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DISCRETE TIME SYSTEMS AND SIGNAL PROCESSING

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EE6403
Subject : DISCRETE TIME SYSTEMS AND SIGNAL
PROCESSING

Class : II Year
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EE6403 DISCRETE TIME SYSTEMS AND SIGNAL PROCESSING L T P C3 0 0 3

UNIT I INTRODUCTION

9
Classification of systems: Continuous, discrete, linear, causal, stable, dynamic,
recursive, time variance; classification of signals: continuous and discrete, energy
and power; mathematical representation of signals; spectral density; sampling
techniques, quantization, quantization error, Nyquist rate, aliasing effect.

UNIT II DISCRETE TIME SYSTEM ANALYSIS

9
Z-transform and its properties, inverse z-transforms; difference equation Solution by z-
transform, application to discrete systems - Stability analysis, frequency response
Convolution Discrete Time Fourier transform , magnitude and phase representation.
 UNIT III DISCRETE FOURIER TRANSFORM & COMPUTATION
9
Discrete Fourier Transform- properties, magnitude and phase representation -
Computation of DFT using FFT algorithm DIT &DIF using radix 2 FFT Butterfly
structure.

UNIT IV DESIGN OF DIGITAL FILTERS

9
FIR & IIR filter realization Parallel & cascade forms. FIR design: Windowing Techniques
Need and choice of windows Linear phase characteristics. Analog filter design
Butterworth and Chebyshev approximations; IIR Filters, digital design using impulse
invariant and bilinear transformation - Warping, pre warping.

UNIT V DIGITAL SIGNAL PROCESSORS

9
Introduction Architecture Features Addressing Formats Functional modes -
Introduction to Commercial DSProcessors.

TOTAL : 45
PERIODS
OUTCOMES:
Ability to understand and apply basic science, circuit theory, Electro-
magnetic field theory control theory and apply them to electrical
engineering problems.
TEXT BOOKS:
J.G. Proakis and D.G. Manolakis, Digital Signal Processing Principles,
Algorithms and Applications, Pearson Education, New Delhi, PHI. 2003.
S.K. Mitra, Digital Signal Processing A Computer Based Approach,
McGraw Hill Edu, 2013.
Robert Schilling & Sandra L.Harris, Introduction to Digital Signal Processing using
Matlab, Cengage Learning,2014.
REFERENCES:
Poorna Chandra S, Sasikala. B ,Digital Signal Processing, Vijay Nicole/TMH,2013.
B.P.Lathi, Principles of Signal Processing and Linear Systems, Oxford University Press,
2010
Taan S. ElAli, Discrete Systems and Digital Signal Processing with Mat Lab, CRC Press,
2009.
Sen M.kuo, woonsengs.gan, Digital Signal Processors, Architecture,
Implementations & Applications, Pearson,2013
Dimitris G.Manolakis, Vinay K. Ingle, applied Digital Signal Processing,Cambridge,2012
Lonnie C.Ludeman ,Fundamentals of Digital Signal Processing,Wiley,2013
 DISCRETE SYSTEMS & SIGNAL PROCESSING

BASICS OF DIGITAL SIGNALS & SYSTEMS

7

ANALYSIS OF LSI SYSTEMS- Z TRANSFORM

27

ANALYSIS OF FT, DFT AND FFT

32

DIGITAL FILTER CONCEPTS & DESIGN

69

DSP ARCHITECTURES AND APPLICATIONS OF DSP

101
 CONTENT PG.NO
CHAPTR -1

SIGNALS AND

SYSTEMS

Introduction 7
Classification of signals processing 8
Advantages of DSP over ASP
Disadvantages of DSP over ASP
Classification of signals 11
Discrete time systems 11

Standard signal sequences 12

Properties Discrete time signals 12
Symbols used in Discrete time systems 12
Classification of Discrete time systems 13
Stability for LTI systems 13
Analysis of discrete LTI systems 16

Types of convolution
Properties of convolution
Causality of LSI systems
Stability for LTI systems
Correlation 19
Types of correlation
Properties of correlation
22
A/D Conversion
Differential Equations 23

CHAPTER 2

DISCRETE TIME SYSTEMS ANALYSIS

2.0 Introduction to Z Transform 26

Advantages of Z Transform
Advantages of ROC
2.1 Z Transform plot 26
 Properties of Z -Transform Relationship
2.2
between FT & Z Transform 29
2.3
Inverse Z Transform 31
2.4
Pole Zero Plot 34
2.5
One sided Z Transform 36
2.6
Solution of Differential Equations 37
2.7
Jury stability criterian 38
CHAPTER 3
DISCRETE FOURIER TRANSFORM & COMPUTATION

3.0 Introduction 39
3.1 Difference between FT & DFT 39
3.2 Calculation of DFT
3.3 Difference between DFT & IDFT 41
3.4 Properties of DFT
3.5 Application of DFT 47
3.6 FFT 50
Radix 2 FFT Algorithm
3.7 GEOERZEL Algorithm 59

CHAPTER 4

DESIGN OF DIGITAL FILTERS

Introduction 61
Types of digital filters 65
Structure for FIR system 65
Structure for IIR system 68
IIR Filter design (Impulse invariance) 73
IIR Filter design (BZT) 76
Butterworth approximation 80
Frequency Transformation 87
FIR Filter design 89
Design filter for pole zero placement 93

CHAPTER 5

DIGITAL SIGNAL PROCESSOR

Requirements of DSP Processor 97

Microprocessor Architecture 100
Core Architecture of ADSP - 21XX 101
ADSP- 21XX Development tools
Application of DSP 106
Figure for finite duration 110
 Figure for infinite duration 111
Figure for pole zero plot 112

References
Glossary Terms
Tutorial Problems
Worked Out Problems
Question Bank
Question paper
 CHAPTER 1

SIGNALS AND SYSTEM

PREREQISTING DISCUSSION
A Signal is defined as any physical quantity that changes with time, distance, speed, position,
pressure, temperature or some other quantity. A Signal is physical quantity that consists of
many sinusoidal of different amplitudes and frequencies.
Ex x(t) = 10t
X(t) = 5x2+20xy+30y
A System is a physical device that performs an operations or processing on a signal. Ex Filter
or Amplifier.

CLASSIFICATION OF SIGNAL PROCESSING

ASP (Analog signal Processing) : If the input signal given to the system is analog then system
does analog signal processing. Ex Resistor, capacitor or Inductor, OP-AMP etc.

Analog Analog
Input Output

DSP (Digital signal Processing) : If the input signal given to the system is digital then system
does digital signal processing. Ex Digital Computer, Digital Logic Circuits etc. The devices
called as ADC (analog to digital Converter) converts Analog signal into digital and DAC
(Digital to Analog Converter) does vice-versa.

Analog Analog
Signal signal

Most of the signals generated are analog in nature. Hence these signals are converted to
digital form by the analog to digital converter. Thus AD Converter generates an array of
samples and gives it to the digital signal processor. This array of samples or sequence of
samples is the digital equivalent of input analog signal. The DSP performs signal processing
operations like filtering, multiplication, transformation or amplification etc operations over
this digital signals. The digital output signal from the DSP is given to the DAC.

ADVANTAGES OF DSP OVER ASP

Physical size of analog systems are quite large while digital processors are more
compact and light in weight.
Analog systems are less accurate because of component tolerance ex R, L, C and active
components. Digital components are less sensitive to the environmental changes, noise
and disturbances.
 Digital system are most flexible as software programs & control programs can be easily
modified.
Digital signal can be stores on digital hard disk, floppy disk or magnetic tapes.
Hence becomes transportable. Thus easy and lasting storage capacity.
Digital processing can be done offline.
 Mathematical signal processing algorithm can be routinely implemented on digital
signal processing systems. Digital controllers are capable of performing complex
computation with constant accuracy at high speed.
Digital signal processing systems are upgradeable since that are software controlled.
Possibility of sharing DSP processor between several tasks.
The cost of microprocessors, controllers and DSP processors are continuously going
down. For some complex control functions, it is not practically feasible to construct
analog controllers.
Single chip microprocessors, controllers and DSP processors are more versatile and
powerful.

Disadvantages Of DSP over ASP

Additional complexity (A/D & D/A Converters)
Limit in frequency. High speed AD converters are difficult to achieve in practice. In
high frequency applications DSP are not preferred.

CLASSIFICATION OF SIGNALS
Single channel and Multi-channel signals
Single dimensional and Multi-dimensional signals
Continuous time and Discrete time signals.
Continuous valued and discrete valued signals.
Analog and digital signals.
Deterministic and Random signals
Periodic signal and Non-periodic signal
Symmetrical(even) and Anti-Symmetrical(odd) signal
Energy and Power signal

Single channel and Multi-channel signals

If signal is generated from single sensor or source it is called as single channel signal. If the
signals are generated from multiple sensors or multiple sources or multiple signals are
generated from same source called as Multi-channel signal. Example ECG signals. Multi-
channel signal will be the vector sum of signals generated from multiple sources.

Single Dimensional (1-D) and Multi-Dimensional signals (M-D)

If signal is a function of one independent variable it is called as single dimensional signal
like speech signal and if signal is function of M independent variables called as Multi-
dimensional signals. Gray scale level of image or Intensity at particular pixel on black and
white TV are examples of M-D signals.
 Continuous time and Discrete time signals.
S. No Continuous Time (CTS) Discrete time (DTS)
1 This signal can be defined at any This signal can be defined only at certain
time
instance & they can take all specific values of time. These time instance need
values in
the continuous interval(a, b) not be equidistant but in practice they are
where a
can be - & can be usually takes at equally spaced intervals.
2 These are described by These are described by difference equation.
differential equations.
3 This signal is denoted by x(t). These signals are denoted by x(n) or notation x(nT)
can also be used.
4 The speed control of a dc motor Microprocessors and computer based systems uses
using a techogenerator feedback discrete time signals.
or Sine or
exponential waveforms.

S. No Continuous Valued Discrete Valued

1 If a signal takes on all possible values on If signal takes values from a finite set of
a finite or infinite range, it is said to be possible values, it is said to be discrete valued
continuous valued signal. signal.
2 Continuous Valued and continuous time Discrete time signal with set of discrete
signals are basically analog signals. amplitude are called digital signal.
Continuous valued and Discrete Valued signals.

S. No Analog signal Digital signal

1 These are basically continuous time & These are basically discrete time signals &
continuous amplitude signals. discrete amplitude signals. These signals are
basically obtained by sampling &
quantization process.
2 ECG signals, Speech signal, Television All signal representation in computers and
signal etc. All the signals generated from digital signal processors are digital.
various sources in nature are analog.

Analog and digital signal

 Note: Digital signals (DISCRETE TIME & DISCRETE AMPLITUDE)
are obtained by sampling the ANALOG signal at discrete instants of time,
obtaining DISCRETE TIME signals and then by quantizing its values to
a set of discrete values & thus generating DISCRETE AMPLITUDE
signals.
Sampling process takes place on x axis at regular intervals & quantization
process takes place along y axis. Quantization process is also called as
rounding or truncating or approximation process.

Deterministic and Random signals

S. No Deterministic signals Random signals

1 Deterministic signals can be represented or Random signals that cannot be

described by a mathematical equation or lookup represented or described by a
table. mathematical equation or lookup table.
2 Deterministic signals are preferable because for Not Preferable. The random signals can
analysis and processing of signals we can use be described with the help of their
mathematical model of the signal. statistical properties.
3 The value of the deterministic signal can be The value of the random signal cannot
evaluated at time (past, present or future) without be evaluated at any instant of time.
certainty.
4 Example Sine or exponential waveforms. Example Noise signal or Speech signal

Periodic signal and Non-Periodic signal

The signal x(n) is said to be periodic if x(n+N)= x(n) for all n
where N is the fundamental period of the signal. If the signal does
not satisfy above property called as Non-Periodic signals.
Discrete time signal is periodic if its frequency can be expressed as a ratio
of two integers. f= k/N where k is integer constant.
 Tutorial problems:
cos (0.01 n) Periodic N=200 samples per cycle.
cos (3 n) Periodic N=2 samples
sin(3n) Non-Periodic
cos(n/8) cos( n/8) Non-Periodic

Symmetrical(Even) and Anti-Symmetrical(odd) signal

A signal is called as symmetrical(even) if x(n) = x(-n) and if x(-n) = -x(n)
then signal is odd. X1(n)= cos(n) and x2(n)= sin(n) are good examples
of even & odd signals respectively. Every discrete signal can be
represented in terms of even & odd signals.
X(n) signal can be written as

= + ( ) 2
Rearranging the above terms we have

Thus X(n)= Xe(n) + Xo(n)

= ( ) 2
Even component of discrete time signal is given by

= + ( ) 2
Odd component of discrete time signal is given by

= ( ) 2
Test whether the following CT waveforms is periodic or not. If periodic
find out the fundamental period.
2 sin(2/3)t + 4 cos (1/2)t + 5 cos((1/3)t Ans: Period of x(t)= 12
a cos(t 2) + b sin(t/4) Ans: Non-Periodic

Find out the even and odd parts of the discrete signal x(n)={2,4,3,2,1}
Find out the even and odd parts of the discrete signal x(n)={2,2,2,2}

Energy signal and Power signal

Discrete time signals are also classified as finite energy
or finite average power signals. The energy of a discrete
time signal x(n) is given by
 2
= ()

The average power for a discrete time signal x(n) is defined as

1
2
= lim 2+1 = ( )
If Energy is finite and power is zero for x(n) then x(n) is an energy
signal. If power is finite and energy is infinite then x(n) is power signal.
There are some signals which are neither energy nor a power signal.

Tutorial problems:
Find the power and energy of u(n) unit step function.
Find the power and energy of r(n) unit ramp function.
Find the power and energy of an u(n).

DISCRETE TIME SIGNALS AND SYSTEM

There are three ways to represent discrete time signals.
Functional Representation
4 for n=1,3
x(n)= -2 for n =2
0 elsewhere
Tabular method of representation
n -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5
x(n) 0 0 0 0 4 -2 4 0 0
Sequence Representation
X(n) = { 0 , 4 , -2 , 4 , 0 ,}

n=0

STANDARD SIGNAL SEQUENCES

Unit sample signal (Unit impulse signal)

(n) = 1 n=0
0 n=0
i.e (n)={1}

Unit step signal

u(n) = 1 n0
0 n<0
 Unit ramp signal

ur (n) = n n0
0 n<0
Exponential signal
x(n) = a n = (re j ) n = r n e j n = r n (cos n + j sin n)

4) Sinusoidal waveform
x(n) = A Sin wn

PROPERTIES OF DISCRETE TIME SIGNALS

 Shifting : signal x(n) can be shifted in time. We can delay the sequence or advance the
sequence. This is done by replacing integer n by n-k where k is integer. If k is positive signal
is delayed in time by k samples (Arrow get shifted on left hand side) And if k is negative
signal is advanced in time k samples (Arrow get shifted on right hand side)
X(n) = { 1, -1 , 0 , 4 , -2 , 4 , 0 ,
}

n=0
Delayed by 2 samples : X(n-2)= { 1, -1 , 0 , 4 , -2 , 4 , 0 ,}

n=0
Advanced by 2 samples : X(n+2) = { 1, -1 , 0 , 4 , -2 , 4 , 0 ,}

n=0
Folding / Reflection : It is folding of signal about time origin n=0. In this case replace
n by n. Original signal:
X(n) = { 1, -1 , 0 , 4 , -2 , 4 , 0}
n=0
Folded signal:
X(-n) = { 0 , 4 , -2 , 4 , 0 , -1 , 1}

n=0
Addition : Given signals are x1(n) and x2(n), which produces output y(n) where y(n) = x1(n)
+ x2(n). Adder generates the output sequence which is the sum of input sequences.

Scaling: Amplitude scaling can be done by multiplying signal with some constant. Suppose
original signal is x(n). Then output signal is A x(n)

Multiplication : The product of two signals is defined as y(n) = x1(n) * x2(n).

SYMBOLS USED IN DISCRETE TIME SYSTEM

Unit delay

x(n) y(n) = x(n-1)

Unit advance

x(n) y(n) = x(n+1)

 Addition

x2(n)

Multiplication
x1(n)

x2(n)
Scaling (constant multiplier)
A
y(n) =x1(n)+x2(n)

y(n) =x1(n)*x2(n)
x(n) y(n) = A x(n)

CLASSIFICATION OF DISCRETE TIME SYSTEMS

STATIC v/s DYNAMIC

S. No STATIC DYNAMIC
(Dynamicity property)
1 Static systems are those systems whose output at any Dynamic systems output
instance of time depends at most on input sample at same depends upon past or future
time. samples of input.
2 Static systems are memory less systems. They have memories for
memorize all samples.

It is very easy to find out that given system is static or dynamic. Just check that output of
the system solely depends upon present input only, not dependent upon past or future.
S. No System [y(n)] Static / Dynamic
1 x(n) Static
2 A(n-2) Dynamic
2
3 X (n) Static
2
4 X(n ) Dynamic
2
5 n x(n) + x (n) Static
6 X(n)+ x(n-2) +x(n+2) Dynamic
 TIME INVARIANT v/s TIME VARIANT SYSTEMS
S. No TIME INVARIANT (TIV) / TIME VARIANT SYSTEMS /
SHIFT INVARIANT SHIFT VARIANT SYSTEMS
(Shift Invariance property)
1 A System is time invariant if its input output A System is time variant if its input output
characteristic do not change with shift of time. characteristic changes with time.
2 Linear TIV systems can be uniquely No Mathematical analysis can be
characterized by Impulse response, frequency performed.
response or transfer function.
3 Thermal Noise in Electronic components Rainfall per month
Printing documents by a printer Noise Effect
 It is very easy to find out that given system is Shift Invariant or
Shift Variant. Suppose if the system produces output y(n) by
taking input x(n)
x(n) y(n)
If we delay same input by k units x(n-k) and apply it to same systems, the system produces
output y(n-k)
x(n-k) y(n-k)

LINEAR v/s NON-LINEAR SYSTEMS
S.No LINEAR NON-LINEAR
(Linearity Property)
1 A System is linear if it satisfies superposition theorem. A System is Non-linear if it
does not satisfies
superposition theorem.
2 Let x1(n) and x2(n) are two input sequences, then the system
is said to be linear if and only if T[a1x1(n) +
a2x2(n)]=a1T[x1(n)]+a2T[x2(n)]

x1(n)

x2(n)
a1

a2 x1(n)

y(n)= T[a1x1[n] + a2x2(n) ]

y(n)=T[a1x1(n)+a2x2(n)]

x2(n) a2

hence T [ a1 x1(n) + a2 x2(n) ] = T [ a1 x1(n) ] + T

[ a2 x2(n) ] It is very easy to find out that given system
is Linear or Non-Linear.
Response to the system to the sum of signal = sum of individual responses of the system.
S. No System y(n) Linear or Non-Linear

1 Non-Linear
ex(n)
2 x2 (n) Non-Linear

3 m x(n) + c Non-Linear

4 cos [ x(n) ] Non-Linear

5 X(-n) Linear

6 Log 10 (|x(n)|) Non-Linear

 CAUSAL v/s NON CAUSAL SYSTEMS
S.No CAUSAL NON-CAUSAL
(Causality Property)
1 A System is causal if output of system at any A System is Non causal if output of
time depends only past and present inputs. system at any time depends on future
inputs.
2 In Causal systems the output is the function of In Non-Causal System the output is the
x(n), x(n-1), x(n-2).. and so on. function of future inputs also. X(n+1)
x(n+2) .. and so on
3 Example Real time DSP Systems Offline Systems

It is very easy to find out that given system is causal or non-causal. Just check that output
of the system depends upon present or past inputs only, not dependent upon future.
S.No System [y(n)] Causal /Non-Causal
1 x(n) + x(n-3) Causal
2 X(n) Causal
3 X(n) + x(n+3) Non-Causal
4 2 x(n) Causal
5 X(2n) Non-Causal
6 X(n)+ x(n-2) +x(n+2) Non-Causal

STABLE v/s UNSTABLE SYSTEMS

S.No STABLE UNSTABLE
(Stability Property)
1 A System is BIBO stable if every bounded A System is unstable if any bounded input
input produces a bounded output. produces a unbounded output.
2 The input x(n) is said to bounded if there exists
some finite number Mx such that |x(n)| Mx <

The output y(n) is said to bounded if there
exists some finite number My such that |y(n)|
My <

STABILITY FOR LTI SYSTEM

It is very easy to find out that given system is stable or unstable. Just check that by
providing input signal check that output should not rise to .

The condition for stability is given by

= () <
 S.No System [y(n)] Stable / Unstable
1 Cos [ x(n) ] Stable
2 x(-n+2) Stable
3 |x(n)| Stable
4 x(n) u(n) Stable
5 X(n) + n x(n+1) Unstable

ANALYSIS OF DISCRETE LINEAR TIME INVARIANT (LTI/LSI) SYSTEM

CONVOLUTION SUM METHOD

DIFFERENCE EQUATION

LINEAR CONVOLUTION SUM METHOD

This method is powerful analysis tool for studying LSI Systems.
In this method we decompose input signal into sum of elementary signal. Now the elementary
input signals are taken into account and individually given to the system. Now using linearity
property whatever output response we get for decomposed input signal, we simply add it &
this will provide us total response of the system to any given input signal.
Convolution involves folding, shifting, multiplication and summation operations.
If there are M number of samples in x(n) and N number of samples in h(n) then the maximum
number of samples in y(n) is equals to M+n-1.
Linear Convolution states that
y(n) = x(n) * h(n)

y(n) = x (k) h(n k ) = x (k)

h[ -(k-n) ] k= - k= -

Example 1: h(n) = { 1 , 2 , 1, -1 } & x(n) = { 1, 2, 3, 1 } Find y(n)

METHOD 1: GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION

Step 1) Find the value of n = nx+ nh = -1 (Starting Index of x(n)+ starting
index of h(n)) Step 2) y(n)= { y(-1) , y(0) , y(1), y(2), .} It goes up to
length(xn)+ length(yn) -1.
i.e n=-1 y(-1) = x(k) * h(-1-k)
n=0 y(0) = x(k) * h(0-k)
n=1 y(1) = x(k) * h(1-k) .
ANSWER : y(n) ={1, 4, 8, 8, 3, -2, -1 }

METHOD 2: MATHEMATICAL FORMULA

Use Convolution formula

 y(n) = x (k)
h(n k )
k= -

k= 0 to 3 (start index to end

index of x(n))
y(n) = x(0) h(n) + x(1) h(n-1) + x(2) h(n-2) + x(3) h(n-3)

METHOD 3: VECTOR FORM (TABULATION METHOD)

X(n)= {x1,x2,x3} & h(n) ={ h1,h2,h3}
 h1 h2 h3

y(-1) = h1 x1
y(0) = h2 x1 + h1 x2
y(1) = h1 x3 + h2x2 + h3 x1
X1 x2 x3

METHOD 4: SIMPLE MULTIPLICATION FORM

X(n)= {x1,x2,x3} & h(n) ={ h1,h2,h3}
x1 x2 x3
y(n) =

y1 y2 y3

PROPERTIES OF LINEAR CONVOLUTION

x(n) = Excitation
Input signal y(n)
= Output
Response
h(n) = Unit sample response
Commutative Law: (Commutative Property of Convolution)
x(n) * h(n) = h(n) * x(n)

X(n) Response = y(n) = x(n) *h(n)

h(n) Response = y(n) = h(n) * x(n)

Associate Law: (Associative Property of Convolution)

[ x(n) * h1(n) ] * h2(n) = x(n) *

[ h1(n) * h2(n) ] X(n)

X(n) Response
 3 Distribute Law: (Distributive property of convolution)
x(n) * [ h1(n) + h2(n) ] = x(n) * h1(n) + x(n) * h2(n)
CAUSALITY OF LSI SYSTEM
The output of causal system depends upon the present and past inputs. The output of the
causal system at n= n0 depends only upon inputs x(n) for n n0. The linear convolution is
given as

y(n) =
h(k)
x(nk)
k=-

At n= n0 ,the output y(n0) will be

y(n0) =
h(k)
x(n0k)
k=-

Rearranging the above terms...

y(n0) = h(k) x(n0k) +

h(k) x(n0k) k=0k=-1

The output of causal system at n= n0 depends upon the inputs for

n< n0 Hence h(-1)=h(-2)=h(-3)=0
Thus LSI system is causal if and only
if
h(n) =0 for n<0
This is the necessary and sufficient condition for causality of the system.
Linear convolution of the causal LSI system is given by
n

y(n) = x (k) h(n k )

k=0

STABILITY FOR LTI SYSTEM

A System is said to be stable if every bounded input produces a bounded output.

 The input x(n) is said to bounded if there exists some finite number Mx such that |x(n)| Mx
< . The output y(n) is said to bounded if there exists some finite number My such that |y(n)|
My < .
Linear convolution is given by

y(n) = x
(k)
h(n
k
)
k=-

Taking the absolute value of both

sides

|y(n)| = h(k) x(n-k) k=-

The absolute values of total sum is always less than or equal to sum of the absolute values of
individually terms. Hence

|y(n)| h(k) x(nk) k=-

|y(n)| |h(k)| |x(nk)| k=-

The input x(n) is said to bounded if there exists some finite number Mx such that |x(n)| Mx
< . Hence bounded input x(n) produces bounded output y(n) in the LSI system only if

|h(k)| <
k=-

With this condition satisfied, the system will be stable. The above equation states that the LSI
system is stable if its unit sample response is absolutely summable. This is necessary and
sufficient condition for the stability of LSI system.

SELF-STUDY: Exercise No. 1

Q1) Show that the discrete time signal is periodic only if its frequency is expressed as the
ratio of two integers.
Q2) Show that the frequency range for discrete time sinusoidal signal is - to
radians/sample or - cycles/sample to cycles/sample.
Q3) Prove (n)= u(n)= u(n-1).
 n
Q4) Prove
u(n)=
(k)
k=-

Q5) Prove u(n)= (n-k)
k=0
Q6) Prove that every discrete sinusoidal signal can be expressed in terms of weighted
unit impulse. Q7) Prove the Linear Convolution theorem.

CORRELATION:
It is frequently necessary to establish similarity between one set of data and another.
It means we would like to correlate two processes or data. Correlation is closely related to
convolution, because the correlation is essentially convolution of two data sequences in
which one of the sequences has been reversed.

Applications are in
Images processing for robotic vision or remote sensing by satellite in which data from
different image is compared
In radar and sonar systems for range and position finding in which transmitted and reflected
waveforms are compared.

Correlation is also used in detection and identifying of signals in noise.

Computation of average power in waveforms.

Identification of binary codeword in pulse code modulation system.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN LINEAR CONVOLUTION AND
CORRELATION

S.No Linear Convolution Correlation

1 In case of convolution two signal sequences In case of Correlation, two signal sequences are
input signal and impulse response given by the just compared.
same system is calculated
2 Our main aim is to calculate the response given Our main aim is to measure the degree to which
by the system. two signals are similar and thus to extract some
information that depends to a large extent on the
application
3 Linear Convolution is given by the equation Received signal sequence is given as
y(n) = x(n) * h(n) & calculated as Y(n) = x(n-D) + (n)
Where = Attenuation Factor
y(n) = x (k) h(n k ) D= Delay
k= - (n) = Noise signal

4 Linear convolution is commutative Not commutative.

TYPES OF CORRELATION
Under Correlation there are two classes.
CROSS CORRELATION: When the correlation of two different sequences x(n)
and y(n) is performed it is called as Cross correlation. Cross-correlation of x(n)
and y(n) is rxy(l) which can be mathematically expressed as

rxy(l) = x (n) y(n l )

n= -

OR

rxy(l) = x (n + l) y(n) n= -

AUTO CORRELATION: In Auto-correlation we correlate signal x(n) with itself,

which can be mathematically expressed as

rxx(l) = x (n) x(n l ) n= -

 OR

rxx(l) = x (n
+ l)
x(n)
n= -

PROPERTIES OF CORRELATION
The cross-correlation is not commutative.
rxy(l) = ryx(-l)
The cross-correlation is equivalent to convolution of one sequence with folded version of
another sequence.
rxy(l) = x(l) *
y(-l).
The autocorrelation sequence is an even function.
rxx(l) = rxx(-l)

Examples:
Q) Determine cross-correlation
sequence
x(n)={2, -1, 3, 7,1,2, -3} & y(n)={1, -1, 2, -2, 4, 1, -2 ,5}
Answer: rxy(l) = {10, -9, 19, 36, -14, 33, 0,7, 13, -18, 16, -7, 5, -3}
Q) Determine autocorrelation
sequence
x(n)={1, 2, 1, 1} Answer: rxx(l) = {1, 3, 5, 7, 5, 3, 1}

A/D CONVERSION
BASIC BLOCK DIAGRAM OF A/D CONVERTER

Analog signal Xa(t)

Discrete time Quantized

Digital signal
signal
signal

SAMPLING THEOREM
It is the process of converting continuous time signal into a discrete time signal by taking
samples of the continuous time signal at discrete time instants.

