Gender and

Poverty
By Gemma Rosenblatt
and Katherine Rake

Supported by

and

Ajahma
Charitable
Trust
 1. The gender dimension of poverty In later life the full impact of women's responsibilities and
lower earning power is seen in poor pension entitlements.
There are clear links between gender and poverty in the UK This is compounded by women's greater longevity and
today. Higher numbers of women than men live in poverty. their increased risk of living alone at this stage in their lives.
Women are also more likely to experience both persistent
poverty and hidden poverty.
40 per cent of women (compared to less than 20 per
Men's risk of poverty is mostly connected to their exclusion cent of men) have incomes of less than 100 per
from the labour market, whether due to low skills, previous week.1
unemployment or a lack of regional job opportunities.
Stereotyping in the labour market may also lead men to 25 per cent of women live in poverty.2
reject the only employment available if it is identified as
traditional women's work. Labour market exclusion is also 22 per cent of women and 14 per cent of men have a
a route into poverty for women, but they face the additional persistent low income.3
risks of lower wages, less access to promotion and
occupational segregation. For women, occupational In 2001-02, average individual income per week was
segregation leads to low-paid and insecure employment 208 for women and 386 for men.4
that can be fitted around domestic responsibilities.
Between 1997 and 2002, women's (weekly median
As well as labour market exclusion, women's poverty is individual) income as a proportion of men's rose from
closely linked to their family status and caring roles. Women 46 per cent to 50 per cent.5
heading their own households, especially lone mothers and
single pensioners, have the highest risk of poverty. And, For 30 per cent of women (and 16 per cent of men),
since the majority of caring remains unpaid, women's benefits and tax credits make up at least three-
caring roles have a major impact on women's economic quarters of their income.6
status. In addition, the true extent of women's poverty may
be hidden by household measurements of poverty that
overlook differences in individual control over resources.

Women and men from Black and Minority Ethnic

communities have a higher risk of poverty than the white
population. For women, the combined impact of sexism 2. Reasons for poverty and for
and racism is often severe. Black and Afro-Caribbean hidden poverty
women make up a relatively high proportion of lone
parents, while low pay and the low economic activity rate of Currently in the UK, a variety of factors in both the public
Bangladeshi and Pakistani women, coupled with large and private sphere result in the high incidence of poverty
families, result in high poverty levels. amongst women. While some factors, such as the gender
pay gap and occupational segregation, are well-known,
Median individual income by age for all women they do not reveal the full extent of the gender income
and all men, 2001/02 gap. In 2000-01 the hourly pay gap for full-time workers
was 19 per cent (in other words, women working full time
450 earn 81 pence for every pound earnt by a man working full
400
time); but the weekly earnings gap between women and
men was 25 per cent and the annual gender income gap
PER WEEK (2001/2 prices)

350
All men was 49 per cent.7
300

250 a) Poverty within the labour market

200
Women are less likely than men to secure an adequate
150
All women income in paid work. This means that employment does
100
not offer women automatic protection against poverty.
50

0 The gender pay gap between full-time hourly earnings

for women and men is 19 per cent,8 and 59 per cent
16-19

20-24

25-29

30-34

35-39

40-44

45-49

50-54

55-59

60-64

65-69

70-74

75-79

80-84

85 and over

when women's part-time hourly earnings are compared

AGE with men's full-time hourly earnings.9
Source: Women and Equality Unit, Individual Incomes of Men and Women
1996/97- 2000/01, (DTI; London, 2003)
1
Gender gaps in earnings and income and financial resources. Over the lifetime the impact of
caring is felt through a reduced opportunity to develop
skills and build up assets, such as pensions.

b) Poverty within households

Hourly
pay gap
(full-time The most commonly used measurement of poverty treats
workers)
all individuals as equal recipients of income coming into
the household, regardless of who receives or controls this
Weekly money. This masks the true extent of poverty, ignoring
earnings both unequal distributions within households, and the
gap
different circumstances or obligations that individuals
have.
Annual
gender
income
The household works as a black box: we know what goes
gap into the household but it is difficult to know the extent of
redistribution among family members. However, research
suggests that bringing money into the household brings a
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 sense of entitlement and women have a bigger say in how
money is spent where they bring in a higher share of
% household income.14
Source: Equal Opportunities Commission, Women and Men in Britain: Pay and
Income (EOC; Manchester, 2003)

"I'm probably a bit more careful because he does

The mother gap refers to the penalty in the earnings of
mothers, when compared to women without children.
earn more, do you know what I mean, it seems ok
15

