
a)
grooves and burrs) by means of the optical
microscope at a magnification of 100 to 500-fold.
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V.N. Duradji et al., Tribology in Industry Vol. 38, No. 4 (2016) 496-507
The running-in of the engines with pure oil M- widespread metalplacking lubricating materials,
10DM is carried out in modes in accordance with which form a copper, tin or lead servovite film.
typical technology, and with AWAF composition in
modes of the experimental technology. To register The metalplacking lubricating materials by phase
engine parameters the analyser of the pneumatic characteristic are divided into homogeneous and
density and tightness of cylinders AGC 2. heterogeneous. The first ones as an additives
contain metal compounds soluble in a base
The experiments were performed with a scanning lubricating medium, the second ones contain
electron microscope model VEGA2 TS 5136XM metal or its oxides in form of powder. However,
running at high and low vacuum. Scanning these materials have a number of disadvantages
electron microscopes (SEM) series TESCAN (the dependence of the film formation efficiency
VEGA- fully controlled via a personal computer. on the concentration of the metals in medium,
low resistance of the dispersions of metal
powder, high purity of the powders and other)
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS due to which their application is limited mainly to
the plastic lubricants for certain friction units.
3.1 Tribological properties of the antiwear
antifrictional composition In recent years, a number of technical solutions
appeared [4-9], according to which the layered
In the search for means to increase the wear natural hydro silicates (serpentinite, talc,
resistance of the machine parts, the selective serpentine, jade, dolomite and other) are used as
transfer during friction was discovered [3]. The a filler of solid-lubricant compositions. The
selective transfer a special kind of friction, presence of the powder of these compounds in
which is caused by the spontaneous formation in the lubricant composition under certain
the contact area of the thin non-oxidizing metal conditions of its manufacturing and injection
film with low shear resistance and incapable to between friction surfaces and their running-in
the cold work hardening. On a film, in its turn, leads to the formation on the friction metal
the polymer film is being formed, which creates surfaces of the protective film, which
additional antifrictional layer. significantly reduces their wear. Some authors
believe that the protective layer is a servovite
The complexity of the selective transfer consists film [3,5]. Strength and antifrictional
in a fact that numbers of its chemical and physical characteristics of the servovite film depend in
processes are not found in practice of a friction particular on manufacturing conditions,
research. These include the processes occurring composition of the lubricating material, the
in the servovite film, when the accumulation of running-in after its injection between the
dislocations during its deformation is maintained friction surfaces and their state, etc.
at a low level, thereby providing the wearlessness
of the contacting surfaces. Servovite film the However, it is possible to assume that the
protective metal film, appearing at the initial establishing mechanism of the selective transfer
stage of the friction as a result of the selective (ST) process and formation of the servovite film
dissolution of the anodic components of the for the metalplacking additives and for antiwear
material surface layer. antifrictional (AWAF) composition is different.
For the implementation of the selective transfer Mechanochemical activation of the AWAF
in the friction pairs steel-steel, cast iron-steel, composition in the planetary centrifugal mill
etc. that do not contain film-forming material, depending on the activation time, ultimately, can
the metalplacking lubricating materials are used. lead to the formation of the nanoparticles of
The metalplacking lubricant the class of the such size, which are commensurate with the
lubricating materials, containing (by weight crystal lattice parameters. Further dispersing
from 0.1 to 10 %) additives: powder of metals, inevitably entails restructuring (change of the
alloys and their oxides, salts and complex crystal lattice, amorphization) with a
compounds of metals or organometallic corresponding change of all thermodynamic
compounds, that release metal during the characteristics of the substance and its
decomposition in the friction area. The most reactivity.
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V.N. Duradji et al., Tribology in Industry Vol. 38, No. 4 (2016) 496-507
The presence of x-ray amorphous component results are obtained when using as the base
(Table 1) indicates the content in the AWAF lubricating medium the natural lubricant
composition of nanoparticles with a developed Soliton, which does not contain any extraneous
surface, having a high catalytic ability that additives. The amount of wear of the friction
promotes the accelerated and efficient formation pairs in this medium is 4.0 mg for the plate (steel
of the servovite film. Besides, nanoparticles of 10) and 6.0 mg for the roller (steel 10). The
less than 100 nm are held in the liquid nature of the friction coefficient change with
(lubricating material) by the Brownian motion time under load 160 N is presented on Fig. 2.
that promotes the more efficient use of the
AWAF composition, by reducing the
concentration of injected powder, since a
smaller portion is precipitated by gravitational
forces or retained in the fine filter.
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V.N. Duradji et al., Tribology in Industry Vol. 38, No. 4 (2016) 496-507
medium oil I-20A, from the concentration of running time of friction pairs show that major
the injected composition varying from 0.008 to changes on the friction surfaces occur mainly
0.06 % under the load 160 N are shown on a Fig. during the first hour of work, during which the
3. In these cases, the weight gain of the rotating formation of a protective (servovite) layer occur,
part (rollers) is observed. At that with increase and in further the weight of samples (roller and
in the concentration of AWAF composition up to plate) remains unchanged.
0.048% the weight gain of the roller is observed,
but at further increase in the concentration the The antiwear antifrictional nanodispersed
value of the weight gain decreases, tending to (AWAF) composition, getting together with an
zero. For the second counter body (the plate), oil or lubricant grease on the friction surfaces of
the weight change with increasing concentration parts, initiate the formation process on the
of powder in oil up to 0.048 % is almost not friction surfaces of the modified coating with
observed. With increasing concentration of the high wear resistance and low friction coefficient.
AWAF composition, more than 0.05 % the value Thus, during the process of interaction of the
of the plate wear begins to grow noticeably. AWAF composition with friction surfaces the
value of gap between the rubbing parts
gradually stabilizes and approaches the optimal
over the entire area of contact spots.
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V.N. Duradji et al., Tribology in Industry Vol. 38, No. 4 (2016) 496-507
friction pairs were conducted in accordance with quality of received production, growth of
the following scheme: 1 during 4 hours the diseases of people and animals, other adverse
friction pair worked in the lubricating effects. Besides, usage of the low quality oil and
environment containing antiwear antifrictional fuel leads to additional wear of the friction pairs,
composition; 2 then the lubricating power reduction, increased fuel consumption, oil
environment was replaced by the pure oil and burnout, and reduction of the vehicle
alternately every hour, keeping the friction exploitation efficiency as a whole.
surface unchanged, the friction coefficient and
the amount of wear were measured. The tests The antifrictional additives provide guaranteed
have shown that after the replacement of oil fuel economy by reducing mechanical friction loss
containing AWAF composition with the pure oil and a corresponding increase in efficiency of the
the protective (servovite) layer is retained on motor. They are most effective when the
the friction surfaces, the friction coefficient and boundary friction mode, for example, between
the amount of wear were slightly different from the compression piston rings and cylinders close
the values they had directly after work in the to the upper dead points. Their advantage is their
lubricating environment containing antiwear efficiency, both at low and at high temperatures.
antifrictional composition. These results are
confirmed in practice: in particular, car engines The protective antifrictional layer, which
with lubricant containing antiwear antifrictional formation is caused by the physic-chemical
composition retained technical indicators for 50- composition of the injected additive, could have
80 thousand kilometres, despite the fact that a various structures, providing the significant
planned oil change was carried out every 10 decrease in the friction coefficient and the
thousand kilometres. It means that this amount of wear. At that with the increase in the
composition is not simply identical to the solid operating time of the friction unit, the friction
lubricants, but related to the effect of selective coefficient tends to the value 0.03 0.04 and the
transfer (wearless friction). amount of wear tends to zero.
It is natural, that conducted metallographic However, along with these indicators the
studies of the friction surfaces and tribological operating results should be considered. For
tests are not enough to create action models of example, for the metalplacking compositions it is
antiwear antifrictional composition. However, necessary to inject next portion after each
the conducted research allow to make a lubricating medium replacement. In addition,
conclusion that with the injection of this after prolonged use occurs stripping of the
composition into a lubricating medium the self- protective layer from the friction surface. It
organizing protective (servovite) film specific to should also be taken into account that
the selective transfer (wearless friction) is metalplacking compositions are deposited not
formed on the friction surfaces. The theory of only on the friction surface, but also on the
this process is sufficiently developed for closed cavities [4].
metalplacking additives [3,5,11-19], but for this
moment there is no such theory for the additives The polymerized substances are characterized
based on the minerals. by the rapid onset of the effect of the friction
coefficient reduction. However, the Teflon
3.2 Application of the AWAF composition for coating, during the process of friction unit
the treatment of motor transport engines operation, is being saturated with fine products
of wear and works in further as an abrasive [4].
In recent years, dramatically exacerbated the The uses of preparations based on molybdenum
problem of environmental protection, especially disulphide significantly increase the sulphate
in large cities, where concentrated tens of ash content of engine oils exceeding the
millions of vehicles. The content of harmful permissible limits. It should be taken into
components in the exhaust gases increases account that the use of halogen compounds in
during the operation of the worn internal the lubricants promotes the formation of acids,
combustion engines, leaking oil through the which increase the acid number of the base
faulty seals result in contamination of lubricant and, hence, its corrosivity.
agricultural land, decline in the quantity and
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V.N. Duradji et al., Tribology in Industry Vol. 38, No. 4 (2016) 496-507
Application of the antiwear antifrictional Table 3. The results of processing engine of Opel
composition [7] allows getting on the friction Astra car.
surfaces the protective layer, which persists Opel
Car
when the vehicle mileage is 50 thousand Astra
kilometres and more, i.e. during several Full mileage 106540 106632 106900 107870
replacements of oil in the internal combustion Mileage after
92 360 1330
engines. Let us consider some of the results of application
the processing of automobile engines. Oil level MAX MAX MAX-0,2 kg MAX-0,5 kg
Compression
Application of the antiwear antifrictional 1 9 14.4 14.9 14.9
composition is accomplished by direct addition 2 6.5 14.4 14.8 15.3
into the engine according to the required 3 12.5 14.4 14.8 15.2
concentration (the calculation is carried out 4 14.4 14.4 14.9 15.3
depending on the quantity of the lubricant and Exhaust
oil in the engine). Then you can immediately gases
continue the exploitation in the normal mode The gas
55 C 55 C 55 C 55 C
temperature
without any restrictions.
CO 1.2-1.7 % 0.06 % 0.06 % 0.00 %
CO2 14 % 14 % 13.70 % 14 %
Processing of the internal combustion engine
O2 0.48 % 0.25 % 1.20 % 0.51 %
with the antiwear antifriction composition was
carried out according to the scheme: - warm up
to the operating temperature, - taking of The engine processing with the antiwear
testimony of the engine parameters; - processing antifrictional composition leads not only to wear
of the engine with the repair-regenerative reduction of the parts, but also to the certain
composition; - running-in at least 500 km; taking stabilization of gaps. Especially it concerns the
of testimony of the parameters. Technical cylinder-piston group and the crank mechanism.
condition of these engines corresponds to the This in turn leads to a decrease in the impact
category of the technical condition "acceptable". intensity of the parts and, consequently, to
Measured parameters in the process of diagnosis noisiness reduction.
for several types of vehicles are shown in Tables
2 and 3. As known, one of the main sources of the engine
wear is the start-up mode, especially at low
Table 2. The values of compression in cylinders for temperatures. The engine processing with the
the engine TATRA 815 (air-cooled). antiwear antifrictional composition simplifies the
cold start conditions, due to the reduction of
Cylinder 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
power losses to overcome the friction forces, and
Compressio reduced start-up time. In addition, the growth of
n before
the compression also facilitates start of the
20.0
22.5
20.0
22.5
20.5
24.0
22.0
23.0
22.0
24.0
treatment,
kg/cm2 engine. This has a positive effect on reducing the
After treatment wear of all interfaces of the friction units.
Compressio
n, kg/cm 2, 3.3 Application of the AWAF composition for
running-in of the vehicle engines
25.0
23.0
25.0
23.5
24.0
25.0
25.0
24.5
24.5
25.0
mileage
2 500 km
Compressio Carrying out the running-in of the vehicle
n, kg/cm 2, aggregates, such as internal combustion engine
27.0
26.0
27.5
24.5
27.0
26.0
26.0
27.0
27.0
28.0
29.0
30.0
30.0
30.0
29.0
29.0
29.0
29.0
29.3
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V.N. Duradji et al., Tribology in Industry Vol. 38, No. 4 (2016) 496-507
It is known, that most of the vehicle dont need temperature of friction surfaces increases over
the operational running-in, however, for some of 473 K (hot running-in) the serpentine forms on
them it is mandatory process step both at the friction surfaces, in places of their contact, a
automotive factories and repair shops. The thin antifriction film which is able to withstand a
necessity of the running-in, as a technology higher load than the lubricating film of mineral
operation, is caused by the fact that even when oil. At that, the contacting irregularities are not
the perfect assembly and accordance of the cut off, but plastically deform under a film of the
waviness and roughness of working surfaces to serpentine. The force and temperature of
the drawings requirements, almost impossible in friction significantly decrease.
other process steps to achieve optimal
tribological properties of the surface layers of The presence of the hard magnetite particles in oil
friction parts. Running-in largely determines the should lead to the intensive wear of the friction
reliability of a diesel engine, especially in the surfaces. However, small abrasive particles dont
initial period of operation and at a minimum of intensify wear, but also inhibit to it [15]. In some
the running-in and steady-state wear of the cases, the particle size of less than 5 microns is
tribological connections provides the increase of considered safe and even beneficial. This is due to
the diesel engine resource. the polishing effect. Mechanical impurities
contained in the used oil, wherein the dispersant
For the diesel engine, the duration of running-in effect of the additives is weakened, represent
is 30-40 machine hours or about 5000 km of complexes, in the centre of which are located the
mileage for the vehicle. The development of solid abrasive particles coated with a multilayer
mechanical engineering indicates the need to colloid protection consisting of the polar-active oil
accelerate this process and reduce it to 2-3 min., oxidation products. The positive impact of these
necessary to control the operability of the particles is manifested in the fact that they
product and identify possible hidden defects. intensify heat transfer between the friction
surfaces, increase the electrical conductivity of the
When the running-in there is a change in oil film and eliminate the roughness on the surface.
geometry of friction surfaces and physico- Furthermore, the micro abrasive enhances physic-
mechanical properties of surface layers of chemical processes in the friction area, causing
materials during the initial period of friction, slight deformation of the surface layers and the
manifested under constant ambient conditions formation of new surfaces, which are active sites
and consist in reducing friction, temperature and for chemical reactions and diffusion processes. The
wear rate. Running-in of the parts is carried out at presence of the micro abrasive particles up to 1.5
the automotive factories and repair shops in the % in the lubricating oil decreases the friction
process of bench testing and in households - coefficient, accelerates the formation of the
consumers during the operational running-in. It optimal micro relief on the entire contact area.
should be understood that almost any
disassembly of rubbing joints leads to necessity of The quality of the running-in is estimated also
carrying out operations of running-in of the by the intensity of surface roughness change
reassembled unit with loss of a part of interrepair depending on the test time. It is known, that the
resource on the running-in wear. The application initial surface roughness of the rubbing parts
of the running-in preparations will not only allow becomes operational roughness. The formation
to reach faster the normal operation mode of the operational roughness is influenced by a
(reduce the running-in time) but also significantly complex set of different kinds of mechanical,
increase the overhaul life of machinery units physic-chemical, electro-chemical and other
(improve the quality of running-in). processes occurring in the contact between two
rubbing bodies. Therefore, in the work was
Adding the AWAF composition in the oil M- studied the surface roughness of the friction pair
10DM contributes to the acceleration of the "piston ring - cylinder liner" using the studied
running-in and improvement of the quality of running-in oils as a lubricant. The initial
the run-in surface, since this composition roughness of the friction surfaces of both
contains the most effective components of samples (roller, plate) Ra = 0.63 microns. Fig. 6
lubricating and plastically-deformable action - shows the profilograms of samples surfaces
the serpentine and magnetite. When the before and after running-in.
