HANDBOOK

Objective oriented
project design &
management

EUROPEAN COMMISSION
DG XXII
 Technical assistance to the European Commission
for the implementation of Tempus is provided by the
European Training Foundation.

European Training Foundation

Villa Gualino
Viale Settimio Severo, 65
I-10133 Torino
Tel: 39 11 630 2222
Fax 39 11 630 2200
e-mail: tempus@etf.it
WWW: http://www.etf.it

This handbook has been prepared by ITAD within the

framework of the Tempus programme. The views
expressed in this manual are those of the authors and do
not represent any official views of the European
Commission or the European Training Foundation.
 Table of Contents

WHAT IS TEMPUS?
INTRODUCTION: THE PURPOSE OF THIS HANDBOOK .................................................................... 1

PART 1: OBJECTIVE-ORIENTED PROJECT MANAGEMENT AND THE LOGICAL

FRAMEWORK APPROACH......................................................................................................................... 3
CHAPTER 1.1 THE ROLE OF THE LOGICAL FRAMEWORK APPROACH .......................................................4
Strengths of the LFA...........................................................................................................5
Weaknesses of the LFA ......................................................................................................5
CHAPTER 1.2 THE LOGICAL FRAMEWORK APPROACH - A STEP-BY-STEP GUIDE TO OBJECTIVE-
ORIENTED PROJECT DESIGN .................................................................................................8
Step 1 - Conduct Stakeholder Analysis............................................................................8
Step 2 - Problem Analysis .............................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Step 3 - Conduct Analysis of Objectives ........................................................................13
Step 4 - Define Intervention Logic ..................................................................................15
Step 5 - Specify Assumptions and Risks ........................................................................20
Step 6 - Identify Indicators ..............................................................................................21
Step 7 - Prepare Activity Schedule .................................................................................23
Step 8 - Prepare Cost Schedule .......................................................................................26
Summary: The Logical Framework Approach - A Step-by-Step Guide....................31
CHAPTER 1.3 THE LOGICAL FRAMEWORK APPROACH AND OBJECTIVE-ORIENTED PROJECT
IMPLEMENTATION...............................................................................................................32
Applying the LFA to a Pre-Designed Project................................................................32
Monitoring and Reporting...............................................................................................33
Managing Project Financial Resources...........................................................................38
Project Review and Evaluation .......................................................................................41
Summary: The Logical Framework Approach and Project Implementation............45

PART 2: PROJECT MANAGEMENT SKILLS........................................................................................... 46

CHAPTER 2.1 TEAMWORK .........................................................................................................................47
How Groups Develop ......................................................................................................47
Management Skills............................................................................................................48
Your Role Within the Team .............................................................................................49
Summary: Teamwork.......................................................................................................50
CHAPTER 2.2 COMMUNICATION ..............................................................................................................51
Oral Communication........................................................................................................51
Written Communication ..................................................................................................52
Appreciating Differences .................................................................................................54
Summary: Communication .............................................................................................56
 CHAPTER 2.3 MEETINGS............................................................................................................................57
Deciding Whether to Go ..................................................................................................57
Preparing for a Meeting ...................................................................................................57
Managing a Meeting.........................................................................................................58
Summary: Meetings..........................................................................................................61
CHAPTER 2.4 TIME MANAGEMENT ..........................................................................................................62
Reasons for Poor Time Management .............................................................................62
Improving Your Time Management ..............................................................................64
Summary............................................................................................................................65

GLOSSARY .................................................................................................................................................... 66

USEFUL REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................... 72

WHERE TO GET FURTHER INFORMATION ON TEMPUS ................................................................ 73

TEMPUS PUBLICATIONS CURRENTLY AVAILABLE......................................................................... 74

 What is Tempus?
Tempus (the Trans European cooperation scheme for higher education) was
adopted by the Council of Ministers of the European Union on 7 May 1990 and
was since twice extended, with the current extension lasting until the year 2000.
Tempus is a European Union (EU) programme designed to stimulate cooperation
with the Partner Countries in Central and Eastern Europe and the New
Independent States and Mongolia in order to support the reform of their higher
education systems.
Tempus forms part of the overall EU initiatives to support economic and social
restructuring of central and eastern Europe (Phare programme) and to foster the
development of harmonious and prosperous economic and political links between
the European Union and the New Independent States and Mongolia (Tacis
programme). In 1997 a total of 26 Partner Countries took part in Tempus. Funding
is provided through Action Programmes, the individual amounts per country
being the result of negotiations between the European Commission and the
Partner Countries.
Tempus is a bottom-up programme responsive to the specific needs of
individual institutions and Partner Countries. Projects are formulated by
universities in the Partner Countries in cooperation with their partners from the
European Union, where the EU universities supply their know-how and
experience.
Tempus supports high quality projects aiming to restructure and develop
curricula and teaching materials, upgrade teaching facilities, and/or improve
university administration in higher education institutions in the Partner
Countries. Tempus does this by providing financial grants for cooperation projects
between higher education establishments in the EU and the Partner Countries in
priority areas which are defined by the respective Partner Countries and the
European Commission and which are in line with the overall socio-economic
reform process of these countries.
Between 1990 and 1996 the EU has invested a total of 724* MECU in restructuring
higher education in the Phare and Tacis Partner Countries by supporting more
than 2500* projects through Tempus.
*These figures do not take into account projects financed in 1997
 Objective-Oriented Project Design & Management

Introduction: The Purpose of this Handbook

Since 1990 more than 2,500 projects have been financed within the framework of the
Tempus programme. Experience has shown that projects have major problems when
essential factors for success are overlooked during project design and implementation.
These factors may range from a lack of involvement of key stakeholders during initial
project design, to the failure of a project monitoring system to provide the necessary
management information during implementation. Therefore, the promotion of
professional project management has been a major concern for Tempus.

The Logical Framework Approach was introduced into Tempus procedures in 1996, as a
means of providing a framework for improved project design and management. This
Handbook is intended to help you improve your project planning and management
skills, and thus to assist in the smooth planning and implementation of Tempus projects.
The handbook gives an introduction to the Logical Framework Approach and a guide to
its use in the design and the implementation of Tempus projects. The handbook builds
on the experience of two project management skills training workshops for project
administrators in the Russian Federation, Ukraine, Belarus and Moldova, but has been
substantially modified to include more information on the logical framework approach.