X[n]= Xa(t) where t= nTs = n/Fs .(1)

When sampling at a rate of fs samples/sec, if k is any positive or negative integer, we cannot
distinguish between the samples values of fa Hz and a sine wave of (fa+ kfs) Hz. Thus (fa +
kfs) wave is alias or image of fa wave.

Thus Sampling Theorem states that if the highest frequency in an analog signal is
Fmax and the signal is sampled at the rate fs > 2Fmax then x(t) can be exactly recovered
from its sample values. This sampling rate is called Nyquist rate of sampling. The imaging or
aliasing starts after Fs/2 hence folding frequency is fs/2. If the frequency is less than or equal
to 1/2 it will be represented properly.

Example:
Case 1: X1(t) = cos 2 (10) t Fs= 40 Hz i.e t= n/Fs
x1[n]= cos 2(n/4)= cos (/2)n

Case 2: X1(t) = cos 2 (50) t Fs= 40 Hz

i.e t= n/Fs x1[n]= cos 2(5n/4)= cos 2( 1+ )n
= cos (/2)n

Thus the frequency 50 Hz, 90 Hz , 130 Hz are alias of the frequency 10 Hz at the
sampling rate of 40 samples/sec

2.QUANTIZATION
The process of converting a discrete time continuous amplitude signal into a digital signal
by expressing each sample value as a finite number of digits is called quantization. The
error introduced in representing the continuous values signal by a finite set of discrete value
levels is called quantization error or quantization noise.

Example: x[n] = 5(0.9)n u(n) where 0 <n < & fs= 1 Hz

N [n] Xq [n] Rounding Xq [n] Truncating eq [n]

0 5 5.0 5.0 0
1 4.5 4.5 4.5 0
2 4.05 4.0 4.0 -0.05
3 3.645 3.6 3.6 -0.045
4 3.2805 3.2 3.3 0.0195

Quantization Step/Resolution : The difference between the two quantization levels is called
quantization step. It is given by = XMax xMin / L-1 where L indicates Number of
quantization levels.
3.CODING/ENCODING
Each quantization level is assigned a unique binary code. In the encoding operation, the
quantization sample value is converted to the binary equivalent of that quantization level. If
16 quantization levels are present, 4 bits are required. Thus bits required in the coder is the
smallest integer greater than or equal to Log2 L. i.e b= Log2 L
Thus Sampling frequency is calculated as fs=Bit rate / b.
 ANTI-ALIASING FILTER
When processing the analog signal using DSP system, it is sampled at some rate depending
upon the bandwidth. For example if speech signal is to be processed the frequencies upon
3khz can be used. Hence the sampling rate of 6khz can be used. But the speech signal also
contains some frequency components more than 3khz. Hence a sampling rate of 6khz will
introduce aliasing. Hence signal should be band limited to avoid aliasing.
The signal can be band limited by passing it through a filter (LPF) which blocks or
attenuates all the frequency components outside the specific bandwidth. Hence called as
Anti aliasing filter or pre- filter. (Block Diagram).

SAMPLE-AND-HOLD CIRCUIT:
The sampling of an analogue continuous-time signal is normally implemented using a
device called an analogue-to- digital converter (A/D). The continuous-time signal is first
passed through a device called a sample-and-hold (S/H) whose function is to measure the
input signal value at the clock instant and hold
it fixed for a time interval long enough for the A/D operation to complete.
Analogue-to-digital conversion is potentially a slow operation, and a
variation of the input voltage during the conversion may disrupt the
operation of the converter. The S/H prevents such disruption by keeping the
input voltage constant during the conversion. This is schematically
illustrated by Figure.

After a continuous-time signal has been through the A/D converter, the
quantized output may differ from the input value. The maximum possible
output value after the quantization process could be up to half the
quantization level q above or q below the ideal output value. This
deviation from the ideal output value is called the quantization error. In
order to reduce this effect, we increases the number of bits.

Tutorial problems:
Q) Calculate Nyquist Rate for the analog signal x(t)
1) x(t)= 4 cos 50 t + 8 sin 300t cos 100t Fn=300
Hz
2) x(t)= 2 cos 2000t+ 3 sin 6000t + 8 cos 12000t

Fn=12KHz
 3) x(t)= 4 cos 100t Fn=100
Hz

Q) The following four analog sinusoidal are sampled with the fs=40Hz.
Find out corresponding time signals and comment on them
X(t)= cos 2(10)t X2(t)= cos 2(50)t X3(t)= cos 2(90)t X4(t)= cos 2(130)t
Q) Signal x1(t)=10cos2(1000)t+ 5 cos2(5000)t. Determine Nyquist
rate. If the signal is sampled at 4khz will the signal be recovered from its
samples.
Q) Signal x1(t)=3 cos 600t+ 2cos800t. The link is operated at 10000 bits/sec and each input
sample is quantized into 1024 different levels. Determine Nyquist rate, sampling frequency,
folding frequency & resolution.

DIFFERENCE EQUATION

S.No Finite Impulse Response (FIR) Infinite Impulse Response (IIR)

1 FIR has an impulse response that is zero outside of some IIR has an impulse response on
finite time interval. infinite time interval.
2 Convolution formula changes to Convolution formula changes to
M

y(n) = x (k) h(n k ) y(n) = x (k) h(n k )

n= -M n= -
For causal FIR systems limits changes to 0 to M. For causal IIR systems limits
changes to 0 to .
3 The FIR system has limited span which views only most The IIR system has unlimited span.
recent M input signal samples forming output called as
Windowing.
4 FIR has limited or finite memory requirements. IIR System requires infinite
memory.
5 Realization of FIR system is generally based on Realization of IIR system is
Convolution Sum Method. generally based on Difference
Method.

Discrete time systems has one more type of classification.

Recursive Systems
Non-Recursive Systems
S. No Recursive Systems Non-Recursive systems
1 In Recursive systems, the output depends upon past, In Non-Recursive systems, the
present, future value of inputs as well as past output. output depends only upon past,
present or future values of inputs.
2 Recursive Systems has feedback from output to No Feedback.
input.
3 Examples y(n) = x(n) + y(n-2) Y(n) = x(n) + x(n-1)
 First order Difference Equation
y(n) = x(n) + a y(n-1)
where y(n) = Output
Response of
the
recursive
system x(n)
= Input
signal
a= Scaling factor
y(n-1) = Unit delay to output.
Now we will start at n=0
n=0 y(0) = x(0) + a y(-1)
.(1)
n=1 y(1) = x(1) + a y(0)
.(2)
= x(1) + a [ x(0) + a y(-1) ]
= a2 y(-1) + a x(0) + x(1)

.(3)
hence
y(n) = a n+1 y(-1) + a k x (n -k) n0

k= 0

The first part (A) is response depending upon initial condition.

The second Part (B) is the response of the system to an input signal.

Zero state response (Forced response) : Consider initial condition are zero. (System is
relaxed at time n=0) i.e y(-1) =0

Zero Input response (Natural response) : No input is forced as system is in non-relaxed

initial condition. i.e y(-1) != 0
Total response is the sum of zero state response and zero input response.

Q) Determine zero input response for y(n) 3y(n-1) 4y(n-2)=0; (Initial Conditions are
y(-1)=5 & y(-2)= 10) Answer: y(n)= 7 (-1)n + 48 (4)n
 CHAPTER 2
DISCRETE TIME SYSTEM
ANALYSIS 2.0 PREREQISTING DISCUSSION ABOUT Z
TRANSFORM
For analysis of continuous time LTI system Laplace transform is used. And for
analysis of discrete time LTI system z transform is used. Z transform is mathematical tool
used for conversion of time domain into frequency domain (z domain) and is a function of
the complex valued variable Z. The z transform of a discrete time signal x(n) denoted by
X(z) and given as

X(z) = x (n) z n z-
Transform.(1) n=-
Z transform is an infinite power series because summation index varies from - to . But it
is useful for values of z for which sum is finite. The values of z for which f (z) is finite and
lie within the region called as region of convergence (ROC).

ADVANTAGES OF Z TRANSFORM
The DFT can be determined by evaluating z transform.
Z transform is widely used for analysis and synthesis of digital filter.
Z transform is used for linear filtering. z transform is also used for finding Linear
convolution, cross-correlation and auto-correlations of sequences.
In z transform user can characterize LTI system (stable/unstable, causal/anti-
causal) and its response to various signals by placements of pole and zero plot.

ADVANTAGES OF ROC(REGION OF CONVERGENCE)

ROC is going to decide whether system is stable or unstable.
ROC decides the type of sequences causal or anti-causal.
ROC also decides finite or infinite duration sequences.

2.1 Z TRANSFORM PLOT

Z-Plane
 Imaginary Part of z Im (z)
|z|>a

|z|<a

Re (z) Real part of z

Fig show the plot of z transforms. The z transform has real and imaginary parts. Thus a plot
of imaginary part versus real part is called complex z-plane. The radius of circle is 1 called
as unit circle.
This complex z plane is used to show ROC, poles and zeros. Complex variable z is also
expressed in polar form as Z= rej where r is radius of circle is given by |z| and is the
frequency of the sequence in radians and given by z.

S.No Time Domain Property z Transform ROC

Sequence
1 (n) (Unit sample) 1 complete z plane
2 (n-k) Time shifting except z=0
z-k
3 (n+k) Time shifting except z=
zk
4 u(n) (Unit step) 1/1- z-1 = z/z-1 |z| > 1
5 u(-n) Time reversal 1/1- z |z| < 1
6 -u(-n-1) Time reversal z/z- 1 |z| < 1
7 n u(n) (Unit ramp) Differentiation z-1 / (1- z-1)2 |z| > 1
8 an u(n) Scaling 1/1- (az-1) |z| > |a|
9 -an u(-n-1)(Left side 1/1- (az-1) |z| < |a|
exponential sequence)
10 n an u(n) Differentiation a z-1 / (1- az-1)2 |z| > |a|
11 -n an u(-n-1) Differentiation a z-1 / (1- az-1)2 |z| < |a|
12 an for 0 < n < N-1 1- (a z-1)N/ 1- az-1 |az-1| <
except z=0
13 1 for 0<n<N-1 or Linearity 1- z-N/ 1- z-1 |z| > 1
u(n) u(n-N) Shifting
14 cos(0n) u(n) 1- z-1cos0 |z| > 1

1- 2z-1cos0+z-2
15 sin(0n) u(n) z-1sin0 |z| > 1

1- 2z-1cos0+z-2
n
16 a cos(0n) u(n) Time scaling 1- (z/a)-1cos0 |z| > |a|

1- 2(z/a)-1cos0+(z/a)-2
n
17 a sin(0n) u(n) Time scaling (z/a)-1sin0 |z| > |a|

1- 2(z/a)-1cos0+(z/a)-2

Tutorial problems:
Q) Determine z transform of
following signals. Also draw
ROC. i) x(n) = {1,2,3,4,5}
ii) x(n)={1,2,3,4,5,0,7}
Q) Determine z transform and ROC for x(n) = (-1/3)n u(n) (1/2)n
u(-n-1).
Q) Determine z transform and ROC for x(n) = [ 3.(4n)4(2n)]
u(n).
Q) Determine z transform and ROC for x(n) = (1/2)n u(-n).
Q) Determine z transform and ROC for x(n) = (1/2)n {u(n) u(n-
10)}.
Q) Find linear convolution using z transform. X(n)={1,2,3} &
h(n)={1,2}
 2.1.1 PROPERTIES OF Z TRANSFORM (ZT)
Linearity
The linearity property states that if
z
x1(n) X1(z) And
z
x2(n) X2(z) Then

Then z
a1 x1(n) + a2 x2(n) a1 X1(z) + a2 X2(z)
z Transform of linear combination of two or more signals is equal to the same linear
combination of z transform of individual signals.

Time shifting
The Time shifting property states that
if
z
x(n) X(z) And
z
Then x(n-k) X(z) zk

Thus shifting the sequence circularly by k samples is equivalent to multiplying its z

transform by z k

Scaling in z domain
This property states that if
z
x(n) X(z) And
z
Then an x(n) x(z/a)
Thus scaling in z transform is equivalent to multiplying by an in time domain.

Time reversal Property

The Time reversal property states that
if
z
x(n) X(z) And
z
Then x(-n) x(z-1)
It means that if the sequence is folded it is equivalent to replacing z by z-1 in z domain.
 Differentiation in z domain
The Differentiation property states
that if

z
x(n) X(z) And
z
Then n x(n) -z d/dz (X(z))
 Convolution Theorem
The Circular property states that if
z
x1(n) X1(z) And
z
x2(n) X2(z) Then
z
Then x1(n) * x2(n)

X1(z) X2(z)
N
Convolution of two sequences in time domain corresponds to multiplication of its Z
transform sequence in frequency domain.

Correlation Property
The Correlation of two sequences
states that if
z
x1(n) X1(z) And
z
x2(n) X2(z) Then
z

then x1 (l) x2(-l)

X1(z) x2(z-1) n=-

Initial value Theorem

Initial value theorem states that if
z

then
 x(n) X(z) And

x(0) = lim X(Z) z

Final value Theorem

Final value theorem states that if
z

then
x(n) X(z) And

lim x(n) = lim(z-1) X(z) z

z1

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN FOURIER TRANSFORM AND Z TRANSFORM.

There is a close relationship between Z transform and Fourier transform. If we replace
the complex variable z by e j, then z transform is reduced to Fourier transform.
Z transform of sequence x(n) is given
by

X(z) = x (n) z n (Definition of z-Transform)

n=-
Fourier transform of sequence x(n) is given by

X() = x (n) e jn (Definition of Fourier Transform)

n=-

Complex variable z is expressed in polar form as Z= rej where r= |z| and is z. Thus we
can be written as

X(z) = [ x (n) rn] e

jn

n=-

X(z) z =e = x (n)
e
 n=-

X(z) z =e = x() at |z| = unit circle.

Thus, X(z) can be interpreted as Fourier Transform of signal sequence (x(n) rn). Here rn
grows with n if r<1 and decays with n if r>1. X(z) converges for |r|= 1. hence Fourier
transform may be viewed as Z transform of the sequence evaluated on unit circle. Thus The
relationship between DFT and Z transform is given by

X(z) z=e = x(k)

The frequency =0 is along the positive Re(z) axis and the frequency /2 is along the
positive Im(z) axis. Frequency is along the negative Re(z) axis and 3/2 is along the
negative Im(z) axis.

Im(z)
=/2 z(0,+j)
 z=rej

= =0
z(-1,0) z(1,0) Re(z)

=3/2 z(0,-j)
Frequency scale on unit circle X(z)= X() on unit circle
INVERSE Z TRANSFORM (IZT)
S.No Function (ZT) Time domain sequence Comment

1 an u(n) for |z| > a causal sequence

1 -an u(-n-1) for |z| < a anti-causal sequence
1- a z-1
1 (-1)n u(n) for |z| > 1 causal sequence
2 -(-1)n u(-n-1) for |z| < a anti-causal sequence
1+z-1

-2(3)n u(-n-1) + (0.5)n u(n) stable system

for 0.5<|z|<3
2(3)n u(n) + (0.5)n u(n) causal system
3 3-4z-1 for |z|>3
1- 3.5 z-1+1.5z-2 -2(3)n u(-n-1) - (0.5)n u(-n-1) for |z|<0.5 anti-causal system

-2(1) n u(-n-1) + (0.5)n u(n) stable system

for 0.5<|z|<1
4 1 2(1)n u(n) + (0.5)n u(n) causal system
for |z|>1
1- 1.5 z-1+0.5z-2
-2(1)n u(-n-1) - (0.5)n u(-n-1) for |z|<0.5 anti-causal system
The signal can be converted from time domain into z domain with the help of z
transform (ZT). Similar way the signal can be converted from z domain to time
domain with the help of inverse z transform(IZT). The inverse z transform can be
obtained by using two different methods.
Partial fraction expansion Method (PFE) / Application of residue theorem
Power series expansion Method (PSE)
 PARTIAL FRACTION EXPANSION METHOD
In this method X(z) is first expanded into sum of
simple partial fraction. a0 zm+ a1 zm-
1
+ .+ am
X(z) = for m n

b0 zn + b1 znn-1+ .+ bn
First find the roots of the denominator polynomial
a0 zm+ a1 zm-1+ .+ am
X(z) =

(z- p1) (z- p2) (z- pn)

The above equation can be written in partial fraction expansion form and find the
coefficient AK and take IZT.

SOLVE USING PARTIAL FRACTION EXPANSION METHOD

(PFE)

5 1+2 z-1+ z-2 2(n)+8(1)n u(n)- 9(0.5)n u(n) causal system

_ for |z|>1
1- 3/2 z-1+0.5z-2
1+ z-1 (1/2-j3/2) (1/2+j1/2)n u(n)+ causal system
6 _ (1/2+j3/2) (1/2+j1/2)n u(n)
1- z-1 + 0.5z-2
1 (0.5) z-1 4(-1/2)n u(n) 3 (-1/4)n u(n) for |z|>1/2 causal system
7
1-3/4 z-1+1/8 z-2

1- 1/2 z-1 (-1/2)n u(n) for |z|>1/2 causal system

8
1- 1/4 z-2

(n)+ u(n) 2(1/3)n u(n) causal system

9 z+1
for |z|>1
3z2 - 4z + 1

5z 5(2n-1) causal system

10 _ for |z|>2
(z-1) (z-2)
4-(n+3)(1/2)n causal system
z3
11 _ for |z|>1
2
(z-1) (z-1/2)
 RESIDUE THEOREM METHOD
In this method, first find G(z)= zn-1 X(Z) and find the residue of G(z) at various poles
of X(z).

SOLVE USING RESIDUE THEOREM METHOD

S. No Function (ZT) Time domain Sequence
1 z For causal sequence (a)n u(n)

za
2 (2n -1 ) u(n)
z (z
1)(z-2)
3 z2 + z (2n+1) u(n)

(z 1)2

4 4 (n+3)(0.5)n u(n)
z3

(z-1) (z0.5)2
 POWER-SERIES EXPANSION METHOD
The z transform of a discrete time signal x(n) is given as

X(z) = x (n) z n

(1)
n
=- Expanding the
above terms we
have
x(z) = ..+x(-2)Z2+ x(-1)Z+ x(0)+ x(1) Z-1 + x(2) Z2 +.. (2)
This is the expansion of z transform in power series form. Thus
sequence x(n) is given as x(n) ={ .. ,x(-2),x(-1),x(0),x(1),x(2),
..}.
Power series can be obtained directly or by long division method.
S.No Function (ZT) Time domain Sequence
1 For causal sequence an u(n)
_ z
For Anti-causal sequence -an u(-n-1)
z-a
2 _ 1 {1,3/2,7/4,15,8,.} For |z| > 1
{.14,6,2,0,0} For |z| < 0.5
1- 1.5 z-1+0.5z-2

3 z2+z {0,1,4,9,..} For |z| > 3

z3 -3z2+3z -1

4 z2(1-0.5z-1)(1+z-1) (1-z-1) X(n) ={1,-0.5,-1,0.5}

5 log(1+az-1) (-1)n+1an/n for n1 and |z|>|a|
SOLVE USING POWER SERIES EXPANSION METHOD

RECURSIVE ALGORITHM
The long division method can be recast in recursive form.
a0 + a1 z-1+ a2 z-2
X(z) =
 b0 + b1 z-1+ b2 z-2

Their IZT is give as

n

Thus
x(n) = 1/b0 [ an - x(n-i) bi] for n=1,2,.
i=1
X(0) = a0/b0
X(1) = 1/b0 [ a1- x(0) b1]
X(2) = 1/b0 [ a1- x(1) b1 - x(0) b2]
SOLVE USING RECURSIVE ALGORITHM METHOD
S. No Function (ZT) Time domain Sequence
-1 -2
1 1+2z +z X(n) = {1,3,3.6439,.}

1-z-1 +0.3561z2

2 1+z-1 X(n) = {1,11/6,49/36,.}

1-5/6 z-1+ 1/6 z-2

3 z4 +z2 X(n) = { 23/16,63/64,}

z2-3/4z+ 1/8

POLE ZERO PLOT

X(z) is a rational function, that is a ratio of two polynomials in z-1 or z.
The roots of the denominator or the value of z for which X(z) becomes infinite,
defines locations of the poles. The roots of the numerator or the value of z for which
X(z) becomes zero, defines locations of the zeros.

ROC dos not contain any poles of X(z). This is because x(z) becomes infinite at
the locations of the poles. Only poles affect the causality and stability of the system.

CASUALTY CRITERIA FOR LSI SYSTEM

LSI system is causal if and only if the ROC the system function is exterior to
the circle. i. e |z| > r. This is the condition for causality of the LSI system in terms of
z transform. (The condition for LSI system to be causal is h(n) = 0 .. n<0 )

STABILITY CRITERIA FOR LSI SYSTEM

Bounded input x(n) produces bounded output y(n) in the LSI system only if

|h(n)| <
n=-

With this condition satisfied, the system will be stable. The above equation states
that the LSI system is stable if its unit sample response is absolutely summable.
This is necessary and sufficient condition for the stability of LSI system.

H(z) = h (n) z n Z-Transform.

(1)

n=-
Taking magnitude of both the sides

|H(z)| = h(n) z n ...(2)

n=-

Magnitudes of overall sum is less than the sum of magnitudes of individual sums.

|H(z)|

h
(
n
)
z
-

n
=
-



|H(z)| |h(n)| | z-n |

.(3) n=-
If H(z) is evaluated on the unit circle | z-n|=|z|=1.
Hence LSI system is stable if and only if the ROC the system function includes the
unit circle. i.e r < 1. This is the condition for stability of the LSI system in terms of z
transform. Thus
For stable
system |z| < 1
For unstable
system |z| > 1
Marginally stable system |z| = 1

Fig: Stable system

Poles inside unit circle gives stable system. Poles outside unit circle gives unstable
system. Poles on unit circle give marginally stable system.
A causal and stable system must have a system function that converges for
|z| > r < 1.
STANDARD INVERSE Z TRANSFORMS

S. No Function (ZT) Causal Sequence Anti-causal sequence

|z| > |a| |z| <|a|
n n
1 z (a) u(n) -(a) u(-n-1)

za
2 z u(n) u(-n-1)

z1
3 (n+1)an -(n+1)an
z2

(z a)2
4 1/(k-1)! (n+1) (n+2)an -1/(k-1)! (n+1) (n+2)an
zk

(z a)k
5 1 (n) (n)

6 (n+k) (n+k)
Zk
7 (n-k) (n-k)
Z-k
 ONE SIDED Z TRANSFORM
S.No z Transform (Bilateral) One sided z Transform (Unilateral)
1 z transform is an infinite power series One sided z transform summation index varies from 0 to
because summation index varies from . Thus One sided z transform are given by
to -. Thus Z transform are given by

X(z) = x (n) z n
n
X(z) = x (n) z
n=- n=0

2 z transform is applicable for relaxed One sided z transform is applicable for those systems
systems (having zero initial condition). which are described by differential equations with non zero
initial conditions.
3 z transform is also applicable for non- One sided z transform is applicable for causal systems
causal systems. only.
4 ROC of x(z) is exterior or interior to ROC of x(z) is always exterior to circle hence need not to
circle hence need to specify with z be specified.
transform of signals.
 Properties of one sided z transform are same as that of two sided z
transform except shifting property.
Time delay
z+
x(n) X+(z) and

z+ k
k
x(n-k) z [ X (z) + x(-n) zn]
+
k>0
n=1
Time advance
z+
x(n) X+(z) and

z+ k-1
x(n+k)z [ X (z) - x(n) z-n]
k +
k>0n=0
Examples:
Q) Determine one sided z
transform for following
signals 1)
x(n)={1,2,3,4,5}

2) x(n)={1,2,3,4,5}

SOLUTION OF DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION

One sided Z transform is very efficient tool for the solution of difference
equations with nonzero initial condition. System function of LSI system can
be obtained from its difference equation.

Z{x(n-1)} = x(n-1) z-n
(One sided Z transform)
n=0
= x(-1) + x(0) z-1 + x(1) z-2 + x(2) z-3 +

= x(-1) + z-1 [x(0) z-1 + x(1) z-2 + x(2) z-3 +

]

Z{ x(n-1) } = z-1 X(z) + x(-1)

Z{ x(n-2) } = z-2 X(z) + z-1 x(-1) + x(-2)
 Similarly Z{ x(n+1) } = z X(z) - z x(0)
Z{ x(n+2) } = z2 X(z) - z1 x(0) + x(1)

Difference equations are used to find out the relation between input and
output sequences. It is also used to relate system function H(z) and Z
transform.

The transfer function H() can be obtained from system function

H(z) by putting z=ej. Magnitude and phase response plot can be
obtained by putting various values of .

Tutorial problems:
Q) A difference
equation of the
system is given
below Y(n)= 0.5
y(n-1) + x(n)
Determine a) System function
Pole zero plot
Unit sample response
A difference
equation of the
system is given
below Y(n)= 0.7
y(n-1) 0.12 y(n-
2) + x(n-1) + x(n-
2)
System Function
Pole zero plot
Response of system to the input x(n) = nu(n)
Is the system stable? Comment on the result.
Q) A difference
equation of the
system is given
below Y(n)= 0.5
x(n) + 0.5 x(n-
1)
Determine a) System function
Pole zero plot
Unit sample response
Transfer function
Magnitude and phase plot
A difference
equation of the
system is given
below a.
 Y(n)=
0.5 y(n-1) +
x(n) + x(n-1)
b. Y(n)= x(n) + 3x(n-1) + 3x(n-2) + x(n-3)
System Function
Pole zero plot
Unit sample response
Find values of y(n) for n=0,1,2,3,4,5 for x(n)= (n) for no
initial condition.
Q) Solve second order difference equation
2x(n-2) 3x(n-1) + x(n) = 3n-2 with x(-2)=-4/9 and x(-1)=-1/3.
Q) Solve second order difference equation
x(n+2) + 3x(n+1) + 2x(n) with x(0)=0 and x(1)=1.
Q) Find the response of
the system by using Z
transform x(n+2) -
5x(n+1) + 6x(n)= u(n)
with x(0)=0 and x(1)=1.

JURY'S STABILITY CRITERIA / ALGORITHM:

Jury's stability algorithm says
Form the first rows of the table by
writing the coefficients of D(z). B0
B1 B2 ---------BN
BN BN-1 BN-2 --------- B0
Form third and fourth rows of the table by evaluating the determinant CJ
B0 BN-J

BN BJ
This process will continue until you obtain 2N-3 rows
with last two having 3 elements. Y0,Y1,Y2

A digital filter with a system function H(z) is stable, if and only

if it passes the following terms. a. D(Z)|Z=1 >0
N
b. (-1) D(Z)|Z=-1 >0
c. |b0|>|bN|, |C0|
 CHAPTER 3

DISCRETE FOURIER TRANSFORM AND

COMPUTATION 3.1 PREREQISTING DISCUSSION

Any signal can be decomposed in terms of sinusoidal (or complex exponential)

components. Thus the analysis of signals can be done by transforming time domain signals
into frequency domain and vice-versa. This transformation between time and frequency
domain is performed with the help of Fourier Transform(FT) But still it is not convenient
for computation by DSP processors hence Discrete Fourier Transform(DFT) is used.