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V.N. Duradji et al., Tribology in Industry Vol. 38, No. 4 (2016) 496-507
Before running-in:
b)
After running-in on pure oil M-10DM:
Fig. 7. a) sample surface, run-in on oil M-10DM, b)
the spectrogram of the sample surface, run-in on oil
M-10DM.
a)
Fig. 6. The profilograms of friction surfaces of the
parts samples.
b)
Fig. 8. a) Sample surface, run-in on oil M-10DM with
AWAF composition, b) The spectrogram of the sample
surface, run-in on oil M-10DM with AWAF composition.
505
V.N. Duradji et al., Tribology in Industry Vol. 38, No. 4 (2016) 496-507
Ra = 0.14 microns, which is 60 % less than with silicates this requirement is eliminated and it is
pure oil M-10DM. Within 15-20 minutes of the possible to inject them into any lubricating
tests, takes place the plastic smoothing of the medium.
roughness peaks up to the platforms, which
gives a better distribution of the load and the
reduction of the actual pressure between the REFERENCES
rubbing pairs. The nature of changes in these
parameters shows that the running-in process [1] Thermochemical treatment of metals and alloys
takes place under more favourable conditions / ed. Lyakhovich L.S. M.: Metallurgy, 1981. (on
and completes much earlier as compared to pure Russian)
operating oil, i.e. serpentine and magnetite, [2] A.N. Minkevich, Thermochemical treatment of
which are included in the AWAF composition metals and alloys. M.: Mechanical Engineering,
allow to speed up the running-in process of 1965. (on Russian)
parts and get higher physical and mechanical [3] D.N. Garkunov, Tribotechnology (wear and
properties of the friction surfaces. wearless friction). M.: Publishing House of the
Moscow Agricultural Academy, 2001. (on
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found the presence of a metal-ceramic layer. of the car. M.: AST. 2014. (on Russian)
This fact is confirmed by the X-ray
microstructure analysis of the surface (Figs. 7 [5] P.B. Aratsky and A.G. Kapsarov, 'Application of
geo modifiers of friction for metalworking tools',
(a, b) and 8 (a, b)), which shows that the sample
Friction, wear and lubrication, no. 3, p. 73-80,
surface consists of iron, magnesium, silicon,
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magnesium and silicon indicates that the [6] Patent of the Russian Federation. # 2243252,
elements of the AWAF composition bind to the 2004. (on Russian)
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[8] R.G. Nigmatullin, B.Y. Sholom, L.S. Shuster and
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the antiwear antifrictional composition, it is Kuzmin, 'Introduction to the problem of natural
established that no hardened layers with high layered geomodifiers in friction units', Friction
hardness is formed on the friction surfaces. and lubrication in the machines and mechanisms,
Injection of the AWAF composition in the no. 1, p. 36-42, 2010. (on Russian)
lubricating material does not cause changes of [10] V.N. Polovinkin, V.B. Lannoy and Y.G. Lavrov,
the microstructure and the microhardness of the 'Antifrictional antiwear additive in lubricants of
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wear of the rubbing parts is close to zero. We Russian)
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caused by the establishment of the process of 'Application of friction geomodifiers to restore
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formation of the servovite film. operation', Friction, wear and lubrication, no. 4,
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Thus, in order to establish the process of [12] A.A. Polyakov, 'To the question about lab testing
selective transfer (wearless friction) using the of materials of friction units', Friction and wear,
metalplacking additives it is necessary to pick up no. 6, . 668-674, 2000. (on Russian)
their composition so that the particles were in a
[13] A.A. Polyakov and F.I. Ruzanov, Friction based on
dissolved state, then using the antiwear
self-organization. M.: Science. 1992. (on Russian)
antifrictional composition based on the layered
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[14] A.S. Kuzharov, 'Physic-chemical principles of [17] V.G. Volkov, K.A. Pavlov, Y.P. Toporov and other.
lubricating action in the regime of selective 'Tribological modifiers based on natural
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tribology, no. 2, . 3-11, 1992. (on Russian) tribology, no. 2, . 46-49, 2003. (on Russian)
[15] L.I. Pogodaev, S.N. Dmitriev and V.V. Usachev, [18] M.A. Chowdhury and D.M. Nuruzzaman.
'Basics of technology of final strengthening 'Experimental Investigation on Friction and
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machines, no. 4, p. 79-89, 2006. (on Russian) 2013.
[16] Y.A. Radin and P.G. Suslov, Wearlessness of [19] O.N. Tsvetkov, 'Tribology in the oils science',
machine parts during friction. L.: Mechanical Friction and lubrication in the machines and
engineering, 1989. (on Russian) mechanisms, no. 5, pp. 45-49, 2015. (on Russian)
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Tribology in Industry
RESEARCH
www.tribology.fink.rs
Keywords: ABSTRACT
Al-TiB2
Al- TiB2 metal matrix composites are fabricated using stir cast method
Metal matrix composites and its tribological characterization is done using three different
Wear lubricants. Tribological studies are performed in a multi-tribotester
Coefficient of friction using block-on-roller configuration under 25-75 N loads and 400-600
Lubricant rpm rotational speeds. Four different weight percentages of TiB2 are
considered in this study. Comparison between dry condition and
Corresponding author: lubricated conditions is gleaned to differentiate wear and friction
characteristics and SEM images are taken to fortify them. Lubricated
Prasanta Sahoo conditions yield large reduction in wear and friction compared to dry
Department of Mechanical Engineering, condition.
Jadavpur University, Kolkata 700032,
India. 2016 Published by Faculty of Engineering
E-mail: psjume@gmail.com
508
S. Poria et al., Tribology in Industry Vol. 38, No. 4 (2016) 508-521
connecting rods, cylinder blocks, gears, shafts several reasons [22-23,26]. But agglomeration
etc. [14-15]. behavior of TiB2 particles segregates the grain
boundary and weakens the inter-atomic force
In spite of all great potentials of metal matrix which is very much detrimental in functional
composites, main challenge is to get proper output [27]. Some additives, e.g., CeO2, Mg, Zr
uniformity of the phases in composites and are used within the matrix to solve out the
accepted compatibility between matrix and problem of agglomeration [27-28]. In case of in-
reinforcement. Thats why selection of situ techniques, production of reinforcement
fabrication process and also reinforcement is happens by exothermic behavior which also can
indispensable task to get proper enhancement in be negatively effective on the grain boundary
the properties of MMCs. Powder metallurgy, regime of MMC [29]. To overcome these
liquid metallurgy techniques, in-situ techniques problems and also to make the fabrication
and chemical synthesis are the methods processes more simple, flexible and economical
normally used for synthesis of MMCs [16]. for commercial purpose, stir casting method is
Several opinions exist on which techniques are introduced [30]. Stir-casting method is basically
most preferable for fabrication of MMCs. For an ex-situ method where reinforcement
selection of reinforcement, ceramic particulates particles are prepared externally and poured
are popular as several literatures delineate the into the molten metal. Stir casting methods are
enhancement of mechanical and tribological also helpful to break the dendritic structures
properties due to incorporation of ceramic already present in the molten aluminum alloy
particulates in MMCs [1, 17-18]. SiC, TiC, ZrC, which lead to better mechanical strength than
TiB2, ZrB2, AlN, Al2O3, B4C, TiC are the ceramic original alloy excepting the effect of
particulates commonly used to intensify the reinforcement. Some problems associated with
characteristics of aluminum based metal matrix this method like non-uniform distribution of
composites [1,19-20]. Thermodynamic stability particles and porosity can be addressed easily by
in matrix phase, solubility in molten metal, grain controlling stirring process, lower particle size
boundary regime near to the metallic atoms are of TiB2, preheating of the particles and molding
the characteristics of reinforcement responsible techniques [7, 30]. Recent literatures on Al- TiB2
for determining the properties of MMCs. composites reveal that stir casting method has
been accepted widely as the mode of fabrication
TiB2 particulate is chosen in this work as of MMCs including Al- TiB2 MMC [7,10,31].
reinforcement in aluminum alloy based matrix
due to properties like high Youngs Modulus Al-TiB2 MMC fabricated through stir casting
(345-409 GPa), low specific gravity (4.5), good method is the working material in this study. As
hardness (3400HV), high melting point (3225 tribological properties are one of the important
C), good thermal stability and good thermal and considerations of Al- TiB2 MMCs, miscellaneous
electrical conductivity [21-22]. TiB2 also works are found on this topic. Some works are
enhances mechanical and tribological properties also available considering mechanical behaviors
of aluminum matrix composites in a of specified composites and comparison with
deterministic way [22-23]. TiB2 does not react others [12,13]. But most of the works are based
with aluminum which also helps not to lead to on in-situ stir cast Al- TiB2 composites. With
any interface product with detrimental effect on increase of weight percentage of TiB2 in in-situ
behavior [24]. SiC reinforced aluminum metal composite, wear resistance increases in case of
matrix composites are absorbing larger dry wear, sliding wear, abrasive wear, and
percentage of commercially available MMCs but erosive wear [22,26,32-33,]. Effect of grain
in this case formation of aluminum carbide refinement, surface roughness and in-situ
(Al4C3) reduces physical, mechanical and reaction parameters on wear behavior of Al-
chemical properties of the composites [25]. TiB2 TiB2 composites are also studied [34]. How wear
reinforcement is free from this problem and TiB2 trend varies in elevated temperature is also
acts also as a nucleating agent at the grain reported [34]. Characterization of in-situ
boundary of aluminum alloy and TiB2 grains [2]. fabricated specific composites is also available in
It is widely reported in various literatures that good numbers. But reports on characterization
fabrication of Al- TiB2 MMCs through in-situ and tribological trends of stir cast Al- TiB2
methods are advantageous and popular due to composites are really scanty [31]. All composites
509
S. Poria et al., Tribology in Industry Vol. 38, No. 4 (2016) 508-521
including Al- TiB2 have been studied to find out lubricants also [40]. Works on tribological
the inclination of wear and coefficient of friction behaviors under various types of bio-lubricants
on applied load, and weight percentage mostly and on metal matrix composites are really scanty
in dry condition. Characterization of composites [1]. Some works are reported on aluminum
and other new age materials, e.g., polymide matrix composites in air and water lubricated
composites, Al2O3f/SiCP/Al hybrid MMCs except condition in direction to opt out detrimental
Al- TiB2 composites is also available in various effects of commercial lubricant on environment
lubricated conditions. But it is difficult to find an [41]. Some works are also reported on in-situ Al-
analysis of tribological trends of stir-cast Al- TiB2 TiB2 composites in hydrocarbon based synthetic
MMC in various lubricated conditions or a lubricated condition [42]. In case of many
systematic approach to characterize tribological practical applications it is difficult to use water as
parameters in various lubricated conditions in lubricant. In this work, one commercial synthetic
comparison with dry condition. petroleum based lubricant, one commercial
Chloro-fluro-Carbon free lubricant based on
There are many potential areas where Al- TiB2 petroleum oil but blended with natural oil and
composites can be used for sliding and rolling one vegetable oil based bio-lubricant are used to
applications. In that case lubricants also can be understand the contact surface behavior and
used for bringing the tribological parameters in tribological parameters of stir cast Al- TiB2
favor. These tribological parameters are composites in lubricated condition. Contribution
definitely influenced by the nature of the of various bio-diesel contaminated bio lubricants
lubricant because most of the loads in contact on contact surface are not well studied though a
surface of sliding are carried out by the pressure good number of works are carried out on
regime generated within lubricant film. So, it is characterization of bio-lubricants. Other than two
needed to improve the understanding of the commercially available lubricants, Rice bran oil
tribological behavior of Al- TiB2 composites under based methyl ester is chosen for development
lubricated contacts. It is reported that maximum and usage as bio-lubricant in this study due to
percentage of lubricant is based on petroleum some advantages as the wear resistant properties
and they ended up in environment which leads to of rice bran oil is less in comparison with other
increment of toxicity in nature [35]. To overcome vegetable oils because of the presence of natural
this issue of petroleum based lubricants on anti oxidants like gamma oryzanol and
environment, vegetable oils based lubricants are tocopherols. Rice bran oil is thermally stable at
becoming the alternative now a days [36]. high temperature i.e. 395 0C without any mass
Triacyglycerol structure presents in natural oil degradation and also methyl esters are more
which is an important aspect as lubricant because effective for reduction of friction [43].
it contains long chains of polar fatty acids which
adheres to metallic surfaces [37]. Length of In this work, tribological tests on stir-cast Al-
carbon chain present in the fatty acids also can TiB2 composites are performed in Multi-
affect the friction nature of the contacting tribotester for various loads, speeds, and weight
surfaces [37]. Many researchers have paid their percentages of TiB2 using three different
attention to various bio-diesel based lubricants lubricants. SEM images are taken after
derived from vegetable oils, e.g., rapeseed oil, tribological tests to characterize the worn out
canola oil, soy oil, sunflower oil, rice bran oil [38]. surfaces in lubricated contact and to compare
As a part of the research on bio-diesel based the tribological characteristics of Al-TiB2 MMC
lubricants and additives used on it, it is also under lubricated sliding from dry contact
concluded by some researchers that individual conditions.
fatty acid esters are not so much effective as
methyl esters derived from fatty acids are
effective in reducing friction [39]. Works on bio- 2. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
esters and their effects on engines as diesel and
as lubricant are going on but some clear 2.1 Sample preparation
understandings are also needed on their
behaviors in contact surfaces of newly developed Stir casting process is used in this study for
materials to develop the potentiality of real time fabrication of Al-TiB2 composites. Average
applications for both the materials and the bio- particle size of TiB2 varies from 5 m to 40 m.