This is not a procedures manual and should not be used as such. The handbook presents
model techniques and approaches which in practice will have to be modified to your own
particular circumstances. Although it will not solve all of your problems today, it will
provide you with more tools and techniques to help you do your work more effectively
in the long term. After reading this handbook you will not be an expert in the use of the
Logical Framework Approach (LFA) More reading, and ideally the participation in a LFA
training course, may be required to take full advantage of the benefits offered by this tool
for project design and management.

This handbook explains:

Objective-oriented project management and the Logical Framework Approach
How to use the Logical Framework Approach for project design
How to use the Logical Framework Approach for project implementation, monitoring and
evaluation
How to manage project financial resources
How to develop and use activity schedules and cost schedules
How to achieve good working relationships within a project team
How to make oral and written communication more productive
How to achieve effective meetings through good preparation and sound management
How to improve your time management

The handbook can be separated into two parts: Part I which explains how to use the LFA
during project design and implementation; and Part II which provides some guidelines
on everyday management skills. Although each chapter follows a logical sequence, they
can be read selectively to provide you with the information you require to deal with a
specific task or issue.

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 Objective-Oriented Project Design & Management

The glossary provides brief explanations of the terms used in the handbook. A section on
useful references is provided to point you in the direction of additional sources of
information on the Logical Framework Approach and on Tempus.

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 Objective-Oriented Project Design & Management

Part 1: Objective-Oriented Project Management and the Logical

Framework Approach
The Logical Framework Approach (LFA or Logframe) was developed by USAID during
the late 1960s in order to assist in the planning, management and evaluation of
development activities. It has since been adopted as a planning and management tool by
a large number of other agencies involved in providing development assistance,
including ADB, DANIDA, GTZ, ILO, NORAD, ODA, SIDA, and UNIDO. The European
Commission recently produced a manual on Project Cycle Management, based on the
Logical Framework Approach.1 Part I of this handbook provides a guide to the use of
the LFA during project preparation and during implementation. The approach adopted
by Tacis to address weaknesses in project design and management is called Project Cycle
Management. The Tacis Project Cycle Management Handbook2 describes this approach
in detail and you may also want to refer to this to find out more about the logframe.

Chapter 1.1 gives a brief overview of objective-oriented project planning, and the
logical framework approach, and outlines the strengths and weaknesses of the approach.
It provides some definitions of the terminology used for the LFA in this handbook.

Chapter 1.2 provides an introduction on how to use the Logical Framework Approach
during project design. It outlines eight steps involved in applying the Logical
Framework Approach (LFA) to project design: i) conduct stakeholder analysis; ii) conduct
problem analysis; iii) conduct analysis of objectives; iv)define the intervention logic; v)
specify assumptions and risks; vi) specify indicators; vii) prepare an activity schedule;
and viii)specify inputs. A Tempus project example is used in this chapter, and in chapter
1.3, to illustrate the approach.

Chapter 1.3 looks at the use of LFA during project implementation. It explains how to
prepare a logframe for a project that has already been designed without one. It then
describes the role of LFA in designing a project monitoring and evaluation system,
provides guidelines on how to maintain project financial records and explains how the
logframe is used as a basis for evaluation during and after project completion.

1
Project Cycle Management, Integrated Approach and Logical Framework, European Commission, DG VIII 1993.
2
Tacis Project Cycle Management Handbook, European Commission, DGIA

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 Objective-Oriented Project Design & Management

Chapter 1.1 The Role of the Logical Framework Approach

The dictionary definition of an objective is something aimed at. The purpose of setting
objectives for a project is to define what you are aiming at (the desired future situation),
in order that you can then work out a plan of action to achieve each objective. This
process is called objective-oriented planning. When objectives are clear, it is possible to
clarify the ultimate purpose of all activities in a programme, and to measure the
performance of the project. During implementation, progress is monitored to determine
whether the project is still on track towards achieving its objectives. If this is not the case,
corrective action is taken to bring it back on track. This process is called objective-oriented
management.

The LFA consists of an analysis phase and a planning phase:

Figure 1: The Logical Framework Approach to Project Design

Step 1: CONDUCT STAKEHOLDER ANALYSIS Step 4: DEFINE INTERVENTION LOGIC -

- identify groups, people and institutions define the project elements, test its internal
which are likely to be affected by the project, logic, and formulating objectives in
and identify the key problems, constraints and measurable terms
opportunities they face
Step 5: SPECIFY ASSUMPTIONS AND
Step 2: CONDUCT PROBLEM ANALYSIS - RISKS - identify the conditions which are
formulate problems; determine cause and effect likely to affect the projects implementation
relationships and develop a problem tree but which are outside the project
management control
Step 3: CONDUCT ANALYSIS OF OBJECTIVES
- develop objectives from the identified Step 6: IDENTIFY INDICATORS - identify
problems; identify means to end relationships; ways to measure that progress has been
identify clusters of objectives and determine achieved; formulate indicators; define
the project strategy means of measurement
Step 7: PREPARE ACTIVITY SCHEDULE -
Having analysed the situation, the project should now
be ready for detailed planning..... determine the sequence and dependency of
activities; estimate duration, set milestones
and assign responsibility
Step 8: PREPARE COST SCHEDULE - specify
inputs required; develop cost schedule;
prepare detailed budget

In addition to its role during programme and project preparation, the LFA is also a key
management tool during implementation and evaluation. It provides the basis for the
preparation of action plans and the development of a monitoring system during
implementation, as well as a framework for evaluation.

The main output of the LFA is the logframe matrix. This consists of a matrix with four
rows and four columns, which summarises the project, records the assumptions which
underlie the projects strategy, and outlines how the project may be monitored. Figure 2
summarises the matrix structure and contents.

Figure 2: The Logframe Matrix

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 Objective-Oriented Project Design & Management

Narrative Indicators of Measurement Assumptions

Achievement & Risks

Overall Measures of Sources of information

Objectives achievement of Overall & methods used to
Objectives verify achievements

Specific Measures of Sources of information Assumptions affecting

Objectives achievement of & methods used to linkage between
Specific Objectives verify achievements Specific & Overall
Objectives

Outcomes Measures of Sources of information Assumptions affecting

achievement of & methods used to linkage between
Outcomes verify achievements Outcomes & Specific
Objectives

Activities Inputs - human & Costs - of human & Assumptions affecting

physical resources physical resources linkage between
required Activities & Outcomes

In the narrative, the logframe sets out the intervention logic of the project (if activities are
undertaken, then outcomes will be achieved, then specific objectives, etc.) and describes
the important assumptions and risks which underlie this logic. This provides the basis for
checking the feasibility of the project, ensuring that improbable assumptions or undue
risks are carefully assessed.