Britain has a large mother gap by international standards for him to spend his money on himself."
and the effects are particularly severe for teenage mothers
and low skilled women.10
The personal income of partnered women with children is
just 34 per cent of the income of equivalent males.16 This
"We have no-one to look after the children, and so can result in poverty for women living within households
half our wages would have to pay the childcare even if the household income is above the poverty line.
11
costs... Its not worth going to work."
Women act as buffers in poor households. Research shows
that women often deny themselves basics, such as food, in
44 per cent of women currently in employment work part- order to protect their children and/or partner from the
time12, and most women work part-time at some point in consequences of poverty. Women living in households with
their lifetime. This work is generally low status, insecure an income below the poverty line may therefore experience
and temporary and has fewer occupational protections a more severe poverty than other family members.
and benefits. With projected labour market growth for the
UK in this area, the problem of guaranteeing women a
living wage is growing. "You make sure your husband gets a good meal
and your kids get a good meal - and you'll have a
Although not the case for all women in the UK, some groups
of women are particularly vulnerable to unemployment. For sandwich. You think, 'He's been at work all day,
17
example, only 15 per cent of female refugees, compared to I've got to give him a good meal.'"
42 per cent of male refugees, are in paid employment.13

Occupational segregation continues. Female dominated Women also take on financial management within
occupations tend to be low paid and undervalued. Women households on a low income, but without necessarily
often work in these jobs, despite low pay, because they having control over resources. This can be a source of
need flexible working hours and practices. conflict and can force women into making stark choices.

Absence from the labour market due to caring and

domestic labour lead in the short-term to a lack of cash

2
3. The impact of poverty and social exclusion
"We would like to visit relatives, but we can't
Poverty and social exclusion are strongly linked. Lone
parenthood and disconnection from employment increase afford the bus fares. I get fed up with the four
21
the isolation of women who, not through choice, are walls. It makes you feel down."
unable to participate fully in their communities and the
social and political life around them.

Women's social exclusion may mean a lack of access to

financial services, a lack of leisure time or poor health.
Social exclusion also incorporates the fear and reality of
domestic violence, and when linked with poverty, can
make it harder for women to escape violent relationships. 4. Routes into and out of poverty

The burden of poverty and the responsibility of managing a) Routes into poverty
resources on a low income leave women experiencing
high levels of stress, anxiety and guilt. Poverty and a fear Low skills are a route into poverty for both women and
of crime can confine women within poor quality housing men, but family risks such as divorce, widowhood,
and isolate them from their families. Taken together, these separation and teenage motherhood are major triggers of
factors impact upon women's mental health and self- women's poverty in a way that they are not for men.
confidence and women believe poverty is harder for them
than men, who appear to be more resigned to the Lone motherhood is a route into poverty. Lone mothers
situation.18 make up 90 per cent of lone parent households and 53
per cent of lone parent households are poor. 26 This
means child poverty cannot be examined in isolation
6 million women (compared to 4 million men) who from the gendered nature of poverty.
are not in paid work or full-time employment do not
participate in any social, political, cultural or
community organisations.22 Average total individual weekly income by
family type
Women aged 60 or over are twice as likely to feel
unsafe out at night as men.23 Women
600
W E E K LY I N C O M E ( )

Men
Lone parents are three times as likely to have no
bank or building society account as the average 500
household.24
400
One woman is killed every 3 days by a violent
300
partner or ex-partner.25
200

100

"Being poor has a negative impact 0

Single Single Single Couples Couples Pensioner
on your self-confidence and self-assertiveness. It without with pensioners without with couples
children children* children children
also saps your energy. There are women on my
FA M I LY T Y P E
estate whose expectations have been reduced
19
* Male sample size too small for a reliable estimate
to the basics of life - that makes me angry." Source: Individual Incomes of Men and Women 1996/97-2001/02,
Tables S2.1-2.2, Women and Equality Unit

"[Problem debt is] part of your life. It's continually

Teenage mothers, in particular, risk a lifetime of income
in your head all the time, when you're shopping,
20 poverty. Low educational attainment, living in deprived
when you're at home, relaxing, it's still there." areas and limited access to services compound to limit the
opportunities of teenage mothers.27

3
In later life, separation, divorce and widowhood all state pension contributions count and introducing a
influence women's poverty risks. Older women system of credits that cover caring for children and older
experience the impact of a lifetime of gender inequality, people would improve women's access to pensions.
combined with the fact that the pension system fails to
provide an adequate income for women. Single women The government and other European member states set
pensioners have a 24 per cent chance of living in out objectives to eradicate poverty and social exclusion
poverty.28 in a National Action Plan [NAP]. Whilst this could
provide a possible framework for tackling gendered
b) Routes out of poverty poverty in the future, the UK's 2003-05 NAP does not
include an analysis of gender in its definition of poverty.
Access to personal income protects women and their A more specific gender focus within the NAP and other
families from poverty, and also allows women a greater government policies would reduce the number of
say in the distribution of resources within the household. women living in poverty and assist in meeting current
Poverty levels are higher in households with only one poverty targets for children and pensioners.
adult in the labour market, than for households with two
adults in paid employment.29 This means that women's
access to an independent income protects not only
themselves, but their families as well.
6. Sources of information
The gender pay gap often means that it is only a male
wage that can secure an adequate income for families, To find out more about gender and poverty, you might
and so re-partnering appears to be a route out of like to start with some of the following organisations:
poverty for many women. However, the extent to which
Oxfam UK Poverty Programme
this truly protects women is unknown given that poverty
Oxfam House, 274 Banbury Road,
may be hidden within the household. Oxford OX2 7OZ
Tel: 01865 313 113
www.oxfam.org.uk