Time domain analysis provides some information like amplitude at sampling instant but
does not convey frequency content & power, energy spectrum hence frequency domain
analysis is used.

For Discrete time signals x(n) , Fourier Transform is denoted as x() & given by

X() = x (n) e jn FT.(1)

n=-

DFT is denoted by x(k) and given by (= 2

k/N)
N-1

kn / N
X(k) = x (n) e j2

DFT.(2) n=0
IDFT is given as
N-1

kn / N
x(n) =1/N X (k) e j2

IDFT(3) k=0
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN FT & DFT
 S. No Fourier Transform (FT) Discrete Fourier Transform (DFT)

1 FT x() is the continuous DFT x(k) is calculated only at discrete values of

function of x(n). . Thus DFT is discrete in nature.

2 The range of is from - to Sampling is done at N equally spaced points over

or 0 to 2. period 0 to 2. Thus DFT is sampled version of
FT.
3 FT is given by equation (1) DFT is given by equation (2)
4 FT equations are applicable to most of DFT equations are applicable to causal,
infinite sequences. finite duration sequences
5 In DSP processors & computers In DSP processors and computers DFTs
are mostly
applications of FT are limited used.
because x() is continuous function APPLICATION
of . a) Spectrum Analysis
b) Filter Design

Tutorial problems:
Q) Prove that FT x() is periodic with period 2.
Q) Determine FT of x(n)= an u(n) for -1< a < 1.
Q) Determine FT of x(n)= A for 0 n L-1.

Q) Determine FT of x(n)= u(n)

Q) Determine FT of x(n)= (n)

Q) Determine FT of x(n)= eat u(t)

CALCULATION OF DFT & IDFT

For calculation of DFT & IDFT two different methods can be used. First
method is using mathematical equation & second method is 4 or 8 point
DFT. If x(n) is the sequence of N samples then consider W N= e j2 / N
(twiddle factor)

S. No Angle Real Imaginary Total

WN=W4=e j /2
1 0 1 0 1
W4 0
2 - /2 0 -j -j
W4 1
3 - -1 0 -1
W4 2
4 - 3 /2 0 J J
W4 3
Four POINT DFT ( 4-DFT)

n=0 n=1 n=2

n=3
0 0 0
k=0 W4 W4 W4
W4 0
0 1 2
[WN] =k=1 W4 W4 W4 W4 3
k=2 k=3

Thus 4 point DFT is given as XN = [WN ] XN

EIGHT POINT DFT ( 8-DFT)

S. No Angle Magnitude Imaginary Total

WN = W8= e j /4
1 0 1 ---- 1
W8 0
2 - /4 1/2 -j 1/2 1/2 -j 1/2
W8 1
3 - /2 0 -j -j
W8 2
4 - 3 /4 -1/2 -j 1/2 - 1/2 -j 1/2
W8 3
5 - -1 ---- -1
W8 4
6 - 5 / 4 -1/2 +j 1/2 - 1/2 + j 1/2
W8 5
7 - 7 / 4 0 J J
W8 6
8 - 2 1/2 +j 1/2 1/2 + j 1/2
W8 7

Remember that W8 0 = W8 8 = W8 16 = W8 24 = W8 32 = W8
40
(Periodic Property) Magnitude and phase of x(k) can
be obtained as,
|x(k)| = sqrt ( Xr(k)2 + XI(k)2)
Angle x(k) = tan -1 (XI(k) / XR(k))

Tutorial problems:
Q) Compute DFT of x(n) = {0,1,2,3} Ans: x4=[6, -2+2j, -2, -2-2j ]
Q) Compute DFT of x(n) = {1,0,0,1} Ans: x4=[2, 1+j, 0, 1-j ]
Q) Compute DFT of x(n) = {1,0,1,0} Ans: x4=[2, 0, 2, 0 ]
Q) Compute IDFT of x(k) = {2, 1+j, 0, 1-j } Ans: x4=[1,0,0,1]

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN DFT & IDFT

 S.No DFT (Analysis transform) IDFT (Synthesis transform)
1 DFT is finite duration discrete frequency IDFT is inverse DFT which is used to calculate time
sequence that is obtained by sampling one domain representation (Discrete time sequence) form
period of FT. of x(k).
2 DFT equations are applicable to causal IDFT is used basically to determine sample response
finite duration sequences. of a filter for which we know only transfer function.
3 Mathematical Equation to calculate DFT is Mathematical Equation to calculate IDFT is given by
given by

N-1
N-1
kn / N
x(n) = 1/N X (k)e j2
kn / N
X(k) = x (n) e j2
n=0 n=0

4 Thus DFT is given by In DFT and IDFT difference is of factor 1/N & sign
X(k)= [WN][xn] of exponent of twiddle factor.
Thus
x(n)= 1/N [ WN]-1[XK]

PROPERTIES OF DFT
DFT

Periodicity
x(n) x(k)
N
Let x(n) and x(k) be the DFT pair
then if
x(n+N) = x(n) for all n then
X(k+N) = X(k) for all k
Thus periodic sequence xp(n) can be
given as

xp(n) = x(n-lN) l=-

Linearity
The linearity property states that if
DFT
x1(n) X1(k) And
N DFT
x2(n) X2(k) Then
N
 Then DFT
a1 x1(n) + a2 x2(n) a1 X1(k)
+ a2 X2(k) N
DFT of linear combination of two or more signals is equal to the same linear combination of
DFT of individual signals.

Circular Symmetries of a sequence

A sequence is said to be circularly even if it is symmetric about the point zero on the circle.
Thus X(N-n) = x(n)

A sequence is said to be circularly odd if it is anti symmetric about the point zero on the circle.
Thus X(N-n) = - x(n)

A circularly folded sequence is represented as x((-n))N and given by x((-n))N = x(N-n).

Anticlockwise direction gives delayed sequence and clockwise direction gives advance
sequence. Thus delayed or advances sequence x`(n) is related to x(n) by the circular shift.

Symmetry Property of a sequence

Symmetry property for real valued x(n) i.e xI(n)=0

This property states that if x(n) is real then X(N-k) = X*(k)=X(-k)

 Real and even sequence x(n) i.e xI(n)=0 & XI(K)=0

This property states that if the sequence is real and even x(n)= x(N-n) then
DFT becomes N-1

X(k) = x(n) cos

(2kn/N) n=0
Real and odd sequence x(n) i.e xI(n)=0 & XR(K)=0

This property states that if the sequence is real and odd x(n)=-x(N-n) then
DFT becomes N-1

X(k) = -j x(n) sin

(2kn/N)
n=0
Pure Imaginary x(n) i.e xR(n)=0

This property states that if the sequence is purely imaginary x(n)=j XI(n) then
DFT becomes N-1

XR(k) = xI(n) sin

(2kn/N) n=0

N-1

XI(k) = xI(n) cos

(2kn/N) n=0
Circular Convolution
The Circular Convolution property
states that if
DFT
x1(n) X1(k) And
NDFT
x2(n) X2(k) Then
N DFT
Then x1(n) x2(n)
 x1(k)
x2(k) N
It means that circular convolution of x1(n) & x2(n) is equal to multiplication of
their DFTs. Thus circular convolution of two periodic discrete signal with
period N is given by
N-1

y(m) = x1 (n) x2 (m-n)N

.(4) n=0
Multiplication of two sequences in time domain is called as Linear
convolution while Multiplication of two sequences in frequency domain is
called as circular convolution. Results of both are totally different but are
related with each other.

(n)*h(n)

There are two different methods are used to calculate circular

convolution
Graphical representation form
Matrix approach

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN LINEAR CONVOLUTION &

CIRCULAR CONVOLUTION

Tutorial problems:
Q) The two sequences x1(n)={2,1,2,1} & x2(n)={1,2,3,4}. Find out the
sequence x3(m) which is equal to circular convolution of two sequences.
Ans: X3(m)={14,16,14,16}
Q) x1(n)={1,1,1,1,-1,-1,-1,-1} & x2(n)={0,1,2,3,4,3,2,1}. Find out the sequence x3(m) which is
equal to circular convolution of two sequences. Ans: X3(m)={-4,-8,-8,-4,4,8,8,4}

Q) Perform Linear Convolution of x(n)={1,2} & h(n)={2,1}

using DFT & IDFT.

Q) Perform Linear Convolution of x(n)={1,2,2,1} &

h(n)={1,2,3} using 8 Pt DFT & IDFT.

Multiplication
The Multiplication property states that if
DFT
 X1(n) x1(k) and
N

DFT
X2(n) x2(k) then
N

DFT
x1(n) x2(n)

1/N x1(k)
x2(k) N
It means that multiplication of two sequences in time domain results in
circular convolution of their DFTs in frequency domain.

Time reversal of a sequence

The Time reversal property states that if
DFT
X(n) x(k) and
N

DFT
hen x((-n))N = x(N-n)

x((-k))N = x(N-k) N
It means that the sequence is circularly folded its DFT is also
circularly folded.

Circular Time shift

The Circular Time shift states that if
DFT
X(n) x(k) And
N DFT
Then x((n-l))N x(k) e j2 k l / N
N

Thus shifting the sequence circularly by l samples is

equivalent to multiplying its DFT by e j2 k l / N
 Circular frequency shift
The Circular frequency shift states
that if
DFT
X(n) x(k) And
N DFT
Then x(n) e j2 l n / N

x((n-l))N N
Thus shifting the frequency components of DFT circularly is equivalent to multiplying its
time domain sequence by e j2 k l / N

Complex conjugate property

The Complex conjugate property
states that if
DFT
X(n) x(k) then
N DFT
x*(n) x*((-k))N =
x*(N-k) And N
DFT
x*((-n))N = x*(N-k)

x*(k
)N
Circular Correlation

The Complex correlation property

states
DFT
rxy(l) Rxy(k)= x(k) Y*(k)
N
Here rxy(l) is circular cross correlation which is given as

N-1

rxy(l) = x (n)
y*((n l
))N n=0
 This means multiplication of DFT of one sequence and conjugate DFT of another sequence is
equivalent to circular cross-correlation of these sequences in time domain.

12. Parsevals Theorem

The Parsevals theorem states

N-1

N-1

X(n) y*(n) = 1/N x

(k) y*(k) n=0 n=0
This equation give energy of finite duration sequence in terms of its frequency components.

APPLICATION OF DFT

DFT FOR LINEAR FILTERING

Consider that input sequence x(n) of Length L & impulse response of same system is h(n)
having M samples. Thus y(n) output of the system contains N samples where N=L+M-1. If
DFT of y(n) also contains N samples then only it uniquely represents y(n) in time domain.
Multiplication of two DFTs is equivalent to circular convolution of corresponding time
domain sequences. But the length of x(n) & h(n) is less than N. Hence these sequences are
appended with zeros to make their length N called as
Zero padding. The N point circular convolution and linear convolution provide the same
sequence. Thus linear convolution can be obtained by circular convolution. Thus linear
filtering is provided by DFT.

When the input data sequence is long then it requires large time to get the output sequence.
Hence other techniques are used to filter long data sequences. Instead of finding the output of
complete input sequence it is broken into small length sequences. The output due to these
small length sequences are computed fast. The outputs due to these small length sequences
are fitted one after another to get the final output response.

METHOD 1: OVERLAP SAVE METHOD OF LINEAR FILTERING

Step 1> In this method L samples of the current segment and M-1 samples of the previous
segment forms the input data block. Thus data block will be

X1(n) ={0,0,0,0,0, ,x(0),x(1),

.x(L-1)} X2(n) ={x(L-M+1),
.x(L-1),x(L),x(L+1),,,,,,,,,,,,,x(2L-1)}
X3(n) ={x(2L-M+1), .x(2L-1),x(2L),x(2L+2),,,,,,,,,,,,,x(3L-1)}
Step2> Unit sample response h(n) contains M samples hence its length is made N by padding
zeros. Thus h(n) also contains N samples.

h(n)={ h(0), h(1), .h(M-1), 0,0,0,(L-1 zeros)}

Step3> The N point DFT of h(n) is H(k) & DFT of m th data block be xm(K) then
corresponding DFT of output be Y`m(k)

Y`m(k)= H(k)
xm(K)

Step 4> The sequence ym(n) can be obtained by taking N point IDFT of Y`m(k). Initial
(M-1) samples in the corresponding data block must be discarded. The last L samples are the
correct output samples. Such blocks are fitted one after another to get the final output.

X1(n)

M-1 Size L
Zeros

Discard M-1 Points

Discard M-1 Points

Discard M-1 Point

METHOD 2: OVERLAP ADD METHOD OF LINEAR FILTERING

Step 1> In this method L samples of the current segment and M-1 samples of the previous
segment forms the input data block. Thus data block will be

X1(n) ={x(0),x(1),.x(L-1),0,0,0,.}
X2(n) ={x(L),x(L+1),x(2L-
1),0,0,0,0}
X3(n) ={x(2L),x(2L+2),,,,,,,,,,,,,x(3L-
1),0,0,0,0}

Step2> Unit sample response h(n) contains M samples hence its length is made N by
padding zeros. Thus h(n) also contains N samples.
 h(n)={ h(0), h(1), .h(M-1), 0,0,0,(L-1 zeros)}

Step3> The N point DFT of h(n) is H(k) & DFT of mth data block be xm(K) then
corresponding DFT of output be Y`m(k)

Y`m(k)= H(k) xm(K)

Step 4> The sequence ym(n) can be obtained by taking N point IDFT of Y`m(k). Initial
(M-1) samples are not discarded as there will be no aliasing. The last (M-1) samples of current
output block must be added to the first M-1 samples of next output block. Such blocks are fitted
one after another to get the final output.

M-1

M-1
Points add together

Y3(n)

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN OVERLAP SAVE AND OVERLAP ADD METHOD

S. No OVERLAP SAVE METHOD OVERLAP ADD METHOD

1 In this method, L samples of the current In this method L samples from input
segment and (M-1) samples of the previous sequence and padding M-1 zeros forms data
segment forms the input data block. block of size N.

2 Initial M-1 samples of output sequence are There will be no aliasing in output data
discarded which occurs due to aliasing blocks.
effect.

3 To avoid loss of data due to aliasing last M- Last M-1 samples of current output block
1 samples of each data record are saved. must be added to the first M-1 samples of
next output block. Hence called as overlap
add method.
 SPECTRUM ANALYSIS USING DFT

DFT of the signal is used for spectrum analysis. DFT can be computed on digital computer or
digital signal processor. The signal to be analyzed is passed through anti-aliasing filter and
samples at the rate of Fs 2 Fmax. Hence highest frequency component is Fs/2.

Frequency spectrum can be plotted by taking N number of samples & L samples of

waveforms. The total frequency range 2 is divided into N points. Spectrum is better if we
take large value of N & L But this increases processing time. DFT can be computed quickly
using FFT algorithm hence fast processing can be done. Thus most accurate resolution can be
obtained by increasing number of samples.

FAST FOURIER ALGORITHM (FFT)

1. Large number of the applications such as filtering, correlation analysis, spectrum analysis
require calculation of DFT. But direct computation of DFT require large number of
computations and hence processor remain busy. Hence special algorithms are developed to
compute DFT quickly called as Fast Fourier algorithms (FFT).

3. The radix-2 FFT algorithms are based on divide and conquer approach. In this method, the
N-point DFT is successively decomposed into smaller DFTs. Because of this
decomposition, the number of computations are reduced.

3.7.1 RADIX-2 FFT ALGORITHMS

DECIMATION IN TIME (DITFFT)

There are three properties of twiddle

factor WN

K
W k+N = W
(Periodicity Property)
W k+N/2
2
= -W K
(Symmetry Property)
WN = WN/2.

N point sequence x(n) be splitted into two N/2 point data sequences f1(n) and f2(n). f1(n)
contains even numbered samples of x(n) and f2(n) contains odd numbered samples of x(n).
This splitted operation is called decimation. Since it is done on time domain sequence it is
called Decimation in Time. Thus
f1(m)=x(2m) where n=0,1,
.N/2-1 f2(m)=x(2m+1) where n=0,1,
.N/2-1
N point DFT is given as

N-1

X(k) = x (n) WNkn

(1)
n=0
Since the sequence x(n) is splitted into even numbered and odd numbered samples, thus N/2-1
N/2-1
X(k) = x (2m) WN + x (2m+1) WN (2)
m=0

m=0

X(k) =F1(k) + W k
F2(k) (3)
k
X(k+N/2) =F1(k) - WN F2(k) (Symmetry property) (4)

Fig 1 shows that 8-point DFT can be computed directly and hence no reduction in
computation.

x(0) X(0)
x(1) X(1)
x(2) X(2)
x(3) X(3)

x(7) X(7)
 Fig 1. DIRECT COMPUTATION FOR N=8

x(0)
x(2)
x(4)
x(6)

x(1)
x(3)
x(5)
x(7)

Fig 2. FIRST STAGE FOR FFT COMPUTATION FOR N=8

Fig 3 shows N/2 point DFT base separated in N/4 boxes. In such cases equations become
2k
g1(k) =P1(k) + WN
P2(k) ------- (5)
2k
g1(k+N/2) =p1(k) - WN P2(k) --------
(6)
x(0) F(0)

x(4)F(1)

x(2)

x(6)
F(2)

Fig 3. SECOND STAGE FOR FFT COMPUTATION FOR N=8

A= a + WN b

B= a - WN b

Fig 4. BUTTERFLY COMPUTATION (THIRD STAGE)

x(0) A X(0)

x(2) w80 B X(1)

x(1) C w80 X(2)

x(3) w80 D w81 X(3)

Fig 5. SIGNAL FLOW GRAPH FOR RADIX- DIT FFT N=4

Fig 6. SIGNAL FLOW GRAPH FOR RADIX- DIT FFT N=8

Fig 7. BLOCK DIAGRAM FOR RADIX- DIT FFT N=8 COMPUTATIONAL
COMPLEXITY FFT V/S DIRECT COMPUTATION
For Radix-2 algorithm value of N is given as N= 2V

Hence value of v is calculated as

V= log10 N / log10 2

= log2 N

Thus if value of N is 8 then the value of v=3. Thus three stages of decimation. Total
number of butterflies will be Nv/2 = 12.

If value of N is 16 then the value of v=4. Thus four stages of decimation. Total number of
butterflies will be Nv/2 = 32.
Each butterfly operation takes two addition and one multiplication operations. Direct
computation requires N2 multiplication operation & N2 N addition operations.
N Direct computation DIT FFT algorithm Improvement in
processing speed for
multiplication
Complex Complex Complex Complex
Multiplication Addition Multiplication Addition

N2 N N/2 log2 N N log2 N

N2
8 64 52 12 24 5.3 times

16 256 240 32 64 8 times

256 65536 65280 1024 2048 64 times

MEMORY REQUIREMENTS AND IN PLACE COMPUTATION

A= a + WN b
 WN B= a - WN b

Fig. BUTTERFLY COMPUTATION

From values a and b new values A and B are computed. Once A and B are computed, there
is no need to store a and b. Thus same memory locations can be used to store A and B where
a and b were stored hence called as In place computation. The advantage of in place
computation is that it reduces memory requirement.

Thus for computation of one butterfly, four memory locations are required for storing two
complex numbers A and B. In every stage there are N/2 butterflies hence total 2N memory
locations are required. 2N locations are required for each stage. Since stages are computed
successively these memory locations can be shared. In every stage N/2 twiddle factors are
required hence maximum storage requirements of N point DFT will be (2N + N/2).

BIT REVERSAL

For 8 point DIT DFT input data sequence is written as x(0), x(4), x(2), x(6), x(1), x(5), x(3),
x(7) and the DFT sequence X(k) is in proper order as X(0), X(1), X(2), X(3), X(4), x(5),
X(6), x(7). In DIF FFT it is exactly opposite. This can be obtained by bit reversal method.
Decimal Memory Address x(n) in Memory Address in bit reversed New Address
binary (Natural Order) order in decimal

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

1 0 0 1 1 0 0 4

2 0 1 0 0 1 0 2

3 0 1 1 1 1 0 6

4 1 0 0 0 0 1 1

5 1 0 1 1 0 1 5

6 1 1 0 0 1 1 3

7 1 1 1 1 1 1 7

Table shows first column of memory address in decimal and second column as binary. Third
column indicates bit reverse values. As FFT is to be implemented on digital computer
simple integer division by 2 method is used for implementing bit reversal algorithms. Flow
chart for Bit reversal algorithm is as follows,
 FLOW CHART

DECIMATION IN FREQUENCY (DIFFFT)

In DIF N Point DFT is splitted into N/2 points DFTs. X(k) is splitted with k even and k
odd this is called Decimation in frequency(DIF FFT).

N point DFT is given as

N-1

X(k) = x (n) WNkn

(1)
n=0
Since the sequence x(n) is splitted N/2 point samples, thus N/2-1 N/2-1
X(k) = x (n) WN + x (n + N/2) WN (2)
m=0 m=0

N/2-1 N/2-1

X(k) = x (n) WN + WN x (n
+ N/2) WN m=0
m=0

N/2-1 N/2-1

X(k) = x (n) WN + (-1) x (n + N/2) WN

m=0 m=0

N/2-1

X(k) = x (n) + (-1)k x(n + N/2)WN (3)

m=0

Let us split X(k) into even and odd

numbered samples N/2-1

X(2k) = x (n) + (-1)2k x(n + N/2) WN (4)
m=0 N/2-1
X(2k+1) = x (n)+(-1)(2k+1) x(n + N/2)WN (5)
 m=0

Equation (4) and (5) are thus

simplified as
g1(n) = x (n) +
x(n + N/2)
n
g2(n) = x (n) - x(n + N/2) WN

Fig 1 shows Butterfly computation in DIF FFT.

A= a + b

B= (a b)WN

Fig 1. BUTTERFLY COMPUTATION

Fig 2 shows signal flow graph and stages for computation of radix-2 DIF FFT algorithm of N=4
x(0) A X(0)
X(1) x(1)

X(2) B w40
x(2) X(3) w40 C
x(3) w41 D
w4 0

Fig 2. SIGNAL FLOW GRAPH FOR RADIX- DIF FFT N=4

Fig 3 shows signal flow graph and stages for computation of radix-2 DIF FFT algorithm of
N=8

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN DITFFT AND DIFFFT

S. No DIT DIF FFT

FFT
1 DITFFT algorithms are based upon DIFFFT algorithms are based upon decomposition
decomposition of the input sequence of the output sequence into smaller and smaller sub
into smaller and smaller sub sequences. sequences.

2 In this input sequence x(n) is splitted into In this output sequence X(k) is considered to be
even and odd numbered samples splitted into even and odd numbered samples
 3 Splitting operation is done on time Splitting operation is done on frequency
domain sequence. domain sequence.

4 In DIT FFT input sequence is in bit reversed In DIFFFT, input sequence is in natural
order while the output sequence is in natural order. And DFT should be read in bit
order. reversed order.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN DIRECT COMPUTATION &

FFT

S. No Direct Computation Radix -2 FFT Algorithms

1 Direct computation requires large number Radix-2 FFT algorithms requires less number
of computations as compared with FFT of computations.
algorithms.

2 Processing time is more and more for large Processing time is less hence these algorithms
number of N hence processor remains busy. compute DFT very quickly as compared with
direct computation.

3 Direct computation does not requires Splitting operation is done on time domain
splitting operation. basis (DIT) or frequency domain basis (DIF)

4 As the value of N in DFT increases, the As the value of N in DFT increases, the
efficiency of direct computation decreases. efficiency of FFT algorithms increases.

5 In those applications where DFT is to be Applications

computed only at selected values of
k(frequencies) and when these values are Linear filtering
less than log2N then direct computation Digital filter design
becomes more efficient than FFT.

Tutorial problems:
Q) x(n)={1,2,2,1} Find X(k) using DITFFT.
Q) x(n)={1,2,2,1} Find X(k) using DIFFFT.
Q) x(n)={0.3535,0.3535,0.6464,1.0607,0.3535,-1.0607,-1.3535,-0.3535}
Find X(k) using DITFFT.
Q) Using radix 2 FFT algorithm, plot flow graph for N=8.
 3.8 GOERTZEL ALGORITHM

FFT algorithms are used to compute N point DFT for N samples of the
sequence x(n). This requires N/2 log2N number of complex multiplications
and N log2N complex additions. In some applications DFT is to be
computed only at selected values of frequencies and selected values are
less than log2N, then direct computations of DFT becomes more efficient
than FFT. This direct computations of DFT can be realized through linear
filtering of x(n). Such linear filtering for computation of DFT can be
implemented using Goertzel algorithm.

By definition N point DFT is given as

N-1

X(k) = x (m) WN (1)

m=0

Multiplying both sides by WN (which is always equal to 1).

N-1

X(k) = x (m) WN

(2)
m=0

Thus for LSI system which has input x(n) and having unit sample response

hk(n)= WN u(n)

X(n) yk(n)

Linear convolution is given by

y(n) = x (k) h(n k ) k=-

yk(n) = x (m) WN u(nm) (3)

m=-

As x(m) is given for N values

N-1

yk(n) = x (m) WN (4)

 m=0

The output of LSI system at n=N is

given by

yk(n)|n=N = x (m) WN (5)

m=-

Thus comparing equation

(2) and (5), X(k)
= yk(n)| n=N
Thus DFT can be obtained as the output of LSI system at n=N. Such systems can give
X(k) at selected values of k. Thus DFT is computed as linear filtering operations by
Goertzel Algorithm.
CHAPTER 4

DESIGN OF DIGITAL

FILTERS 4.1 PREREQISTING DISCUSSION

To remove or to reduce strength of unwanted signal like noise and to improve the
quality of required signal filtering process is used. To use the channel full bandwidth we mix
up two or more signals on transmission side and on receiver side we would like to separate it
out in efficient way. Hence filters are used. Thus the digital filters are mostly used in

Removal of undesirable noise from the desired signals

Equalization of communication channels
Signal detection in radar, sonar and communication
Performing spectral analysis of signals.

Analog and digital filters

In signal processing, the function of a filter is to remove unwanted parts of the signal, such as
random noise, or to extract useful parts of the signal, such as the components lying within a
certain frequency range.
The following block diagram illustrates the basic idea.
There are two main kinds of filter, analog and digital. They are quite different in their
physical makeup and in how they work.
An analog filter uses analog electronic circuits made up from components such as
resistors, capacitors and op amps to produce the required filtering effect. Such filter circuits
are widely used in such applications as noise reduction, video signal enhancement, graphic
equalizers in hi-fi systems, and many other areas.
In analog filters the signal being filtered is an electrical voltage or current which is the direct
analogue of the physical quantity (e.g. a sound or video signal or transducer output) involved.
A digital filter uses a digital processor to perform numerical calculations on sampled
values of the signal. The processor may be a general-purpose computer such as a PC, or a
specialized DSP (Digital Signal Processor) chip.
The analog input signal must first be sampled and digitized using an ADC (analog to
digital converter). The resulting binary numbers, representing successive sampled values of
the input signal, are
transferred to the processor, which carries out numerical calculations on them. These
calculations typically involve multiplying the input values by constants and adding the
products together. If necessary, the results of these calculations, which now represent
sampled values of the filtered signal, are output through a DAC (digital to analog converter)
to convert the signal back to analog form.
In a digital filter, the signal is represented by a sequence of numbers, rather than a
voltage or current.
The following diagram shows the basic setup of such a system.