For management and supervision of projects, the logframe defines the tasks to be
undertaken, the resources required, and the responsibilities of management. In the
second and third columns (indicators of achievement, and measurement), the logframe
provides the framework against which progress will be monitored and evaluated.

Strengths of the LFA

By bringing stakeholders together to discuss problems, objectives and strategies, the LFA
encourages people to consider what are their own expectations, and how these might be
achieved. By stating objectives clearly and setting them out in a hierarchy of objectives,
the logframe matrix then provides a means of checking the internal logic of the project
plan, and ensures that activities, outcomes and objectives are linked. It forces planners to
identify the critical assumptions and risks which may affect project success, thus
encouraging a discussion about project feasibility. In stating indicators of achievement
and means of measuring progress, planners are made to think about how they will
monitor and evaluate the project right from the start. All of this key information is
brought together in one document - the logframe - which provides a useful summary for
those interested.

Weaknesses of the LFA

While the LFA has proven to be a useful planning and management tool, it is not a
comprehensive tool for either planning or management and does not guarantee project
success. The process is time-consuming and requires considerable training in the
concepts and logic of the approach. Planners are required to summarise complex ideas

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 Objective-Oriented Project Design & Management

and relationships into simple phrases which may be unclear or meaningless. All too often
the caricature fill-in-the-boxes approach is used to complete the logframe matrix
during project design, leading to a poorly prepared project with unclear objectives and a
lack of ownership of the project among stakeholders.

Problems can then be compounded by rigid application of the logframe during

implementation without taking into account changes in the project environment which
may require redesign of the project. If unrealistic targets had been set during planning,
this can be very demoralising to staff during implementation.

To be used effectively, the LFA must be supported by other tools for technical, economic,
social and environmental analysis. Stakeholders should be involved as fully as possible
which requires teamwork and strong facilitation skills on the part of project planners. To
ensure that problem analysis reflects real priorities, effective participation must build on
relationships which have already been established with stakeholders. During
implementation, the logframe should be regularly reviewed and revised to reflect
changes in the project environment.

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 Objective-Oriented Project Design & Management

Definitions
The LFA uses a very specific technical vocabulary, and it is important to understand what
the commonly used terms mean. Furthermore, the LFA is used by many other donors,
who apply their own personalised terminology. A brief description of the terminology is
given below. Further detail can be found in the glossary:

Narrative The strategy underlying the project. It is the narrative description of the projects
intervention logic at each of the four levels of the hierarchy of objectives used in the LFA.
Overall The goals the project will contribute to in the longer run
objective
Higher level Objective of the wider sectoral or national programme, to which the project is
designed to contribute.
Specific What the project should achieve for its intended beneficiaries
objective(s)
The central objective of the project in terms of sustainable benefits to be delivered to the
project beneficiaries. It should reflect the specific situation you want to achieve, and which
contributes to the fulfilment of the Overall objective. It does not refer to the services
provided by the project (these are outcomes), but to the utilisation of these services by
project beneficiaries.
Outcomes What project management guarantees to deliver during the life of the project
The outputs produced by undertaking a series of activities and which are necessary to
achieve the specific objective(s).. The outcomes are what the project will have achieved by
its completion date.
Activities The work to be carried out by project staff
The specific tasks necessary to transform inputs into planned outcomes.
Inputs What the project needs in order to complete its activities
The resources required in order to perform the activities (such as personnel, equipment,
and materials).
Indicators of The level of performance which must be reached in order to achieve objectives
Achievement
Measurable indicators that will show performance - whether or not objectives have been
achieved at each level of the logframe hierarchy. Indicators provide the basis for designing
an appropriate monitoring system.
Milestones How we will know whether we are on track towards achieving our objectives
A type of indicator for short term objectives which facilitate measurement of achievements
throughout a project rather than just at the end. They also indicate times when decisions
can be made.
Measurement The sources of information for recording indicators
The means by which the indicators or milestones will be recorded and made available to
project management or those evaluating project performance.
Assumptions What may delay or prevent achievement of project objectives
and Risks
External factors in the context which could affect the progress or success of the project, but
over which the project manager has no direct control.
Pre-Conditions What is required for the project to start
Assumptions about the context or events Pre-conditions (if any) attached to the provision
of aid which must be met before the project can commence.
Factors The factors likely to influence the flow of benefits after project completion
Ensuring
Factors which will determine whether project benefits continue after completion of the
Sustainability
project.

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 Objective-Oriented Project Design & Management

Chapter 1.2 The Logical Framework Approach - a Step-by-Step Guide to

Objective-Oriented Project Design
Projects are designed to address the problems faced by beneficiaries. A properly planned
project addressing the real needs of the beneficiaries cannot be achieved without an
analysis of the existing situation. It is quite common for problem analysis to be carried
out with insufficient thoroughness, or even not at all. This is often because planners feel
that they already know what the problem is, and do not want to waste their time and
effort in doing pointless research. However, the existing situation is likely to be
perceived in different ways by different groups of stakeholders. One person or group of
people rarely has a complete picture of the problems to be addressed by the project, so it
is important to consult people with different perspectives. Thus it is important to bring
together representatives of all key stakeholders in the Analysis Phase.

Step 1 - Conduct Stakeholder Analysis

The first task in the Analysis Phase is to determine who should be involved in the
process. Stakeholders are people, groups or institutions with interests in a project. If
stakeholders are affected positively by the project, then they can be termed beneficiaries.
However, it is also possible for stakeholders to be negatively affected.

To determine who are the stakeholders the following questions may help you:
What do you (the planners) need to know? Whose views and experience would be
relevant?
Who will be taking decisions about the project?
Who will be expected to act on these decisions?
Whose active support is essential to the success of the project?
Who has a right to be involved?
Who is likely to feel threatened by the project?

Once stakeholders have been identified, they should be consulted to determine what
problems they face. This will involve the collection of information about the current
situation, perhaps through a survey, a series of meetings, or some other form of
assessment. Once sufficient information has been collected and processed, it is time to
bring the stakeholders together in a workshop, to further develop the problem
identification, and to begin the process of project design.

The purpose of stakeholder analysis is identify key stakeholders, assess their interest or
stake in the project, and the ways in which these interests affect the viability and
riskiness of the project. It achieves this by identifying:
the interests of stakeholders in relation to the problems to be addressed, and the main
assumptions to be made about their involvement in the project
conflicts of interest between stakeholders, which will affect the projects riskiness
existing and potential relationships between stakeholders that can be built on to
enhance the prospects for project success
appropriate ways by which different stakeholders can participate in the project

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 Objective-Oriented Project Design & Management

Stakeholder analysis is best done during a brainstorming workshop involving all key
stakeholders. The mandate of the workshop is to discuss the problems the stakeholders
face in relation to the likely focus of the project - e.g. raising the profile of social work as a
profession, and improving the availability of long and short-courses in social law and
social work.