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S. Poria et al., Tribology in Industry Vol. 38, No. 4 (2016) 508-521
Base alloy used as matrix phase is LM4. Chemical layer over the particles [31]. Diagram of this
composition of LM4 alloy and TiB2 particulates total process is shown in Fig. 1. After ensuring
are given in Table 1 and Table 2. overall equal distribution of particles, the
mixture of molten metal and TiB2 particulates
Table 1. Chemical composition of LM4 alloy. poured into a fixed size metallic mould at fixed
Element Cu Si Mg Fe Mn Ni Zn Al temperature 800 C. Then it solidifies and with
wt% 3.2 6 0.05 0.6 0.4 0.2 0.15 Rest repetition of the same process four different
weight percentages (1 %, 2.5 %, 4 %, and 5.5 %)
Table 2. Chemical composition of TiB2 powder. of TiB2 reinforced composites are prepared.
Element Ti B C O N Fe
2.2 Lubricants used
wt% 67-69 29-32 0.5 0.5 0.2 0.09
Three different liquid lubricants are used in this
study. Petroleum based commercial lubricant is
SAE20W-40 procured from Indian Oil
Corporation Limited. This commercial lubricant
is based on high refined petroleum stocks with
well balanced group of additives. Similar type
lubricant is used previously by researchers to
find out boundary lubricated tribology of an
aluminumsilicon alloy sliding against steel [44].
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S. Poria et al., Tribology in Industry Vol. 38, No. 4 (2016) 508-521
After keeping that mixture at 70 C for 1 day, two applications. In each experiment, specimen is
distinct layers are formed of which upper one is held against the counter roller. Contact surface is
ester. This process is called trans-esterification. flooded with lubricants at the time of
Upper ester layer is separated out from that experiment. For each experiment, a fixed flow
mixture and collected and used as bio lubricant rate of lubricant is maintained to get lubrication
for this study. Above steps are performed as regime within contact surface. Pictorial diagram
replication of processes published in various of test set-up is shown in Fig. 2.
research articles [38,43,46]. Properties of the
fabricated rice bran oil based ester are tabulated
in Table 4.
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dependent on constant normal load applied at composites is observed under SEM. Distribution
the time of tests which directs that normal of TiB2 particulates over the surface is
loads are also responsible for creating determined through this and also homogeneous
boundary lubrication regime or mixed regime. nature in distribution is found out from SEM
Thats why parameters for wear and friction images. Detailed discussion on surface
measuring tests should be chosen in such a way morphology of SEM images of various weight
so that optimal lubrication regime can be percentage fabricated composites is performed
achieved in boundary or mixed regime. elsewhere [31].
Parameters used for measuring friction and
wear are tabulated in Table 5. After performing
tests, results are analyzed and compared with
the results obtained in dry condition for same
materials under same load and speed
conditions [31].
3.1 Hardness
(b)
Fig. 4. SEM images of (a) 1 % TiB2 composites and (b)
5.5 % TiB2 composites.
Fig. 3. Variation of hardness with wt% of TiB2. Figure 4 shows the SEM images for composites
with highest weight percentage TiB2 and lowest
It is obvious from figure that with inclusion of weight percentage TiB2 as reinforcement. It is
TiB2 particulates, hardness is affected due to fine clearly noticed that nature of the distribution of
particulate dispersion and higher hardness is particles is uniform and presence of TiB2
achieved by higher weight percentage of TiB2 in particles in fabricated composites is confirmed.
Al-TiB2 composites. Similar observation is
reported earlier [22,31]. 3.3 Wear behavior in lubricated condition
and comparison with dry condition
3.2 SEM characterization
Figure 5 shows the wear test results of Al- TiB2
After fabrication of composites, surface composites using various lubricants at a
morphology of each weight percentage particular speed of roller i.e. 400 rpm. Figure 5a
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S. Poria et al., Tribology in Industry Vol. 38, No. 4 (2016) 508-521
presents the wear results for three different With increase in normal loads, wear depth
contact loads and for different weight increases for all TiB2 percentage composites
percentage Al-TiB2 composites including base irrespective of the nature of lubricants and this
alloy with two lubricants, one is CFC free trend is in line with Archards wear law. Wear
commercial bio-lubricant with bio-additives depth decreases with increase in weight% of
[chain lube oil] and another one is bio-lubricant TiB2 in composites. This is due to increase in
[rice bran oil TMP ester]. hardness with higher amount of TiB2 in the
composites. At a particular load and speed
combination, rice bran oil performs better than
chain lube oil in terms of wear reduction. For
same load i.e. 25 N, difference in wear depths for
5.5 % TiB2 composite is almost 4.4 % and for
base alloy it is almost 13 %. Similar trends are
observed in Fig. 5b which depicts the wear
results for different load and for different weight
percentage composites but with rice bran oil
TMP ester and commercial lubricant SAE20W-
40. In terms of the value of wear depths,
commercial SAE20W-40 is more effective as
wear resistant followed by rice bran oil TMP
ester and chain lube oil. This trend is followed in
all the cases shown in Figs. 5a and 5b except a
few. At 50 N loads and above 4 wt% of TiB2
composites, wear is slightly more in presence of
rice bran oil TMP ester than chain lube oil. At 25
N and 50N loads for 4 wt% and 5.5 wt% of TiB2
composites, wear for rice bran oil TMP ester and
(a) for commercial SAE20W-40 are almost same. All
of these tests are carried out at a fixed sliding
speed, 400 rpm. At highest contact load i.e. 75 N
and fixed sliding speed, comparison of wear in
case of all three lubricants and all weight
percentage composites is shown in figure 6a. At
75N loads, difference in wear values for 5.5 %
TiB2 composites between highest effective
lubricant and lowest effective lubricant is almost
15 %. It is obvious from the figure that
commercial SAE20W-40 is most effective wear
resistant lubricant for composite -steel contact
interface.
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(d)
Fig. 8. SEM micrographs of worn surfaces of
composites: (a) 1 % TiB2, (b) 2.5 % TiB2, (c) 4 % TiB2
and (d) 5.5 % TiB2.
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composites while these lie between 0.077 and surface as they can be absorbed to form metallic
0.087 for commercial lubricant. Actually friction soap [49]. However, with higher load this
values are 5 times lower in lubricated condition condition may be destroyed and will be difficult
compared to dry condition. It is apparent that for to achieve in presence of methyl ester type of
control of friction, lubricants play very vital role lubricant. In recent times, there has been
that cant be compensated by incorporating more growing interest in friction and wear study of
TiB2 particulates in weight percentages as metal matrix composites [50-54]. However, all
reinforcement. Difference between friction these studies consider only dry contact
values in dry condition and lubricated condition situations. In this respect, the present study will
is also higher for ester lubricant. help in widening the use of such composites in
various lubricated conditions as well.
4. CONCLUSION
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Tribology in Industry
RESEARCH
www.tribology.fink.rs
Keywords: ABSTRACT
Plasma jet cutting
Today highly competitive market and demands for obtain high surface
Surface roughness
finish and machining of complex shape geometries replace conventional
Modeling
machining processes with non-conventional. Plasma jet cutting is one of
Experiment
these non-conventional processes that primary uses a thermal energy of
Structural steel
highly ionized gas to cut specified material and blow molten metal away.
Main advantages of plasma jet cutting process are high speed of cutting,
Corresponding author: cutting different types of materials, the quality of cut and moderate to low
investment costs. This paper presents experimental results concerning the
I. Peko
surface roughness variation at plasma jet cutting of structural steel
Faculty of Electrical Engineering,
S235JRG2 plate thickness of 15 mm. Using the experimental data artificial
Mechanical Enginering and Naval
neural network (ANN) model was developed in order to predict the surface
Architecture,
roughness in terms of two input parameters, cutting current and cutting
University of Split, Ruera Bokovia
speed. After the prediction accuracy of the developed model was validated,
32, 21000 Split, Croatia
the model was used for analyzing influence of input parameters on process
E-mail: ipeko@fesb.hr
response values.
2016 Published by Faculty of Engineering
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I. Peko et al., Tribology in Industry Vol. 38, No. 4 (2016) 522-529
or when a gas is subjected to a high electric field. for data analysis. Chamarthi et al. [4] cut a
In this process an electric arc is generated Hardox 400 plate thickness of 12 mm. They
between the electrode and the workpiece. An varied cutting speed, plasma gas flow rate and
electrode acts as an anode and the workpiece as voltage as the process parameters in the 16
a cathode. The plasma gas expandes with the experiments and analyzed their influence on
high velocity through the nozzle at the same the unevennes of cut surface. ANOVA is
time an electric current passes through the gas performed later in order to identify the
with the help of a tungsten electrode due to parameters that clearly define the unevenness
which a high intensity plasma jet is generated. quality attributes. Gullu et al. [5] investigated
This jet is able to melt or vaporize the plate material structure changes that occurred after
surface that should be cut and to blow the plasma jet cutting of AISI 304 stainless steel
molten metal away from the cut. The most and St 52 carbon steel. Gariboldi et al. [6] cut
commonly used gases for this process are titanium sheets using high tolerance plasma arc
compressed air, nitrogen, argon-hydrogen, cutting process. They used free feed rate range
oxygen and their combinations. They can be with the adoption of oxygen and nitrogen as
used both as a plasma and shield gases. plasma and shield gases and analyzed cut
quality features such as unevenness, kerf width,
Main components of plasma jet cutting system angle of cut and surface roughness. Also they
are power supply unit, an arc starting circuit and conducted temperature measurements in the
a torch. These units provide the electrical regions near to the cutting edge,
energy, ionization, and process control for microstructural investigations and
cutting all ellectrically conductive materials to measurements of geometric and surface
180 mm thickness. atributes of the cutting edges. Adalarasan et al.
[7] assesed te quality characteristics of the cut
Today many of plasma jet cutting systems are surface by measuring the surface roughness
supported by manufacturers recommendations. and kerf width while cutting the 304L stainless
However these recommendations usually reflect steel. Taguchi L18 orthogonal array and Grey
the point of view of the manufacturers bussines Taguchi based respone surface methodology
but do not lead to the optimization of all cut were used to design experiments and find
quality features required by users. Because of optimal cutting parameters. Chen et al. [8]
that various experimental researches were analyzed two process responses such as bevel
conducted in order to describe and model magnitude and the hole diameter deviation.
plasma jet cutting process and to chose the They conducted 36 experiments according to
optimal process parameters. Taguchi L9 experiment design and varied six
process parameters, tip size, feed rate, voltage,
Kumar Das et al. [1] analyzed the influence of amperage, air pressure and pierce time.
three process parameters, gas pressure, arc Taguchi method was used to find optimal
current and torch height on material removal combination of process parameters that lead to
rate and surface roughness parameters. They the smallest bevel angle and diameter deviation
conducted experiments on EN31 steel of the hole. Thilak et al. [9] analyzed the
according to Taguchi L27 orthogonal array. influence of arc current, gas pressure, cutting
Parametric optimization was carried out using speed and arc gap in plasma cutting of stainless
grey relational analysis. Salonitis et al. [2] used steel 316L on process responses such as
the regression analysis to describe the effect of machining time, hardness and kerf width. They
cutting power, cutting speed, cutting height and used Taguchi method for design experiment
plasma gas pressure process parameters on cut and Grey relational analysis for optimization.
quality features such as kerf taper angle, the Radovanovic et al. [10] conducted experiments
edge roughness and the size of the heat affected in which they varied three input process
zone. Bini et al. [3] analyzed the influence of arc parameters, cutting current, plate thickness and
voltage, cutting speed, plasma and shield gas cutting speed. They developed artificial neural
flowrates on kerf position and shape in 15 mm network model to predict the ten point height
thick mild steel sheets cutting. They used a two- of irregularities of cut surface (Rz) and to
level fractional factorial design for design identify cutting parameters values that lead to
experiment and ANOVA (Analyisis of variance) optimal surface roughness. Kechagias et al. [11]
523
I. Peko et al., Tribology in Industry Vol. 38, No. 4 (2016) 522-529
also used artificial neural network approach for Table 1. Plasma jet cutting parameters.
prediction of bevel angle that appear after CNC Input parameters
plasma arc cutting of St37 mild steel sheets. No. of
Experiment Cutting current, Cutting speed, v
They conducted a L18 Taguchi orthogonal array I (A) (mm/min)
experiment. Input parameters whose influence 1 60 425
was analyzed are plate thickness, cutting speed, 2 60 530
arc current and torch standoff distance. 3 60 635
4 80 490
In the present research paper experiments were
5 80 610
conducted on structural steel S235JRG2 plate
6 80 730
thickness of 15 mm. It was analyzed the
7 80 870
influence of input process parameters, cutting
current and cutting speed on surface roughness. 8 80 1055
Artificial neural network approach was used for 9 100 530
mathematical modeling and to identify cutting 10 100 695
parameters ranges that lead to minimal surface 11 100 870
roughness values. 12 100 1055
13 120 730
14 120 870
2. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE 15 120 1055
16 120 1320
Experimental work was conducted on a CNC 17 120 1585
Steel Taylor plasma cutting machine (Fig. 1).
Test specimens were cut on 15 mm thickness Table 2. Experimental results.
structural steel plate S235JRG2 with the use of
compressed air as plasma gas. Input process Measured Mean value of
No. of Measurement surface surface
parameters levels that were varied in Exp. places roughness, Ra roughness, Ra
experiments were shown in Table 1. Fixed (m) (m)
input parameters are: nozzle diameter 1.5 mm, g 10.50
gas pressure 6 bar, cutting height 5 mm. Every 1 s 17.00 19.00
experiment was conducted one time. During the d 30.70
experiments it was noticed that some
g 12.40
combinations of cutting parameters lead to not
2 s 21.30 24.70
penetrated workpieces such as those in runs
d 40.40
number 3 and 8. In Figures 2 and 3 it was
shown look of well cut specimen and one not g
penetrated. Measurements of surface 3 s Workpiece is not penetrated
roughness were performed on three places of d
cut surface: near to upper cut edge (g), in the g 17.50
middle (s) and near to lower cut edge (d) (Fig. 4 s 29.40 24.50
4). Results of measured surface roughness were d 26.60
shown in Table 2. g 15.20
5 s 35.80 24.67
d 23.00
g 14.10
6 s 24.30 21.03
d 24.70
g 14.00
7 s 41.00 36.67
d 55.00
g
8 s Workpiece is not penetrated
Fig. 1. CNC Steel Taylor plasma jet cutting machine. d
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I. Peko et al., Tribology in Industry Vol. 38, No. 4 (2016) 522-529
g 35.00
9 s 19.00 28.67
d 32.00
g 13.00
10 s 13.00 11.93
d 9.80
g 12.40
11 s 8.80 11.40
d 13.00 Fig. 4. Surface roughness measurement places.
g 12.00
12 s 12.40 11.50
d 10.10 3. ARTIFICIAL NEURAL NETWORK
g 16.00 MODELING OF SURFACE ROUGHNESS
13 s 14.00 16.00
d 18.00 The Artificial Neural Network (ANN) is an
g 17.00 artificial system similar to the biological nervous
14 s 14.00 17.00 system able to intelligently process the
d 20.00
information simulating the biological
intelligence. The artificial neural networks are
g 10.30
applicable today in various areas such as process
15 s 11.00 7.10
modeling and optimization, design and
d -
simulation, classification, robotics, etc. [12-14].
g 10.80
16 s 9.90 11.20 Architecture of artificial neural networks is
d 12.90 parallel-distributed and it consists of a large
g 8.30 number of neurons distributed in several layers.