Equal Opportunities Commission

5. Government policies Arndale House, Arndale Centre,
Manchester M4 3EQ
Government targets and measures to tackle poverty Tel: 0161 838 8340
have helped women living in poverty. Changes to the tax www.eoc.org.uk
credit system, the introduction of the National Minimum
Age Concern
Wage, and increases in the Minimum Income Guarantee
Astral House, 1268 London Road,
for pensioners have contributed to reducing women's
London SW16 4ER
risk of poverty. The Government has introduced targets Tel: 020 8765 7200
to reduce child poverty and pensioner poverty. However, www.ageconcern.org.uk
the reduction of women's poverty has never been an
explicit government target. Women's Budget Group
c/o The Fawcett Society,
The Government's New Deal schemes include an 1-3 Berry Street, London EC1V 0AA
attempt to encourage mothers back into paid Tel: 020 7253 2598
employment. But programmes for the long-term www.wbg.org.uk
unemployed and young people (whose clients are
mostly men) have received far greater funding relative to One Parent Families
255 Kentish Town Road, London NW5 2LX
schemes for lone parents and partners of the
Tel: 020 7428 5400
unemployed, where women are in the majority.
www.oneparentfamilies.org.uk

General inadequacies in childcare and pension Single Parent Action Network

policies have a particular impact on women. Accessible Millpond, Baptist Street, Easton, Bristol BS5 0YW
and affordable childcare for all and a commitment to Tel: 0117 951 4231
more substantial paid parental leave would help bring www.spanuk.org.uk
women back into the labour market and redistribute
caring within the family.30 Pensions must better
incorporate the pattern of women's working life. Making

4
The Fawcett Society
1-3 Berry Street London EC1V 0AA
020 7253 2598 info@fawcettsociety.org.uk www.fawcettsociety.org.uk

Add your voice to the UKs campaign for equality between women and men. Join Fawcett today!

November 2003

For further copies of this briefing or for more information, please contact the Fawcett Society on 020 7253 2598
or info@fawcettsociety.org.uk

The Fawcett Society is the UK's campaign for equality between women and men.

Oxfam is a development, relief and campaigning organisation dedicated to finding lasting solutions to poverty.

References

1 Women and Equality Unit, Individual Incomes of Men and 14 Rake, K & G Jayatilaka, Home Truths, (Fawcett Society;
Women 1996/97- 2000/01, (DTI; London, 2003). London, 2002), p.19
Data taken from Family Resource Survey. 15 Ibid., p.20
2 Bradshaw et al., Gender and Poverty, (EOC; London, 2003). 16 Ibid., p.7
Data taken from 1999/00 Family Resource Survey. 17 Mother, Sheffield, quoted in Syeandle et al., Women and Men
3 DWP, Households Below Average Income, (DWP; London, Talking About Poverty, (2003)
2003), Table 7.9. Persistent low income refers to living on a low 18 Ibid.
income for at least three out of four years. 19 Lister, R. 'Women in Poverty' in K. Funken & P. Cooper (eds)
This figure represents those living on an income of less than 70 Old and New Poverty, (Rivers Oram Press; London, 1995), p.64
per cent of the median between the period 1997-2000. 20 Ibid.
4 Women and Equality Unit, Individual Incomes of Men and 21 Young woman, Middlesborough, quoted in Ibid.
Women 1996/97- 2000/01, (2003) 22 Palmer, G., M. Rakman, & P. Kenway, Monitoring Poverty and
5 Ibid. Social Exclusion 2002, (New Policy Institute and Joseph
6 Ibid. Rowntree Foundation; London, 2002), p.94
7 EOC, Women and Men in Britain: Pay and Income (EOC; 23 Ibid., p.37
Manchester, 2003). Data from New Earnings Survey 24 Ibid., p.97
8 Office for National Statistics, New Earnings Survey 1982-2002, 25 Women's Aid, Woman's Aid Campaign 2000: A future without
(ONS; London, 2002) fear, www.womensaid.org.uk
9 Ibid. 26 DWP, Households Below Average Income 1994/5-2001/2,
10 Women's Unit, Women's Incomes Over the Lifetime, (Cabinet (DWP; London, 2003), Tables D5.1.
Office; London, 2000) 27 Hendessi, M & F. Rashid, Poverty: The Price of Young
11 Bangladeshi woman quoted in Syeandle, S., K. Escott, L. Grant Motherhood in Britain, (YWCA; Oxford, 2002)
& E. Batty, Women and Men Talking About Poverty, (EOC; 28 DWP, Households Below Average Income, (2003), Table 6.5
Manchester, 2003) 29 Ibid., Table 4.1
12 Women and Equality Unit, Key Indicators of Women's Position 30 With thanks to Sue Cohen and Single Parent Action Network,
in Britain (DTI: London, 2002), Table 3.9 www.spanuk.org.uk
13 A. Bloch Refugees' Opportunities and Barriers in Employment,
(DWP; London, 2002)