Figure 3 illustrates stakeholder analysis with a simple example. This table can then be
used to draw out the assumptions and risks which may affect the project. The following
checklist of questions may be useful:
what roles or responses of the stakeholder must be assumed if the project is to be
successful?
are the roles or responses plausible and realistic?
what negative responses by stakeholders might there be, and what might their impact
be on the project?
how probable are these negative responses, and do they represent major risks to the
project?

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 Objective-Oriented Project Design & Management

Figure 3: An Example of Stakeholder Analysis

Stakeholder Group What is their stake? Requirements for their Appropriate participation
continued support of the mechanism
project
Social workers +training & new skills consultation in development inform about project
+improved job prospects of new curricula progress
+improved work practices non-discriminatory access to involve in design of
training practical placement element
of training
consult about training needs
& priorities
Social work +access to better qualified consultation in development inform about project
organisations professionals of new curricula progress
involvement in development consult about training needs
of new work practices & priorities
involve in design of
practical placement element
of training
Partner Country +involvement in project continued involvement in partnership with EU
University planning, project planning, university for planning &
implementation & implementation & decision- implementation
decision-making making participation in day-to-day
+new curriculum adopted to support from Partner operations
new labour market Country university
requirements hierarchy
+increased funding good working relations with
-increased recurrent costs other project partners
+/- involvement in future staff training
projects
EU partner +management of project continued commitment & partnership with Partner
universities +enlarge international involvement of university Country university for
cooperation hirarchy planning & implementation
+future research spin-off good working relations with manage day-to-day
+/- involvement in future other project partners operations
projects
Other Higher +inform about project mechanisms to ensure active inform about day-to-day
Education Institutes implementation involvement in operations
in the Partner +access to project results dissemination of project inform about dissemination
Country results opportunities
involve in curriculum
development and design of
teaching material
Ministry of Education -increased recurrent costs consultation in project consult for project planning
-loss of control over planning & implementation & implementation
university resources not to be threatened with inform about day-to-day
+public image loss of influence operations
+/- accreditation of new
courses

Notes: + signifies a potential benefit

- signifies a potential negative effect

The results of such discussions with stakeholders should be used during objective setting,
and for the identification of assumptions and risks. Both of these tasks are dealt with
subsequently.

Institutional Appraisal
A major factor for the success of a project is the performance and capacity of the
participating institutions. In order to analyse the stake each participating institution has
in the project an institutional appraisal may be undertaken. SWOT analysis is a tool for
institutional appraisal, and analyses the organisation under each of the four headings:

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 Objective-Oriented Project Design & Management

Strengths - the positive internal attributes of the organisation

Weaknesses - the negative internal attributes of the organisation
Opportunities - external factors which could improve the organisations prospects
Threats - external factors which could undermine the organisations prospects
A SWOT analysis is undertaken as a brainstorming exercise in which representatives of
the organisation participate fully. As with any brainstorming, one person should act as
moderator, to explain the exercise, take suggestions from the group, write them down
and summarise the findings.

The results are best displayed on a whiteboard or flipchart divided into a grid of four
squares, to represent the S-W-O-T headings. The group should not be too large for
discussion, and the members should be given time to think through their own
contributions, either individually or in small groups of two or three people. If there is a
good reason to consult widely throughout the organisation, it may be appropriate to
conduct more than one SWOT, with groups representing different stakeholders. An
example of a SWOT analysis for a Tempus partner university might look like the
following:

STRENGTHS WEAKNESSES
Good contacts with professional Outdated curriculum
organisations Shortage of text books and teaching
Well-located materials
Well-qualified and motivated staff Inflexible administrative system
Merit-based procedures for appointing Inadequate employment services to
lecturers assist students in finding jobs
OPPORTUNITIES THREATS
Cooperation with donor-funded Low salaries
programmes (Tempus, Know-How, Poor telecommunications
etc.) Rapidly changing social and economic
Stable political environment environment
Well-established relationships with
potential partner universities

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 Objective-Oriented Project Design & Management

Step 2 - Problem Analysis

In aiming at a desired future situation (the objective), there is an implicit recognition of
an undesirable situation in the present - or to put it more simply, there is a problem. The
first step in setting objectives is therefore to clarify what the problem is. This is called
problem analysis and involves two tasks:
1. Identification of the major problems faced by beneficiaries; and
2. Development of a problem tree to establish causes and effects.

Problem analysis is an important part of the stakeholder workshop. It involves analysis of

the problems already identified, from the perspectives of the various groups of
stakeholders involved. In this way a balanced analysis is achieved which takes account of
differing, and sometimes conflicting, points of view. The aim is to establish an overview
of the situation by linking the problems together in a problem tree.

During problem analysis, the task is to identify the causal relationships between the
various problems through the development of a problem tree. A problem tree is simply
the problems set out in a hierarchical order.

From the previously formulated problems, each participant writes down a suggestion for
a focal problem - ie. the problem that they consider to be the central point of the overall
problem situation. Each stakeholder will be guided in their initial choice of focal problem
by their own interest in the project, and the problems they are experiencing. The range of
focal problems suggested should be discussed until the participants can agree on one
focal problem. This is the starting point for the problem tree.

The focal problem is pasted onto a wall, and a second problem related to it. Then:
if the problem is a cause it goes on the level below
if it is an effect it goes above
if it is neither a cause nor an effect it goes on the same level

As the tree develops, the remaining problems are attached to it in the same way. A
review of the problem analysis may lead to the emergence of a different focal problem at
a later stage, but this does not affect the validity of the analysis.

For example, if the focal problem is Inadequate number of qualified professionals employed in
social law and social work, a cause might be No higher education courses available in social
law and social work, while an effect might be Understaffed and inefficient government and
non-government social work institutions.

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 Objective-Oriented Project Design & Management

Figure 4: A Problem Tree

Poorly coordinated & inefficient

distribution of welfare assistance
to vulnerable groups, especially
in the earthquake region

Unclear & inadequate Higher education does

legislation for social not provide professional
security & social justice profiles required by the
labour market

Poor coordination of Social law given low No system of training in

policy formulation priority by government & social work at higher
populace education level

No higher education No further education

courses available in training courses for
social law & social work current social workers

Step 3 - Conduct Analysis of Objectives

While problem analysis presents the negative aspects of the existing situation, analysis of
objectives presents the positive aspects of a desired future situation. This involves the
reformulation of problems into objectives - the objective tree can therefore be
conceptualised as the positive mirror image of the problem tree.