17 s 10.10 9.40 Each ANN must have at least three layers: input
d 9.80 layer, hidden layer and output layer [15-17].
Neurons of one layer are connected by specific
synapses to the neurons of their neighbouring
layers. Interconnections between particular
neurons by the layers are characterized by weights
and biases, which change during the ANN training.
By proper adjustments of weights and biases in the
training process ANN is more capable to better
describe the relationships between input process
parameters and output responses. Prior to ANN
training process optimal number of hidden layers
and the number of neurons in each of them should
be properly defined. These numbers change
Fig. 2. Look of penetrated specimen. during training and can be defined empiricaly or
by using some existing equations that take in
consideration number of input and output neurons
and training data. Training is carried out on the
exmples data usually obtained by the experiments.
This process should be repeated until the ANN is
stabilized or error is defined below a previously
defined treshold. Validation and testing process
of developed ANN are performed on data subsets
that are not included in the training data subset.
The trained, validated and tested ANN can be
used for modeling and prediction various
Fig. 3. Look of not penetrated specimen. processes [15-22].
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In this paper, the three layered feed-forward normalized to a range of (-1,1) and the initial
backpropagation ANN architecture has been values of weights were set according to Nguyen-
selected for modeling surface roughness in Widrow method. As it was already mentioned
plasma jet cutting process of thick structural steel backpropagation algorithm with momentum
plate. The input layer of the ANN model consists was used for ANN training.
of two neurons corrsponding to the two process
parameters that were varied in the experiments, The performance of the network was measured
cutting current (I) and cutting speed (v) and the by the Mean Squared Error (MSE) of the
output layer has one neuron for prediction of predicted outputs with regards to the real
surface roughness values (Fig. 5). experimental data. The goal is to get MSE as
close as possible to zero. The zero means that
there is no error between outputs of the
network and experimental values. In this case,
ANN training was initially set to terminate after
a maximum number of epochs, but it was
stopped at 15 iterations since no further
improvement in the MSE was achieved. MSE
values obatined after training, validation and
testing of ANN are shown in Table 3.
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very rare. A good ANN model should have the input cutting parameters, cutting current (I) and
correlation coefficient greater than 0.8. cutting speed (v) can be expressed following the
Correlation coefficients of the developed ANN Equation 1. In this equation X is the column
model for all three datasets are shown in Fig. 6. vector which contains normalized values of v
Also, it was carried out comparison of actual and I and Ranorm is the normalized value for the
data and those predicted by developed ANN Ra. To obtain actual values of surface roughness
model. Results were shown in Fig. 7. it is necessary to denormalize the data:
2
Ranorm 1 wkj b k (1)
1 e2( X w ji b j )
4. RESULTS
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Analyzing the experimental data the area of Future research will take in consideration other
parameters combinations within certainly cut quality responses such as kerf width, dross
comes to sheet metal cutting was defined. This width, dross height that occur during plasma jet
area was shown in Figs. 8-10. cutting. Their values will be included in
mathematical modelling procedure to obtain a
complete view of output process quality.
Acknowledgement
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Tribology in Industry
RESEARCH
www.tribology.fink.rs
Keywords: ABSTRACT
Hot filament CVD Nano-crystalline diamond and microcrystalline diamond films have been
Nanocrystalline separately deposited on chemically treated titanium alloy (Ti6Al4V)
Microcrystalline substrates from methane/hydrogen (CH4/H2) gas mixture, using hot
Coefficient of friction filament chemical vapor deposition technique. The coatings have
Wear track architecture of Ti6Al4V/NCD and Ti6Al4V/MCD. The as grown nano-
Tribo-layer crystalline diamond and microcrystalline diamond films were
characterized using high resolution scanning electron microscope and
Ramans spectroscopy. The residual stresses along the surface of nano-
crystalline diamond coatings and micro-crystalline diamond coatings are
compressive in nature as shown by the Raman spectroscopy.
Corresponding author: Nanoindentation tests were also conducted using Berkovich nanoindenter
Sajad Hussain Din for the purpose of measurement of hardness and elastic modulus values.
Department of Mechanical The indentation depth for microcrystalline diamond coating was 65 nm,
Engineering, National Institute of whereas for nanocrystalline diamond coating, it was 72 nm.
Technology Srinagar 190006, India. Microcrystalline diamond and nanocrystalline diamond coatings have
E-mail: sajad_08phd12@nitsri.net yielded the super-hardness of ~55 G Pa and ~38 G Pa respectively. The
average coefficient of friction of microcrystalline diamond and
nanocrystalline diamond coatings decrease from 0.305-0.27 to 0.068-
0.053, respectively, when the load is increased from 1 N to 10 N. However,
for conventional Ti6Al4V substrate the average coefficient of friction
changes from 0.625 to 0.38 under the same input conditions.
2016 Published by Faculty of Engineering
530
S.H. Din et al., Tribology in Industry Vol. 38, No. 4 (2016) 530-542
alloys are widely used in medicine, aeronautics, influence of the NCD films adhesion on wear of
astronautics, chemical industry, power industry NCD-coated tools in milling aluminum alloy AA
and food industry [6-10]. Titanium and its alloys 7075 T6, which is a characteristic material for
are preferred for implants and surgical devices aerospace applications. The NCD coating-
because of its biocompatibility, resistance and substrate interface fatigue strength is a key
tolerance to body fluids. The mechanical and aspect for measuring the coated tool life in
tribological properties of titanium alloys milling. The NCD coating-interface fatigue was
combine to provide implants that are extremely probed using inclined impact tests at ambient
damage-tolerant. The durability and service and elevated temperatures. The investigations of
performance of titanium by chemical vapor milling AA 7075 T6 showed that the NCD film-
deposition can markedly be enhanced [11-14]. substrate interface strength at elevated
By altering the microstructures of the substrate temperatures is a key factor for explaining the
materials the gas reactants severely deteriorate wear behaviour. An insufficient adhesion leads
the mechanical properties [1519]. Hydrogen is rapidly to a delamination of the NCD-coating and
crucial to synthesize quality diamond as it to a substrate revelation. The inclined impact
preferentially etches non diamond carbon test is an efficient test method facilitating the
species. But hydrogen also readily dissolves into assessment of the NCD film substrate interface
titanium and induces phase transformation and at ambient and elevated temperatures [48-51].
increase embrittlement. [20-25]. A new hetero- Z. Doni et al. studied the evolution of the
interface is introduced which complicates the functional integrity state in a comparative way
adhesion failure models of diamond coatings. for two contact pairs (Ti6Al4V/Al2O3 and
Thus preventing the formation of an Ti6Al4V/steel ball) in dry and corrosive
intermediate titanium carbide layer at the early environment [52]. The investigation showed the
stage of CVD processing [26,27]. For smoothing behavior of TI6Al4V alloy under reciprocating
the surface of diamond films, various methods wear sliding conditions in a comparative way for
have been developed. Various effective tools to two different counter materials, bearing steel
improve the tribological behavior of the and ceramic balls (Al2O3 99.6 %) in dry and
diamond film and lower the surface roughness corrosive environment (an aqueous solution of
are nanocrystalline diamond (NCD) film, 3.5 % NaCl). It aimed to highlight the tribological
substrate pretreatment, activated hydrogen characteristics that showed invariability during
etching on surface, diamond polishing, growth the test and provided a high level of functional
parameters control, addition of interlayers, solid integrity of the surface. The conclusions drawn
lubrication composite coating on diamond films from this work were as follows; (a) in dry
and alternate deposition of poly/nanocrystalline condition the Ti6Al4V/Al2O3 contact pair
diamond multilayer [28-35]. With the showed a high functional integrity degree of the
development of the technique of CVD diamond surfaces in terms of surface quality,
films, synthesis of nanocrystalline diamond characterized by roughness parameters Sa, Sq
(NCD) and microcrystalline diamond (MCD) and Sy, while for the Ti6Al4V/steel ball based on
films have gained wide spread research interest the roughness parameter Sv; (b) in the case of
[36,37]. NCD films possess fine diamond crystals Ti6Al4V/steel ball contact pair a better
with small grain sizes ranging few nanometers functional integrity (evaluated based on the
[38,39]. Compared with microcrystalline weight loss) occurred for higher applied loads
diamond (MCD) films, NCD films have lower than in the case of lower loads; (c) from the
hardness than MCD films due to the presence of point of view of the electrochemical behavior a
graphitic carbon in the films. Moreover, due to higher functional integrity occurred in the case
high grain boundary density the NCD coatings of Ti6Al4V/Al2O3 contact pair at lower applied
show surface hardness reduction [40-46]. loads (assessed through parameters Ecorr and
Further, NCD films have smoother surface and Icorr); (d) the electrochemical parameters for
lower friction coefficient, which makes them Ti6Al4V/Al2O3 contact pair are at a lower level
ideal coatings for tribological applications. K. D. than those of the Ti6Al4V/steel ball contact pair;
Bouzakis et al. studied the application of inclined (e) the evolution of the roughness parameters
impact test for evaluating the temperature and the structural affinity between TI6Al4V alloy
dependent fatigue strength of NCD coatings and the bearing ball conduced to a higher
interface [47]. Moreover, it clarified the functional integrity level from the point of view
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S.H. Din et al., Tribology in Industry Vol. 38, No. 4 (2016) 530-542
of the evolution of COF by comparison to 17 mm, was placed above the samples. A rotary
Ti6Al4V/Al2O3 contact pair [53-56]. pump was used to continuously pump the hot
filament chemical vapor deposition (HFCVD)
A comparison has been documented between chamber, while methane (45 sccm) diluted in
nanocrystalline diamond (NCD) and excess of hydrogen (2250 sccm), were
microcrystalline diamond (MCD) coatings on quantified in at carefully controlled rates. The
titanium alloy (Ti6Al4V) substrates with assembly of gas distribution allowed the control
architectures of Ti6Al4V/NCD and of the gas flow patterns in and around both the
Ti6Al4V/MCD, using hot filament chemical filament assembly and the sample to ensure
vapor deposition (HFCVD) technique. A detailed uniformness in the coatings. A two color
analysis of friction and wear behavior in pyrometer monitored the temperature of
ambient air for the two separate coatings has tungsten filament. It was found to be 2200 C. A
been studied. Their tribological behavior is k-type thermocouple was used to measure the
studied as a function of the diamond coatings temperature of titanium alloy samples. The
characteristics. The effect of diamond quality on thermocouple was located beneath the titanium
the tribological behavior of the two types of alloy samples. It was found to be 800 C. The
coatings has been investigated. The friction whole growth process was performed for 3
characteristics of the diamond coated Ti6Al4V hours and the thickness of the film was
substrates has been compared with uncoated estimated to be 3 m. The detailed growth
one, using ball on disc type linear reciprocating parameters for depositing MCD and NCD films
micro-tribometer, sliding against smooth alumina are listed in Table 1.
(Al2O3) ceramic ball under dry sliding conditions.
Al2O3 is a promising ceramic material used at high Table 1. Growth parameters for the deposition of
temperature because of its excellent chemical MCD and NCD coatings.
stability, good mechanical and electrical Coating Substrate Substrate Filament Methane Duration
properties, and wear and corrosion resistance. type Pressure Temp. (C) Temp. Conc. (hrs)
(Torr) (C) (CH4/H2)
%
MCD 36 800850 2200 2 3
2. EXPERIMENTAL DETAILS NCD 12 800850 2200 4 3
Titanium alloy (Ti6Al4V) samples of 25 mm X 25 Raman spectra of the deposited films were
mm in dimensions were polished using silicon recorded using a confocal microscope (Alpha
carbide (SiC) and cleaned with deionized water. 300, Witec) with an excitation radiation of 532
The samples were etched in the solution of HF: nm of a Nd:YAG laser operated at less than 20
H2O2: DI water. The samples were rinsed in mW. The surface roughness and microstructure
deionized water three times for three minutes were observed using a field emission SEM
each. The samples were removed and blown dry (Quanta 3D, FEI). The detailed experimental
with air gun. The mirror finish was obtained by conditions are given in Table 2.
polishing the samples by diamond paste (1m).
An ultrasonicator was used to clean the samples Table 2. Experimental conditions.
with acetone for 30 minutes and then dried S. No. Parameters Operating Conditions
thoroughly by a hot drier. Dimethyl sulphoxide 1 Normal Load 1, 5, 10 N
(DMSO) solution containing diamond seedings of 2 Sliding Velocity 8 cm/s
size 4 m were used. Before deposition of nano- 3 Relative Humidity 70 ( 5)%
diamond films, the titanium alloy samples were 4 Duration of Rubbing 15 minutes
5 Surface Condition Dry
dispersed in it. This is done by using a low power
6 Materials Tested Ti6Al4V, MCD and NCD
ultrasonicator for 15 minutes. The samples were 7 Ball Material Alumina (Al2O3)
again cleaned with ethanol in an ultra-sonicator 8 Diameter of ball 6 mm
for 1 minute and placed inside the cold walled 9 Stroke length 5 mm
aluminum chamber of hot filament chemical 10 Frequency 2 Hz
vapor deposition (HFCVD) system (sp3 Diamond 11 Temperature 301 C
Roughness Factor (Ra)
Technologies Inc. USA). An array of 31 parallel Ti6Al4V 0.38 m
wires of (0.12 mm) diameter filaments, with 12 12
NCD 0.18 m
mm wire to wire spacing and standoff distance of MCD 0.26 m
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2.1 Method of deposition when sliding against smooth Al2O3 ceramic ball,
under the application of 1-10 N loads.
Hot filament chemical vapor deposition system
(HFCVD, Model 650 series, sp3, Diamond 3.1 Scanning Electron Microscopy
Technologies) with excellent process control
unit system was used for the deposition of The scanning electron microscopy was used to
diamond films, using the growth rate of 1 m/hr. study the morphology and grain size of diamond
Deposition parameters such as chamber films. With the increase in methane
pressure and methane concentration were concentration, secondary nucleation takes place
controlled easily during the experiment by using which changes the nature of existing grains from
throttle valve and mass flow controllers microcrystalline to nanocrystalline. Therefore, a
respectively. Hydrogen (H2) and methane (CH4) cauliflower type of morphology is generally
were used as the precursor gases and their flow shown by the top-layer (NCD) of multilayer CVD
rates were completely controlled using mass diamond coatings [57]. The MCD coating
flow controllers. An arrangement of tungsten exhibits clear multi-facet diamond crystals. Fig. 1
wires (diameter 0.12 mm) in systematic order (a) shows the general surface morphology of the
were used as hot filaments for the activation of NCD coating, whereas Fig. 1 (b) shows the
these precursor gases and the distance between surface morphology of the MCD coating.
filament and substrate was kept 17 mm. The
grain size of the diamond films were
automatically controlled by maintaining both
methane concentration and chamber pressure.