BASIC BLOCK DIAGRAM OF DIGITAL FILTERS

Analog signal Xa (t)

Discrete
Time signal Digital signal
Samplers are used for converting continuous time signal into a discrete time signal by
taking samples of the continuous time signal at discrete time instants.
The Quantizer are used for converting a discrete time continuous amplitude signal into a
digital signal by expressing each sample value as a finite number of digits.
 In the encoding operation, the quantization sample value is converted to the binary
equivalent of that quantization level.
The digital filters are the discrete time systems used for filtering of sequences. These
digital filters performs the frequency related operations such as low pass, high pass, band
pass and band reject etc.
These digital Filters are designed with digital hardware and software and are
represented by difference equation.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ANALOG FILTER AND DIGITAL FILTER

S. No Analog Filter Digital Filter

1 Analog filters are used for filtering Digital filters are used for filtering digital sequences.
analog signals.
2 Analog filters are designed with various Digital Filters are designed with digital hardware like FF,
components like resistor, inductor and counters shift registers, ALU and softwares like C or
capacitor assembly language.
3 Analog filters less accurate & because of Digital filters are less sensitive to the environmental
component tolerance of active changes, noise and disturbances. Thus periodic
components & more sensitive to calibration can be avoided. Also they are extremely
environmental changes. stable.
4 Less flexible These are most flexible as software programs & control
programs can be easily modified. Several input signals
can be filtered by one digital filter.
5 Filter representation is in terms of Digital filters are represented by the difference equation.
system components.
6 An analog filter can only be changed by A digital filter is programmable, i.e. its operation is
redesigning the filter circuit. determined by a program stored in the processor's
memory. This means the digital filter can easily be
changed without affecting the circuitry (hardware).

FILTER TYPES AND IDEAL FILTER CHARACTERISTIC

Filters are usually classified according to their frequency-domain characteristic as
lowpass, highpass, bandpass and bandstop filters.
 Lowpass Filter
A lowpass filter is made up of a passband and a stopband, where the
lower frequencies Of the input signal are passed through while the
higher frequencies are attenuated.
|H ()|
Highpass Filter
A highpass filter is made up of a stopband and a passband where the lower
frequencies of the input signal are attenuated while the higher frequencies
are passed.

-c c
Bandpass Filter
A bandpass filter is made up of two stopbands and one passband so that
the lower and higher frequencies of the input signal are attenuated while
the intervening
frequencies are passed.
|H()|

-2 -1 2 1
Bandstop Filter
A bandstop filter is made up of two passbands and one stopband so that the lower and
higher frequencies of the input signal are passed while the intervening frequencies are
attenuated. An idealized bandstop filter frequency response has the following shape.

|H()|
 Multipass Filter
A multipass filter begins with a stopband followed by more than one passband. By
default, a multipass filter in Digital Filter Designer consists of three passbands and four
stopbands. The frequencies of the input signal at the stopbands are attenuated while
those at the passbands are passed.
Multistop Filter
A multistop filter begins with a passband followed by more than one stopband. By
default, a multistop filter in Digital Filter Designer consists of three passbands and
two stopbands.
All Pass Filter
An all pass filter is defined as a system that has a constant magnitude response for all
frequencies.
|H()| = 1 for 0 <
The simplest example of an all pass filter is a pure delay system
with system function H(z) = Z-k. This is a low pass filter that has a
linear phase characteristic.
All Pass filters find application as phase equalizers. When placed in cascade
with a system that has an undesired phase response, a phase equalizers is designed to
compensate for the poor phase characteristic of the system and therefore to produce
an overall linear phase response.
IDEAL FILTER CHARACTERISTIC
Ideal filters have a constant gain (usually taken as unity gain) passband characteristic
and zero gain in their stop band.
Ideal filters have a linear phase characteristic within their passband.
Ideal filters also have constant magnitude characteristic.
Ideal filters are physically unrealizable.
4.2 TYPES OF DIGITAL FILTER
Digital filters are of two types. Finite Impulse Response Digital Filter & Infinite
Impulse Response Digital Filter.
S. No FIR Digital Filter IIR Digital Filter
1 FIR system has finite duration unit sample IIR system has infinite duration unit sample
 response. i.e h(n) = 0 for n<0 and n M response. i. e h(n) = 0 for n<0
Thus the unit sample response exists for the Thus the unit sample response exists for the
duration from 0 to M-1. duration from 0 to .
2 FIR systems are non recursive. Thus output of IIR systems are recursive. Thus they use
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN FIR FILTER AND IIR FILTER

FIR filter depends upon present and past inputs. feedback. Thus output of IIR filter depends
upon present and past inputs as well as past
outputs
3 Difference equation of the LSI system for FIR Difference equation of the LSI system for IIR
filters becomes filters becomes
M N M
y(n)= bk x(nk) y(n)=- ak y(nk)+ bk x(nk)
k=0 k=1 k=0

4 FIR systems has limited or finite memory IIR system requires infinite memory.
requirements.
5 FIR filters are always stable Stability cannot be always guaranteed.
6 FIR filters can have an exactly linear phase IIR filter is usually more efficient design in
response so that no phase distortion is terms of computation time and memory
introduced in the signal by the filter. requirements. IIR systems usually requires less
processing time and storage as compared with
FIR.
7 The effect of using finite word length to Analogue filters can be easily and readily
implement filter, noise and quantization errors transformed into equivalent IIR digital filter.
are less severe in FIR than in IIR. But same is not possible in FIR because that
have no analogue counterpart.
8 All zero filters Poles as well as zeros are present.
9 FIR filters are generally used if no phase IIR filters are generally used if sharp cutoff and
distortion is desired. high throughput is required.
Example: Example:
System described by System described by
Y(n) = 0.5 x(n) + 0.5 x(n-1) is FIR filter. Y(n) = y(n-1) + x(n) is IIR filter.
h(n)={0.5,0.5} h(n)=an u(n) for n0
4. 3 STRUCTURES FOR FIR SYSTEMS
FIR Systems are represented in four different ways
Direct Form Structures
Cascade Form Structure
Frequency-Sampling Structures
Lattice structures.
DIRECT FORM STRUCTURE OF FIR SYSTEM
The convolution of h(n) and x(n) for FIR systems can
be written as M-1
y(n)= h(k) x(nk) (1)
k
=
0
The above equation can be expanded as,

Y(n)= h(0) x(n) + h(1) x(n-1) + h(2) x(n-2) + + h(M-1) x(n-

M+1)

(2) Implementation of direct form structure of FIR filter is based upon the
above equation.

h(1)x(n) y(n)
FIG - DIRECT FORM REALIZATION OF FIR SYSTEM
There are M-1 unit delay blocks. One unit delay block requires one
memory location. Hencedirect form structure requires M-1 memory
location
The multiplication of h(k) and x(n-k) is performed for 0 to M-1 terms. Hence M
multiplications and M-1 additions are required.
 Direct form structure is often called as transversal or tapped delay line filter.
CASCADE FORM STRUCTURE OF FIR SYSTEM
In cascade form, stages are cascaded (connected) in series. The output of one system is input
to another. Thus total K number of stages are cascaded. The total system function 'H' is given
by
H= H1(z) . H2(z). Hk(z) (1)
H= Y1(z)/X1(z). Y2(z)/X2(z). Yk(z)/Xk(z)

(2) k
H(z)= Hk(z) (3)
k=1
x(n)=x1(n) y1(n)=x2(n) y2(n)=x3(n) yk(n)=y(n)

FIG- CASCADE FORM REALIZATION OF FIR SYSTEM

Each H1(z), H2(z) etc is a second order section and it is realized by the direct form as
shown in below figure.
System function for FIR systems
M-1
H(z)= bk z-k (1)
k=0
Expanding the above terms we have
H(z)= H1(z) . H2(z). Hk(z)
where HK(z) = bk0 + bk1 z-1 + bk2 z-2 (2)
Thus Direct form of second order system is shown as

bk0 bk1 x(n-1) bk2

x(n)
 FIG - DIRECT FORM REALIZATION OF FIR SECOND ORDER
SYSTEM 4. 4 STRUCTURES FOR IIR SYSTEMS
IIR Systems are represented in four different ways
Direct Form Structures Form I and Form II
Cascade Form Structure
Parallel Form Structure
Lattice and Lattice-Ladder structure.
DIRECT FORM STRUCTURE FOR IIR SYSTEMS
IIR systems can be described by a generalized
equations as N M
y(n)=- ak y(nk)+ bk x(nk) (1)
k=1 k=0
 Z transform is given as
M N
H(z) = bk zk / 1+ ak zk (2)
K=0 k=1
M

N
Here H1(z) = bk zk And H2(z) =
1+ ak zk
K=0

k=0
Overall IIR system can be realized as cascade of two function H1(z) and H2(z). Here H1(z)
represents zeros of H(z) and H2(z) represents all poles of H(z).
Direct form I realization of H(z) can be obtained by cascading the realization of
H1(z) which is all zero system first and then H2(z) which is all pole system.
There are M+N-1 unit delay blocks. One unit delay block requires one memory
location.Hence direct form structure requires M+N-1 memory locations.
Direct Form I realization requires M+N+1 number of multiplications and M+N
numberof additions and M+N+1 number of memory locations.
DIRECT FORM I
X(n) bo y(n)
 b2 -a2
+ +

bM-1 -aN-1

+ +
Z-1 Z-1
bM -aN

FIG - DIRECT FORM I REALIZATION OF IIR SYSTEM

 DIRECT FORM - II
Direct form realization of H(z) can be obtained by cascading the realization of H1(z) which is
all pole system and H2(z) which is all zero system.
Two delay elements of all pole and all zero system can be merged into single delay element.
Direct Form II structure has reduced memory requirement compared to Direct form I
structure. Hence it is called canonic form.
The direct form II requires same number of multiplications(M+N+1) and additions (M+N) as
that of direct form I.

X(n)

CASCADE FORM STRUCTURE FOR IIR SYSTEMS

In cascade form, stages are cascaded (connected) in series. The output of one system is input
to another. Thus total K number of stages are cascaded. The total system function 'H' is given
by
H= H1(z) . H2(z). Hk(z) (1)
H= Y1(z)/X1(z). Y2(z)/X2(z). Yk(z)/Xk(z)

(2) k
H(z)= Hk(z) (3)
k=1
x(n)=x1(n) y1(n)=x2(n) y2(n)=x3(n)
yk(n)=y(n

FIG - CASCADE FORM REALIZATION OF IIR SYSTEM

Each H1(z), H2(z) etc is a second order section and it is realized by the direct form as
shown in below figure.
System function for
IIR systems M

N
H(z) = bk zk / 1+ ak zk (1)
K=0 k=1
Expanding the above terms we have
H(z)= H1(z) . H2(z). Hk(z)
where HK(z) = bk0 + bk1 z-1 + bk2 z-2 / 1 + ak1 z-1 + ak2 z-2

(2) Thus Direct form of second order IIR system is shown as

X(n) bk0

FIG - DIRECT FORM REALIZATION OF IIR SECOND ORDER SYSTEM

(CASCADE)
PARALLEL FORM STRUCTURE FOR IIR SYSTEMS
System function for IIR
systems is given as M N
H(z) = bk zk / 1+ ak zk (1)
K=0 k=1
= b0 + b1 z-1 + b2 z-2 + ..+ bM z-M / 1 + a1 z-1 + a2 z-2 ++ aN z-N

(2) The above system function can be expanded in partial fraction as follows
H(z)= C + H1(z) + H2(z).+ Hk(z)
 (3) Where C is constant and Hk(z) is given as
Hk(z) = bk0 + bk1 z-1 / 1 + ak1 z-1 + ak2 z-2 (4)

C
FIG - PARALLEL FORM REALIZATION OF IIR SYSTEM
Thus Direct form of second order IIR system is shown as

y(n)

FIG - DIRECT FORM REALIZATION OF IIR SECOND ORDER SYSTEM

(PARALLEL)
IIR FILTER DESIGN
IMPULSE INVARIANCE
BILINEAR TRANSFORMATION
BUTTERWORTH APPROXIMATION

IIR FILTER DESIGN - IMPULSE INVARIANCE

METHOD Impulse Invariance Method is simplest method
used for designing IIR Filters. Important Features of this
Method are
In impulse variance method, Analog filters are converted into digital filter just by replacing
unit sample response of the digital filter by the sampled version of impulse response of
analog filter.
Sampled signal is obtained by putting t=nT hence
h(n) = ha(nT) n=0,1,2.
where h(n) is the unit sample response of digital filter and T is sampling interval.
But the main disadvantage of this method is that it does not correspond to simple
algebraic mapping of S plane to the Z plane. Thus the mapping from analog frequency to
digital frequency is many to one. The segments
 (2k-1)/T (2k+1) /T of j axis are all mapped on the unit circle
. This takes place because of sampling.
Frequency aliasing is second disadvantage in this method. Because of frequency aliasing, the
frequency response of the resulting digital filter will not be identical to the original analog
frequency response.
Because of these factors, its application is limited to design low frequency filters like LPF or a
limited class of band pass filters.
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN Z PLANE AND S PLANE
Z is represented as rej in polar form and relationship between Z plane and S plane is given as
Z=eST where s= + j .
Z= eST (Relationship Between Z plane and S plane)

Z= e ( + j ) T

= e T. e j T
Comparing Z value with the polar form we have.
r= e T and = T
Here we have three condition
If = 0 then r=1
If < 0 then 0 < r < 1

If > 0 then r>

1 Thus
Left side of s-plane is mapped inside the unit circle.
Right side of s-plane is mapped outside the unit circle.
j axis is in s-plane is mapped on the unit circle.

CONVERSION OF ANALOG FILTER INTO DIGITAL FILTER

Let the system function of analog filter is
n
Ha(s)= Ck / s-pk

(1)
k=1
 where pk are the poles of the analog filter and ck are the coefficients of partial fraction
expansion. The impulse response of the analog filter ha(t) is obtained by inverse
Laplace transform and given as
n
ha(t) = Ck epkt

(2)
k=1
The unit sample response of the digital filter is obtained by
uniform sampling of ha(t). h(n) = ha(nT)
n=0,1,2.
.
n
h(n) = Ck epknT

(3)
k=1
System function of digital filter H(z) is obtained by Z transform of h(n).

N
H(z) = Ck epkT z-1 n

(4)
k=1 n=0
Using the standard relation and comparing equation (1) and (4) system function of
digital filter is given as
1 1
s - pk 1- epkT z-1
STANDARD RELATIONS IN IIR DESIGN

S. No Analog System Function Digital System function

1
1
1
1- eaT z-1

sa
2
1- e-aT (cos bT) z-1
s+a 1-2e-aT (cos bT)z-1+ e-2aTz-2
(s+a)2 + b2
 EXAMPLES - IMPULSE INVARIANCE METHOD

S. No Analog System Function Digital System function

1
1 - (e -0.1Tcos3T)z-1
s + 0.1
1-2e-0.1T (cos 3T)z-1+ e-0.2Tz-2
2
(s+0.1) + 9

2 1
_ 0.148 z
(s+1) (s+2)
z2 - 1.48 z + 0.548
(for sampling frequency of 5
samples/sec)
3 10
10
(s+2)
1 - z-1
(for sampling time is
0.01 sec)

IIR FILTER DESIGN - BILINEAR TRANSFORMATION METHOD (BZT)

The method of filter design by impulse invariance suffers from aliasing. Hence in
order to overcome this drawback Bilinear transformation method is designed. In
analogue domain frequency axis is an infinitely long straight line while sampled data
z plane it is unit circle radius. The bilinear transformation is the method of squashing
the infinite straight analog frequency axis so that it becomes finite.
Important Features of Bilinear Transform Method are
Bilinear transformation method (BZT) is a mapping from analog S plane to digital Z
plane. This conversion maps analog poles to digital poles and analog zeros to digital
zeros. Thus all poles and zeros are mapped.

This transformation is basically based on a numerical integration techniques used to

simulate an integrator of analog filter.
There is one to one correspondence between continuous time and discrete time
frequency points. Entire range in is mapped only once into the range -.
 Frequency relationship is non-linear. Frequency warping or frequency compression is
due to non- linearity. Frequency warping means amplitude response of digital filter is
expanded at the lower frequencies and compressed at the higher frequencies in
comparison of the analog filter.
But the main disadvantage of frequency warping is that it does change the shape of the desired
filter frequency response. In particular, it changes the shape of the transition bands.
CONVERSION OF ANALOG FILTER INTO DIGITAL FILTER
Z is represented as rej in polar form and relationship between Z plane and S plane in BZT
method is given as
2 z-1
z+1
2 rej - 1
rej + 1
2 r (cos +
j sin ) -1
r (cos +
j sin ) +1

S 2
T
Comparing the above equation with S= + j . We have
2 r2 -1
=
T 1+ r2+2r cos

= 2 2 r sin
T 1+ r +2r cos
2

Here we have three condition

If < 0 then 0 < r < 1

If > 0 then r > 1

If = 0 then
r=1 When r
=1
2 sin
 1+cos (2/T) tan (/2) 2 tan -1 (T/2)
The above equations shows that in BZT frequency relationship is non-linear. The frequency
relationship is plotted as
FIG - MAPPING BETWEEN FREQUENCY VARIABLE AND IN BZT METHOD.
DIFFERENCE - IMPULSE INVARIANCE Vs BILINEAR TRANSFORMATION
S. No Impulse Invariance Bilinear Transformation
1 In this method IIR filters are designed This method of IIR filters design is based on the
having a unit sample response h(n) that is trapezoidal formula for numerical integration.
sampled version of the impulse response of
the analog filter.
2 In this method small value of T is selected to The bilinear transformation is a conformal
minimize the effect of aliasing. mapping that transforms the j axis into the
unit circle in the z plane only once, thus
avoiding aliasing of frequency components.
3 They are generally used for low frequencies For designing of LPF, HPF and almost all types
like design of IIR LPF and a limited class of of Band pass and band stop filters this method is
bandpass filter used.
4 Frequency relationship is linear. Frequency relationship is non-linear. Frequency
warping or frequency compression is due to
non- linearity.
5 All poles are mapped from the s plane to the z All poles and zeros are mapped.
plane by the relationship
Zk= epkT. But the zeros in two domain does
not
satisfy the same relationship.

LPF AND HPF ANALOG BUTTERWORTH FILTER TRANSFER FUNCTION

Sr Order of the Low Pass Filter High Pass Filter

No Filter
1 1 1 / s+1 s / s+1
 2 2 1 / s2+ 2 s + 1 s2 / s2+ 2 s + 1

3 3 1 / s3 + 2 s2 + 2s +1 s3 / s3 + 2 s2 + 2s +1
METHOD FOR DESIGNING DIGITAL FILTERS USING BZT
step 1. Find out the value of c*.

c =(2/T) tan (c Ts/2)

step 2. Find out the value of frequency scaled analog
transfer function Normalized analog transfer function is
frequency scaled by replacing s by s/p*. step 3. Convert
into digital filter
Apply BZT. i.e Replace s by the ((z-1)/(z+1)). And find out the desired transfer
function of digital function.
Example:
Q) Design first order high pass butterworth filter whose cutoff frequency is 1 kHz at
sampling frequency of 104 sps. Use BZT Method
Step 1. To find out the cutoff frequency
c = 2f= 2000 rad/sec
Step 2. To find the prewarp frequency
c* = tan (c Ts/2) = tan(/10)
Step 3. Scaling of the transfer function
For First order HPF transfer
function H(s) = s/(s+1)
Scaled transfer function H*(s)
= H(s) |s=s/c*
H*(s)= s/(s + 0.325)
Step 4. Find out the digital filter transfer function. Replace s by (z-1)/(z+1)
z-1

-0.675

Tutorial problems:
Q) Design second order low pass butterworth filter whose cutoff
frequency is 1 kHz at sampling frequency of 104 sps.
Q) First order low pass butterworth filter whose bandwidth is known to
be 1 rad/sec . Use BZT method to design digital filter of 20 Hz
bandwidth at sampling frequency 60 sps.
Q) Second order low pass butterworth filter whose bandwidth is known to
be 1 rad/sec . Use BZT method to obtain transfer function H(z) of digital
filter of 3 DB cutoff frequency of 150 Hz and sampling frequency 1.28
kHz.
The transfer function is given as s2+1 / s2+s+1 The function is for Notch
filter with frequency 1
rad/sec. Design digital Notch filter with the following specification
Notch Frequency= 60 Hz
Sampling frequency = 960 sps.

BUTTERWORTH FILTER APPROXIMATION

The filter passes all frequencies below c. This is called passband

of the filter. Also the filter blocks all the frequencies above c. This is
called stopband of the filter. c is called cutoff frequency or critical
frequency.
No Practical filters can provide the ideal characteristic. Hence
approximation of the ideal characteristic are used. Such approximations
are standard and used for filter design. Such three approximations are
regularly used.
Butterworth Filter Approximation
Chebyshev Filter Approximation
Elliptic Filter Approximation
 Butterworth filters are defined by the property that the magnitude
response is maximally flat in the passband.
H( )|2

fC f

|Ha()|2=1

1 + (/c)2N

The squared magnitude function for an analog butterworth filter is of the form.
_ 1

|Ha()|2= 1 + (/c)2N

N indicates order of the filter and c is the cutoff frequency (-3DB

frequency). At s = j magnitude of H(s) and H(-s) is same hence
Ha(s) Ha(-s) =
1
1 + (-s2/c2)N
To find poles of H(s). H(-s) , find the roots of denominator in above equation.
-s2

c 2
1/N
= (-1)
As e j(2k+1) = -1 where k = 0,1,2,
.. N-1.
-s2

c 2
 = (e j(2k+1) )1/N

s2 = (-1) c2 e j(2k+1) / N
Taking the square root we
get poles of s. pk = +

-1 c [ e j(2k+1) / N ]
1/2 Pk = + j c e
j(2k+1) / 2N
As e j/2 = j

Pk = + c e j/2 e j(2k+1) / 2N

Pk = + c e j(N+2k+1) / 2N (1)
This equation gives the pole position of H(s) and H(-s).
FREQUENCY RESPONSE CHARACTERISTIC
The frequency response characteristic of |Ha()|2 is as shown. As the order of the filter N
increases, the butterworth filter characteristic is more close to the ideal characteristic. Thus at
higher orders like N=16 the butterworth filter characteristic closely approximate ideal filter
characteristic. Thus an infinite order filter (N ) is required to get ideal characteristic.
|Ha()|2 N=18

Ap= attenuation in
passband. As=
attenuation in
stopband. p =
passband edge
frequency s =
stopband edge
frequency
Specification for the filter is
|Ha()| Ap for p and |Ha()| As for s. Hence we have
_ 1
1 + (p/c)2N
_ 1
1 + (s/c)2N
Ap2

As2

To determine the poles and order of analog filter

consider equalities. (p/c)2N = (1/Ap2)
-1

(s/c)2N = (1/As2)
1

s 2N

p
Hence order of the filter (N) is
calculated as

N= 0.5
Log (1/Ap )-1

log (s/ p)
(2)

N= 0.5
log((1/As2) -1) (2A)

log (s/ c)
And cutoff frequency c is
calculated as

c =p (3)
[(1/Ap2) -1]1/2N
If As and Ap values are given
in DB then As (DB) =
- 20 log As
log As = -As /20

As = 10 -As/20

(As)-2 = 10 As/10
(As)-2 = 10 0.1 As DB
Hence equation (2) is modified as
N= 0.5
log
10 -1
(4)
log (s/
p)
Design a digital filter using a butterworth approximation by using impulse invariance.
Example
|Ha()|

0.89125 _
 0.1778
0.2 0.3

Filter Type - Low Pass Filter Ap

- 0.89125
As - 0.17783
p - 0.2
s - 0.3
Step 1) To convert specification to equivalent analog filter.
(In impulse invariance method frequency relationship is given as = T while in Bilinear
transformation method frequency relationship is given as = (2/T) tan (/2) If Ts is not
specified consider as 1)
|Ha()| 0.89125 for 0.2/T and |Ha()| 0.17783 for 0.3/T.
Step 2) To determine the order of the filter.
 N= 0.5

N= 5.88
log(1/Ap2)-1

log (s/ p)
Order of the filter should be integer.
Always go to nearest highest integer
vale of N. Hence N=6
Step 3) To find out the cutoff frequency (-3DB frequency)

c =p [(1/Ap2) -1]1/2N
cutoff frequency c = 0.7032
Step 4) To find out the poles of analog filter system function.

Pk = + c e j(N+2k+1) / 2N
As N=6 the value of k = 0,1,2,3,4,5.

K Poles

0 P0= + 0.7032 e -0.182 + j

j7/12 0.679
0.182 - j
0.679

P1= + 0.7032 e -0.497 + j

1 j9/12 0.497
0.497 - j
0.497

P2= + 0.7032 e -0.679 + j

2 j11/12 0.182
0.679 - j
0.182
 P3= + 0.7032 e
3 j13/12 -0.679 - j
0.182
0.679 + j
0.182
4
P4= + 0.7032 e -0.497 - j
j15/12 0.497
0.497 + j
0.497
5
P5= + 0.7032 e j17/12 -0.182 - j
0.679
0.182 + j
0.679

For stable filter all poles lying on the left

side of s plane is selected. Hence S1 =
-0.182 + j 0.679

S1* = -0.182 - j 0.679

S2 = -0.497 + j 0.497 S2* = -0.497 - j
0.497
S3 = -0.679 + j 0.182 S3* = -0.679 - j
0.182
Step 5) To determine the system function (Analog Filter)

Ha(s) =

Hence

Ha(s) =

Ha(s) =

Ha(s) =
 c6
(s-s1)(s-s1*) (s-s2)(s-s2*) (s-s3)(s-s3*)

(0.7032)6

(s+0.182-j0.679)(s+0.182+j0.679) (s+0.497-
j0.497) (s+0.497+j0.497) (s+0.679-j0.182)
(s+0.679-j0.182)
0.1209
[(s+0.182)2 +(0.679)2] [(s+0.497)2+(0.497)2] [(s+0.679)2-(0.182)2]

1.97 0.679 0.497 0.182

[(s+0.182)2 +(0.679)2] [(s+0.497)2+(0.497)2] [(s+0.679)2-(0.182)2]
Step 6) To determine the system function (Digital Filter)
(In Bilinear transformation replace s by the term ((z-1)/(z+1)) and find
out the transfer function of digital function)

H(z)=1.97
0.09 z-1
_
1-0.99z-1+0.26z-2

Step 7) Represent system function in cascade form or parallel

form if asked.

Tutorial problems:
Given for low pass butterworth filter Ap= -1 db at 0.2
As= -15 db at 0.3
 Calculate N and Pole location
Design digital filter using BZT method.
Q) Obtain transfer function of a lowpass
digital filter meeting specifications Cutoff 0-
60Hz
Stopband > 85Hz
Stopband attenuation > 15 db
Sampling frequency= 256 Hz . use butterworth characteristic.
Q) Design second order low pass butterworth filter whose cutoff
frequency is 1 kHz at sampling frequency of 104 sps. Use BZT and
Butterworth approximation.

FREQUENCY TRANSFORMATION
S. No Type of transformation Transformation ( Replace s by)

s
1 Low Pass
lp
lp - Password edge frequency of another LPF

hp
2 High Pass
s
hp = Password edge frequency of HPF

(s2 + l h )
s (h - l )
3 Band Pass h - higher band edge frequency
l - Lower band edge frequency

4 Band Stop s (h - l)
 When the cutoff frequency c of the low pass filter is equal to 1 then it is
called normalized filter. Frequency transformation techniques are used to
generate High pass filter, Bandpass and bandstop filter from the lowpass
filter system function.
FREQUENCY TRANSFORMATION (ANALOG FILTER)

s2+ h l
h - higher band edge frequency
l - Lower band edge frequency

FREQUENCY TRANSFORMATION (DIGITAL FILTER)

S. No Type of transformation Transformation ( Replace z-1 by)

z-1 - a
1 Low Pass
1 - az-1

- (z-1+ a)
2 High Pass
1 + az-1

- (z-2 - a1z-1 + a2)

3 Band Pass
a2z-2 - a1z-1 + 1

z-2 - a1z-1 + a2
4 Band Stop a2z-2 - a1z-1 + 1

Example:
 Q) Design high pass butterworth filter whose cutoff frequency is 30 Hz at sampling
frequency of 150 Hz. Use BZT and Frequency transformation.
Step 1. To find the prewarp cutoff frequency
c* = tan(cTs/2) = 0.7265
Step 2. LPF to HPF transformation
For First order LPF transfer function H(s) = 1/(s+1) Scaled transfer function H*(s) = H(s) |s=c*/s

H*(s)= s/(s + 0.7265)

Step 4. Find out the digital filter transfer function. Replace s
by (z-1)/(z+1)
z-1

- 0.2735

Tutorial problems:
Q) Design second order band pass butterworth filter whose passband of
200 Hz and 300 Hz and sampling frequency is 2000 Hz. Use BZT and
Frequency transformation.
Q) Design second order band pass butterworth filter
which meet following specification Lower cutoff
frequency = 210 Hz
Upper cutoff frequency = 330 Hz Sampling Frequency
= 960 sps
Use BZT and Frequency transformation.