Figure 5: Transforming Problems into Objectives

Problem Objective

Unclear & inadequate  Legislation for social security
legislation for social & social justice rationalised &
security & social justice improved

Higher education system  contribute to the reform of the
does not provide higher education system which
professional profiles responds to the requirements
required by the labour of the labour market
market

No system of training in  To create a system of training
social work at higher in social work at higher
education level education level

The focal problem is reformulated as the specific objective, and the cause and effect
relationships become means to end relationships. However, it may be found that there
are gaps in the logic of the initial objective tree, or that the objectives should in fact be at a
different level in the hierarchy. Therefore linkages between objectives should be
reviewed and reorganised as necessary. Objectives dealing with a similar topic are
grouped together in clusters to identify definable areas of management responsibility.

Figure 6: An Objective Tree

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 Objective-Oriented Project Design & Management

Improved coordination &

efficiency of distribution of
welfare assistance to vulnerable
groups, especially in the
earthquake region

Legislation for social To contribute to the

security & social justice reform of the higher
rationalised & improved education system in the
Partner States

Improved coordination of Social law given higher To create a system for

policy formulation priority by government & training in social work at
populace higher education level

BA and MA courses in Distance learning centre

social work at university of further education for
X recognised by the current social workers
Ministry of Education

At this stage, statements of objectives will still be fairly broad. It is only when the scope of
the project is decided, and preparation of the detailed plan begins, that these statements
will be reviewed and clarified.

Stating Objectives
Project objectives will already have been specified during the analysis of objectives. Now
that they have been transposed in to the logframe, they should be reviewed to ensure that
they are clearly stated and understood by all parties. Objectives should also have certain
characteristics.. They should be:

Realistic - achievable within the given financial and physical resources, and the time-
frame envisaged

Specific - so that any progress towards the objective can be attributed to the project
and not to some other cause

Measurable - at acceptable cost and with acceptable effort, so that the projects
performance can be measured

Management Tip 1: Stating Objectives

Objectives should: be stated using strong verbs in their infinitive form (to do something);
specify the nature of the change to be achieved by the project (the target group); and, provide
measurable indicators which will inform planners within Tacis and the partner countries of the
extent to which Indicative Programme goals and objectives have been achieved.

Examples of weak, poorly specified objectives:

To speed up the preparation of the tools, the relationships, the identification of needs, the priorities and the
structures to be ready to participate fully in the Leonardo Programme

Examples of strong, measurable objectives:

To provide support to the vocational education sector in order to:
increase initiative, flexibility and broaden the background of labour market entrants by redesigning
initial training content with more generalised curricula
develop closer links between initial trainees and employers
promote efficiency of training provision by developing new training materials, applying modern
assessment and certification procedures; and
invigorate school management and upgrade in-service teacher training

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 Objective-Oriented Project Design & Management

Clustering Objectives
The objective tree represents a mirror image of the overall problem situation. However, it
is unlikely that a particular project can ever address all of the problems in a situation, and
therefore the tree is likely to contain far more objectives than will be included in the
project. The final part of analysis of objectives involves the selection of a strategy or
number of strategies which will be included in the project, and what will remain outside
its scope. A strategy comprises a clusters of closely related objectives. Strategy analysis
decides which of these clusters should be included in the project, and it looks at the
feasibility of each. This may mean that during strategy analysis the focus of the project
shifts. It is only when the strategy(ies) have been selected that the specific objectives and
overall objectives are finalised.

Figure 7: Strategy Selection

Improved coordination &

efficiency of distribution of
welfare assistance to vulnerable
groups, especially in the
earthquake region

Legislation for social To contribute to the

security & social justice reform of the higher Overall
rationalised & improved education system in the Objective
Partner States

To create a system for Specific

Improved coordination of Social law given higher training in social work at
policy formulation priority by government & higher education level Objectives
populace

BA and MA courses in Distance learning centre

social work at university of further education for Outcomes
X recognised by the current social workers
Ministry of Education

Depending on the scope and amount of work entailed, the selected clusters or strategy
may form a project-sized intervention, or a programme consisting of a number of
projects.

Step 4 - Define Intervention Logic

The intervention logic of a project is the narrative description of the project at the four
levels of the hierarchy of objectives - activities, outcomes, specific objectives and overall
objectives. Defining the intervention logic is the first stage in preparation of the logframe,
and it is worth providing an introduction of the whole logframe before going further.

The logframe is the visual output of the LFA. However, the logframe for all its
advantages when clearly understood and professionally applied, provides no magic
solution to identifying or designing good projects. It is merely an analytical, design and
presentational tool. The principle of garbage in, garbage out can apply to the logframe
if it is used mechanistically. When used properly the logframe helps to make the logical
relationships between activities, outcomes, specific objectives and overall objective(s)

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 Objective-Oriented Project Design & Management

more transparent, at least to the informed user. The logframe should thus not be seen as
simply a set of mechanistic procedures, but as an aid to thinking:

The method consists of an analytical process and a way of presenting the results of
this process, which makes it possible to set out systematically and logically the
projects objectives and the causal relationships between them. 3

Another important point is that the logframe must be seen as a dynamic tool, which
should be re-assessed and revised as the project itself develops and circumstances
change. It should be used to provide structure and purpose to project planning and
budgeting without being perceived as an inflexible and constraining blueprint.

The Structure of the Logframe

The Logframe itself consists of a matrix, which has four columns and four rows. The
vertical logic identifies what the project intends to do, clarifies the causal relationships and
specifies the important assumptions and uncertainties beyond the project manager's
control. The horizontal logic relates to the measurement of the effects of, and resources
used by, the project through the specification of key indicators for performance
measurement, and the means by which the measurement will be verified. The conceptual
model is presented in figure 8.

The column headings in figure 4 are defined as follows:

1. Narrative - the narrative description of the projects intervention logic at each of the
four levels of overall objectives, specific objectives, outcomes and activities
2. Indicators - measurable indicators at each level of the logframe narrative
3. Measurement - the means by which the indicators will be recorded.
4. Assumptions - risks and constraints which could affect the progress or success of the
project.

For detailed definitions of the vocabulary used in LFA please refer to chapter 2.2. and the
Glossary of Terms.