The toxic by product gases or exhaust gases
produced after the deposition process from the
HFCVD chamber were diluted using nitrogen
(N2) gas. However, N2 gases were used before
and after the diamond growth process of flush
the chamber. CVD chamber was made of
aluminum with cooling channels and the
temperature of the chamber was maintained at
~55 C using a circulating water chiller.
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S.H. Din et al., Tribology in Industry Vol. 38, No. 4 (2016) 530-542
Fig. 2. Raman spectra of CVD-diamond coatings, (a) NCD and (b) MCD.
Fig. 3. (a) Loaddisplacement curve for NCD coating, (b) Loaddisplacement curve for MCD coating.
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Fig. 4. Tribological characteristics of Ti6Al4V substrates sliding against alumina ball. (a) Coefficient of friction vs
duration of rubbing at 1 N, 5 N and 10 N, (b) Average coefficient of friction vs. normal load.
Fig. 5. Tribological characteristics of MCD coatings sliding against alumina ball. (a) Coefficient of friction vs
duration of rubbing at 1 N, 5 N and 10 N, (b) Average coefficient of friction vs. normal load.
Fig. 6. Tribological characteristics of NCD coatings sliding against alumina ball, (a) Coefficient of friction vs
duration of rubbing at 1 N, 5 N and 10 N, (b) Average coefficient of friction vs. normal load.
3.4 Friction Characteristics of the NCD and ~0.305-0.27 and 0.068-0.053, respectively by
MCD Coatings against Alumina Balls increasing the normal load from 1-10 N, for the
total duration of 20 minutes. Tribological
Frictional characteristics of uncoated Ti6Al4V, characteristics of Ti6Al4V substrate sliding
MCD and NCD were studied, sliding against against alumina ball is shown in figure 4. The
smooth Al2O3 ceramic ball using ball on disc type coefficient of friction decreases with increase in
linear reciprocating micro-tribometer, for a load, shown in Fig. 4 (a) and the average
sliding speed of 8 m/s and a load of 1 N, 5 N and coefficient of friction, shown in Fig. 4 (b)
10 N. The average values of coefficient of friction decreases from 0.625 to 0.38. Similarly, the
corresponding to virgin substrate, MCD and NCD values of coefficient of friction corresponding to
coatings were calculated as ~0.625-0.38, MCD coating decrease under the same input
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S.H. Din et al., Tribology in Industry Vol. 38, No. 4 (2016) 530-542
polished, as observed by SEM. This lack of the formation of thick transfer layer [67].
coating wear of the disc results from the short Diamond is considered as self-lubricating
test duration due to the ball wearing more material and the low friction coefficient values
quickly. Alumina is a chemically inert ceramic attained by many researchers is mainly due to
compound and sliding interaction of diamond its extreme chemical inertness (no chemical
coatings against alumina material is purely interaction/bonding) and sliding induced
mechanical. The stable and low friction graphitization or re-hybridization of carbon. The
coefficient of the NCD coating was attributed to chemistry of the sliding environment such as
the chemical inertness of the mating materials relative humidity and use of vacuum, inert gases
and also due to the continuous availability of the or any other gases may affect the friction and
lubricious non-diamond graphitic phases at the wear characteristics of the diamond films [68-
grain boundaries of NCD coating. On the other 69]. The wear and friction of diamond coatings
hand, slightly high and unstable friction are found to be normally low only in air and
behavior was observed during the sliding of relatively dry inert gas environment, whereas, in
MCD coating against alumina ball. The high run- vacuum and at high temperatures, the friction
in friction behavior of the MCD coating was and wear are much higher [70-71]. Gaseous
attributed to its sharp and rough surface adsorbates such as hydrogen or oxygen can
asperities. effectively passivate the free -bonds on the
surface of diamond. When these -bonds
The tribological characteristics of CVD diamond become highly passive, then the adhesion
coatings depend on their grain size, grain component of the friction significantly reduces
boundary strength and the presence of non- and such diamond surface exhibits low friction
diamond phases [61]. Also, the wear and friction coefficient [72]. Roy et al. investigated the
behavior of the tribo-contact pairs during dry friction response of the H-terminated and O-
sliding depends on the extrinsic conditions such terminated NCD films and found that the H-
as normal load, sliding velocity and mainly on terminated diamond films show low friction
the type of interaction, whether mechanical or coefficient in comparison to that of O-terminated
chemical [62]. The contact between two sliding NCD films, which was attributed to the
surfaces occurs at asperities and these asperities hydrophobic nature of the former one [73].
act as stress concentrators. CVD diamond
coatings are highly wear resistant and High surface roughness of the faceted MCD
chemically inert while sliding against most of the coatings has a detrimental effect on the friction
ceramics and undergo only mechanical wear by and wears characteristics [74]. However, these
means of asperity fracture and abrasive damage coatings hardly show any wear but severely
[63]. Grooves may form on the wear surfaces in abrade counter face materials due to the hard
sliding contact due to the abrasive micro-wear and sharp asperities [75]. Generally MCD
mechanisms [64]. Purely mechanical wear coatings exhibit high run-in friction behavior
produces rough contact surfaces and generally and stabilize to the lower value after a long
shows stable friction behavior. Whereas, the sliding distance. In the case of NCD coatings, the
tribo-chemical interactions or tribo-oxidation of friction coefficient falls to a much lower steady
the mating parts produces tribo-debris or tribo- state value soon after a short run-in period. The
layer at the contact interface and modify the low friction coefficient of the NCD coating is due
contact stresses [65]. These tribolayers of the to the presence of non-diamond carbon phases
reaction products are generally softer than the that are present at the grain boundaries. The
substrate and affect the wear and friction roughness of the NCD coatings will have less
properties, especially under un-lubricated detrimental effect on friction and wear
conditions [66]. The friction characteristics of characteristics in comparison to MCD coatings
diamond coating mainly depend on the counter [76].
face material. In the case of non-diamond sliders,
the friction is influenced by the formation of a 3.5 Wear track Analysis by Raman
transfer layer during run-in period. Bull et al. Spectroscopy and EDS
found that the initial friction between CVD
diamond coating and sapphire was ~ 0.2, but Figures 8(a) and 8(b) show the Raman spectra of
raised rapidly to ~ 0.6, which was attributed to wear tracks corresponding to NCD and MCD
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Tribology in Industry
RESEARCH
www.tribology.fink.rs
Keywords: ABSTRACT
Sliding wear
The effects of thermal oxidation duration on hardness, roughness, and
UHMWPE
wettability of the CP-titanium surfaces were investigated in this paper.
CP-titanium
The thermal oxidation treatment was done at 700 oC for 12-36 hours in an
Thermal oxidation duration
air atmosphere. The wear behavior of the UHMWPE sliding against
treated thermal oxidation of the CP-titanium was tested by a pin-on-plate
Corresponding author: tribometer under lubrication of the solution of 75 % distilled water and 25
Benidiktus Tulung Prayoga % bovine serum. The results showed that the layer of the oxide titanium
Departement of Mechanical was formed on the surface after being treated by the thermal oxidation for
Engineering, 12-36 hours. The oxide titanium layer was dominated by rutile form of
Universitas Gadjah Mada, TiO2, that offers an improvement of hardness and wettability of the CP-
Bulaksumur 55281, Yogyakarta titanium surfaces. The average wear factor of the UHMWPE reduced
Indonesia. significantly when the sliding against of the CP-titanium was modified by
E-mail: beni@ugm.ac.id the thermal oxidation, and the lowest average wear factor was reached
when the sliding against the 12 hour oxidized CP-titanium counterfaces.
2016 Published by Faculty of Engineering
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B.T. Prayoga et al., Tribology in Industry Vol. 38, No. 4 (2016) 543-551
or cobalt alloy [5,6]. Additionally, they are very and 700 0C [24]. The long duration (more than 72
reactive metals and will quickly react to form hours) gave the effect of the spallation of the
oxide layer when exposed to the atmosphere. oxide layer, but if the duration was very low (less
The compact oxide layer will form easily at the than 5 hours) the oxide layer formed was thin
surface, so that they have excellent corrosion [25]. In the previous investigation, the thermal
resistance [79]. The oxide layer is compact and oxidation at 700 oC for several duration could
stable, but the layer which is automatically reduce the wear of the UHMWPE-CP-
formed is thin, and it is not enough to improve titanium/Ti64 counterparts. Wang et al. [26]
the wear resistance. All joint prostheses are investigated the wear of Ti64 that was treated by
articulated with a boundary or mixed lubrication the TO and UHMWPE; they found that the wear
that allows the bearing surface in the contact volumes decreased 68 % for treated samples
and results in the generation of wear debris [11]. compared to the untreated specimen. Xiong et al.
In the total joint replacement, the UHMWPE [27] investigated the wear properties of the
wear debris is the main issue due to the wear UHMWPE sliding against modified titanium
debris is recognized as a leading cause of failure alloys. The friction coefficients of the UHMWPE
of the total joint replacement [12]. The debris of sliding against thermal oxidation treated
the wear will cause damage to body tissue specimens under bovine serum that were
surrounding the implant [3,12]. The weakness of decreased by 63 %. All studies used the pin on
the titanium and titanium alloy are poor disk tribometer.
tribology properties when rubbing against itself
or other materials [14]. Therefore, it has limited A linear reciprocating movement generated on
their extensive use in biomedical implant the uni-directional pin on plate tribometer is a
[13,14]. more realistic motion for investigating wear
mechanism of the joint implant material. The
The one of the methods to improve the intermittent motion at the end of stroke can
tribological properties of titanium is the surface represent the natural joint movement [27,28].
modification. Several studies have been The aim of this study was to investigate whether
conducted to investigate surface modification of the effect of the duration of the thermal
the titanium and titanium alloy material through oxidation on the surface treatment of the CP
anodic oxidation, DLC coating, SMAT, and titanium at 700oC was able to reduce the wear of
thermal oxidation to improve the wear behavior the UHMWPE tested using a reciprocating pin-
[1316]. Thermal oxidation (TO) is very on-plate tribometer.
straightforward and inexpensive method.
Therefore, this treatment is very promising for
improvement of the wear behavior of the 2. MATERIAL AND METHODS
titanium which would be used as the load-
bearing implant [19,20]. 2.1 Materials preparation
The hard and thick TiO2 layers can be obtained on The CP-titanium cast was used in this study. The
the surface of the CP-titanium by the thermal specimens as-received from the investment
oxidation method. This method exploits the low casting cut by milling machine to the dimension
resistance of the titanium to oxidation and of 55 mm x 18 mm x 3 mm. After that, the
oxygen diffusion at high temperature. According specimens were annealed at 900oC for 2 hours in
to previous studies [8,19,21], the two primary an argon environment and then cooled in the
parameters to obtain optimum TiO2 layer are furnace to obtain a uniform initial
temperature and duration of the thermal microstructure condition. The specimens were
oxidation treatment. Satendra Kumar et al. [23] ground with abrasive paper #600, 1200, 5000,
investigated the formation of rutile TiO2 during and finished with diamond paste to obtain
thermal oxidation of CP-Ti was minimal at 650 oC. average surface roughness (Ra 0.1 m). All of
At the low temperature (below 500 oC) the kinetic the specimens were ultrasonically cleaned in
reaction was slow, but at a high temperature distilled water for 15 minutes and degreased
(above 800 oC) would affect on the spallation of with alcohol before treatment. In this study, all
the oxide layer, so the oxidation temperature was of the thermal oxidation processes were
chosen as an optimum temperature between 600 performed at 700 oC.
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B.T. Prayoga et al., Tribology in Industry Vol. 38, No. 4 (2016) 543-551
The oxidation process was performed in a attached in water drop equipment (Gaosuo,
chamber furnace (Thermo Scientific, USA) in an China) and then the droplet contact angles were
air atmosphere. The specimens were heated in analyzed.
room temperature at 700 oC with the ramp rate
was the default of the furnace setting. The holding 2.3 Unidirectional reciprocating wear test
time was set 12 and 36 hours (not including the
ramp). After the holding time had been reached, The wear test was performed for untreated and
the specimens were cooled naturally in the the oxidized CP-titanium specimen with the
furnace. The specimens were weighed prior and UHMWPE in the 6 station unidirectional
after oxidation with microbalance with an reciprocating pin-on-plate tribometer. The device
accuracy 0.00001 g (Ohaus). was built in our laboratory. The flat-ended
UHMWPE pins having the dimension of the 9
2.2 Surface characterizations mm, and 15 mm length were prepared as
counterpart specimen. Prior to wear testing, all the
The specimen surface roughness was measured UHMWPE pin specimens were allowed to soak in
using a contact stylus profilometer (Surfcorder, distilled water for 2 weeks to prevent the moisture
Kosaka, Japan). The measurement was uptake during the wear test. The density of the
conducted at 19 different locations to obtain the UHMWPE was assumed 0.9737 gr/cm3.
medium arithmetic value (Ra) of the samples.
All samples were cleaned up using alcohol, The UHMWPE pins were installed at the upper
rinsed in distilled water, and dried prior to the of the plate sample moving unidirectional
observation and measurement. reciprocating. The normal load on the pin was
180 N which was provided with the lever
The surface morphology of the oxide layer mechanism, so that it corresponded to 2.8 MPa
formed in surface CP-titanium was examined of nominal contact stress. The frequency for
using a scanning electron microscope (JSM- reciprocating motion was set 1 Hz and the
6510LA, JEOL, Ltd., Japan). The examinations sliding distance was set to 25 mm giving a
were conducted on the untreated, 12, and 36 sliding velocity of 50 mm/s. The wear tests were
hours treated sample. X-ray diffraction (XRD) done at a room temperature. The lubricant used
was undertaken using Monochromatic X-ray in this study was a solution of 25 % bovine
radiation from a copper tube with a wavelength serum and 75 % of distilled water. To prevent
of K1 = 1.5406 to identify phases presence in the lubricant from the bacterial growth the
the thermally oxidized samples. The X-ray tube sodium azide were added (0.1 % v/v).
was supplied by an electric current at a voltage
of = 40 kV and intensity of I = 30 mA. The The wear tests were run with a total sliding
scanning was done in an angular range from 10o distance of about 75 kms. The tests were
to 90o. interrupted at regular intervals 12.5 kms and the
wear was measured by the weight loss. The wear
The surface hardness examinations were device was shut off then the pins and plates were
determined using a Vickers microhardness removed for weighing every regular interruption.
tester (Buehler, USA). The tests were conducted Prior to weighing, the pins and plates were
with indentation load 0.49 N for 15 s. The cleaned with an ultrasonic cleaner in distilled
measurement of the average hardness was done water for 15 minutes and lapped with tissue.
for seven different locations at the surface.