FIR FILTER DESIGN

Features of FIR Filter
1.FIR filter always provides linear phase response. This specifies that the
signals in the pass band will suffer no dispersion Hence when the user
wants no phase distortion, then FIR filters are preferable over IIR. Phase
distortion always degrade the system performance. In various
applications like speech processing, data transmission over long distance
FIR filters are more preferable due to this characteristic.
 2 FIR filters are most stable as compared with IIR filters due to
its non feedback nature.
Quantization Noise can be made negligible in FIR filters. Due to this sharp
cutoff FIR filters can be easily designed.
Disadvantage of FIR filters is that they need higher ordered for similar
magnitude response of IIR filters.
FIR SYSTEM ARE ALWAYS STABLE. Why?
Proof: Difference equation of
FIR filter of
length M is
given as M-1
y(n)= bk x(nk)

(1)
 k=0

And the coefficient bk are related to unit sample

response as H(n) = bn for 0 n M-1
= 0 otherwise.
We can expand this equation as
Y(n)= b0 x(n) + b1 x(n-1) + .. + bM-1 x(n-M+1) (2)
System is stable only if system produces bounded output for every bounded input. This is
stability definition for any system.
Here h(n)={b0, b1, b2, } of the FIR filter are stable. Thus y(n) is bounded if input x(n) is
bounded. This means FIR system produces bounded output for every bounded input. Hence
FIR systems are always stable.
Symmetric and Anti-symmetric
FIR filters
Unit sample response of FIR filters is symmetric if it
satisfies following condition h(n)= h(M-1-n)
n=0,1,2.M-1
Unit sample response of FIR filters is Anti-symmetric if it
satisfies following condition h(n)= -h(M-1-n)
n=0,1,2.M-1
FIR Filter Design Methods
The various method used for FIR Filer design are as follows
Fourier Series method
Windowing Method
DFT method
Frequency sampling Method. (IFT Method)
GIBBS PHENOMENON

Consider the ideal LPF frequency response as shown in Fig 1 with a normalizing angular cut
off frequency c.
W W4 2 W4 4
4

W W4 3 W4 6
4

1 1 1 1
[ 1 j -1 j
W
N
]

=
1 -1 1 -1
1 j -1 -j
S. No Linear Convolution Circular Convolution

1 In case of convolution two signal Multiplication of two DFTs is called as

sequences input signal x(n) and circular convolution.
impulse response h(n) given by the
same system, output y(n) is calculated

2 Multiplication of two sequences in time Multiplication of two sequences in

domain is called as Linear convolution frequency domain is called as circular
convolution.
3 Linear Convolution is given by the Circular Convolution is
equation y(n) calculated as N-1
= x(n) * h(n) & calculated as
y(m) = x1 (n) x2 (m-n)N
n=0
y(n) = x (k) h(n k ) k= -
 4 Linear Convolution of two signals Circular convolution returns same number
returns N-1 elements where N is sum of of elements that of two signals.
elements in both sequences.
X3(n
)

8 Point
DFT

Impulse response of an ideal LPF is as shown in Fig 2.

In Fourier series method, limits of summation index is - to . But filter must have finite
terms. Hence limit of summation index change to -Q to Q where Q is some finite integer. But
this type of truncation may result in poor convergence of the series. Abrupt truncation of
infinite series is equivalent to multiplying infinite series with rectangular sequence. i.e at the
point of discontinuity some oscillation may be observed in resultant series.
Consider the example of LPF having desired frequency response H d () as shown in figure.
The oscillations or ringing takes place near band-edge of the filter.
This oscillation or ringing is generated because of side lobes in the frequency response W()
of the window function. This oscillatory behavior is called "Gibbs Phenomenon".
Truncated response and ringing effect is as shown in fig 3.
 WINDOWING TECHNIQUE
Windowing is the quickest method for designing an FIR filter. A windowing function
simply truncates the ideal impulse response to obtain a causal FIR approximation that is non
causal and infinitely long. Smoother window functions provide higher out-of band rejection
in the filter response. However this smoothness comes at the cost of wider stopband
transitions.
Various windowing method attempts to minimize the width of the main lobe (peak) of
the frequency response. In addition, it attempts to minimize the side lobes (ripple) of the
frequency response.
Rectangular Window: Rectangular This is the most basic of windowing methods. It does not
require any operations because its values are either 1 or 0. It creates an abrupt discontinuity that
results in sharp roll-offs but large ripples.

Rectangular window is defined by the following equation.

W[n]
 = 1 for 0 n N
= 0 otherwise
Triangular Window: The computational simplicity of this window, a simple
convolution of two rectangle windows, and the lower sidelobes make it a viable alternative to
the rectangular window.

Kaiser Window: This windowing method is designed to generate a sharp central peak. It has
reduced side lobes and transition band is also narrow. Thus commonly used in FIR filter
design.

Hamming Window: This windowing method generates a moderately sharp central peak. Its
ability to generate a maximally flat response makes it convenient for speech processing
filtering.
 Hanning Window: This windowing method generates a maximum flat filter design.

DESIGNING FILTER DESIGN FROM POLE ZERO PLACEMENT

Filters can be designed from its pole zero plot. Following two constraints should be imposed
while designing the filters.
All poles should be placed inside the unit circle on order for the filter to be stable. However
zeros can be placed anywhere in the z plane. FIR filters are all zero filters hence they are
always stable. IIR filters are stable only when all poles of the filter are inside unit circle.
All complex poles and zeros occur in complex conjugate pairs in order for the filter
coefficients to be real.

In the design of low pass filters, the poles should be placed near the unit circle at points
corresponding to low frequencies ( near =0)and zeros should be placed near or on unit
circle at points corresponding to high frequencies (near =). The opposite is true for high
pass filters.
NOTCH AND COMB FILTERS
A notch filter is a filter that contains one or more deep notches or ideally perfect nulls in its
frequency response characteristic. Notch filters are useful in many applications where
specific frequency components must be eliminated. Example Instrumentation and recording
systems required that the power-line frequency 60Hz and its harmonics be eliminated.

To create nulls in the frequency response of a filter at a frequency 0, simply introduce a pair
of complex-conjugate zeros on the unit circle at an angle 0.
comb filters are similar to notch filters in which the nulls occur periodically across the
frequency band similar with periodically spaced teeth. Frequency response characteristic of
notch filter |H()| is as shown in figure.

o 1

DIGITAL RESONATOR
A digital resonator is a special two pole bandpass filter with a pair of complex
conjugate poles located near the unit circle. The name resonator refers to the fact that the
filter has a larger magnitude response in the vicinity of the pole locations. Digital resonators
are useful in many applications, including simple bandpass filtering and speech generations.
IDEAL FILTERS ARE NOT PHYSICALLY REALIZABLE. Why?
Ideal filters are not physically realizable because Ideal filters are anti-causal and as only
causal systems are physically realizable.
Proof:
Let take example of ideal lowpass filter.
H() = 1 for - c c
= 0 elsewhere
The unit sample response of this ideal LPF can be obtained by taking IFT of H().

h(n)=
( ) (1)

h(n)=
1 (2)
c
1_
h(n) =
2

ejn

jn

-c

2jn

[ejcn - e-jcn ]

Thus h(n)= sin cn / n for n0 Putting n=0 in equation (2) we

have
h(n) = 1 d
(3)

1_
[]c
2
-c

and h(n) = c / for n=0

sin (cn )
h(n) = for n0
n

for n=0

Hence impulse response of an ideal LPF is as shown in Fig

 LSI system is causal if its unit sample response satisfies following condition.
h(n) = 0 for n<0
In above figure h(n) extends - to . Hence h(n) 0 for n<0. This means causality
condition is not satisfied by the ideal low pass filter. Hence ideal low pass filter is non causal
and it is not physically realizable.
EXAMPLES OF SIMPLE DIGITAL FILTERS:
The following examples illustrate the essential features of digital filters. 1.UNITY GAIN
FILTER: yn = xn
Each output value yn is exactly the same as the corresponding input
value xn: 2.SIMPLE GAIN FILTER: yn = Kxn (K = constant)
Amplifier or attenuator) This simply applies a gain factor K to each
input value:
PURE DELAY FILTER: yn = xn-1
The output value at time t = nh is simply the input at time t = (n-1)h, i.e. the signal is
delayed by time h: 4.TWO-TERM DIFFERENCE FILTER: yn = xn - xn-1

The output value at t = nh is equal to the difference between the current input xn and the
previous inputxn-1:
5.TWO-TERM AVERAGE FILTER: yn = (xn + xn-1) / 2
The output is the average (arithmetic mean) of the current and
previous input: 6.THREE-TERM AVERAGE FILTER: yn = (xn + xn-1 + xn-2) / 3
This is similar to the previous example, with the average being taken of the current
and two
previousinputs.
7.CENTRAL DIFFERENCE FILTER: yn = (xn - xn-2) / 2
This is similar in its effect to example (4). The output is equal to half the change in the input
signal over the previous two sampling intervals.
 ORDER OF A DIGITAL FILTER
The order of a digital filter can be defined as the number of previous inputs (stored in the
processor's memory) used to calculate the current output.
This is illustrated by the filters given as examples in the previous section.
Example (1): yn = xn
This is a zero order filter, since the current output yn depends only on the current inputxn and
not on any previous inputs.
Example (2): yn = Kxn
The order of this filter is again zero, since no previous outputs are required to give the current
output value.
Example (3): yn = xn-1
This is a first order filter, as one previous input (xn-1) is required to calculate yn. (Note that
this filter is classed as first-order because it uses one previous input, even
though the current input is not used).
Example (4): yn = xn - xn-1
This is again a first order filter, since one previous input value is required to give the current
output.
Example (5): yn = (xn + xn-1) / 2
The order of this filter is again equal to 1 since it uses just one previous input value.
Example (6): yn = (xn + xn-1 + xn-2) /
3
To compute the current output yn, two previous inputs (xn-1 and xn-2) are needed; this is
therefore a second-order filter.
Example (7): yn = (xn - xn-2) / 2
The filter order is again 2, since the processor must store two previous inputs in order to
compute the current output. This is unaffected by the absence of an explicitxn-1 term in
the filter expression.
Q) For each of the following filters, state the order of the filter and identify the values of its
coefficients:
(a) yn = 2xn - xn-1 A) Order = 1: a0 = 2, a1 = -1
(b) yn = xn-2 B) Order = 2: a0 = 0, a1 = 0, a2 = 1
(c) yn = xn - 2xn-1 + 2xn-2 + xn-3 C) Order = 3: a0 = 1, a1 = -2, a2 = 2, a3 = 1
 CHAPTER 5

DIGITAL SIGNAL PROCESSOR

REQUIREMENTS OF DSP PROCESSORS

The most fundamental mathematical operation in DSP is sum of products also called as dot of
products.
Y(n)= h(0)*x(n) + h(1)*x(n-1) ++ h(N-1)*x(n-N)
This operation is mostly used in digital filter designing, DFT, FFT and many other DSP
applications. A DSP is optimized to perform repetitive mathematical operations such as the
dot product. There are five basic requirements of s DSP processor to optimize the
performance They are
Fast arithmetic
Extended precision
Fast Execution - Dual operand fetch
Fast data exchange
Fast operations
Circular buffering

S. No Requirements Features of DSP processor

1 Fast Arithmetic Faster MACs means higher bandwidth.
Able to support general purpose math functions, should have ALU
and a programmable shifter function for bit manipulation.
Powerful interrupt structure and timers
2 Extended precision A requirement for extended precision in the accumulator register.
High degree of overflow protection.
3 Fast Execution Parallel Execution is required in place of sequential.
Instructions are executed in single cycle of clock called as True
instruction cycle as oppose to multiple clock cycle.
Multiple operands are fetched simultaneously. Multi-processing
Ability and queue, pipelining facility
Address generation by DAG's and program sequencer.
4 Fast data Exchange Multiple registers, Separate program and data memory and Multiple
operands fetch capacity
 5 Fast Operations Program and data memories are on chip memory and extendable off-
chip
No multiplexing is used. Separate address, data and control bus.
Powerful instruction set and various addressing modes.
6 Circular shift operations Circular Buffers

MICROPROCESSOR ARCHITECTURES
There are mainly three types of microprocessor architectures present.
Von-Neumann architecture
Harvard architecture
Analog devices Modified Harvard architecture.
Von-Neumann Architecture
General purpose microprocessors uses the Von-Neumann Architectures. (named after the
American mathematician John Von Neumann)
It consists of ALU, accumulator, IO devices and common address and data bus. It also consists
of a single memory which contains data and instructions, a single bus for transferring data
and instructions into and out of the CPU.
Multiplying two numbers requires at leased three cycles, two cycles are required to transfer
the two numbers into the CPU and one cycle to transfer the instruction.

This architecture is giving good performance when all the required tasks can be executed
serially. 4.For large processing applications like DSP applications Von-Neumann
architecture is not suitable as processing speed is less. Processing speed can be increased by
pipelining up to certain extend which is not sufficient for DSP applications. In order to
perform a single FIR filter multiply-accumulate, an instruction is fetched from the program
memory, and during the same cycle, a coefficient can be fetched from the data memory. A
second cycle is required to fetch the data word from data memory

A: VON NEUMANN

HARVARD B:
 ADI MODIFIED
C:HARVARD

Figure: MICROPROCESSOR ARCHITECTURES

Harvard Architecture (named for the work done at Harvard university)

Data and program instructions each have separate memories

and buses as shown. Program memory address and data buses
for program memory and data memory address and data buses
for data memory.

Since the buses operate independently, program

instructions and data can be fetched at the same time.
Therefore improving speed over the single bus Von
Neumann design.

In order to perform a single FIR filter multiply-accumulate, an

instruction is fetched from the program memory, and during
the same cycle, a coefficient can be fetched from the data
memory. A second cycle is required to fetch the data word
from data memory.

CORE ARCHITECTURE OF ADSP-21xx

ADSP-21xx family DSP's are used in high speed numeric

processing applications. ADSP-21xx architecture consists of
Five Internal Buses
Program
Memory
Address(PM
A) Data
memory
address
 (DMA)
Program
memory
data(PMD)
Data memory data (DMD) and Result (R)

SCE 100
Three Computational Units are
Arithmetic logic
unit (ALU)
Multiply-
accumulate
(MAC) Shifter
Two Data Address generators (DAG)
Program sequencer
On chip peripheral Options
Data Memory
Timer
Serial Port

Instruction
_ Register Cache Program
1 2 Memory Sequencer
 PMA BUS DMA BUS PMD BUS

DMD BUS

s s

s s s

R BUS

BUSES: Block Diagram of Architecture

The ADSP-21xx processors have five internal buses to ensure data transfer.

PMA and DMA buses are used internally for addresses associated with
Program and data memory. The PMD and DMD are used for data
associated with memory spaces. Off Chip, the buses are multiplexed
into a single external address bus and a single external data bus. The
address spaces are selected by the appropriate
control signal.
 The result (R) bus transfers the intermediate results directly between
various computational units.
PMA bus is 14-bits wide allowing direct access of up to 16k words of
code and data. PMD bus is 24 bits wide to accommodate the 24 bit
instruction width.
The DMA bus 14 bits wide allowing direct access of up to 16k words of
data.The DMD bus is 16 bit wide.
The DMD bus provides a path for the contents of any register in the
processor to be transferred to any other register or to any external data
memory location in a single cycle. DMA address comes from two
sources. An absolute value specified in the instruction code (direct
addressing) or the output of DAG (Indirect addressing). The PMD bus
can also be used to transfer data to and from the
computational units thro direct path or via PMD-DMD bus exchange unit.
COMPUTATIONAL UNITS:
The processor contains three -independent computational units. ALU, MAC (Multiplier-
accumulator) and the barrel shifter. The computational units process 16- bit data directly. ALU is
16 bits wide with two 16 bit input ports and one output port. The ALU provides a standard set of
arithmetic and logic functions.
ALU Features
Add, subtract, Negate, increment, decrement, Absolute value, AND,
OR, EX-OR, Not etc.
Bitwise operators, Constant operators
Multi-precision Math Capability
Divide Primitives and overflow support.
MAC:
The MAC performs high speed single-cycle multiply/add and multiply/subtract operations. MAC has
two 16 bit input ports and one 32 bit product output port. 32 bit product is passed to a 40 bit
adder/subtractor which adds or subtracts the new product from the content of the multiplier result
(MR). It also contains a 40 bit accumulator which provides 8 bit overflow in successive additions to
 ensure that no loss of data occurs. 256 overflows would have to occur before any data is lost. A set of
background registers is also available in the MAC for interrupts service routine.
SHIFTER:
The shifter performs a complete set of shifting functions like logical and arithmetic shifts
(circular or linear shift) , normalization (fixed point to floating point conversion),
demoralization (floating point to fixed point conversion) etc
ALU, MAC and shifter are connected to DMD bus on one side and to R bus on other side.
All three sections contains input and output registers which are accessible from the internal
DMD bus. Computational operations generally take the operands from input registers and
load the result into an output register.
DATA ADDRESS GENERATORS (DAG):
Two DAG's and a powerful program sequencer ensure efficient use of these computational
units. The two DAG's provides memory addresses when memory data is transferred to or
from the input or output registers. Each DAG keeps track of up to four address pointers.
Hence jumps, branching types of instructions are implemented within one cycle. With two
independent DAG's, the processor can generate two address simultaneously for dual
operand fetches.
DAG1 can supply addresses to data memory only. DAG2 can supply addresses to either data
memory or program memory. When the appropriate mode bit is set in mode status register
(MSTAT), the output address of DAG1 is bit-reversed before being driven onto the address
bus. This feature facilitates addressing in radix-2 FFT algorithm.
PROGRAM SEQUENCER:
The program sequencer exchanges data with DMD bus. It can also take from PMD
bus. It supplies instruction address to program memory. The sequencer is driven by the
instruction register which holds the currently executing instruction. The instruction register
introduces a single level of pipelining into the program flow. Instructions are fetched and
loaded into the instruction register during one processor cycle, and executed during the
following cycle while the next instruction is pre-fetched. The cache memory stores up to 16
previously executed instructions. Thus data memory on PMD bus is more efficient because
of cache memory. This also makes pipelining and increase the speed of operations.
FEATURES OF ADSP-21xx PROCESSOR
16 bit fixed DSP microprocessor
Enhanced Harvard architecture for three bus performance.
Separate on chip buses for program and data memory.
25 MIPS, 40 ns maximum instruction set 25Mhz frequency.
Single cycle instruction execution i.e True instruction cycle.
Independent computational units ALU, MAC and shifter.
On chip program and data memories which can be extended off chip.
Dual purpose program memory for instruction and data.
Single cycle direct access to 16K 16 of data memory.
Single cycle direct access to 16K 24 of program m
ADSP-21xx DEVELOPMENT TOOLS
Various development tools such as assembler , linker, debugger,
simulator are available for ADSP-21xx family.
SYSTEM BUILDER
The system builder is the software development tool for describing the configuration of the
target system's memory and I/O. The ranges for program memory(PM) and data
memory(DM) are described.
The program memory space is allotted with 16 K of memory for instructions and 16K for
data. The data memory space is also divide into two blocks. The lowest 2K is the dual -port
memory that is shared by both processors. Each processor has an additional 14K of private
data memory.
.SYSTEM
.ADSP2108
{PROGRAM MEMORY SECTION}
.SEG/ROM/ABS=0/PM/CODE CODE_AREA
.SEG/RAM/ABS=0X4000/PM/DATA DATA_AREA
{DATA MEMORY SECTION
.SEG/RAM/ABS=0/DM/DATA
COMMON MEMORY
.SEG/RAM/ABS=0X800/DM/DATA

PRIVATE MEMORY
.PORT/RAM/ABS=0x100 DATA
MEMORY IO PORT
.PORT/RAM/ABS=0x200 AD PORT
.PORT/RAM/ABS=0x300 DA PORT
.ENDSYS
The sample system configuration file (.SYS) is shown. .SEG directive is used to declare the
system's physical memory segments and its characteristics. .PORT directive declares the
memory mapped IO port. .ENDSYS indicates the end of .SYS file.
ASSEMBLER
The assembler translated source code into object code modules. The source code is written in
assembly language file (.DSP) Assembler reads .DSP file and generates four
output filed with the same root name. Object file(.OBJ), Code File(.CDE), Initialization
File (.INT), List File(.LST) etc. The file can be assembled by the following command.
ASM21FILTER

S.No File Extension Application

1 .OBJ Binary codes for instruction, Memory allocation
and symbol declaration, Addresses of the
instructions
2 .CDE Instruction opcodes
3 .INT Initialization information
4 .LST Documentation

LINKER
The linker is a program used to join together object files into one large object file.
The linker produces a link file which contains the binary codes for all the combined
modules. The linker uses .INT, .CDE, .OBJ and .ACH file and
 generates three files. Map listing file (.MAP), Memory Image File
(.EXE) and Symbol table (.SYM).
LD21 FILTER -a SAMPLE -e FILTER
Here Filter is the input file name, sample.ACH file is system architecture file name and
FILTER.EXE is output file name.
DEBUGGER
A debugger is a program which allows user to load object code program into system memory,
execute the program and debug it. The debugger allows the user to look at the contents of
registers and memory locations etc. We can change the contents of registers and memory
locations at run time, generates breakpoints etc.
SIMULATOR
The multiprogramming environment can be tested using the simulator. When simulated, the
filter program produces output data and stores in common data memory. Simulator
command is used to dump form data memory to store the dual port data memory image on
disk which can be reloaded and tested.
APPLICATIONS OF DSP
1. SPEECH RECOGNITION
Basic block diagram of a speech recognition system is shown in Fig 1
In speech recognition system using microphone one can input speech or voice. The analog
speech signal is converted to digital speech signal by speech digitizer. Such digital signal
is called digitized speech.
The digitized speech is processed by DSP system. The significant features of speech such as
its formats, energy, linear prediction coefficients are extracted.The template of this
extracted features are compared with the standard reference templates.The closed matched
template is considered as the recognized word.
Voice operated consumer products like TV, VCR, Radio, lights,
fans and voice operated telephone dialing are examples of DSP
based speech recognized
devices.
 Voiced
Synthetic speech

Unvoiced

2. LINEAR PREDICTION OF SPEECH SYNTHESIS

Fig shows block diagram of speech synthesizer using linear prediction
For voiced sound, pulse generator is selected as signal source while for
unvoiced sounds noise generator is selected as signal source.
The linear prediction coefficients are used as coefficients of digital
filter. Depending upon these coefficients , the signal is passed and
filtered by the digital filter.
The low pass filter removes high frequency noise if any from the
synthesized speech. Because of linear phase characteristic FIR filters
are mostly used as digital filters.Pitch Period

Digital
_ filter
 Synthetic speech

Filter Coefficients
3. SOUND PROCESSING
In sound processing application, Music compression(MP3) is achieved
by converting the time domain signal to the frequency domain then
removing frequencies which are no audible.
The time domain waveform is transformed to the frequency domain
using a filter bank. The strength of each frequency band is analyzed and
quantized based on how much effect they have on the perceived
decompressed signal.
The DSP processor is also used in digital video disk (DVD) which uses
MPEG-2 compression, Web video content application like Intel Indeo,
real audio.

Sound synthesis and manipulation, filtering, distortion, stretching

effects are also done by DSP processor. ADC and DAC are used in
signal generation and recording. 4. ECHO CANCELLATION
In the telephone network, the subscribers are connected to telephone
exchange by two wire circuit. The exchanges are connected by four
wire circuit. The two wire circuit is bidirectional and carries signal in
both the directions. The four wire circuit has separate paths for
transmission and reception. The hybrid coil at the exchange provides
the interface between two wire and four wire circuit which also
provides impedance matching between two wire and four wire circuits.
Hence there are no echo or reflections on the lines. But this impedance
matching is not perfect because it is length dependent. Hence for echo
cancellation, DSP techniques are used as follows.
 Input Reg

ALU

Output Reg

Input Regs

MAC

Output Reg

I*put Reg

Shifter

Output Reg

Figure : Echo canceller principle

An DSP based acoustic echo canceller works in the following fashion: it
records the sound going to the loudspeaker and substract it from the
signal coming from the
 microphone. The sound going through the echo-loop is transformed and
delayed, and noise is added, which complicate the substraction process.
Let be the input signal going to the loudspeaker; let be the
signal picked up by the microphone, which will be called the desired
signal. The signal after substraction will be called the error signal and
will be denoted by . The
adaptive filter will try to identify the equivalent filter seen by the
system from the loudspeaker to the microphone, which is the transfer
function of the room
the loudpeaker and microphone are in.
This transfer function will depend heavily on the physical
characteristics of the environment.In broad terms, a small room with
absorbing walls will origninate just a few, first order reflections so that
its transfer function will have a short impulse response. On the other
hand, large rooms with reflecting walls will have a transfer function
whose impulse response decays slowly in time, so that
echo cancellation will be much more difficult.
5. VIBRATION ANALYSIS
Normally machines such as motor, ball bearing etc systems vibrate
depending upon the speed of their movements.
In order to detect fault in the system spectrum analysis can be
performed. It shows fixed frequency pattern depending upon the
vibrations. If there is fault in the machine, the predetermined spectrum
is changes. There are new frequencies introduced in the spectrum
representing fault.
This spectrum analysis can be performed by DSP system. The DSP
system can also be used to monitor other parameters of the machine
simultaneously.
 FIGURE FOR FINITE DURATION

There are one sided(right and left sequences) and two sided
sequences are present in the Z Transform pair.
It cosists of two duration they are
Finite duration
Infinite duration
IF ITS RIGHT SIDED SEQUENCE ----- ROC LIES BETWEEN Z =
IF ITS LEFT SIDED SEQUENCES ----- ROC LIES BETWEEN Z = 0

IF ITS BOTH SIDED SEQUENCES ----- ROC LIES

BETWEEN Z= 0 & Z = .
 Match the Pairs.

REFERENCES:
Poorna Chandra S, Sasikala. B ,Digital Signal
Processing, Vijay Nicole/TMH,2013.
B.P.Lathi, Principles of Signal Processing and Linear Systems,
Oxford University Press, 2010
Taan S. ElAli, Discrete Systems and Digital Signal Processing with
Mat Lab, CRC Press, 2009.