Most of the donor agencies (including the European Commission and the World Bank)
have now adopted the logframe as a planning and management tool. Unfortunately, the
different donors use different terminology for the row and column headings of the
logframe matrix. For example, outcomes are sometimes described as outputs or results,
while the specific objectives are referred to as the project purpose, project development
objective or immediate objective. This should not discourage you, as the basic structure
and approach are common to all donor agencies.

Figure 8: The Logframe Matrix

3
G Coleman Logical framework approach to the monitoring and evaluation of agricultural and rural development projects,
Project Appraisal December 1989

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 Objective-Oriented Project Design & Management

N a rra tiv e In d ic a to rs o f M e a s u re m e n t A s s u m p tio n s

A c h ie v e m e n t & R is k s

O ve ra ll
O b je c tiv e s

S p e c ific
O b je c tiv e s

O u tc o m e s

A ctiv itie s In p u ts C o s ts

V e rtic a l lo g ic

H o riz o n ta l lo g ic

Approach to Completing the Logframe

It is usually best to start preparing the logframe by working vertically down the first
column (Narrative) until this is complete. Once the hierarchy of overall objective(s), specific
objectives, outcomes, activities and inputs is considered sound, the planner should then
start to complete the Assumptions. This helps test the soundness of the project description
and should identify the constraints faced by the project, and any risks beyond the project's
control. The second and third columns should then be completed, working across the
matrix for each level of the project hierarchy. Thus for each Indicator, the Measurement
should be specified to help test if the indicator is in fact measurable in a timely and cost
effective manner.

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 Objective-Oriented Project Design & Management

Figure 9: Transposing Objectives into the Logframe

Objective Tree Logframe

Overall To contribute to the reform of Ends Narrative

the higher education systems
Objective in the Partner States
Overall To contribute to the reform
Objective of higher education
To create a system for systems in the Partner
Specific training in social work at States
Objectives higher education level Specific To create a system for
Objectives training in social work at
higher education level

Outcomes BA and MA courses in

BA and MA courses in Distance learning centre
Outcomes social work at university of further education for
social work at university X
recognised by the Ministry
X recognised by the social workers of Education
Ministry of Education
Distance learning centre of
further education for social
workers

Activities Activities....
Activities Activities Means

A common problem in transposing objectives from an objective tree into a logframe, is

clarifying the difference between objectives, outcomes and activities. The logframe matrix is
a management tool, and it is manageability which defines the difference between
objectives, outcomes and activities. Manageability is closely linked to the assumptions
and risks incorporated into the projects design.

In simple terms the project manager:

has authority over inputs
is responsible for their efficient use during the conduct of activities
will be held accountable for the achievement of outcomes

Specific objectives require a response from clients or beneficiaries (e.g. utilisation of the
service provided by the project), and therefore the manager cannot be held directly
responsible. Nonetheless, the specific objectives should be set at a realistic and
manageable level and it is the managers responsibility to monitor the extent to which
outcomes are leading to achievement of specific objectives, and to take corrective action
as necessary. In fact, it is this linkage - from outcomes to specific objectives - which is
critical to the success of a project. Overall objectives describe the intended wider impact
of the project, and while they lie further outside management control they should still be
set at a realistic and measurable level. Text box 1 illustrates this issue.

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 Objective-Oriented Project Design & Management

Text Box 1: Manageability and the Logframe

Taking the example of a project to create a system for training in social work at higher education level,
the sequence between the activity of preparing new curricula, and the goal of contributing to the reform
of the higher education sector in the Partner Country (in social work), is lengthy and complex.
Activity University prepares new curricula for BA and MA courses in social work and short
further education courses
University runs new degree courses in social work
University runs short further education courses for practitioners in social work
New courses reflect the requirements of social welfare organisations
Many students follow BA and MA programmes
Social workers agree training courses provide the necessary skills
Social welfare organisations find new skills useful
University teachers attend retraining study visits in the EU
University teachers gain new knowledge
University teachers change attitude
University teachers gain new skills
University teachers use their skills to further update the curriculum and develop new
teaching material
Objective A system for training in social work at higher education level is created
At which level should activities, outcomes, specific objectives and overall objectives be set? In fact, the
sequence of activities-outcomes-specific objectives-overall objectives is a continuum over which the
projects control gradually diminishes. With each successive step the desired response by the client (the
social work teachers and current social workers ) becomes less under the control of the project manager,
and more subject to external factors or risks. To claim that a manager could be held accountable only for
the activities of preparing new curricula and running training courses in order to achieve the outcome of
x number of social workers trained is unsatisfactory because the achievement of x trained social workers
is far from the objective of creating a system for training in social work at higher education level . On the
other hand, to require that the manager be held accountable for the efficient operations of social work
institutions is not reasonable as he or she has no direct influence over these institutions.

Decisions about what constitute sufficiently complex activities, valued outcomes and
feasible objectives should be based on two criteria - the capabilities of the manager and
the management team; and the riskiness of the project environment. Thus:
Activities in a logframe should be set at a level of complexity which encourages
managers to focus on strategic rather than tactical aspects of management. Thus
activities are not merely the provision of inputs (eg. stationery purchased) as this fills
the logframe with unnecessary and distracting detail. Tactical issues can be dealt with
using other techniques such as activity and cost schedules (see Steps 7 and 8).
Outcomes should be specified as valued outputs resulting from activities. If the
activity is conduct short courses it is not sufficient to specify the outcome as short
courses conducted or 75 students trained. A more valued outcome of the short
courses would be that participants gain new knowledge. The manager will be held
accountable for their achievement, and so targets should be set within a realistic
timeframe - if progress is not visible within a relatively short period (one year or less)
then the manager will be unaccountable for long periods.
Specific and Overall Objectives link implementation (what the project does) to its aims
(what the project seeks to achieve). Although these two levels lie outside direct
management control, they should be specified at a level which allows the assumptions

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 Objective-Oriented Project Design & Management

and risks to be monitored effectively. If the objectives were set at too high a level, the
assumptions and risks affecting their achievement would become so numerous that
monitoring them would distract the management team from actual implementation.

From the above example it might be feasible to suggest that the main activities of the
project are to prepare and deliver new courses, that the expected outcome is that BA and
MA courses are developed and recognised by the Ministry of education, that the specific
objective is that a system for training in social work at higher education level is created
which leads to the projects overall objective of contributing to the reform of the higher
education system in the Partner Countries.

Step 5 - Specify Assumptions and Risks

No matter how well a project is planned and prepared, things will not all go according to
plan. A number of external factors are likely to affect the projects implementation and
long-term sustainability but will lie outside its control. These conditions must be met if the
project is to succeed, and are included as assumptions in the fourth column of the
Logframe. Figure 10 illustrates the importance of assumptions - only if the objective and the
assumption are achieved can the project move to the next level.