The samples were weighed using a microbalance
The surface wettability was taken from the with an accuracy 0.00001 g (Ohaus). The
measurements of the drop static contact angle average wear factor was calculated as
between the bovine serum solution (75 % accumulated volume loss (mm3), divided by the
distilled water and 25 % bovine) and sample unit of force (N) times total sliding distance (m).
surface at room temperature. A bovine solution The average wear factor (WF) was determined
droplet was deposited five times at three from Eq (1):
different locations on the surface of each sample.
The droplet of the bovine solution image was Wear Volume (mm3 )
WF (1)
obtained using a USB digital microscope Load ( N ) x sliding dist (m)
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3. RESULT AND DISCUSSION layer which covered the entire of the sample
surface.
3.1 Microstructure initial state
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The increase of the surface roughness was however, the oxide layer formed on the surface
caused by the growth of the oxide layer on the of the samples were able to reduce the wear of
surface. This can be described by the formation the UHMWPE. Specifically for couples the
of large agglomerations oxide grains on the UHMWPE and CP-titanium-treated, showed that
surface. Grains of the oxide began to cover the the surface roughness also affected the wear
surface and grow larger in size when the though it was not significant.
duration increased (Fig. 3).
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B.T. Prayoga et al., Tribology in Industry Vol. 38, No. 4 (2016) 543-551
that the thermal oxidation treatment can improve the treated sample, because the auto oxide layer
wettability and reduce wear. is thin so that it can not inhibit the wear sliding.
The thin oxide layer will peel off as wear debris
The surface of the CP-titanium was covered by or will penetrate in the UHMWPE and lead to
the oxide layer composed of TiO2 oxide which scratching of the CP-titanium surface which, in
improved hardness and wears resistance. The turn, leads to severe abrasive wear to both
formation of TiO2 can be held responsible for an articulate surfaces. The wear mechanism of the
increase the surface roughness and enhance in UHMWPE/untreated CP-titanium couple may be
the wettability. The coarse grain oxide will offer attributed to the mechanisms of third body
greater surface contact and provide micro wear. This study has shown that the wear of the
spaces between grains (Fig. 3) that play as UHMWPE was greater against CP-titanium plate
lubricants pocket to increase hydrodynamic treated for 36 hours than against 12 hours
lubrication which results in a decrease of wear treated plates, due to the roughening by thermal
rate. The thermal oxidation treatment can be oxidation duration. In the case of the rough CP-
suitable to reduce the wear of corresponding titanium thermal oxidation treated surface, the
UHMWPE and hinder the generation of abrasive coarse of oxide grains accelerated the wear
particles. In the case of the untreated CP- because of the high point or asperities on the
titanium counterfaces, although with smooth surface to produce wear by an abrasive wear
surfaces, the average wear factor is higher than mechanism.
Fig. 9. Worn surfaces of plate and pins (a) untreated CP-titanium; (b) UHMWPE sliding against untreated CP-
titanium; (c) 12 hours thermal oxidation CP-titanium; (d) UHMWPE sliding against 12 hours thermal oxidation
CP-titanium; (e) 36 hours thermal oxidation CP-titanium; (f) ) UHMWPE sliding against 36 hours thermal
oxidation CP-titanium. The arrows indicate as sliding direction.
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Tribology in Industry
RESEARCH
www.tribology.fink.rs
Keywords: ABSTRACT
Mullite
Mullite-WC composites were prepared from Mullite and WC powders by
WC spark plasma sintering at 1400 C for a holding time of 180 s under 30
Nano composite MPa. Microstructure, strength, and hardness of the mullite-WC
Spark plasma sintering composites were studied. The mullite-WC composite containing 5-20
wt% WC reached over 94 % theoretical density. The strength and
Corresponding author: Vickers hardness of mullite-(10 wt%) WC sintered composite reached
maximum values of 298 MPa, and 1589 HV, respectively demonstrating
Iman Mobasherpour that the introduction of WC significantly enhances the mechanical
Ceramics Department, Materials and properties of the mullite matrix.
Energy Research Center, Karaj, Iran.
E-mail:Iman.Mobasherpour@gmail.com 2016 Published by Faculty of Engineering
552
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investigated recently in order to improve the m, and the number percentage of the particles
inherent brittleness of monolithic mullite below 9 m was 90 %.
ceramic [15-19]. Continuous silicon carbide
fiber- or aluminosilicate reinforced mullite
matrix composites have been used in advanced
applications, such as aero engines, stationary gas
turbines and heat exchangers [20]. Nevertheless,
these mullite composites are not much reliable
at temperatures higher than 1500 C because of
the severe degradation of silicon carbide or
aluminosilicate phases [21].
553
H. Rajaei et al., Tribology in Industry Vol. 38, No. 4 (2016) 552-558
were dried and then passed through a sieve with crosshead speed of 0.5 mm/min. For each set of
a pore-opening size of 100 m. Using a graphite compositions, at least five specimens were
die with an inner diameter of 50 mm, Powders tested for both strength and hardness
were sintered by an SPS machine (SPS-20T-10, measurements.
Easy fashion metal products trade Co.). Standard
DC pulse ONOFF sequence with current 2.6 kA
was chosen for all the experiments. The heating 3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
rate was 1 C/s and sintering was performed
under vacuum at a temperature of 1400 C for a 3.1 Characterization of mullite
holding time of 180 sec with pressure 30 MPa.
The temperature of die was measured by an Morphology of synthesized mullite single
optical pyrometer. particles is shown in Fig. 3. The particles have a
spindle-like morphology with an average
2.3 Characterization particle size in the range of 80200 nm. Figure 4
shows XRD pattern of synthesized mullite
Siemens diffract meter with Cu K radiation ( = powder compacted at elevated temperature.
0.1541 nm) was used to study the phase Mullite is main phase in the specimen sintered at
evolution of sintered samples. Diffraction 1400 C and diffraction peaks of -Al2O3, Al or Si-
measurements were performed at 30 kV /20mA spinel not be observed in pattern.
with scanning speed of 1 /min for scanning
range of 2080 with intervals of 0.02.
Morphology of synthesized mullite and
microstructure evolution of sintered samples
were investigated by a field emission scanning
electron microscopy (FE-SEM) Mira 3-XMU
operating at 30 kV and scanning electron
microscopy (SEM) ZEISS operating at 15 kV,
respectively.
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1400 C for a sintering time of 180 sec. Patterns Figure 6 shows the effect of content WC on
reveal the presence of only mullite and WC relative density of sintered composites.
phases, which indicates that there was no Considering Fig. 6 and table 1, one can realize
reaction between mullite and WC during milling the sintering behavior of the mullite-WC
or sintering process. This finding is similar to the composites with different compositions. Despite
results reported in literature for Al2O3-WC [26], the detrimental effect of the presence of WC
and mullite-TiC [19] composites. phase on sintering, all of samples have reached
over 94 % of their theoretical density (TD).
Mullite-10 wt% WC sample reached the highest
relative density compared to other
compositions.
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556
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[21] H. Schneider, J. Schreuer and B. Hildman, [27] O. Hiroshi, K. Toshi, N. Atsushi and K. Niihara,
Structure and properties of mullite a review, J. Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of
Eur. Ceram. Soc., vol. 28, no. 2, pp. 329344, 2008. Mullite Ceramics, J. Ceram. Soc. Jpn., vol. 98, no.
1138, pp. 541547, 1990.
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Hsio and H. Jow-Lay, Microstructure analysis [28] M. Ismail, N. Zenjiro and S. Shigeyuki,
and mechanical properties of a new class of Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of
Al2O3WC nanocomposites fabricated by spark Mullite Prepared by the Sol-Gel Method, J. Am.
plasma sintering, J. Eur. Ceram. Soc., vol. 33, no. Ceram. Soc., vol. 70, no. 1, pp. C7C8, 1987.
15-16, pp. 3095-3100, 2013.
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Tribological Behavior of Thermal Spray Coatings, Ceramics after Cold Isostatic Pressing up to 1
Deposited by HVOF and APS Techniques, and GPa, J. Am. Ceram. Soc., vol. 81, no. 1, pp. 173
Composite Electrodeposits Ni/SiC at Both Room 179, 1998.
Temperature and 300 C, Tribology in Industry,
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vol. 35, no. 2, pp. 113122, 2013.
of Al2O3 Powder Using Spark Plasma Sintering,
[24] K. Sairama, J.K. Sonber, T.S.R.Ch. Murthy, C. J. Mater. Res., vol. 15, no. 4, pp. 982987, 2000.
Subramanian, R.K. Fotedar, P. Nanekar and R.C.
[31] K. Hiroshi, Science and New Applications of
Hubli, Influence of spark plasma sintering
Electric Discharge Consolidation, J Jpn Soc
parameters on densification and mechanical
Powder Powder Metall, vol. 45, no. 11, pp.1050
properties of boron carbide, Int. J. Refract. Met.
1054, 1998.
Hard Mater., vol. 42, pp. 185192, 2014.
[32] T. Masao, Trends in Advanced SPS Spark Plasma
[25] Z. Guimin, W. Yucheng, F. Zhengyi, W. Hao, W.
Sintering Systems and Technology. Functionally
Weiming, Z. Jinyong and Z. Qingjie, Synthesis of
Gradient Materials and Unique Synthetic
Mullite at low temperature and its chemical
Processing Methods from Next Generation of
composition, J. Chin. Ceram., vol. 36, pp. 1542-
Powder Technology, J. Soc. Powder Technol., vol.
1547, 2008.
30, no. 11, pp. 790804, 1993.
[26] D. Jianxin, D. Zeliang, Z. Jun, L. Jianfeng and
[33] M. I. Osendi and C. Baudin, Mechanical
C.Tongkun, Unlubricated friction and wear
Properties of Mullite Materials, J. Eur. Ceram.
behaviors of various alumina-based ceramic
Soc., vol. 16, no. 2, pp. 211-224, 1996.
composites against cemented carbide, Ceram.
Int., vol. 32, no. 5, pp. 499-507, 2006.
558
Vol. 38, No. 4 (2016) 559-574
Tribology in Industry
RESEARCH
www.tribology.fink.rs
Keywords: ABSTRACT
Anthropomorphic arm
Design, dynamics and control of a humanoid robotic hand based on
Computer aided design anthropological dimensions, with joint friction, is modelled, simulated and
Multi-body mechanics simulation analysed in this paper by using computer aided design and multibody
Dynamics dynamic simulation. Combined joint friction model is incorporated in the
Joint friction joints. Experimental values of coefficient of friction of grease lubricated
Bond graph model sliding contacts representative of manipulator joints are presented.
Viscoelasticity Human fingers deform to the shape of the grasped object (enveloping
grasp) at the area of interaction. A mass-spring-damper model of the
grasp is developed. The interaction of the viscoelastic gripper of the arm
Corresponding author:
with objects is analysed by using Bond Graph modelling method.
Zulfiqar Khan Simulations were conducted for several material parameters. These
NanoCorr, Energy and Modelling, results of the simulation are then used to develop a prototype of the
(NCEM), proposed gripper. Bond graph model is experimentally validated by using
Faculty of Science & Technology, the prototype. The gripper is used to successfully transport soft and
Bournemouth University, fragile objects. This paper provides information on optimisation of
Dorset BH12 5BB, friction and its inclusion in both dynamic modelling and simulation to
United Kingdom. enhance mechanical efficiency.
E-mail: zkhan@bournemouth.ac.uk
2016 Published by Faculty of Engineering
559
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Mechanics of robotic manipulators have been So far several significant contributions have
investigated over the past half a century. been made in the design of various grippers for
Mechanics analyses of manipulators have grasping and in-grasp fine manipulation
progressed from kinematic to a more complex [10,11,1315]. Detailed classification may be
dynamic analysis over the past two decades. found in [16]. Kinematics and dynamics of
Modelling of complex manipulator linkage general robotic manipulators has been
mechanisms is now increasingly possible and is presented in [17,18]. A history of robotic arms
being captured more accurately. However, two is given by Monkman [19]. Some of the notable
areas of manipulator mechanisms require anthropomorphic manipulators are the
further analysis. The first is the dynamic Salisbury hand (Stanford hand), the Barret hand
simulation of mechanical manipulators and the and the Karlsruhe hand.
effect of joint friction on the dynamics, and the
second is, the analysis of interfacial mechanisms The need for task specific robot grippers was
between the gripper (manipulator end effector) addressed through grippers designed to the
and corresponding object. shape of the workpiece [20]. The same concept
has been presented in [13,21]. For use in special
Dynamic simulations have become increasingly environments, the requirement and design of an
popular with increasing computational power adaptive finger has been highlighted in [13].
and the availability of a wide range of software Modification of PUMA robot arm by fitting a
tools [1]. Several software tools have diverse humanoid hand with 16 degrees of freedom
capabilities in terms of applications. This fingers have been presented in [22].
improves the quality of simulation and reduces
the design cycle time. In mechanical systems, Postural synergies to control the end effector
the use of a virtual prototype leads to reduction was presented in [23]. Slip sensing of grasped
in the overall design cost [2] and virtual objects using skin acceleration sensors bonded
prototyping accurately simulates the to silicone skin has been presented by [24]. The
performance of a system. Visualisation of application of screw theory for modelling a
mathematical models as prototypes in a virtual heavy manipulator has been presented in [25].
space provides a better understanding of
system performance. Dexterity is the capability of the manipulator to
perform certain complex tasks autonomously.
Human fingertips provide soft contact grasping Dexterity can be divided into grasping and
and take on the shape of the object at the internal manipulation [16]. However, the
interface. Finger deformation at the contact dexterity or firmness of grasping is often
plateaus between 0.2 and 0.9N according to [3] sacrificed while performing in-grasp fine-
and deformation limit is reached at 1 N. manipulation where a pinching grasp is
Modified Hertzian contact theory for finger necessary [26]. When holding an object in
deformation and a power law model has been between fingertips, in-grasp manipulation
derived for the deformation of the finger by [4]. becomes easy but the chances of slippage and
Therefore, deformable fingers are superior in unstable grasp increase at the same time [27].
comparison to hard grippers and moreover, Therefore, an enveloping grasp is required
hard grippers can damage the object. The which is quite dexterous. In-grasp fine
property of softness also helps in maintaining an manipulation then becomes difficult to achieve.
increased area of contact during grasping and Therefore, the development of such a gripper
manipulation which confines the object from that makes it possible to provide dexterous
moving thus providing a stable grasp [59]. grasping and in-grasp fine manipulation
Friction at such contact occurs mainly through simultaneously is a daunting task. Human hand
adhesion [3]. The importance of contact surface has been analysed from this perspective and the
engineering has been highlighted in [10] with the novel Huminitive Gripper is introduced.
introduction of a velvet surface on the gripper.