Sen M.kuo, woonsengs.gan, Digital Signal Processors,

Architecture, Implementations &
Applications, Pearson,2013
Dimitris G.Manolakis, Vinay K. Ingle, applied
Digital Signal Processing,Cambridge,2012
Lonnie C.Ludeman ,Fundamentals of Digital Signal Processing,Wiley,2013
R.L Lekha , Digital Signal Processing by Lakshmi publications.
GLOSSARY TERMS:

DDC:
Digital Down ConverterTuner Mix a signal down to baseband. A DDC
operates in the complex domain and consists of a frequency mixer, a
LPF, and a decimator. SeethedownmixerinInputDevicewindow.
Decimation:
A decimator reduces the sample rate by discarding samples. It is
important to low passfilterinordertopreventaliasing.
DSP:
Digital Signal Processing. The art of manipulating signals in the
discrete digital domain.
FFT:
Fast Fourier Transform. A mathematical operation that converts
between the time andthefrequencydomains. O(n*logn).
FIR:
Finite Impulse Response filter. Performs convolution in the time
domain. A DSP algorithmic construct made up of cascaded MAC units
and filter taps. FIR filters are stable and have linear phase. Both the
decimator in Input Devices and Hilbert
filtersareimplementedwithFIRfilters.
Address: The logical location of program code or data stored in
memory. Addressing mode: The method by which an instruction
interprets its operands to acquire the data it needs.
Address stage: The second stage of the parallel processors fetch,
address, execute (FAE) pipeline during which addresses are calculated
and supplied to the crossbar. (TMS320C8x)
Address unit: Hardware on the parallel processor that computes a bit
address during each cycle. Each parallel processor has two address
units: a global address unit and a local address unit. (TMS320C8x)
Address unit arithmetic: The parallel processors use of the local and
global address units to perform general-purpose arithmetics in parallel
with the data unit. The computed address is not used for memory
access, but is stored in the destination register. (TMS320C8x)
Address visibility (AVIS) bit: A bit field that allows the internal
program address to appear at the external address pins. This enables the
internal program address to be traced and the interrupt vector to be
decoded in conjunction with the interrupt
acknowledge (IACK) signal when the interrupt vectors reside in on-
chip memory. At reset, AVIS = 0. (TMS320C5x, TMS320C54x,
TMS320C2xx)
Administrative privileges: Authority to set software and hardware
access; includes access and privileges to install, manage, and maintain
system and application software and directories on a network server or
individual computer systems.
ADTR: Asynchronous data transmit and receive register. See also
receive (ADTR) register.
AFB: See auxiliary register file bus.

Aggregate type: A C data type, such as a structure or an array, in which

a variable is composed of multiple other variables, called members.
AIC: See analog interface circuit.
A-Law companding: See companded.
Alias disambiguation: A technique that determines when two pointer
expressions cannot point to the same location, allowing the compiler to
freely optimize such expressions. (TMS320C6200)
Aliasing: 1) A method of customizing debugger commands; aliasing
provides a shorthand method for entering often-used command strings.
2) A method of accessing a single data object in more than one way, as
when a pointer points to a named object. The optimizer has logic to
detect aliasing, but aliasing can cause problems for the optimizer. 3)
Aliasing occurs when a single object can be accessed in more than one
way, such as when two pointers point to a single object. It can disrupt
optimization, because any indirect reference could refer to any other
object. Alignment: A process in which the linker places an output
section at an address that falls on an n-byte boundary, where n is a
power of 2. You can specify alignment with the SECTIONS linker
directive.
Allocation: A process in which the linker calculates the final memory
addresses of output sections.
Allocation node: The processor node into which an internode message is allocated.
ALU: See arithmetic logic unit.
ALU function: For the parallel processor, an action performed on the
three inputs to the arithmetic logic unit (ALU), which includes
any arithmetic or Boolean
combination of the three inputs, as well as mixed arithmetic and
Boolean functions. (TMS320C8x)
ALU function modifier: For the parallel processor, a 4-bit code that
specifies modifications to the functions performed by the arithmetic
logic unit (ALU) data path (such as carry-in or multiple arithmetic).
These function modifiers are specified in the opcode or in the D0
register, depending on the application. (TMS320C8x)
ALU operation: For the parallel processor, an action performed by the
arithmetic logic unit (ALU) data path (that is, the result of the ALU
function, the operation class, and any function modifiers).
(TMS320C8x) analog interface circuit (AIC): Integrated circuit that
performs serial analog- to-digital (A/D) and digital-to-analog (D/A)
conversions.
Analog mixing: The mixing together of two analog signals; the
multiplexing of two analog signals into one.
Analog repeater: Analog Repeater is telecommunications equipment
used to boost and clarify analog signals on telephone lines.

Analog-to-digital (A/D): Conversion of continuously variable

electrical signals to discrete or discontinuous electrical signals.
Analog-to-digital (A/D) converter: A converter that changes real-
world analog signals such as light and sound into digital code.
ANSI: American National Standards Institute. An organization that
establishes standards voluntarily followed by industries.
ANSI C: A version of the C programming language that conforms to
the C standards defined by the American National Standards Institute
(ANSI).
annul: Any instruction that is annulled does not complete its pipeline stages.
API: See application programming interface.
application programming interface (API): Used for proprietary
application programs to interact with communications software or to
conform to protocols from another vendors product. (TMS320C8x)
Application-Specific ICs (ASICs): Application-Specific ICs (ASICs)
are chips designed by our customers for specific applications by
integrating cells from a TI
standard library of pre-tested code. ASIC design is faster than designing
a chip from scratch, and design changes can be made more easily.
AR0AR7: Auxiliary Registers 07. Eight registers that are used as
pointers to an address within the data space address range. The registers
are operated on by the auxiliary register arithmetic unit (ARAU) and are
selected by the auxiliary register pointer (ARP).
AR: See auxiliary register.
ARAU: See auxiliary register arithmetic unit.
ARB: See auxiliary register pointer buffer.
Architecture: The software or hardware structure of all or part of a
computer system; includes all the detailed components of the system.
Archive library: A collection of individual files grouped into a single
file by the archiver.
Archiver: A software program that collects several individual files into
a single file called an archive library. With the archiver, you can add,
delete, extract, or replace members of the archive library.
ARCR: See auxiliary register compare register.
Argument buffer: A memory block into which argument values are
placed that accompany a command to a server parallel processor.
Arithmetic logic unit (ALU): The section of the computer that carries
out all arithmetic operations (addition, subtraction, multiplication,
division, or comparison) and logic functions.
ARP: See auxiliary register pointer.
ARR: See BSP address receive register.
ARSR: See asynchronous serial port receive shift register.
ASCII: American Standard Code for Information Interchange, 1968.
The standard set of 7-bit coded characters ( 8-bit including parity check)
used for information interchange among data processing systems,
communications systems, and associated equipment. The ASCII set
consists of control characters and graphics characters.
ASPCR: See asynchronous serial port control register.
Assemble: To prepare a machine-language program from a symbolic
language program by substituting absolute operation codes for symbolic
operation codes and absolute or relocatable addresses for symbolic
addresses.
Assembler: A software program that creates a machine-language
program from a source file that contains assembly language instructions
and directives. The assembler substitutes absolute operation codes for
symbolic operation codes, and absolute or relocatable addresses for
symbolic addresses.
Assembly language: A low-level symbolic programming language,
closely resembling machine code language and composed of groups of
letters each group representing a single instruction; allows a
computer user to write a program using mnemonics instead of numeric
instructions.
Assembly language instructions: The language in which computer
operations are represented by mnemonics.
 SHORT QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS:

UNIT-I - SIGNALS & SYSTEMS

Define Signal.
A Signal is defined as any physical quantity that varies with time,
space or any other independent variables.
Define a system.
A System is a physical device (i.e., hardware) or algorithm (i.e.,
software) that performs an operation on the signal.
What are the steps involved in digital signal processing?
Converting the analog signal to digital signal, this is performed by
A/D converter Processing Digital signal by digital system.
Converting the digital signal to analog signal, this is performed by D/A converter.
Give some applications of DSP?
Speech processing Speech compression &
decompression for voice storage system
Communication Elimination of noise by filtering and echo cancellation.
Bio-Medical Spectrum analysis of ECG,EEG etc.
Write the classifications of DT Signals.
Energy & Power signals
Periodic & Aperiodic signals
Even & Odd signals.
What is an Energy and Power signal?
Energy signal: A finite energy signal is periodic sequence, which
has a finite energy but zero average power.Power signal:
An Infinite energy signal with finite average power is called a
power signal.
What is Discrete Time Systems?
The function of discrete time systems is to process a given input
sequence to generate output sequence. In practical discrete time
systems, all signals are digital signals, and operations on such signals
also lead to digital signals. Such discrete time systems are called
digital filter.
Write the Various classifications of Discrete-Time systems.
Linear & Non linear system
Causal & Non Causal system
Stable & Un stable system
Static & Dynamic systems
 Define Linear system
A system is said to be linear system if it satisfies Super position
principle. Let us consider x1(n) & x2(n) be the two input sequences
& y1(n) & y2(n) are the responses respectively, T[ax1(n) + bx2(n)]
= a y1(n) + by2(n)
Define Static & Dynamic systems
When the output of the system depends only upon the present input
sample, then it is called static system, otherwise if the system depends
past values of input then it is called dynamic system.
Define causal system.
When the output of the system depends only upon the present and
past input sample, then it is called causal system, otherwise if the
system depends on future values of input then it is called non-causal
system.
Define Shift-Invariant system.
If y(n) is the response to an input x(n), then the response to an input
X(n) = x(n-n0) then y(n) = y(n-n0) When the system satisfies above
condition then it is said to shift in variant, otherwise it is variant
Define impulse and unit step signal.
Impulse signal (n): The impulse signal is defined as a signal having
unit magnitude at n = 0 and zero for other values of n. (n) = 1; n = 0;
Unit step signal u(n): The unit step signal is defined as a signal having
unit magnitude for all values of n 0 u(n) = 1; n 0 0; n 0
What are FIR and IIR systems?
The impulse response of a system consist of infinite number of
samples are called IIR system & the impulse response of a system
consist of finite number of samples are called FIR system.
What are the basic elements used to construct the block diagram of
discrete time system?
The basic elements used to construct the block diagram of discrete time
Systems are Adder, Constant multiplier &Unit delay element.
What is ROC in Z-Transform?
The values of z for which z transform converges is called region of
convergence (ROC). The z-transform has an infinite power series;
hence it is necessary to mention the ROC along with z-transform.
List any four properties of Z-Transform.
Linearity
Time Shifting
Frequency shift or Frequency translation
Time reversal
What are the different methods of evaluating inverse z-transform?
Partial fraction expansion
Power series expansion
Contour integration (Residue method)
 Define sampling theorem.
A continuous time signal can be represented in its samples and
recovered back if the sampling frequency Fs 2B. Here Fs is the
sampling frequency and B is the maximum frequency present in the
signal.
Check the linearity and stability of g(n),
Since square root is nonlinear, the system is nonlinear.
As long as x(n) is bounded, its square root is bounded. Hence
this system is stable.
What are the properties of convolution?
Commutative property x(n) * h(n) = h(n) * x(n)
Associative property [x(n) * h1(n)]*h2(n) = x(n)*[h1(n) * h2(n)]
Distributive property x(n) *[ h1(n)+h2(n)] = [x(n)*h1(n)]+[x(n) * h2(n)]
UNIT-II DISCRETE TIME SYSTEM ANALYSIS

Define DTFT. Let us consider the discrete time signal x(n).Its DTFT
is denoted as X(w).It is given as X(w)= x(n)e-jwn
State the condition for existence of DTFT? The conditions are If
x(n)is absolutely summable then |x(n)|< If x(n) is not absolutely
summable then it should have finite energy for DTFT to exit.
List the properties of DTFT. Periodicity Linearity Time shift
Frequency shift Scaling Differentiation in frequency domain Time
reversal Convolution Multiplication in time domain Parsevals
theorem
What is the DTFT of unit sample?
The DTFT of unit sample is 1 for all values of w.
Define DFT. DFT is defined as X(w)= x(n)e-jwn. Here x(n) is the
discrete time sequence X(w) is the fourier transform ofx(n).
Define Twiddle factor. The Twiddle factor is defined as WN=e-j2 /N
Define Zero padding. The method of appending zero in the given
sequence is called as Zero padding.
Define circularly even sequence. A Sequence is said to be circularly
even if it is symmetric about the point zero on the circle. x(N-
n)=x(n),1<=n<=N-1.
Define circularly odd sequence. A Sequence is said to be circularly
odd if it is anti symmetric about point x(0) on the circle.
Define circularly folded sequences. A circularly folded sequence is
represented as x((-n))N. It is obtained by plotting x(n) in clockwise
direction along the circle.
State circular convolution. This property states that multiplication of
two DFT is equal to circular convolution of their sequence in time
domain.
State parsevals theorem. Consider the complex valued sequences
x(n) and y(n).If x(n)y*(n)=1/N X(k)Y*(k)
 Define Z transform. The Z transform of a discrete time signal x(n) is
denoted by X(z) and is given by X(z)= x(n)Z-n.
Define ROC. The value of Z for which the Z transform converged
is called region of convergence. 15. Find Z transform of
x(n)={1,2,3,4} x(n)= {1,2,3,4} X(z)= x(n)z-n = 1+2z-1+3z-2+4z-3.
= 1+2/z+3/z2+4/z3.
State the convolution property of Z transform. The convolution
property states that the convolution of two sequences in time
domain is equivalent to multiplication of their Z transforms.
What z transform of (n-m)? By time shifting property Z[A (n-
m)]=AZ-m sin Z[ (n)] =1
State initial value theorem. If x(n) is causal sequence then its initial
value is given by x(0)=lim X(z).
List the methods of obtaining inverse Z transform. Inverse z
transform can be obtained by using Partial fraction expansion.
Contour integration Power series expansion Convolution. 20. Obtain
the inverse z transform of X(z)=1/z-a,|z|>|a| Given X(z)=z-1/1-az-1
By time shifting property X(n)=an.u(n-1)
UNIT-III - DISCRETE FOURIER TRANSFORM AND COMPUTATION

What is DFT?
It is a finite duration discrete frequency sequence, which is obtained
by sampling one period of Fourier transform. Sampling is done at N
equally spaced points over the period extending from w=0 to 2.
Define N point DFT.
The DFT of discrete sequence x(n) is denoted by X(K). It is given
by, Here k=0,1,2N-1 Since this summation is taken for N points,
it is called as N-point DFT.
What is DFT of unit impulse (n)?
The DFT of unit impulse (n) is unity.
List the properties of DFT.
Linearity, Periodicity, Circular symmetry, symmetry, Time shift,
Frequency shift, complex conjugate, convolution, correlation and
Parsevals theorem.
State Linearity property of DFT.
DFT of linear combination of two or more signals is equal to the
sum of linear combination of DFT of individual signal.
When a sequence is called circularly even?
The N point discrete time sequence is circularly even if it is
symmetric about the point zero on the circle.
What is the condition of a sequence to be circularly odd?
An N point sequence is called circularly odd it if is antisymmetric
about point zero on the circle.
 Why the result of circular and linear convolution is not same?
Circular convolution contains same number of samples as that of x
(n) and h (n), while in linear convolution, number of samples in the
result (N) are, N=L+M-1 Where L= Number of samples in x (n)
M=Number of samples in h (n)
What is circular time shift of sequence?
Shifting the sequence in time domain by 1 samples is equivalent to
multiplying the sequence in frequency domain by WNkl
10. What is the disadvantage of direct computation of DFT?
For the computation of N-point DFT, N2 complex multiplications
and N[N-1] Complex additions are required. If the value of N is
large than the number of computations will go into lakhs. This
proves inefficiency of direct DFT computation.
11. What is the way to reduce number of arithmetic operations
during DFT computation?
Number of arithmetic operations involved in the computation of DFT
is greatly reduced by using different FFT algorithms as follows. 1.
Radix-2 FFT algorithms. - Radix-2 Decimation in Time (DIT)
algorithm.
- Radix-2 Decimation in Frequency (DIF) algorithm.
2. Radix-4 FFT algorithm.
12. What is the computational complexity using FFT algorithm?
Complex multiplications = N/2 log2N
Complex additions = N log2N
How linear filtering is done using FFT?
Correlation is the basic process of doing linear filtering using FFT. The correlation is nothing but
the convolution with one of the sequence, folded. Thus, by folding the sequence h (n), we can
compute the linear filtering using FFT.
What is zero padding? What are its uses?
Let the sequence x (n) has a length L. If we want to find the N point
DFT (N>L) of the sequence x (n). This is known as zero padding. The
uses of padding a sequence with zeros are
We can get better display of the frequency spectrum.
With zero padding, the DFT can be used in linear filtering.
Why FFT is needed?
The direct evaluation of the DFT using the formula requires N2
complex multiplications and N (N-1) complex additions. Thus for
reasonably large values of N (inorder of 1000) direct evaluation of the
DFT requires an inordinate amount of computation. By using FFT
algorithms the number of computations can be reduced. For example,
for an N-point DFT, The number of complex multiplications required
using FFT is N/2log2N. If N=16, the number of complex
multiplications required for direct evaluation of DFT is 256, whereas
using DFT only 32 multiplications are required.
 What is the speed of improvement factor in calculating 64-point
DFT of a sequence using direct computation and computation
and FFT algorithms? Or Calculate the number of multiplications
needed in the calculation of DFT and FFT with 64-point
sequence.
The number of complex multiplications required using direct
computation is N2=642=4096. The number of complex
multiplications required using FFT is N/2 log2N = 64/2log264=192.
Speed improvement factor = 4096/192=21.33
What is the main advantage of FFT?
FFT reduces the computation time required to compute discrete Fourier transform.
Calculate the number of multiplications needed in the calculation
of DFT using FFT algorithm with using FFT algorithm with 32-
point sequence.
For N-point DFT the number of complex multiplications needed
using FFT algorithm is N/2 log2N. For N=32, the number of the
complex multiplications is equal to 32/2log232=16*5=80.
What is FFT?
The fast Fourier transforms (FFT) is an algorithm used to compute the
DFT. It makes use of the Symmetry and periodically properties of
twiddles factor WKN to effectively reduce the DFT computation time.
It is based on the fundamental principle of decomposing the
computation of the DFT of a sequence of length N into successively
smaller discrete Fourier transforms. The FFT algorithm provides
speed-increase factors, when compared with direct computation of the
DFT, of approximately 64 and 205 for 256-point and 1024-point
transforms, respectively.
How many multiplications and additions are required to compute
N-point DFT using redix-2 FFT?
The number of multiplications and additions required to compute
N-point DFT using redix-2 FFT are N log2N and N/2 log2N
respectively.
What is meant by radix-2 FFT?
The FFT algorithm is most efficient in calculating N-point DFT. If the number of output points N
can be expressed as a power of 2, that is, N=2M, where M is an integer, Then this algorithm is
known as radix-s FFT algorithm.
What is a decimation-in-time algorithm?
Decimation-in-time algorithm is used to calculate the DFT of a N-point
Sequence. The idea is to break the N-point sequence into two
sequences, the DFTs of which can be combined to give the DFT of the
original N-point sequence. Initially the N- point sequence is divided
into two N/2-point sequences xe(n) and x0(n), which have the even and
odd members of x(n) respectively. The N/2 point DFTs of these two
sequences are evaluated and combined to give the N point DFT.
Similarly the N/2 point DFTs can be expressed as a combination of N/4
 point DFTs. This process is continued till we left with 2-point DFT.
This algorithm is called Decimation-in-time because the sequence x(n)
is often splitted into smaller sub sequences.
What are the differences and similarities between DIF
and DIT algorithms?
Differences:
For DIT, the input is bit reversal while the output is in natural order,
whereas for DIF, the input is in natural order while the output is bit
reversed.
The DIF butterfly is slightly different from the DIT butterfly, the
difference being that the complex multiplication takes place after the
add-subtract operation in DIF. Similarities: Both algorithms require
same number of operations to compute the DFT. Bot algorithms can be
done in place and both need to perform bit reversal at some place
during the computation.
24. What are the applications of FFT algorithms?
Linear filtering
Correlation
Spectrum analysis
What is a decimation-in-frequency algorithm?
In this the output sequence X (K) is divided into two N/2 point
sequences and each N/2 point sequences are in turn divided into two
N/4 point sequences.
Distinguish between DFT and DTFT.
S.No DFT DTFT
1. Obtained by performing Sampling is performed only
sampling operation in both in time domain
the time and frequency
domains.
2. Discrete frequency spectrum Continuous function of

Distinguish between Fourier series and Fourier transform.

S.No Fourier Series Fourier transform
1. Gives the harmonic content Gives the frequency
of a periodic time function information for an aperiodic
signal.
2. Discrete frequency spectrum Continuous frequency
spectrum
 UNIT-IV - DESIGN OF DEGITAL FILTER

Define IIR filter?

IIR filter has Infinite Impulse Response.
What are the various methods to design IIR filters?
Approximation of derivatives
Impulse invariance
Bilinear transformation.
Which of the methods do you prefer for designing IIR filters?
Why? Bilinear transformation is best method to design IIR filter, since
there is no aliasing in it.
What is the main problem of bilinear transformation?
Frequency warping or nonlinear relationship is the main
problem of bilinear transformation.
What is prewarping?
Prewarping is the method of introducing nonlinearly in frequency
relationship to compensate warping effect.
State the frequency relationship in bilinear transformation?
= 2 tan (w/2) T
Where the j axis of s-plane is mapped in z-plane in
bilinear transformation?
The j axis of s-plane is mapped on the unit circle in z-
plane in bilinear transformation
Where left hand side and right hand side are mapped in z-plane
in bilinear transformation?
Left hand side -- Inside unit circle Right hand side Outside unit circle
What is the frequency response of Butterworth filter?
Butterworth filter has monotonically reducing frequency response.
Which filter approximation has ripples in its response?
Chebyshev approximation has ripples in its pass band or stop band.
Can IIR filter be designed without analog filters?
Yes. IIR filter can be designed using pole-zero plot without analog filters
What is the advantage of designing IIR Filters using pole-zero plots?
The frequency response can be located exactly with the help of poles and zeros.
Compare the digital and analog filter.
S.No Digital filter Analog filter
1. Operates on digital samples Operates on analog signals.
of the signal.
2. It is governed by linear It is governed by linear
difference equation. difference equation.
 3. It consists of adders, It consists of electrical
multipliers and delays components like resistors,
implemented in digital logic. capacitors and inductors.
4. In digital filters the filter In digital filters the
coefficients are designed to approximation problem is
satisfy the desired frequency solved to satisfy the desired
response. frequency response.

What are the advantages and disadvantages of digital

filters? Advantages of digital filters
High thermal stability due to absence of resistors, inductors and capacitors.
Increasing the length of the registers can enhance the
performance characteristics like accuracy, dynamic
range, stability and tolerance.
The digital filters are programmable.
Multiplexing and adaptive filtering are possible.
Disadvantages of digital filters
The bandwidth of the discrete signal is limited by the sampling frequency.
The performance of the digital filter depends on the
hardware used to implement the filter.
What is impulse invariant transformation?
The transformation of analog filter to digital filter without modifying
the impulse response of the filter is called impulse invariant
transformation.
Obtain the impulse response of digital filter to correspond to an
analog filter with impulse response ha(t) = 0.5 e-2t and with a
sampling rate of 1.0kHz using impulse invariant method.
How analog poles are mapped to digital poles in impulse
invariant transformation?
In impulse invariant transformation the mapping of analog to
digital poles are as follows,
The analog poles on the left half of s-plane are mapped into the
interior of unit circle in z-plane. The analog poles on the
imaginary axis of s-plane are mapped into the unit circle in the
z-plane.
The analog poles on the right half of s-plane are mapped into
the exterior of unit circle in z-plane.
What is the importance of poles in filter design?
The stability of a filter is related to the location of the poles. For a
stable analog filter the poles should lie on the left half of s-plane.
For a stable digital filter the poles should lie inside the unit circle in
the z-plane.
 Why an impulse invariant transformation is not considered to be
one-to- one?
In impulse invariant transformation any strip of width 2/T in the s-
plane for values of s-plane in the range (2k-1)/T < <(2k-1) /T is
mapped into the entire z-plane. The left half of each strip in s-plane is
mapped into the interior of unit circle in z- plane, right half of each
strip in s-plane is mapped into the exterior of unit circle in z-plane and
the imaginary axis of each strip in s-plane is mapped on the unit circle
in z-plane. Hence the impulse invariant transformation is many-to-one.
What is Bilinear transformation?
The bilinear transformation is conformal mapping that transforms the s-
plane to z- plane. In this mapping the imaginary axis of s-plane is
mapped into the unit circle in z-plane, The left half of s-plane is
mapped into interior of unit circle in z-plane and the right half of s-
plane is mapped into exterior of unit circle in z-plane. The Bilinear
mapping is a one-to-one mapping and it is accomplished when
How the order of the filter affects the frequency response of Butterworth filter.
The magnitude response of butterworth filter is shown in figure, from
which it can be observed that the magnitude response approaches the
ideal response as the order of the filter is increased.
Write the properties of Chebyshev type 1 filters.
The magnitude response is equiripple in the passband and
monotonic in the stopband.
The chebyshev type-1 filters are all pole designs.
The normalized magnitude function has a value of at the cutoff frequency
c.
The magnitude response approaches the ideal response as
the value of N increases.
Compare the Butterworth and Chebyshev Type-1 filters.
S.No Butterworth Chebyshev Type - 1

1. All pole design. All pole design

2. The poles lie on a circle in s- The poles lie on a ellipse in
plane s-plane.
3. The magnitude response is . The magnitude response is
maximally flat at the origin equiripple in passband and
and monotonically decreasing monotonically decreasing in
function of c.. the stopband.
4. . The normalized magnitude The normalized magnitude
response has a value of 1 / 2 response has a value of 1 /
at the cutoff frequency c. (1+2) at the cutoff
frequency c.
 5. Only few parameters has to A large number of
be calculated to determine the parameters has to be
transfer function. calculated to determine the
transfer function

What is FIR filters?

The specifications of the desired filter will be given in terms of ideal
frequency response Hd(w). The impulse response hd(n) of the desired
filter can be obtained by inverse fourier transform of Hd(w), which
consists of infinite samples. The filters designed by selecting finite
number of samples of impulse response are called FIR filters.
What are the different types of filters based on impulse response?
Based on impulse response the filters are of two types 1. IIR filter 2.
FIR filter The IIR filters are of recursive type, whereby the present
output sample depends on the present input, past input samples and
output samples. The FIR filters are of non recursive type, whereby the
present output sample depends on the present input, and previous
output samples.
What are the different types of filter based on frequency response?
The filters can be classified based on frequency response. They are I) Low pass filter ii) High
pass filter iii) Band pass filter iv) Band reject filter.
What are the techniques of designing FIR filters?
There are three well-known methods for designing FIR filters with
linear phase. These are 1) windows method 2) Frequency sampling
method 3) Optimal or minimax design.
State the condition for a digital filter to be causal and stable.
A digital filter is causal if its impulse response h(n) = 0 for n<0 A
digital filter is stable if its impulse response is absolutely summable,
What is the reason that FIR filter is always stable?
FIR filter is always stable because all its poles are at origin.
What are the properties of FIR filter?
FIR filter is always stable.
A realizable filter can always be obtained.
FIR filter has a linear phase response.
How phase distortion and delay distortions are introduced?
The phase distortion is introduced when the phase characteristics of
a filter is not linear within the desired frequency band. The delay
distortion is introduced when the delay is not constant within the
desired frequency range.
Write the steps involved in FIR filter design.
Choose the desired (ideal) frequency response Hd(w).
Take inverse fourier transform of Hd(w) to get hd(n).
Convert the infinite duration hd(n) to finite duration h(n).
Take Z-transform of h(n) to get the transfer function H(z) of the FIR filter.
 What are the advantages of FIR filters?
Linear phase FIR filter can be easily designed.
Efficient realization of FIR filter exist as both recursive and
nonrecursive structures.
FIR filters realized nonrecursively are always stable.
The roundoff noise can be made small in nonrecursive
realization of FIR filters.
What are the disadvantages of FIR filters?
The duration of impulse response should be large to realize
sharp cutoff filters.
The non-integral delay can lead to problems in some
signal processing applications.
What is the necessary and sufficient condition for the
linear phase characteristic of an FIR filter?
The necessary and sufficient condition for the linear phase
characteristic of an FIR filter is that the phase function should be a
linear function of w, which in turn requires constant phase and group
delay.