Figure 10: The Role of Assumptions

Overall
Objectives

Project Assumptions
Purpose +

Outputs Assumptions
+

Activities Assumptions
+

One of the project designers roles is to identify these external factors, and as much as
possible to build mechanisms into the projects design either to deal with them, or to
monitor the effect they are having. Therefore the probability and significance of these
conditions being met should be estimated as part of assessing the riskiness of the project.
Some will be critical to project success, and others of marginal importance. A useful way of
assessing the importance of assumptions is through the use of the algorithm in Figure 11.
Once assumptions have been identified, they are stated in terms of the desired situation. In
this way they can be verified and assessed.

Examples of assumptions may be:

Local institutions collaborate in planning activities
Suitable staff are identified and recruited - local and expatriate
Trainees return to work on the project
Adequate budget allocations are made

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 Objective-Oriented Project Design & Management

Government meets certain pre-conditions set out by the donor

Figure 11: The Assumptions Algorithm

Is the external factor

important?

YES NO

Will it be Almost Do not include

realised? certainly in the logframe

Include as an
Likely
assumption

Unlikely Is it possible to redesign the

project in order to influence
the external factor?

YES NO

Redesign the project: add

The project is not technically
activities or outputs; or
feasible.
reformulate project purpose

Step 6 - Identify Indicators

Simply stating an objective is not sufficient. It is important to establish ways of measuring
the progress that is being achieved. To ensure that an objective is measurable it must be
accompanied by indicators which specify the information required. At the same time, the
means of measurement of the indicators should also be specified.

Formulate Indicators
Indicators should also fulfil certain criteria - Quantity, Quality and Time (often known as
QQT). There are four steps involved in the selection of indicators:

Define the indicator: e.g. educational status improved

Set quality: e.g. number of graduates completing degree courses increased
Set quantity: e.g. number of graduates completing degree courses increased from 500
to 1000
Set time: e.g. number of graduates completing degree courses increased from 500 to
1000 by the year 1999

Care must be taken to ensure that the indicators selected are specific to the objectives - in
other words, they really will show whether the objective is being achieved or not. Often
though, different people have their own interpretation of what a project is trying to do.

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 Objective-Oriented Project Design & Management

When the planners and the people implementing the project differ in their interpretation
of objectives, the result can be very damaging to project performance. Selection of
indicators is a helpful exercise in clarifying precisely what is meant by an objective, and
in ensuring that the objective is realistic, specific and measurable. This is illustrated in
figure 12:

Figure 12: The Role of Indicators

Formulate To help several players to address the issues of qualifications and

objective: training, and to implement actions to overhaul and develop their
systems successfully by drawing on the know-how and technical
assistance of their counterparts in the countries of the EU

Discussion: Which players will be involved? What kind of actions are

anticipated? What kind of systems are required? What kind of
relationships are envisaged with counterparts?

Indicators no. and type of higher education institutions participating in

selected: project
no. of graduates trained
rating of projects by external monitor
no. of active and unemployed social workers retrained
% graduates and retrained social workers finding new
employment

Reformulate To develop partnerships between higher education institutions in

objective: the Partner Countries and EU countries in order to develop
innovative approaches to the training of graduates and retraining
and redeployment of active and unemployed social workers.

Measurement
When indicators are formulated, the source of information and means of collection
should be specified. This will help to test whether or not the indicator can be realistically
measured at the expense of a reasonable amount of time, money and effort. The
Measurement column should specify:
the format in which the information should be made available (e.g. progress reports,
project accounts, project records, official statistics etc.)
who should provide the information
how regularly it should be provided (e.g. monthly, quarterly, annually etc.).

Sources outside the project should be assessed for accessibility, reliability and relevance.
The work and costs of collecting information to be produced by the project itself should
also be assessed, and adequate means provided. Indicators for which one cannot identify
suitable means of measurement should be replaced by other indicators. If an indicator is
found to be too expensive or complicated to collect, it should be replaced by a simpler,
cheaper indicator.

Means and Costs

Means are the human, material and financial resources required to undertake the planned
activities and manage the project. In order to provide an accurate estimate of the means
and costs required for a project, planned activities and management support activities

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 Objective-Oriented Project Design & Management

must be specified in sufficient detail. An area for particular attention is the cost of
collecting data on indicators. Specification of Means and Costs is covered in more detail
under step 8 - specifying inputs.

Step 7 - Prepare Activity Schedule

After the logframe matrix has been completed, further planning can take place to add
operational detail to the plan. An activity schedule is a method of presenting the activities
of a project which identifies their logical sequence and any dependencies that exist
between activities. It is also used as a means of identifying who will be responsible for
implementing an activity. The most commonly used presentation tool is the Gantt chart,
but Critical Path Analysis is also sometimes used.

Once the logframe itself is complete, it is then possible to copy the activities from the left
hand column into an activity scheduling format. This is most easily done if the matrix
has been prepared on a computer spreadsheet.

A Checklist for Preparing an Activity Schedule

The steps involved in activity schedule preparation are:
1. List the main activities
2. Break the main activities down into manageable tasks
3. Clarify the sequence and dependencies of the activities and tasks
4. Estimate the start-up, duration and completion of each activity and task
5. Identify process indicators or milestones by which you can measure project
performance
6. Define the expertise required to undertake the activities and tasks
7. Allocate tasks among the project team

List Main Activities

The main activities are a summary of what the project must do in order to achieve project
objectives. While preparing the list, planners should always be aware of the following:
available human, physical and financial resources
how each activity will lead towards achievement of project outcomes, and the
assumptions which underpin this
the risks and uncertainties that could affect implementation of activities
the time-frame of the project

Work Breakdown Structure

The purpose of breaking activities down into sub-activities or tasks, is to make them
sufficiently simple to be organised and managed easily. The technique is to break an
activity down into its component sub-activities, and then to take each sub-activity and
break it down into its component tasks. Each task can then be assigned to an individual,
and becomes their short-term goal. An example is shown in figure 13.

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 Objective-Oriented Project Design & Management

Figure 13: Developing a Work Breakdown Structure

Develop new Conduct teacher Develop partnerships Upgrade teaching

economics training courses with universities in equipment
curriculum the European Union

Conduct training Prepare training Develop training

needs assessment manuals in identified materials
areas

Formulate a teacher Conduct workshops

training programme

Inform participants Prepare training Make catering and

packs accommodation
arrangements

Organise venue Organise training

aids

The main skill is in getting the level of detail right. The most common mistake is to break
the activities down into too much detail. The breakdown should stop as soon as the
planner has sufficient detail to estimate the time and resources required, and the person
responsible for actually doing the work has sufficient instructions on what has to be
done.