Novel granular material gripper has been The structure of the finger is a key aspect of any
presented in [11] which provides an alternative anthropomorphic gripper. The finger is made up
to fingered grasping end effector. Vision based of flesh with blood vessels inside, and a covering
grasping has been presented in [12]. of skin[28]. The fleshy part of the finger imparts
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A. Khurshid et al., Tribology in Industry Vol. 38, No. 4 (2016) 559-574
stiffness while the blood inside provides viscous material properties and deterioration has been
damping. Combination of the two leads to performed by researchers [3436]. There are
viscoelastic property of fingers. These soft two approaches to achieve fine manipulation of
fingers deform at contact to take on the shape the grasped object (i) by manipulating fingers as
of the object which ultimately delivers a grasp in a human hand [3739] or (ii) using the finger
that is both dexterous and firm. The fingers are tips for fine manipulation of the grasped object
visco-elastic and return to their initial shape [10,26,40,41]. The use of soft fingertips in
after the object is released from the grasp. To grasping objects leads to stable grasping [24,
study the role of stiffness and damping in soft 42]. Yet a category for research on a human
grasping, Bond graph model of soft fingers using hand like gripper having soft contact capability
a spring-damper combination is developed. and rotating fingers seems to be absent. This has
Interfacial friction between soft fingertips and been categorised as Huminitive Gripper by [9],
the object is incorporated into the contact. This and comprises all grippers which resemble and
is followed by an analysis of the gripper to perform soft grasping and fine manipulation like
evaluate the effects of materials properties on a human hand. The classification of grippers has
grasping mechanism within a soft contact. been explained in [19] (also see Table 1 and
Table 2). Prehension is the hands ability to grasp
Table 1. Gripper Classification According to Physical and hold objects of different size and shape,
Principle of Operation [19]. compared to apprehension, which is the hands
Prehension
Gripper Type Typical Examples
ability to understand through active touch [16].
Method
Clamps (external The choice of manipulator actuators determines
fingers, internal fingers,
the performance of the manipulators i.e. their
Impactive chucks, spring clamps),
tongs (parallel, shear, dynamics and control. Some of the latest and
angle, radial) futuristic actuators have been evaluated. Shape
Pins, needles and Memory alloys (SMA) deliver large strokes at fast
Intrusive
Ingressive hackles contraction rates and have long life. The analysis
Non- intrusive Hook and Loop of an SMA based miniature manipulator with
Vacuum Vacuum suction
Suction cup/bellows
parallel mechanism has been presented in [43].
Magento Permanent SMAs are currently be expensive, prone to
Astrictive hysteresis, require strengthening and have a low
adhesion Magnet/Electromagnet
Electro
Electrostatic field
energy capacity [44]. Carbon Nano-tubes and
adhesion polymer fibres have a high work capacity, but
Thermal Freezing, melting
need to be redrawn between cycles and were
Chemical Permatrack adhesives
Contigutive
Capillary action, surface found to be expensive [45]. Work on electro-
Fluid dynamically driven organic fibres which could
tension
render large strokes has been presented in [46].
Table 2. Other Grasping Methods not normally However, they require special electrolytic
categorized [19]. envelope, counter electrode, containment
Material systems which make them both heavy and
Gripper Example application
Type expensive. Pneumatic Air Muscles have been
Rigid
Loose materials such as nuts presented in [47,48]. These now have novel
Spoon and bolts pumping mechanism, significant low pressure
Flexible Powders and viscous fluids
actuation but can only be actuated linearly with
Determinate topology for
Hook
Rigid
example castings radial expansion. Muscles for controlling the
Flexible Waste material sorting finger are long interwoven and form complex
dynamic structures. With several competing
End effector is the point of interaction with technologies showing advancements that address
objects in the task environment. Several the drawbacks, high performance human muscle
investigations have been focussed on object substitutes that can be used to activate
manipulation and a fine motion in the past mechanisms is still closer to reality [46, 49].
decade [12,2932]. Tactile [33], visual and Improvements of the hysteresis characteristics of
grasping controls of multi-fingered robotic SMAs, the life of CNT wires and decreasing the
hands [23] has been investigated. Research on size of the electrolytic envelope in electrodynamic
561
A. Khurshid et al., Tribology in Industry Vol. 38, No. 4 (2016) 559-574
fibres will lead to the development of high where i = 1,2,3,4, Aii1 is the planar kinematic
performance actuators for robotic manipulators
transformation matrix including rotations and
in the future. SMA and CNT based actuation
seems to be promising for actuators of the future.
translations. pi pix piy
piz 1 ,
T
is the
coordinates of the transformation. For this work
This paper has been organised into modelling, forward kinematics has been calculated by
simulation and experimentation parts. simulation program and the end effector positions
Mechanical modelling of the manipulator and the corresponding to input joint angles have been
gripper are presented in the following section. obtained. Dynamic model of the manipulator
mechanism is presented in the next section.
The kinematics of the manipulator in the Dynamic model defines the relationship
Cartesian coordinate system, the dynamics of between force and/or torque parameters during
the arm developed by using the Newton Euler the operation of a linkage and/or mechanism.
method of formulation, combined joint friction According to Featherstone and Orin, The
model comprising Coulomb, Viscous and dynamic equations of motion provide the
Stribeck friction have been described along with relationships between actuation and contact
the control of the arm and the development of forces acting on robot mechanisms, and the
grasping model using Bond Graph method is acceleration and motion trajectories that result
presented in the section. [18]. Forward dynamics refers to the calculation
of the joint trajectories given the actuation
1.1. Kinematics forces or torques. Inverse dynamics refers to the
calculation of forces and/or torques at joints
Kinematics pertains to the motion of bodies in a given the joint positions and its derivatives [18].
robotic mechanism with no regard to the forces or Various methods of dynamic modelling have
torques that cause the motion [17]. Kinematic been described in literature: 1) Newton Euler
model of the arm is made of the geometric method [52], 2) Euler Lagrange Method [53] and
relations between links in space and their time 3) Kanes equation method [54]. The arm may be
derivatives which are; velocity and acceleration. considered as a constrained multi-link
The term Forward Kinematics (FK) usually pendulum. Rigid body dynamics equation may
referring to calculations of end effector position be expressed as [52]:
for a given input parameters. Inverse kinematics
(IK) on the other hand is referring to joint state D( ) H ( ,) G( ) B() (3)
parameters calculations from the end effector where represents joint angles, D() represents
position. The process of computing IK is complex inertia, H(, ) represents Coriolis and
for higher number of links. Further description centripetal forces, G() represents gravity
of general kinematics may be found in [17]. forces, B( ) represents frictional forces,
Here, Denavit-Hartenberg coordinate represents the joint torques.
assignment convention is used [50], [51]. The
general kinematic transformation for expressing Friction is an important phenomenon that
a point on link i in the coordinate system of the affects manipulator motion. It is non-linear and
i 1 link can be expressed as [50]: can affect control and positioning of the arm.
pi 1 Aii1 pi Therefore, dynamic model of manipulators need
(1) to incorporate friction. The practical obstacle is
the variation of friction behaviour with the type
of joint e.g. anti-friction ball bearings exhibit
cos i cos i sin i sin i sin i a i cos i
sin different behaviour from pin and bush joints.
cos i cos i sin i sin i a i sin i The type of surface finish, lubricant, lubrication
Aii1 i
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A. Khurshid et al., Tribology in Industry Vol. 38, No. 4 (2016) 559-574
and Stribeck friction is used. Friction values can values and the D value accounts for the future
change due to the influence of environment, as values of error based on the trend. The equation
well as wear and tear. brk represents the for the PID controller is given by:
breakaway friction torque which occurs at the t
start of motion. br.thr represents the threshold d e(t )
u (t ) K p e(t ) K i e(t ) d t K d (7)
breakaway friction torque i.e. the value of torque 0
dt
immediately before the beginning of motion, C
represents the Coulomb friction torque, vthr where Kp is the proportional gain, Ki is the
represents the threshold velocity for motion and integral gain, and Kd is the derivative gain, e(t) is
cvisc , ctrans represent the coefficients of viscosity the error in signal between set point value and
and translation respectively. The numerical process variable, t is the time and u(t) is the
coefficients have been assumed and have been control signal. The tuned parameters for the
listed in. The revolute friction model used in the controller are given as P (=144.7), I (=2.4), D
dynamic simulation is represented by the (=0.01) and N (=2963.35). Results have been
following equations [56]: presented in Section 4.1.
Table 3. Parameters for friction modelling. The robotic gripper grasping a cylindrical object
Variable Name Value has been developed, which has been used to arrive
at the required softness to maintain a stable grasp.
brk 25 N m
Fig. 2 shows various cylindrical objects being
C 20 N m grasped by using fingers alone. The deformation of
cv 0.001 N m s/rad the fingers is clearly visible in Fig. 2b.
C trans 10 s/rad
br.thr 24.995 N m
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A. Khurshid et al., Tribology in Industry Vol. 38, No. 4 (2016) 559-574
The bond graph model for the three-finger Two sets of experiments have been presented in
gripping contact has been presented in Fig. 6. this section. The first set measures the friction
Application of Bond graph method for various coefficient through the tribo-testing of steel alloy
dynamic systems has been discussed in detail by pair lubricated by grease. The alloy combination
Khurshid et al. [5961]. Further details of Bond is found in pin and bush sliding joints bearings
graph construction may be found in [41]. used in manipulator arms. Similar experiments
have been reported in [6264]. The
Simulation was performed by using 20Sim. reciprocating mechanism is driven by a scotch
Results from the multi-body dynamics yoke mechanism. The displacement is 5 mm and
environment and Bond graph simulation have the loading is provided by a cantilevered loading
been presented in Section 5.3. mechanism. The results will provide insight into
the performance of grease lubricated contacts
565
A. Khurshid et al., Tribology in Industry Vol. 38, No. 4 (2016) 559-574
with frequent start stops and conformal contact The developed gripper design has been
mechanism. The coefficient of friction was designed for light objects with soft contact with
measured for contacts lubricated by commercial viscoelastic material at tips. Like human
off the shelf molybdenum grease. Three load fingers, the soft fingertips change their shape to
conditions were used for the tests ranging from the object being grasped. Planetary gears
25 N to 45 N. The experimental setup for micro- mechanisms in two of the fingers enable them
friction tribo-testing is shown in Fig. 7. to provide in-grasp manipulation. This gives the
gripper the ability to grasp objects having
complex shapes. When the egg was gripped,
picked and placed from one place to the other,
there was no slippage found practically because
of the friction between the egg and soft finger
tips was greater than that with the tomato due
to the rough surface of the egg. Similarly, no
slippage was observed when the tomato is
gripped as well. This is because the object is
soft and the surface area between the soft
finger tips and the tomato surface increases.
The results have shown successful gripping
without slippage.
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A. Khurshid et al., Tribology in Industry Vol. 38, No. 4 (2016) 559-574
Fig. 9. Gripper having three soft fingers. Grasping, picking, based on the equations (4-7) and presented.
and placing of the tomato have been demonstrated. Comparison of the end effector motions for
different solvers has been presented in
567
A. Khurshid et al., Tribology in Industry Vol. 38, No. 4 (2016) 559-574
568
A. Khurshid et al., Tribology in Industry Vol. 38, No. 4 (2016) 559-574
569
A. Khurshid et al., Tribology in Industry Vol. 38, No. 4 (2016) 559-574
a) 5. CONCLUSIONS
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A. Khurshid et al., Tribology in Industry Vol. 38, No. 4 (2016) 559-574
Optimised values of damping and stiffness for [4] N. Xydas and I. Kao, Modeling of Contact
stable grasp are determined from the Mechanics and Friction Limit Surfaces for Soft
experimentations. Soft fingertips and rotation Fingers in Robotics, with Experimental Results,
mechanism have been designed. The property of Int. J. Rob. Res., vol. 18, no. 9, pp. 941950, 1999.
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the grip at the fingertips. It has been concluded materials for robotic fingers, Robot. Autom.
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Vol. 38, No. 4 (2016) 575-584
Tribology in Industry
RESEARCH
www.tribology.fink.rs
Keywords: ABSTRACT
Thermal effect
The hydrodynamic bearings are stressed by severe workings conditions,
Non-Newtonian flow
such as speed, load, and the oil will be increasingly solicit by pressure and
Plain cylindrical journal bearing
shear. The Newtonian behavior is far from being awarded in this case, the
Coated
most loaded bearings operating at very high speeds; the shear rate of the
oil is of higher order.
Corresponding author: A numerical analysis of the behavior of non-Newtonian fluid for plain
Kadda Mehala cylindrical journal bearing finite dimension coated with antifriction
University of the Sciences and material with a high tin content, for to facilitate the accommodation of
Technology of Oran Mohammed the surfaces and save the silk of the shaft in the case of a contact. this
Boudiaf, 1505 El Menaour Bir El Djir analyses is implemented using the code-ANSYS CFX, by solving the energy
Oran Algeria equation with the finite difference method, considering that laminar
Faculty of mechanical engineering, regime and the fluid is non Newtonian by using the power law Ostwald
Engineering department model, the coefficient n is equal to 1.25 and for different model such as
E-mail: postegraduation@yahoo.com Bingham, cross and Hereshek-Bulkley model.
This study aims to better predict the non-Newtonian behavior of the oil
film in bearings operating under more severe conditions. The purpose
conducted during this study is to predict the effect of non-Newtonian
behavior of the film; the journal bearing operating under severe
conditions, the speed of rotation varies from 1000 to 9000 rpm and the
bearing working under radial load 2 to 10 kN. Temperature and the
pressure within the fluid film assumed non-Newtonian are high, with a
coefficient n greater than 1 that is to say for viscoelastic fluids.
2016 Published by Faculty of Engineering
575
K. Mehala et al., Tribology in Industry Vol. 38, No. 4 (2016) 575-584
which takes into account two parameters: viscoelastic) are included. They show that there
viscosity and relaxation time. is significant influence of the shear thinning
effect on the minimum thickness on the power
The plain journal bearing have been largely used loss and leakage flow dynamic bearings.
in industrial applications for more than a However, the viscoelastic effect has no
century. However, the thermal behaviour in the significant influence on these parameters and
journal bearing became only recently the object can more or months influence the load capacity
for the researchers, while considering the fluid bearings, compared to operating conditions.
has a non-Newtonian behaviour.
In 2001 and 2002 Wang et al. [8,9] have also
Hirst and Moore [1] present a study in 1974 on addressed the influence of shear thinning effects
non-Newtonian behavior in the in dynamic bearings, while taking into account
elastohydrodynamic lubrication, they stated in the non-Newtonian behavior and the effect of
their study that low values, the shear rate is the geometry of the elliptical -form palier- ave
directly proportional to the shearing force, but rough surfaces. They show that it has a
higher values, the shear rate increases faster than significant reduction in the minimum film
the shear stress, this phenomenon depends on thickness and power dissipation.
the pressure and molecular size of the fluid film.