What are the conditions to be satisfied for constant phase delay

in linear phase FIR filters?
The conditions for constant phase delay ARE Phase delay, = (N-1)/2 (i.e., phase delay is
constant) Impulse response, h(n) = -h(N-1-n) (i.e., impulse response is antisymmetric)
How constant group delay & phase delay is achieved in linear
phase FIR filters?
The following conditions have to be satisfied to achieve constant
group delay & phase delay. Phase delay, = (N-1)/2 (i.e., phase delay
is constant) Group delay,
= /2 (i.e., group delay is constant) Impulse response, h(n) =
-h(N-1-n) (i.e., impulse response is antisymmetric)
What are the possible types of impulse response for linear
phase FIR filters?
There are four types of impulse response for linear phase FIR filters
Symmetric impulse response when N is odd.
Symmetric impulse response when N is even.
Antisymmetric impulse response when N is odd.
Antisymmetric impulse response when N is even.
List the well-known design techniques of linear phase FIR filters.
There are three well-known design techniques of linear phase FIR filters. They are
Fourier series method and window method
Frequency sampling method.
Optimal filter design methods.
 What is Gibbs phenomenon (or Gibbs Oscillation)?
In FIR filter design by Fourier series method the infinite duration
impulse response is truncated to finite duration impulse response. The
abrupt truncation of impulse response introduces oscillations in the
passband and stopband. This effect is known as Gibbs phenomenon
(or Gibbs Oscillation).
When cascade form realization is preferred in FIR filters?
The cascade form realization is preferred when complex zeros
with absolute magnitude less than one.
What are the desirable characteristics of the frequency response of
window function?
The desirable characteristics of the frequency response of window function are
The width of the mainlobe should be small and it should
contain as much of the total energy as possible.
The sidelobes should decrease in energy rapidly as w tends to .
Write the procedure for designing FIR filter using frequency-
sampling method.
Choose the desired (ideal) frequency response Hd(w).
Take N-samples of Hd(w) to generate the sequence
Take inverse DFT of to get the impulse response h(n).
The transfer function H(z) of the filter is obtained by taking z-
transform of impulse response.
What are the drawback in FIR filter design using windows and
frequency sampling method? How it is overcome?
The FIR filter design using windows and frequency sampling method
does not have Precise control over the critical frequencies such as wp
and ws. This drawback can
be overcome by designing FIR filter using Chebyshev approximation technique.In this technique
an error function is used to approximate the ideal frequency response, in order to satisfy the
desired specifications.
Write the characteristic features of rectangular window.
The mainlobe width is equal to 4/N.
The maximum sidelobe magnitude is 13dB.
The sidelobe magnitude does not decrease significantly with increasing w.
List the features of FIR filter designed using rectangular window.
The width of the transition region is related to the width of the
mainlobe of window spectrum.
Gibbs oscillations are noticed in the passband and stopband.
The attenuation in the stopband is constant and cannot be varied.
Why Gibbs oscillations are developed in rectangular window
and how it can be eliminated or reduced?
The Gibbs oscillations in rectangular window are due to the sharp
transitions from 1 to 0 at the edges of window sequence. These
oscillations can be eliminated or reduced by replacing the sharp
 transition by gradual transition. This is the motivation for development
of triangular and cosine windows.
List the characteristics of FIR filters designed using windows.
The width of the transition band depends on the type of window.
The width of the transition band can be made narrow by
increasing the value of N where N is the length of the window
sequence.
The attenuation in the stop band is fixed for a given
window,except in case of Kaiser window where it is variable.
Compare the rectangular window and hanning window.

Rectangular window Hanning Window

i) The width of mainlobe in window i)The width of mainlobe in
spectrum is 4/N window spectrum is 8/N
ii) The maximum sidelobe ii) The maximum sidelobe
magnitude in window spectrum is magnitude in window spectrum
13dB. is 31dB.
iii) In window spectrum the sidelobe iii) In window spectrum the
magnitude slightly decreases with sidelobe magnitude decreases
increasing w. with increasing w.
iv) In FIR filter designed using iv) In FIR filter designed using
rectangular window the minimum hanning window the minimum
stopband attenuation is 22dB. stopband attenuation is 44dB.

Compare the rectangular window and hamming window.

Rectangular window Hamming Window

i) The width of mainlobe in i)The width of mainlobe in
window spectrum is 4/N window spectrum is 8/N
ii) The maximum sidelobe ii) The maximum sidelobe
magnitude in window magnitude in window
spectrum is 13dB. spectrum is 41dB.
iii) In window spectrum the iii) In window spectrum
sidelobe magnitude slightly the sidelobe magnitude
decreases with increasing w. remains constant.
iv) In FIR filter designed iv) In FIR filter designed
using rectangular window the using hamming window
minimum stopband the minimum stopband
attenuation is 22dB. attenuation is 44dB.

Write the characteristic features of hanning window spectrum.

The mainlobe width is equal to 8/N.
The maximum sidelobe magnitude is 41dB.
The sidelobe magnitude remains constant for increasing w.
 What is the mathematical problem involved in the design of
window function?
The mathematical problem involved in the design of window
function(or sequence) is that of finding a time-limited function whose
Fourier Transform best approximates a band limited function. The
approximation should be such that the maximum energy is confined to
mainlobe for a given peak sidelobe amplitude.
List the desirable features of Kaiser Window spectrum.
The width of the mainlobe and the peak sidelobe are variable.
The parameter in the Kaiser Window function is an
independent variable that can be varied to control the sidelobe
levels with respect to mainlobe peak.
The width of the mainlobe in the window spectrum can be
varied by varying the length N of the window sequence.
Compare the hamming window and Kaiser window.

Hamming Window Kaiser Window

i)The width of main lobe in i) The width of main lobe in
window spectrum is 8/N window spectrum depends on
the values of & N.
ii) The maximum sidelobe ii) The maximum side lobe
magnitude in window spectrum magnitude with respect to peak
is 41dB. of main lobe is variable using
the parameter .
iii) In window spectrum the side iii) In window spectrum the side
lobe magnitude remains lobe magnitude decreases with
constant. increasing w.
iv) In FIR filter designed using iv) In FIR filter designed using
hamming window the minimum Kaiser window the minimum
stop band attenuation is 44dB. . stop band attenuation is variable
and depends on the value of .

UNIT V - DIGITAL SIGNAL PROCESSOR

Write short notes on general purpose DSP processors

General-purpose digital signal processors are basically high speed
microprocessors with hard ware architecture and instruction set
optimized for DSP operations. These processors make extensive use of
parallelism, Harvard architecture, pipelining and dedicated hardware
whenever possible to perform time consuming operations .
Write notes on special purpose DSP processors.
There are two types of special; purpose hardware.
Hardware designed for efficient execution of specific DSP
algorithms such as digital filter, FFT.
 Hardware designed for specific applications, for example
telecommunication, digital audio.
Briefly explain about Harvard architecture.
The principal feature of Harvard architecture is that the program and
the data memories lie in two separate spaces, permitting full overlap of
instruction fetch and execution. Typically these types of instructions
would involve their distinct type.
Instruction fetch
Instruction decode
Instruction execute
Briefly explain about multiplier accumulator. The way to
implement the correlation and convolution is array multiplication
Method. For getting
such as digital filter, FFT.
(ii) Hardware designed for specific applications, for example
telecommunication, digital audio.
What are the types of MAC is available? There are two types MACS available
Dedicated & integrated
Separate multiplier and integrated unit
What is meant by pipeline technique?
The pipeline technique is used to allow overall instruction
executions to overlap. That is where all four phases operate in
parallel. By adapting this technique, execution speed is increased.
What are four phases available in pipeline technique?
The four phases are
Fetch
D
ec
od
e
(iii
)R
ea
d
(iv) Execution
8. In a non-pipeline machine, the instruction fetch, decode and execute take 30 ns, 45 ns
and 25 ns respectively. Determine the increase in throughput if the instruction were
pipelined. Assume a 5ns pipeline overhead in each stage and ignore other delays. The average
instruction time is = 30 ns+45 ns + 25 ns = 100 ns Each instruction has been completed in three
cycles = 45 ns * 3 = 135ns Throughput of the machine = The average instruction time/Number of
M/C per instruction = 100/135 = 0.7407 But in the case of pipeline machine, the clock speed is
determined by the speed of the slowest stage plus overheads. In our case is = 45 ns + 5 ns =50 ns
The respective throughput is = 100/50 = 2.00 The amount of speed up the operation is = 135/50
= 2.7 times
 9. Assume a memory access time of 150 ns, multiplication time of
100 ns, addition time of 100 ns and overhead of 10 ns at each pipe
stage. Determine the throughput of MAC After getting successive
addition and multiplications The total time delay is 150 + 100 + 100 + 5
= 355 ns System throughput is = 1/355 ns. 10.Write down the name of
the addressing modes. Direct addressing. Indirect addressing. Bit-
reversed addressing
Immediate addressing.
Short immediate addressing.
Long immediate
addressing.
Circular
addressing.
11.What are the instructions used for block transfer in C5X
Processors? The BLDD, BLDP and BLPD instructions use the BMAR
to point at the source or destination space of a block move. The MADD
and MADS also use the BMAR to address an operand in program
memory for a multiply accumulator operation 12.Briefly explain
about the dedicated register addressing modes. The dedicated-
registered addressing mode operates like the long immediate
addressing modes, except that the address comes from one of two
special-purpose memory- mapped registers in the CPU: the block move
address register (BMAR) and the dynamic bit manipulation register
(DBMR). The advantage of this addressing mode is that the address of
the block of memory to be acted upon can be changed during execution
of the program.
Briefly explain about bit-reversed addressing mode?
In the bit-reversed addressing mode, INDX specifies one-half the size
of the FFT. The value contained in the current AR must be equal to 2n-
1, where n is an integer, and the FFT size is 2n. An auxiliary register
points to the physical location of a data value. When we add INDX t the
current AR using bit reversed addressing, addresses are generated in a
bit-reversed fashion. Assume that the auxiliary registers are eight bits
long, that AR2 represents the base address of the data in memory (0110
00002), and that INDX contains the value 0000 10002.
Briefly explain about circular addressing mode.
Many algorithms such as convolution, correlation, and finite
impulse response (FIR) filters can use circular buffers in memory to
implement a sliding window; which contains the most recent data
to be processed. The C5x supports two concurrent circular buffer
operating via the ARs. The following five memory- mapped
registers control the circular buffer operation.
CBSR1- Circular buffer 1 start register.
CBSR2- Circular buffer 2 start Register,
 CBER1- Circular buffer 1 end register
CBER2- Circular buffer 2 end register
CBCR - Circular buffer control register.
15. Write the name of various part of C5X hardware.
Central arithmetic logic unit (CALU)
Parallel logic unit (PLU)
Auxiliary register arithmetic unit (ARAU)
Memory-mapped registers.
Program controller.
16. Write short notes about arithmetic logic unit and accumulator.
The 32-bit general-purpose ALU and ACC implement a wide range of
arithmetic and logical functions, the majority of which execute in a
single clock cycle. Once an operation is performed in the ALU, the
result is transferred to the ACC, where additional operations, such as
shifting, can occur. Data that is input to the ALU can be scaled by the
prescaler. The following steps occur in the implementation of a typical
ALU instruction:
Data is fetched from memory on the data bus,
Data is passed through the prescaler and the ALU, where the
arithmetic is performed, and
The result is moved into the ACC.
The ALU operates on 16-bit words taken from data memory or derived
from immediate instructions. In addition to the usual arithmetic
instructions, the ALU can perform Boolean operations, thereby
facilitating the bit manipulation ability required of high-speed
controller. One input to the ALU is always supplied by the ACC. The
other input can be transferred from the PREG of the multiplier, the
ACCB, or the output of the prescaler. After the ALU has performed the
arithmetic or logical operation, the result is stored in the ACC.
Write short notes about parallel logic unit.
The parallel logic unit (PLU) can directly set, clear, test, or toggle
multiple bits in control/status register pr any data memory location. The
PLU provides a direct logic operation path to data memory values
without affecting the contents of the ACC or the PREG.
What is meant by auxiliary register file?
The auxiliary register file contains eight memory-mapped auxiliary
registers (AR0- AR7), which can be used for indirect addressing of the
data memory or for temporary data storage. Indirect auxiliary register
addressing allows placement of the data memory address of an
instruction operand into one of the AR. The ARs are pointed to by a 3-
bit auxiliary register pointer (ARP) that is loaded with a value from 0-
7, designating AR0-AR7, respectively.
 Write short notes about circular registers in C5X.
The C5x devices support two concurrent circular buffers operating in
conjunction with user-specified auxiliary register. Two 16-bit circular
buffer start registers (CBSR1 and CBSR2) indicate the address where
the circular buffer starts. Two 16- bit circular buffer end registers
(CBER1 and CBER2) indicate the address where the circular buffer
ends. The 16-bit circular buffer control register (CBCR) controls the
operation of these circular buffers and identifies the auxiliary registers
to be used.
What are the factors that influence selection of DSPs?
Architectural features
Execution speed
Type of arithmetic
Word length
What are the classification digital signal processors?
The digital signal processors are classified as
General purpose digital signal processors.
Special purpose digital signal processors.
What are the applications of PDSPs?
Digital cell phones, automated inspection, voicemail, motor control,
video conferencing, noise cancellation, medical imaging, speech
synthesis, satellite communication etc.
Give some examples for fixed point DSPs.
TM32OC50, TMS320C54, TMS320C55, ADSP-219x, ADSP-219xx..
Give some example for floating point DSPs?
TMS320C3x, TMS320C67x, ADSP-21xxx
What is pipelining?
Pipelining a processor means breaking down its instruction into a series
of discrete pipeline stages which can be completed in sequence by
specialized hardware.
What is pipeline depth?
The number of pipeline stages is referred to as the pipeline depth.
27. What are the advantages of VLIW architecture?
Advantages of VLIW architecture
Increased performance
Better compiler targets
Potentially easier to program
Potentially scalable
Can add more execution units; allow more instructions to be packed
into the VLIW instruction.
What are the disadvantages of VLIW architecture?
Disadvantages of VLIW
architecture
New kind of programmer/compiler complexity
Program must keep track of instruction scheduling
 Increased memory use
High power consumption
What is the pipeline depth of TMS320C50 and TMS320C54x?
TMS320C50 4
TMS320C54x 6
What are the different buses of TMS320C5x?
The C5x architecture has four buses
Program bus (PB)
Program address bus (PAB)
Data read bus (DB)
Data read address bus (DAB)
Give the functions of program bus?
The program bus carries the instruction code and immediate operands from program memory to
the CPU.
Give the functions of program address bus?
The program address bus provides address to program memory space
for both read and write.
Give the functions of data read bus?
The data read bus interconnects various elements of the CPU to data memory space.
Give the functions of data read address bus?
The data read address bus provides the address to access the data memory space.
What are the different stages in pipelining?
The fetch phase
The decode phase
Memory read phase
The execute phase
List the various registers used with ARAU.
Eight auxiliary registers
(AR0 AR7) Auxiliary
register pointer (ARP)
Unsigned 16-bit ALU
What are the elements that the control processing unit of C5x
consists of the central
processing unit consists of the following elements:
Central arithmetic logic unit (CALU)
Parallel logic unit (PLU)
Auxiliary register arithmetic unit (ARAU)
Memory mapped registers
Program controller
What is the function of parallel logic unit?
The parallel logic unit is a second logic unit that executes logic
operations on data without affecting the contents of accumulator.
List the on chip peripherals in C5x.
The on-chip peripherals interfaces connected to the C5x CPU include
 Clock generator
Hardware timer
Software programmable wait state generators
General
purpose I/O
pins aa.
Parallel I/O
ports
bb. Serial
port
interface
cc.
Buffered
serial port
dd. Time-division multiplexed
(TDM) serial port ee. Host port
interface
ff. User unmask able interrupts
What are the arithmetic instructions of C5x?
ADD, ADDB, ADDC, SUB, SUBB, MPY, MPYU
40. What are the shift
instructions? ROR,
ROL, ROLB, RORB,
BSAR.
What are the general purpose I/O pins?
Branch control input (BIO)
External flag (XF)
What are the logical instructions of C5x?
AND, ANDB, OR, ORB, XOR, XORB
What are load/store instructions?
LACB, LACC, LACL, LAMM, LAR, SACB, SACH, SACL, SAR, SAMM.
Mention the addressing modes available in TMS320C5X processor?
Direct addressing mode
Indirect addressing mode
Circular addressing mode
Immediate addressing
Register addressing
Memory mapped register addressing
Give the features of DSPs?
Architectural features
Execution speed
Type of arithmetic
Word length
What is function of NOP instruction?
NOP- No operation

Perform no operation.
What is function of ZAC instruction?
ZAC Zero accumulator
Clear the contents of accumulator to zero.
Give the function of BIT instruction.
BIT Test bit Copy the specified bit of the data memory value to the TC bit in ST1.
49. Mention the function of
B instruction. B Branch
conditionally.
Branch to the specified program memory address. Modify the current
AR and ARP as specified.
What is use of ADD instruction?
ADD Add to accumulator with shift.
Add the content of addressed data memory location or an immediate
value of accumulator, if a shift is specified, left-shift the data before the
add. During shifting, low order bits are Zero-filled, and high-order bits
are sign extended if SXM=1.
Give the advantages of DSPs?
Architectural features, Execution speed, Type of arithmetic, Word length.
Give the applications of DSP Processors?
Digital cell phones, automated inspection, voicemail, motor control,
video conferencing, noise cancellation, medical imaging, speech
synthesis, satellite communication etc.
IMPORTANT QUESTIONS

UNIT I INTRODUCTION
PART A
What is signal and Signal processing?
List the advantages of Digital Signal processing.
Mention few applications of Digital Signal processing.
Classify discrete time signals.
What are Energy and Power signals?
What do you mean by periodic and Aperiodic signals?
When a signal is said to be symmetric and Anti symmetric?
What are deterministic and random signals?
What are the elementary signals?
What are the different types of representation of discrete time signals?
Draw the basic block diagram of digital signal processing of analog signals.
What are the basic time domain operations of discrete time signal?
What is the significance of unit sample response of a system?
Classify discrete time systems.
Whether the system defined by the impulse response h(n) = 2n u(-n) +
2-n u(n) is causal ?
Justify your answer.
Compute the energy of the signal x(n) = 2-n u(n)
 Compute the energy of the signal x(n) = (0.5)n u(n)
Define convolution.
List out the properties of convolution.
What do you mean by BIBO stable?
What is linear time invariant system?
Compute the convolution of x(n) = {1,2,1,-1} and h(n) = {1,2,1,-1} using

tabulation method.
Check whether the system defined by h (n) = [5 (1/2)n + 4 (1/3)n ] u(n) is stable.
Differentiate between analog, discrete, quantized and digital signals.
Differentiate between analog
and digital signals.
Differentiate between one dimensional and two dimensional signal with
an example for
each.
Name any four elementary time domain operations for discrete time signals.
For the signal f (t) = 5 cos (5000t) + sin2 (3000t), determine the
minimum sampling rate
for recovery without aliasing.
1 = 5000 = 2F1 2 =
3000 = 2F2 F1 = 2.5
kHz F2=1.5 kHz
Fmax = 2.5 kHz
According to sampling theorem
Fs 2 Fmax So, Fs = 5 kHz

For the signal f (t) = cos2 (4000t) + 2 sin (6000t), determine the
minimum sampling rate
for recovery without aliasing.
1 = 4000 = 2F1 2 =
6000 = 2F2 F1 = 2 kHz
F2 =3 kHz
Fmax = 3 kHz
According to sampling theorem
Fs 2 Fmax So, Fs = 6 kHz
What is sampling?
State sampling theorem and what is Nyquist frequency?
Sampling theorem - Fs 2 Fmax ,Nyquist frequency or Nyquist rate FN = 2 Fmax
What is known as aliasing?
Define the criteria to perform sampling process without aliasing.
Differentiate between anti aliasing and anti imaging filters.
What are the effects of aliasing?
What is anti aliasing filter? What is the need for it?
Draw the basic block diagram of a digital processing of an analog signal.
 Draw the basic structure of linear constant difference equation.
What is sample and Hold circuit?
If a minimum signal to noise ratio (SQR) of 33 dB is desired, how many
bits per code word
are required in a linearly
quantized system? SQR =1.76
+6.02b, SQR given is 33 Db
1.76+6.02b = 33 dB
6.02 b = 31.24
b = 5.18 = 6 bits
Determine the number of bits required in computing the DFT of a 1024
point sequence
with an SQR of 30 dB
The size of the sequence is N = 1024 = 210
SQR is X2 / q2 = 22b / N2 10 log [X2 / q2] = 10
log [22b / N2] N2 = 22010 log [X2/ q2] = 10 log
[22b / 220]
SNR = 10 log [22b - 20] = 30 dB 3(2b-20) =30 ,b=15 bits is the
precision for both multiplication and addition
Determine the system described by the equation y (n) = n x (n) is linear or not.
What is the total energy of the discrete time signal x(n) which takes the
value of unity at n
=-1,0,1?
45. Draw the signal x(n) = u(n) u(n-3)
PART - B
For each of the following systems, determine whether the system is
static stable, causal,
linear and time invariant
y(n) = e x(n)
y(n) = ax(n)
+b c. y(n) =
()

d. y(n) = +1 ( )
e.y(n) = n x2(n) f. y(n) = x(-n+2)
y(n) = nx(n)
y(n) = x(n) +C
i. y(n) = x(n) x(n-1)
y(n) = x(-n)
y(n) = x(n) where x(n) = [x(n+1) x(n)]
y(n) = g(n) x(n)
y(n) = x(n2)
y(n) = x2(n)
y(n) = cos x(n)
y(n) = x(n) cos 0n
 Compute the linear convolution of h(n) = {1,2,1} and x(n) ={1,-3,0,2,2}
Explain the concept of Energy and Power signals and determine
whether the following are
energy or
power
signals a.
x(n) =
(1/3)n u(n)
b. x(n) = sin ( / 4)n
The unit sample response h(n) of a system is represented by
h (n) = n2u(n+1) 3 u(n) +2n u(n-1) for -5 n 5. Plot the unit sample response.
State and prove sampling theorem. How do you recover continuous
signals from its samples? Discuss the various parameters involved in
sampling and reconstruction.
What is the input x(n) that will generate an output sequence y(n) =
{1,5,10,11,8,4,1} for a system with impulse response h(n) = {1,2,1}.
Check whether the system defined by h(n) = [5 (1/2)n +4(1/3)n] u(n) is stable?
Explain the analog to digital conversion process and reconstruction of
analog signal from digital signal.
What are the advantages and disadvantages of digital signal processing
compared with analog signal processing?
Classify and explain different types of signals.
Explain the various elementary discrete time signals.
Explain the different types of mathematical operations that can be
performed on a discrete time signal.
Explain the different types of representation of discrete time signals.
Determine whether the systems having the following impulse responses
are causal and stable
h(n) = 2n u(-n)
h(n) = sin n / 2
h(n) = sin n + (n)
h(n) = e2n u(n-1)
For the given discrete
time signal x (n) = {
-0.5,0.5, for n = -2, -1
1, n = 0
3, 2, 0.4 n > 0}
 Sketch the following a) x (n-3), b) x (3-n) c) x (2n) d) x (n/2) e) [x (n) + x (-n)] / 2
Find the convolution of x (n) = an u (n), a < 1 with h(n) = 1for 0 n N-1
Draw the analog, discrete, quantized and digital signal with an example.
Explain the properties of linearity and stability of discrete time systems
with examples.
The impulse response of a linear time invariant system is h (n) = {1, 2, 1,-1}.

Determine the response of the system to the input signal x (n) = {1, 2, 3, 1}.

Determine whether or not each of the following signals are periodic.
If a signal is Periodic specify its fundamental time period.
x(t) = 2 cos 3 t
x(t) = sin 15 t + sin 20 t
x(n) = 5 sin 2n
x(n) = cos (n/8) cos (n / 8)
*******************************************************************
***
UNIT - II DISCRETE TIME SYSTEM ANALYSIS
PART - A
Define Z-transform
Define ROC in Z-transform
Determine Z-transform of the sequence x(n)= {2,1,-1,0, 3}

Determine Z-transform of x(n) = - 0.5 u (-n-1)
Find Z- transform of x(n) = - bn u(-n-1) and its ROC
Find Z- transform of x(n) = an u(n) and its ROC
What are the properties of ROC in Z- transform?
State the initial value theorem of Z- transforms.
State the final value theorem of Z- transforms.
Obtain the inverse Z transform of X(Z) = log ( 1 + Z-1) for Z < 1
Obtain the inverse Z transform of X(Z) = log ( 1-2z) for Z < 1/2
What is the condition for stability in Z-domain?
Mention the basic factors that affect thr ROC of z- transform.
Find the z- transform of a digita limpulse signal and digital step signal
PART - B
Determine the Z-transform and ROC of
x(n) = rn cos n u(n)
x(n) = n2an u(n)
c. x(n) = -1/3 (-1/4)n u(n) 4/3 (2)n u(-n-1)
d. x(n) = an u(n) + bn u(n) + cn u(-n-1) , |a | < | b| < |c|
x(n) = cos n u(n)
x(n) = sin 0n . u(n)
x(n) = an u(n)
 h. x(n) = [ 3 (2n) 4 (3n)] u(n)
Find the inverse Z-
transform of a. X(z)
= z (z+1) / (z-0.5)3
b. X(z) = 1+3z-1 / 1 + 3z-1 + 2z-2
c. H(z) = 1 / [1 - 3z-1 + 0.5z-2] |z | > 1
d. X(z) = [z (z2- 4z +5)] / [(z-3) (z-2) ( z-1)] for ROC |2 | < | z| < |3|, |z| > 3, |z|< 1
Determine the system function and pole zero pattern for the system
described by difference equation y (n) -0.6 y (n-1) +0.5 y (n-2) = x (n)
0.7 x (n-2)
Determine the pole zero plot for the system described by the
difference equation y (n) 3/4 y (n-1) +1/8 y (n-2) = x(n)
x(n-1)
Explain the properties of Z-transform.
Perform the convolution of the following two sequences using Z-
transforms. x(n) = 0.2n u(n) and h(n) = (0.3)n u(n)
A causal LTI system has an impulse response h(n) for which the Z-
transform is given by H(z) = (1+z-1) / [(1 + 1/2z-1) (1 + 1/4z-1).
What is the ROC of H (z)? Is the system stable? Find the Z-transform
X (z) of an input x (n) that will produce the output y(n) = -1/3 (-1/4)n
u(n) 4/3 (2)n u(-n-1).Find the impulse response
h (n) of the system.
Solve the difference equation y(n) -3y(n-1) 4y(n-2) = 0, n 0 ,y(-1) = 5
Compute the response of the system y(n) = 0.7 y(n-1)-0.12y(n-2)
+x(n-1)+ x (n-2)to the input x(n) = n u(n)
What is ROC? Explain with an example.
A causal LTI IIR digital filter is characterized by a constant co-efficient
difference equation
given by y(n) = x(n-1)-1.2x(n-2)+x(n-3)+1.3 y(n-1) 1.04 y(n-
2)+0.222y(n- 3),obtain its
transfer function.
Determine the system function and impulse response of the system
described by the
difference equation y(n) = x(n) +2x(n-1)- 4x(n-2) + x(n-3)
Solve the difference equation y(n) - 4y(n-1) - +4 y(n-2) = x(n) x(n-1)
with the initial
condition y(-1) = y(-2) = 1
Find the impulse response of the system described by the difference
equation y(n) = 0.7
y(n-1) -0.1 y(n-2) +2 x(n) x(n-2)
Determine the z- transform and ROC of the signal x (n) = [3 (2n) 4 (3n)] u(n).
State and prove convolution theorem in z-transform.
17. Given x(n) = (n) + 2 (n-1) and y(n) = 3 (n+1) + (n)- (n-1).
Find x(n) * y(n) and X(z).Y(z).
 UNIT -3 DISCRETE TIME ANALYSIS
PART A
Compute the DFT of x(n) = (n no)
State and prove the Parsevals relation of DFT.
What do you mean by the term bit reversal as applied to DFT?
Define discrete Fourier series.
Draw the basic butterfly diagram of DIF FFT algorithm.
Compute the DFT of x(n) = an
State the time shifting and frequency shifting properties of DFT.
What is twiddle factor? What are its properties?
Draw the basic butterfly diagram of DIT FFT algorithm.
Determine the 3 point circular convolution of x(n) = {1,2,3} and h(n) =
{0.5,0,1}
If an N-point sequence x(n) has N-point DFT of X(K) then what is the
DFT of the following
x*(n) ii) x*(N-n) iii) x((n-l))N iv) x(n) ej2ln/N
What is FFT and what are its advantages?
Distinguish between DFT and DTFT (Fourier transform)
What is the basic operation of DIT FFT algorithm?
What is zero padding? What are its uses?
State and prove Parsevals relation for DFT.
Draw the flow graph of radix 2 DIF - FFT algorithm for N= 4
What do you mean by bit reversal in DFT?
Write the periodicity and symmetry property of twiddle factor.
Give the relationship between z-domain and frequency domain.
Distinguish between discrete Fourier series and discrete Fourier transform.
What is the relationship between Fourier series co-efficient of a
periodic sequence and DFT?
What is the circular frequency shifting property of DFT?
Establish the relation between DFT and z-transform.
Define DFT pair.
Define overshoot.
Define Gibbs phenomenon.
How many multiplications and additions are required to compute N-
point DFT using radix 2 FFT?
Perform circular convolution of the sequence using DFT and IDFT
technique x1(n) = {2, 1,2,1} x2 (n) = {0,1,2,3} (8)
Compute the DFT of the sequence x(n) = {1,1,1,1,1,1,0,0} (8)
From the first principles obtain the signal flow graph for computing 8
point DFT using
radix-2 DIT FFT algorithm. Using the above compute the DFT of sequence x(n) =
{0.5,0.5,0.5,0.5,0,0,0,0} (16)
State and prove the circular convolution property of DFT.Compute the
circular convolution of x(n) = {0,1,2,3,4} and h(n) = {0,1,0,0,0} (8)
 Perform circular convolution of the sequence using DFT and IDFT
technique x1(n) = {1,1,2,1} x2 (n) = {1,2,3,4} (8)
Compute the DFT of the sequence x(n) = {1,1,1,1,1,1,0,0} (8)
From the first principles obtain the signal flow graph for computing 8
point DFT using
radix-2 DIF-FFT algorithm. An 8 point sequence is given by
x(n)={2,2,2,2,1,1,1,1} compute
its 8 point DFT of x(n) by radix-2 DIF-FFT (16)
Compute 5 point circular convolution of x1(n) = (n) + (n-1)- (n-2)
- (n-3) and x2(n) =
(n) (n-2)+ (n-4) (8)
Explain any five properties of DFT. (10)
Derive DIF FFT algorithm. Draw its basic butterfly structure and compute the DFT
x(n) = (-
1)n using radix 2 DIF FFT algorithm. (16)
Perform circular convolution of the sequence using DFT and IDFT
technique x1(n) = {0,1,2,3} x2 (n) = {1,0,0,1} ( 8 )
Compute the DFT of the sequence x (n) = 1/3 (n) 1/3 (n-1) +1/3
(n -2) (6)
From the first principles obtain the signal flow graph for computing 8
point DFT using
radix-2 DIT - FFT algorithm. Using the above compute the DFT of
sequence x(n) = 2 sin n
/ 4 for 0 n 7 (16)
What is circular convolution? Explain the circular convolution property
of DFT and
compute the circular convolution of the sequence
x(n)=(2,1,0,1,0) with itself (8)
Perform circular convolution of the sequence using DFT and IDFT
technique x1(n) = {0,1,2,3} x2 (n) = {1,0,0,1} ( 8 )
i) Compute the DFT of the sequence x (n) = (-1)n (4)
What are the differences and similarities between DIT FFT and
DIF FFT algorithms? (4)
From the first principles obtain the signal flow graph for computing 8
point DFT using
radix-2 DIT - FFT algorithm. Using the above compute the DFT of
sequence x(n) = cos n / 4
for 0 n 7 (16)
Compute 4-point DFT of the sequence x (n) = (0, 1, 2, 3) (6)
Compute 4-point DFT of the sequence x (n) = (1, 0, 0, 1) (6)
Explain the procedure for finding IDFT using FFT algorithm (6)
Compute the output using 8 point DIT FFT algorithm for the
sequence x(n) = {1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8} (16)
Determine the 8-point DFT of the sequence x(n) = {0,0,1,1,1,0,0,0}
Find the circular convolution of x(n) = 1,2,3,4} and h(n) = {4,3,2,1}
 Determine the 8 point DFT of the signal x(n) = {1,1,1,1,1,1,0,0}.
Sketch its magnitude and phase.
*******************************************************************
**
UNIT - IV DESIGN OF DIGITAL
FILTERS PART A
An analog filter has a transfer function H(s) = 1 / s+2. Using impulse
invariance method, obtain pole location for the corresponding digital
filter with T = 0.1s.
What is frequency warping in bilinear transformation?
If the impulse response of the symmetric linear phase FIR filter of
length 5 is h (n) = {2,3,0,x,y}, find the values of x and y.
What is prewarping? Why is it needed?
Find the digital transfer function H (z) by using impulse invariance method for the analog
transfer function H(s) = 1 / s+2.
What are the different structures of realization of FIR and IIR filters?
What are the methods used to transform analog to digital filters?
State the condition for linear phase in FIR filters for symmetric and anti
symmetric
response.
Draw a causal FIR filter structure for length M= 5.
What is bilinear transformation? What are its advantages?
Write the equation of Barlett (or) triangular and Hamming window.
Write the equation of Rectangular and Hanning window.
Write the equation of Blackman and Kaiser window.
Write the expression for location of poles of normalized Butter
worth filter. Pk = c ej (N+2k +1) / 2N
Where k = 0, 1, . (N-1) and for a normalized filter c = 1 rad / sec
Write the expression for location of poles of normalized Chebyshev filter.
Draw the magnitude response of 3rd order Chebyshev filter.
Draw the magnitude response of 4th order Chebyshev filter.
Draw the basic FIR filter structure.
Draw the direct form I structure of IIR filter.
Draw the direct form II structure of IIR filter.
Draw the cascade form realization structure of IIR filter.
Draw the parallel form realization structure of IIR filter.
When cascade form realization structure is preferred in filters?
Distinguish between FIR and IIR filters.
Compare analog and digital filters.
Why FIR filters are always
stable? Because all its poles are
located at the origin.
State the condition for a digital filter to be causal and stable.
What are the desirable characteristics of windows?
 Give the magnitude function Butterworth filter. What is the effect of
varying the order of N
on magnitude and phase response?
List out the properties of Butterworth filter.
List out the properties of Chebyshev filter.
Give the Chebyshev filters transfer function and draw its magnitude response.
Give the equation for the order N and cut off frequency c of
Butterworth filter
Why impulse invariance method is not preferred in the design of IIR
filter other than low
pass filters?
What are the advantages and disadvantages FIR filters?
What are the advantages and disadvantages IIR filters?
What is canonic structure?
If the number of delays in the structure is equal to the order of the
difference equation or order of transfer function, then it is called
canonic form of realization.
Compare Butterworth and Chebyshev filters.
What are the desirable and undesirable features of FIR filters?
What are the design techniques of designing
FIR filters? Fourier series method
Windowing
technique
Frequency
sampling
method PART
B
With suitable examples, describe the realization of linear phase FIR filters (8)
Convert the following analog transfer function H(s) = (s+0.2) /
[(s+0.2)2 + 4] into equivalent
digital transfer function H (z) by using impulse invariance method
assuming T= 1 sec. (8)
Convert the following analog transfer function H(s) = 1 / (s+2) (s+4)
into equivalent digital
transfer function H (z) by using bilinear transformation with T = 0.5 sec.
Convert the following analog transfer function H(s) = (s+0.1) /
[(s+0.1)2 + 9] into equivalent
digital transfer function H (z) by using impulse invariance method
assuming T= 1 sec. (8)
Convert the following analog transfer function H(s) = 2/ (s+1) (s+3)
into equivalent digital
transfer function H (z) by using bilinear transformation with T =
0.1sec.Draw the diect form II realization of digital filter. (8)
Design a high pass filter of length 7 samples with cut off frequency of 2
rad / sec using Hamming window. Plot its magnitude and phase
response. (16)
 For the constraints
0.8 H() 1.0 ,
0 0.2
H() 0.2, 0.6

With T= 1 sec determine the system function H(z) for a Butterworth
filter using bilinear transformation. (16)
Describe the effects of quantization in IIR filter. Consider a first order
filter with difference equation y (n) = x (n) + 0.5 y (n-1).Assume that
the data register length is
3 bits plus a sign bit. The input x (n) = 0.875 (n). Explain the limit
cycle oscillations in the above filter, if quantization is preferred by
means of rounding and signed magnitude representation is used.
(16)
With a neat sketch explain the architecture of TMS 320 C54 processor. (16)
For the constraints
0.7 H() 1.0 ,
0 /2 H()
0.2, 3/4

With T= 1 sec, design a Butterworth filter. (16)
Explain the quantization effects in design of digital filters. (16)
Discuss about the window functions used in design of FIR filters (8)
Obtain the cascade and parallel realization of system described by
difference equation
y(n) = -0.1 y(n-1) + 0.2 y(n-2) + 3x(n) +3.6 x(n-1) + 0.6 x(n-2) (10)
Design a digital Butterworth filter satisfying the following constraints with T= 1 sec,
using Bilinear
transformation.
0.707 H ()
1.0, 0 /2 H
() 0.2, 3/4
(16)
Design a digital Chebyshev filter satisfying the following constraints
with T= 1 sec,
using Bilinear
transformation.
0.707 H ()
1.0, 0 /2 H
() 0.2, 3/4
(16)
Draw and explain cascade form structure for a 6th order FIR filter. (6)
Explain impulse invariance method of digital filter design. (10)
Derive an expression between s- domain and z- domain using bilinear
transformation.
Explain frequency warping. (10)
 Draw the structure for IIR filter in direct form I and II for the
following transfer Function
H (z) = (2 + 3 z-1) (4+ 2 z-1 +3 z-2) / (1+0.6 z-1) (1+ z-1+0.5 z-2) (10)
Design a filter with
Hd() = e-j2 - /4 /4
= 0 /4 Using a Hamming window with N= 7 (16)
Discuss about frequency transformations in detail. (8)
Design a LPF with
Hd() = e-j3 - 3/4 3/4
= 0 3/4 Using a Hamming window with N= 7 (16)
Using the bilinear transformation and a low pass analog Butterworth
prototype, design a low pass digital filter operating at a rate of 20 KHz
and having pass band extending to a 4 KHz with a maximum pass band
attenuation of 0.5 dB and stop band
starting at 5KHzwith a minimum stop band attenuation of 10 dB. (16)
Using the bilinear transformation and a low pass analog Chebyshev
type I prototype,
design a low pass digital filter operating at a rate of 20 KHz and having
pass band extending to a 4 KHz with a maximum pass band attenuation
of 0.5 dB and stop band starting at 5KHzwith a minimum stop band
attenuation of 10 dB. (16)
Obtain the cascade realization of linear phase FIR filter having system
function H(z) =
( 1+1/2 z-1 + z-2) (2 + z-1 +2z-2) using minimum number of multipliers.(8)
Design an ideal Hilbert transformer having
frequency response H(ej) = j for - 0
= -j for 0 for N=11, using i. rectangular window ii. Blackmann
window
Obtain the direct form I, direct form II, cascade and parallel form of
realization
for the system y(n) = -0.1 y9n-1) + 0.2 y(n-2) + 3 x(n) + 3.6 x (n-1) + 0.6 x(n-2)
Using Bilinear transformation and a low pass analog Butterworth prototype, design a low pass
digital filter operating at the rate of 20k Hz and having pass band extending to 4 kHz with
maximum pass band attenuation of 10 dB and stop band starting at 5 kHz with a minimum stop
band attenuation of 0.5 dB
Using Bilinear transformation and a low pass analog Chebyshev type I
prototype,
design a low pass digital filter operating at the rate of 20k Hz and
having pass band extending to 4 kHz with maximum pass band
attenuation of 10 dB and stop band starting at 5 kHz with a minimum
stop band attenuation of 0.5 dB
Design a low pass filter using Hamming window for N=7 for the
desired frequency
Response D () = ej3 for -3 / 4 3 / 4
= 0 for 3 / 4
Design an ideal differentiator for N=9 using Hanning and triangular window
 UNIT - V DSP HARDWARE
PART - A
Compare fixed point arithmetic and floating point arithmetic.
What is product quantization error or product round off error in DSP?
What are the quantization methods?
What is truncation and what is the error that arises due to truncation in
floating point numbers?
What is meant by rounding? Discuss its effects?
What are the two kinds of limit cycle oscillations in DSP?
Why is rounding preferred to truncation in realizing digital filters?
What are the 3 quantization errors due to finite word length registers in
digital filters?
List out the features of TMS 320 C54 processors.
What are the various interrupt types supported by TMS 320 C54?
Mention the function of program controller of DSP processor TMS 320 C54.
List the elements in program controller of TMS 320C54.
What do you mean by limit cycle oscillations?
What is pipelining? What is the pipeline depth of TMS 320 C54 processor?
What are the different buses of TMS 320 C54 processor?
What are quantization errors due to finite word length registers in digital filters?
Differentiate between Von Neumann and Harvard architecture.
Define limit cycle oscillations in recursive systems.
How to prevent overflow in digital filters?
PART B
Describe the function of on chip peripherals of TMS 320 C54 processor. (12)
What are the different buses of TMS 320 C54 processor? Give their functions. (4)
Explain the function of auxiliary registers in the indirect addressing
mode to point the data
memory location. (8)
Explain about the MAC unit. (8)
What is meant by instruction pipelining? Explain with an example how
pipelining increases through put efficiency. (8)
Explain the operation of TDM serial ports in P-DSPs (8)
Explain the characteristics of a limit cycle oscillation with respect to the
system described by the equation y (n) = 0.95 y (n-1) + x (n).Determine
the dead band of the filter. (10)
Draw the product quantization noise model of second order IIR filter. (6)
In a cascaded realization of the first order digital filter, the system
function of the individual section are H19z) = 1 / (1-0.9 z-1) and H2(z)
= 1 / (1-0.8z-1). Draw the product quantization noise model of the
system and determine the output noise power. (16)
Explain the statistical characterization of quantization effects in fixed
point realization of digital filter. (16)
 Give a detailed note on Direct memory Access controller in TMS 320
C54x processor.
Find the effect of quantization on the pole locations of the second order
IIR filter Given by H(z) = 1 / (1-0.5z-1) (1- 0.45 z-1) when it is realized
in direct form I and in cascade form. Assume a word length of 3 bits.
Determine the variance of the round off noise at the output of the two
cascade realizations of the filters with system functions H1 (z) = 1 / 1-
0.5 z-1 ,H2 (z) = 1 / 1- 0.25 z-1
Cascade I, H (z) = H1 (Z) H2 (z).
Cascade II, H (z) = H2 (z) H1 (z).
Question Paper Code: 11295

B.E./B.Tech. DEGREE EXAMINATION, APRIL/MAY 2011

Fifth Semester
Electrical and Electronics
Engineering
EC 2314 DIGITAL SIGNAL
PROCESSING
(Regulation 2008)

Time : Three hours

Maximum : 100 marks Answer ALL

questions

PART A (10 2 = 20 marks)

Define sampling theorem.

What is known as Aliasing?
What is meant by ROC?
Obtain the Discrete Fourier series coefficients of x(n ) = cos wn .
What is the relation between DFT and Z transform?
Draw the butterfly diagram for DITFFT.
What are the special features of FIR filters?
What is meant by prewarping?
Mention the features of DSP processor.
What is the condition for linear phase in FIR filters?

PART B (5 16 = 80 marks)

(a) (i) Check whether the following is linear, time invariant, casual and stable
y(n ) = x(n ) + nx (n + 1) . (8)
(ii) Check whether the following are energy or power signals
= (1 )
()
2
 = (8)
Or
(i) Describe in detail the process of sampling and quantization.
Also determine the expression for quantization liner.

(10)
(ii) Check whether the following
are periodic (1) x(n ) =
cos(3n )
(2) x(n ) = sin( 3n ) . (6)
(a) (i) Determine the Z transform of
(1) = ( ). (5)
(2) x(n ) = 3 u(n ) (3)
(ii) Obtain x(n ) for the following :
1
=
1 2
11.5 +0.5

for ROC : | z |>1, | z | < 0.5 , 0.5 < | z

|< 1.

(8) Or
(b) (i) Determine the linear convolution of the following sequences
1 = 1,2,3,1 2 = 1,2,1, 1 . (6)

(ii) Obtain the system function and impulse response of
the following system y(n ) 5 y(n 1) = x(n ) +
x(n - 1) .

(10)

(a) (i) Explain the following properties of DFT.

Convolution.
Time shifting
Conjugate Symmetry. (10)
(ii) Compute the 4 point DFT of x(n ) = {0,1, 2,3}. (6)
Or
(b) (i) Explain the Radix 2 DIFFFT algorithm for 8 point DFT. (8)
(ii) Obtain the 8 point DFT using DITFFT algorithm for
x(n ) = {1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1}. (8)

(a) (i) Realize the following using cascade and parallel form .
1 2
= 3+3.6 +0.6
(12)
1 2
1+0.1 0.2
 (ii) Explain how an analog filter maps into a digital
filter in Impulse Invariant transformation. (4)
Or
(b) (i) Using Hanning window, design a filter with



= 4 4

Assume N = 7 . (12)

0 +
4
(ii) Write a note on need and choice on windows. (4)

(a) Explain in detail the architectural features of a DSP processor. (16)
Or
Explain the addressing formats and functional modes of a DSP processor. (16)
Question Paper Code: 53129

B.E./B.Tech. DEGREE EXAMINATION, NOV/DEC 2010

Fifth Semester
Electrical and Electronics
Engineering
EC 2314 DIGITAL SIGNAL
PROCESSING
(Regulation 2008)

Time : Three hours

Maximum : 100 marks Answer ALL questions

PART A (10 2 = 20 marks)

What are even and odd signals?

What is known as Aliasing effect?
What is the relation between FT and Z transform?
Give any 2 properties of linear
convolution? 5. Calculate DFT of
= 1,1, 2, 2 .
Differentiate between DIF and DIT.
What are the advantages of FIR filter?
Mention the significance of Chebyshevs approximation.
Define warping.
What is BSAR instruction? Give an example.

PART B (5 16 = 80 marks)

(a) (i) What you mean by Nyquist rate? Give its significance. (6)
(ii) Explain the classifications of the discrete signals. (10)
Or
(b) (i) Explain in detail the quantization of digitals signals. (8)
(ii) Describe the different types of sampling methods can be used.(8)
(a) (i) Explain the properties of Z transform. (8)
(ii) Find the impulse response given by Differential equations.
y(n ) 3 y(n 1)- 4y(n-2) = x(n ) + 2x(n - 1) . (8)
 Or
(b) (i) Test the stability of given systems.
1) = cos( ( )) 2) ( ) = ( 2) 3) ( ) = ( ) (8)
(ii) Find the convolution of the following systems
. 1) = 1,1,2, 2 , = 0.5 ,1, 1,2,0.75 8

(a) An 8- point sequence is given by = 2,2,2,2,1,1,1,1
Compute 8 point DFT OF x(n) by radix DIT------FFT Method, Sketch
the Magnitude and Phase. (16)
Or
(b) Determine the response of LTI system when the input sequence is =
1,1,2,1, 1 radix 2 DIF FFT. The impulse response is
= 1,1 ,1,1 . (16)
(a) (i) Design a low pass filter using rectangular window by taking 1
samples of w(n) with cut off sequence of 1.2 randians/sec also draw
the filter.(16)

Or
(b) The specifications of defined low pass filter is : Using
Hanning window, design a filter with
0.8 1.0 ; 0 0.2
0.2; ; 0.32
Design Chebyshevs digital filter using bilinear transformations.(16)
(a) (i) Explain in detail the Von Neumann architecture with a neat diagram.(8)
(ii) What is MAC unit? Explain its functions?(8)
Or
(b) Explain in detail the architectural of TMS320C50 with a neat diagram. (16)

Question Paper Code: 21368

B.E./B.Tech. DEGREE EXAMINATION,MAY/JUN 2013

Fifth Semester
Electrical and Electronics
Engineering
EC 2361/EC2314/EE502 DIGITAL SIGNAL PROCESSING
(Regulation 2008)

Time : Three hours

Maximum : 100 marks Answer ALL questions

PART A (10 2 = 20 marks)

Given continuous time signal = 2 cos 500 . what is the

nyquist rate and fundamental frequency of the signal?
Determine = whether a power signal or an energy signal?
 Give the difference equation = +3 1+2 1.
determine the system function H(Z).
Find the stability of the system whose impulse response = (1) .
2

Find the discrete Fourier transform of .

Draw the basic butterfly diagram for DIF algorithm.

Name two methods for digitiling the transfer function of an analog filter.

Mention the properties of Chebyshevs filter.

Mention one important features of hardware architecture?

What is the advantage of pipelining?
PART B (5 16 = 80 marks)
(a) (i) Given y(n ) = ( )2 ,Determine whether the system is
linear ,time invariant ,memoryless and causal (8)
(ii) Determine whether the following is an energy signal or
power signal. (8) (1) 1 = 6 cos( ).
2
(2) 2 = 3(0.5) ( ).
Or
(b) Starting from first priniciples, state and explain the sampling
theorem both in time domain and frequency domain (16)
(a) (i) Find the Z transform and its ROC for the following discrete time signal
= (1/5) + 5(1/2) 1 . (8)
Evaluate the frequency response of the system described by system function
1
=( 10.5
1
). (8)
Or
(b) Using the Z transform determine the response y(n) for n 0 if

=1 1 n
y n 1 + x n ,x n = 2 3
u n ; y 1 = 1 (16)
(a) Find the output y(n) of a filter whose impulse response = 1,1,1 and
the input signal = 3, 1,0,1,3,2,0,1,2,1 using overlap save method.
(16)

Or
(b) Find the DFT of a sequence =
1,2,3,4,4,3,2,1, using DIT algorithm. (16)

(a) Design and realize a digital filter using bilinear

transformations for the following specifications. (16)
Monotonic pass band and stop bamnd -3.01dB cut off at 0.5
radian magnitude down atleast 15dB at = 0.75 .
Or
(i) Consider the causal linear time shift in variant filter with system function
1
 = 1+0.875
1 2 1
1+0.2 +0.9 (10.75 )
. Draw the structure using a parallel
interconnection of first and second order systems. (8)

(ii)Consider the following interconnection of a linear

shift invariant system.where = , 2 = 1

1
=
2

0 <
2
(8)
Find the overall impulse response of the system.

(a) Explain the addressing formats of a DSP processor. (16)
Or
(b)Draw the functional block diagram of a DSP processor and explain. (16)
Question Paper Code: 10304

B.E./B.Tech. DEGREE EXAMINATION,MAY/JUN 2012

Fifth Semester
Electrical and Electronics
Engineering
EC 2361/EC2314/EE502 DIGITAL SIGNAL PROCESSING
(Regulation 2008)

Time : Three hours

Maximum : 100 marks Answer ALL questions

PART A (10 2 = 20 marks)

What is meant by nyquist rate?

State and prove the time reversal property of FT.
Consider the signal = 1 1 1 0 for all other
values of n, sketch the magnitude and phase spectrum.
Find the convolution of = 0,1,0,2 and h(n)= 2,0,1 .
Differentiate IIR and FIR filter.
Give relationship between DTFT and Z transformation. What is
meant by quantization error?
State warping and give the necessity of prewarping.
Define the condition for stability of digital filter.
Define periodogram.
Define Gibbs phenomena.
 PART B (5 16 = 80 marks)

(a) Check the following systems are linear, causal, time in

variant, stable, static. (i) y(n) = x(1/2n)
y(n) = sin(x(n))
y(n) = x(n)cos(x(n))
y(n) = x(-n+5)
(v) y(n) = x(n) + nx(n+2) (16)
Or
Compute linear and circular convolution of the
two sequence x1(n) = 1,2,2,2 and x2(n) =
1,2,3,4

(16)

(a) (i) Determine the system function and the unit sample
response of the system described by the difference equation y(n)
+1/2y(n-1)=2x(n).
(8)
(ii) Determine the step response of the system y(n)- ( 1)+x(n), -1< <
1,when the initial condition is y(-1) = 1. (8)
Or
An filter system is described by the difference equation y(n) = x(n0+x(n-
10).
Compute and sketch its magnitude phase response

Determine its response to the input x(n) = cos( ) + 3sine( +

).
10
(16)
3 10
(a) (i) Derive the computational equation for the 8-point FFT DIT. (8)
(ii) State and prove any five properties of DFT. (8)
Or
(b) Find the X(K) for given sequence = 1,2,3,4,1,2,3,4 . (16)

(a) For the analog transfer function H(s) = 2/(s+1)(s+3) determine

H(z) using bilinear transformation. With T=0.1 sec. (16)
Or
1 /4
(b) Design an ideal high pass filter with Hd( ) = .Using
0 /4
Hamming window with N = 11.
.

(a)(i) Explain the addressing formats of a DSP processor. (8)

(ii) Explain in detail the architecture of the DSP processor. (8)
Or
(b)(i) Explain the functional modes present in the DSP processor. (8)
(ii) Explain about pipelining in DSP. (8)
 Question Paper Code: 66288

B.E./B.Tech. DEGREE EXAMINATION,NOV/DEC 2011

Fifth Semester
Electrical and Electronics
Engineering
EC 2361/EC2314/EE502 DIGITAL SIGNAL PROCESSING
(Regulation 2008)

Time : Three hours

Maximum : 100 marks Answer ALL

questions

PART A (10 2 = 20 marks)

1. What is a linear time invariant system?

2. State sampling theorem.
What is meant by ROC in z-transforms?
Write the commutative and distributive properties of convolution.
Draw the basic butterfly diagram for Radix 2 DITFFT.
6.Write the DTFT for (a) x(n ) = a u(n ) (b) x(n )= 4 (n )= 3 (n 1) .
What is meant by linear phase response of a filter?
Compare bilinear transformation and Impulse invariant method of IIR
filter design.
Give the special features of DSP processors.
What is pipelining?

PART B (5 16 = 80 marks)
(a) (i) Discuss whether the following are energy or power signals
N
3
(1) x(n )= u(n )
2

jw n
(2) x(n) = Ae 0
. ( 10)
(ii) Explain the concept of quantization. (6)

Or

(b) Check whether following are linear, time invariant, causal and stable.
 (i) y(n ) = x(n ) + n x (n +1) . (8)

(ii) y(n )= COS x(n ) . (8)

12. (a) (i) Obtain the linear convolution of

x(n ) = {3,2,1,2} h(n )= {1,2,1,2}. (6)

(ii) A discrete time system is described by the following equation :

1
y(n ) + y(n 1)= x(n )+ x(n 1)
4
Determine its impulse response. (10)

Or

(b) (i) Obtain the discrete Fourier series coefficients of x(n) = COS w0n .(4)

(ii) Determine x(n ) for the given x(2) with ROC

(1) | z| 2

(2) | z| 2

1
1 + 3z

1 2
X (z )= 1 + 3z + 2z
. (12)

13. (a) (i) Explain 8 pt DIFFFT algorithm with signal flow diagram. (10)
(ii) Compute the DFT of x(n ) = {1, 1, 0, 0}. (6)

Or

(i) Describe the following properties of DFT.

Time reversal.
Circular convolution.
(ii) Obtain the circular convolution of
x1(n)] = {1, 2, 2, 1} x2 (n )= {1, 2, 3, 1}. (6)

14. (a) Design a butterworth filter using the Impulse invariance

method for the following specifications.
jw
0.8 H (e ) 1 0 W 0.2
jw
H (e ) 0.2 0.6 w
 Or
(b) Design a filter with desired frequency response
jw j3w
Hd (e )=e
for
EE6403 DISCRETE TIME SYSTEMS & SIGNAL PROCESSING

= 0 for

3 w 3

4 4

3
|w|

EE6403 DISCRETE TIME SYSTEMS AND SIGNAL

PROCESSING
Use Hanning window for N =7 .

15.(a) Explain the addressing modes of a DSP processor.

O
r

(b)Describe the Architectural details of a DSP processor.