In the same year, Zhang [10] continues the study
In 1985, Hutton [2] performs an experimental with an analysis TEHD dynamic bearings. It
study on the effect of lubricant on the u happens almost the same conclusions as in the
performance sliding bearing, the experimental THD study. Moreover, he argues that the
results performed on a bearing in order to verify viscoelastic effect tends to reduce the variation
the theory that the capacity of the load is of pressure over time and thus reduce the
generated by the elasticity viscoelastic lubricants. pressure peaks and the elastic deformation.
Gecim [3] published in 1990 a review of the In 2003 Kane [11] show the effect of the
literature on shear-thinning effects. He shows roughness and non-Newtonian effects in severe
some examples and technical solutions for the contact lubricated such as bearings. He
treatment of non-Newtonian effects in plain presented a new modified Reynolds equation
bearings. He introduced a new incorporating act, called non-Newtonian, using the rheological
based on the Cross of law. The advantage of this laws and the basics of continuum mechanics
law is that it has a single parameter to adjust applied to thin film. Solving this equation gives
(the stability coefficient), compared to the Cross the influential parameters on geometry and
equation which uses three parameters. rheology, these results were validated with the
non-Newtonian theory.
During the same period, Rastogi and Gupta [4,5]
analyze the importance of viscoelastic effects in Fatu [12] in 2005 present a numerical and
bearings subjected to dynamic loads that they experimental modeling of the lubrication of motor
use the Maxwell model. They showed a decrease bearings subjected to severe operating conditions
Load carrying capacity in the presence of a with the laws of variation of the suitable viscosity,
viscoelastic behavior. it stinks meter highlight the respective influence of
non-effects Newtonian and piezovisqueux in the
Lemaitre and Berker [6] realized two years later complex case of big end bearings. Fatu showed
a study on the modeling of non-Newtonian that piezovisqueux effect turns out to be most
effects in plain bearings. They propose an significant effect on the behavior of the bearing,
extension of the cavitation Elrod algorithm for a the non-Newtonian effect.
non-Newtonian behavior of the fluid, using the
finite volume method. In 2012, Singh and al [13], present a study on the
performance of pivoted curved slider bearings
In 2000, Zhang and Cheng [7] propose a non- by suggest that the fluid is non Newtonian, by
Newtonian thermohydrodynamic analysis in using the Rabinowitsch Fluid Model. The results
conditions of mixed lubrication. Both non- show that steady state film pressure, load
Newtonian effects (shear thinning and carrying capacity and centre of pressure,
576
K. Mehala et al., Tribology in Industry Vol. 38, No. 4 (2016) 575-584
577
K. Mehala et al., Tribology in Industry Vol. 38, No. 4 (2016) 575-584
Heat flux continuity condition was imposed at where 0 is the zero shear viscosity,
the interface between the oil film and the shaft:
viscosity at infinite shear, time constant, is an
T
o
T exponent of power law and is a parameter that
2k s kF d (7) describes the transition from the low shear and
r r Rs
I y y 0
power law behavior region.
While at the interface between the oil film and
the bush the heat flux continuity condition is: 2.2.2 Viscoplastic oils
The model of the power law can be used for Eg the power model Ostwald, the relationship of
fluids such as rubber, adhesive, polymers or the pressure field is given in the following form:
certain body fluids for isothermal flow. In the
case where the temperature varies in the field, it
6C 0 n 1 L
is possible to introduce the temperature T: p( , z ) sin Z (6)
(h r ) 3
4
n 1
0 e eT (2)
2.3 Thermal Deformations
b) Carreau model: The tile model is an
extension of the power law model that involves The thermal deformations of the bush and shaft
five parameters: may have important influence on the bearing
behaviour, the thermal displacement relative to
the shaft radius the initial temperature, T0, is
[1 ( ) a ]n 1 / a (3)
0 Timoshenko and Goodier in 1974 [17]:
578
K. Mehala et al., Tribology in Industry Vol. 38, No. 4 (2016) 575-584
2 s Rs
u s (t )
Rs T (r, t ) T rdr
0
0 (9)
Pressure
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K. Mehala et al., Tribology in Industry Vol. 38, No. 4 (2016) 575-584
Maximum pressure according rotational velocity There is the creation of the rupture zone of
for radial load 2000 N and for power law highly significant oil film, for Angular coordinate
Ostwald model, the coefficiet n is equal to 1.25, 200 to 250 for a bearing operating under
Is preseted in Fig. 4a. Import values for pressure velocity of 9000 rpm and for radial load 2000 N.
is noted for higly velocity (9000 rpm). Increses The pressure drop reaches 0.08 MPa.
is estimated of 90 per cent for velocity ranging of
1000 to 9000 rpm. Figure 5 show the pressure distribution of the
median plain cylindrical journal bearing for
radial load 2000N and n = 1,25
radial load 2000, 6000 and 10000 N and for
200000 rotational velocity 9000 rpm, for power law
Ostwald model with n = 1.25.
180000
maximum pressure (Pa)
650000
600000
160000 550000
500000 n = 1,25 N = 9000rpm
450000
2000 N
140000 400000
350000
6000N
300000 10 000N
Pressure (Pa)
120000 250000
200000
150000
100000
100000 50000
0
-50000
80000 -100000
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 -150000
-200000
Rotational velocity (rpm) -250000
-300000
Fig. 4a. Maximum pressure according rotational 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
velocity for radial load 2000 N and n=1.25 Model of Angular coordinate ()
power law Ostwald. Fig. 5. Circumferentiel pressure for different radial
load for velociy 9000 rpm and n=1.25 (Model of
n = 1,25 W= 2000N
power law Ostwald).
200000
180000
1000 rpm
The significate pressure values is noted for
160000
3000 pm radial load of 10000 N, and the rupture zone is
5000 rpm
140000
7000 rpm highly significant for radial load 10000 N.
120000 9000 rpm
pressure (Pa)
100000
Temperature
80000
60000
Temperature evolution in medi n plain journal
40000
bearing for velocity ranging of 1000 to 9000 rpm
20000
is presented in Fig. 6. This figure shows clearly
0
that sigignificat temperature is obtain for velocity
150 200 250 300 350
7000 and 9000 rpm, for bearing subjected to
Angular coordinate ()
radial load 2000 N and lubricat by non newtonein
Fig. 4b. Circumferentiel pressure for different fluid with coefficient n equal to 1.25.
rotational velocity and for radial load 2000 N and
n=1.25 (Model of power law Ostwald).
1000 rpm 3000 rpm 5000 rpm
Pressure distribution of the median plain
cylindrical journal bearing for rotational velocity
1000 to 9000 rpm and for radial load 2000 N, is
illustrates in Fig. 4b, for power law Ostwald
model with n = 1.25. 7000 rpm 9000 rpm
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K. Mehala et al., Tribology in Industry Vol. 38, No. 4 (2016) 575-584
The Average temperature according rotational Figure 8 presents the circumferentiel distribution
velocity for radial load 2000 N and n=1.25 of temperature for different radial load (2000,
(Model of power law Ostwald), is shown in Fig. 6000 and 10 000N) and for rotational velocity
7a, obtained from the numerical analysis in 9000 rpm, n=1.25 (power law Ostwald model).
6000, 9000, 11 000, 13 000 and 15 000 rpm and The maximum values for temperature is noted for
a radial load of 2000 N. The feeding condition is low radial load (2000 N).
presented in the Table 1. An increase of
335
temperature is estimated of 4 per cent with
increases the velocity from 1000 to 9000 rpm. n = 1,25 N = 9000 rpm
330
Radial load 2000 n and n= 1,25 2000 N
328 6000 N
10 000N
Temperature (K)
326 325
324
Average temperature
320
322
320
315
318
316
310
314 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
Angular coordinate ()
312
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000
Fig. 8. Circumferentiel temperature for different
Roational velocity (rpm)
radial load and for rotational velocity 9000 rpm
Fig. 7a. Average temperature according rotational n=1.25 (Model of power law Ostwald).
velocity for radial load 2000 N and n=1.25 (Model of
power law Ostwald). These digital temperature results were validated
335 with experimental results; that were presented
by the Bendaoud and al in 2012 [17] while
n = 1,25 W = 2000N
330
considering the fluid is Newtonian, Fig. 9.
1000 rpm
3000 pm
5000 rpm Figure 9 present circemfereciel temperature
Temperature (K)
7000 rpm
325
9000 rpm ditribution for radial load 2000 N and rotational
velocity 5000 rpm for experiment data and
320 Numerical resul for fluid newtonian. The Search
result is a reasonable agreement, the gap is
315 estimated 6 per cent.
47
310
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 46
Angular coordinate ()
Temperature (C)
45
Fig. 7b. Average temperature for different rotational 44
velocity for radial load 2000 N and n=1.25 (Model of
43
power law Ostwald).
42
experimental temperature
However, the Fig. 7b illustrates the distribution 41 numerical temperature
of the average temperature in median plan for 40
journal bearing. Rotational velocity is ranging of 0 100 200 300 400
1000 to 9000 rpm. The bearing is subjected to angular coordinate ()
radial load of 2000 N and fluid low is considered
non-Newtonian fluid. This figure shows clearly Fig. 9. circemfereciel temperature ditribution for
that the significant temperature is located for radial load 2000 N and rotational velocity 5000 rpm.
angular coordinate 50 to 120. The import
values are noted for velocity of 9000 rpm.
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K. Mehala et al., Tribology in Industry Vol. 38, No. 4 (2016) 575-584
2) Pressure and temperature for different (n) Maximum value obtains for velocity of 9000 rpm
for load 2000N and velocity 1000 rpm is 0.064; this value is between 0.05 and 0.2 (limit
lubrication).
Maximum pressure for different n for power law
Ostwald model is presented in figure 10, for 2000N
Friction coefficient
coefficient n, this increases is estimated by 65
per cent. 0,04
260000 0,02
240000
0,01
220000
maximum pressure (Pa)
200000 0,00
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000
180000
rotational velocity (rpm)
160000
650000
314,0
Maximum pressure (Pa)
600000
550000
313,9
500000
Average temperature (K)
313,8
450000
313,7 400000
350000
313,6
300000
313,5 250000
200000
313,4 0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000
rotational velocity (rpm)
313,3
313,2
Fig. 13. Maximum pressure variation according
0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1,0 1,2 1,4 1,6 rotational velocity for different radial load (Model of
n power law Ostwald).
Fig. 11. Average temperature for different n (Model
of power law Ostwald). Average temperature according velocity for tree
different radial load (2000, 6000 and 10000N)
Figure 12 presents the variation of the friction for power law Ostwald model with n = 1.25, is
coefficient according rotational speed 1000 to presented in Fig. 14. The significate values for
9000 rpm and for radial loads of 2000 N, this temperature are noted for bearing operating
variation is carried out by power law Ostwald under radial load 2000 N. The maximum value is
with n = 1.25. Friction coefficient has an increase 328 K.
(0.005-0.064), is estimated of 80 per cent.
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K. Mehala et al., Tribology in Industry Vol. 38, No. 4 (2016) 575-584
2000N
330 6000N
The power law Ostwald model gives a realistic
10 000N temperature variation unlike the other model.
328
Knowing that the temperature increases with
326 increasing the rotation speed of the bearing.
Average temperature (K)
324
322
4. CONCLUSION
320
10000000
value of 328 K, a bearing for operating at a speed
8000000 of 9000 rpm and which is subjected to a radial
6000000
load of 2000 N. The temperature increases 15 K.
4000000
However, the maximum pressure reached a
2000000 value of 0.18MPa and it is noted in the angular
0
position of the bearing of from 170 to 190 by
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 varying the rotation speed of bearing of 1000
Rotational velocity (rpm)
rpm to 9000.
Fig. 15. Maximum pressure variation according
rotational velocity for different model and load 2000 N. Temperature and the pressure within the fluid
Power law Ostwald model film assumed non-Newtonian are high, with a
Bingham model
Hereshek-Bulkley model
coefficient n greater than 1 that is to say for
334
cross model viscoelastic fluids.
332
330
328 REFERENCES
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t: time [s]
[11] M. kane , "leffet de la rugosit et des effets non- us:thermal deformation of the shaft [m]
newtoniens dans les contacts svres lubrifis",
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584
Vol. 38, No. 4 (2016) 585-589
Tribology in Industry
RESEARCH
www.tribology.fink.rs
Keywords: ABSTRACT
Static coefficient of friction
Experimental investigations static coefficient of friction in lubricated
High temperatures
conditions and pre-heating of the sample pin at high temperatures is
Temperature heat treatment
discussed in this paper. The static coefficient of friction was measured in
Lubrication
the sliding steel copper pins per cylinder of polyvinylchloride. Pins are
Oxidation layer
previously heated in a special chamber from room temperature to a
temperature of 800 oC with a step of 50 C. Tribological changes in the
Corresponding author: surface layer of the pins caused by pre-heating the pins at high
Marija Matejic temperatures and cooling systems have very significantly influenced the
Faculty of Engineering, increase in the coefficient of static friction. The results indicate the
University of Kragujevac, possibility of improving the friction characteristics of metal materials
Sestre Janji 6, based on their thermal treatment at elevated temperatures.
34000 Kragujevac, Serbia 2016 Published by Faculty of Engineering
E-mail: marija.jeremic@kg.ac.rs
585
M. ivkovi et al., Tribology in Industry Vol. 38, No. 4 (2016) 585-589
586
M. ivkovi et al., Tribology in Industry Vol. 38, No. 4 (2016) 585-589
3. ANALYSIS OF RESULTS
Table 1. Calculated mean value of the coefficient of In the first measurement at room temperature
static friction s depending on test temperatures. coefficient of static friction is s=0.24. After the
second and third measurements, heating the
Pretreatment temperature of
specimen [oC]
s [-] sample to 50 C and 100 C and cooling, the
23 0.24
static coefficient of friction rises to s= 0.44. The
50 0.33
increase in the static coefficient of friction can be
100 0.44 largely attributed to the formation of an
150 0.39 oxidation layer on the surface of the sample.
200 0.31 With further heating the sample to 150 C and
250 0.60 200 C occurs decline in the static coefficient of
300 0.46 friction to values s=0.39 and s=0.31. For
350 0.39 further heating the samples to 800 C
400 0.52 temperature occur certain decline in and
450 0.45 increase the static coefficient of friction which
500 0.45 can be seen from the diagram in Fig. 4. Static
550 0.53 coefficient of friction is an intricate process
600 0.55 governed by a combination of factors, such as
650 0.54 the real area of contact, the contact geometry,
700 0.55 the surface roughness of the members in
750 0.61 contact, the load, and the temperature. When a
800 0.66 specimen over a cylindrical groove, a component
587
M. ivkovi et al., Tribology in Industry Vol. 38, No. 4 (2016) 585-589
of the force of friction related to slip arises and, [2] P. Todorovic, M. Blagojevic, Dj. Vukelic, I.
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[7] B. Ivkovic, M. Djurdjanovic and D. Stamenkovic,
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The Influence of the Contact Surface Roughness
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Vol. 38, N 4 (2016)
Tribology in Industry
Journal of the Serbian Tribology Society
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