Sequence
Once the activities have been broken down into sufficient detail, they must be related to
each other to determine their:
sequence - in what order should related activities be undertaken?
dependencies - is the activity dependent on the start-up or completion of any other
activity?

This can best be described with an example. Building a house consists of a number of
separate, but inter-related activities: digging and laying the foundations; building the
walls; installing the doors and windows; plastering the walls; constructing the roof;
installing the plumbing. The sequence dictates that digging the foundations comes before
building the walls; while dependencies include the fact that you cannot start installing
doors and windows until the walls have reached a certain height; or you cannot finish
plastering until the plumbing has been fully installed. Dependencies may also occur
between otherwise unrelated activities which will be undertaken by the same person.

Timing
Specifying the timing means making a realistic estimate of the duration of each activity,
and then building it into the activity schedule to establish likely start-up and completion
dates. Often though it is not possible to estimate timing with complete confidence. To
ensure that the estimates are at least realistic, you should do two things: i) consult with
people who have the necessary technical knowledge or experience; and ii) use your own
experience from previous projects.

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 Objective-Oriented Project Design & Management

Inaccuracy is a common mistake, usually resulting in an underestimate of the time

required, and can arise for a number of reasons:
omission of essential activities and tasks
failure to allow sufficiently for interdependence of activities
failure to allow for resource competition (ie. scheduling the same person or piece of
equipment to do two or more things at once)
a desire to impress with the promise of rapid results

Milestones/Process Indicators
Indicators have already been introduced in Section 3.1. Those included in an activity
schedule are called process indicators (also referred to as milestones). These indicators will
provide the basis by which project implementation is monitored and managed. The
simplest process indicators are the dates which you have estimated for completion of
each activity - eg. training needs assessment completed by January 1998. More substantial
process indicators can be used as an indication of overall project progress, and might be
linked to the phasing of a project. For example, a Tempus project might be separated into
a development phase (including institutional and needs analysis) and an implementation
phase. By establishing process indicators for the completion of Phase 1, you provide a
measure of overall progress, and a target for the whole project team to aim at.

Expertise
When you know what has to be done, you should have a clear picture of what type of
expertise will be required to do this. Often you will know in advance what expertise is
available. Nonetheless, this provides a good opportunity to check whether the action plan
is feasible given the human resources available.

Task Allocation
You should now allocate the tasks among team members. This involves more than just
saying who does what. With task allocation comes responsibility for achievement of
process indicators. In other words, it is a means of defining each team members
accountability - to the project manager and to other team members.

Task allocation must therefore take into account the capability, skills and experience of
each member of the team. When delegating tasks to team members, be careful to ensure
that they understand what is required of them. If not, you may have to increase the level
of detail with which the relevant tasks are specified.

Presenting an Activity Schedule

All of the information in an activity schedule can be summarised in graphical format.
This is called a Gantt Chart. An example is shown in figure 14. The format can be
adapted to fit with the expected duration of the project. An overall project schedule may
only specify activities on a quarterly or monthly basis, while an individuals quarterly
workplan may use a weekly format.

Figure 14: Example of an Activity Schedule

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 Objective-Oriented Project Design & Management

WORKPLAN FOR TEMPUS PROJECT

Activities Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Duration

1. List main activities 4. Estimate start-up,

duration & completion
1. Coordinate with Partner

1.1 Convene steering committee
of activities 2 weeks
1.2 Hold steering committee meetings 2 weeks

2. Revise budget  5. Summarise scheduling 6. Define milestones

2.1 Prepare draft budget of main activities 2 weeks
2.2 Discuss budget at steering committee meeting 2 days

3. Develop curricula   
3.1 Undertake training needs assessment 12 weeks
3.2 Prepare draft curricula 16 weeks
3.3 Prepare training materials for new curricula 2. Break activities 16 weeks
down into managable
4. Conduct teacher training tasks 
4.1 Prepare teacher training materials 8 weeks
4.2 Conduct teacher training workshops and 12 weeks
4.3 Evaluate workshops and modify as necessary 3 weeks
3. Clarify sequence
6. Purchase equipment and dependencies   3 weeks

The duration refers to the effective time that the activity will last - for example, equipment purchasing may take place over a period of 8 months, but will only require 3 weeks work.

Key: Monitoring milestones:

Overall duration of activity
Membership of steering committee and schedule of meetings agreed by January 15th
Activities carried out in Partner State  Revised budget agreed by steering committee by end January
Activities carried out in EU  Training needs assessment report submitted by end April
 New curricula agreed by end August
 Training materials prepared by end December
 Teacher training materials prepared by end June
 12 computers purchased by end June
 Additional 8 computers purchased by end December

Although the above example was prepared in Microsoft Excel (a spreadsheet package),
specialised computer software exists - for example, Microsoft Project, which has facilities
for preparing activity schedules and budgets.

Step 8 - Specifying Inputs

With the activity schedule prepared, the job of further specifying inputs and scheduling
costs can be started. The format in which inputs and costs should be presented and
summarised will depend on the procedures of the organisation for whom it is being
prepared - e.g. donor organisation - and the stage of the project cycle - e.g. preparation of
financing proposal.

Once again the list of activities should be copied into an input and cost schedule pro-
forma. Each activity should then be used as a checklist to ensure that all necessary means
under that activity are provided for. Regardless of the format in which the information is
to be presented, there are a number of issues which should be addressed.

A Checklist for Preparing a Cost Schedule

The steps involved in cost schedule preparation are:
1. List the means required to undertake each activity
2. Put means into cost categories
3. Specify units, quantity and unit costs
4. Specify funding source
5. Allocate cost codes
6. Schedule costs
7. Estimate recurrent costs

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 Objective-Oriented Project Design & Management

8. Prepare cost summary tables

Specify Means
The list of activities used in the activity schedule should be copied into the cost schedule
format. Each activity should then be used as a checklist to ensure that all necessary means
(or inputs) under that activity are provided for. The means should be described clearly and
precisely in the activity/means column. As with the work breakdown structure, it is
important to get the level of detail right. If the same input appears under many activities
(eg. stationery) then it is useful to aggregate this under one activity, and make an
appropriate note on the schedule. If there are activities for which no costs are indicated, it
may be sensible to leave them out of the cost schedule - they will not be forgotten as they
still appear in the activity schedule.

Put Means into Cost Categories

The purpose of categorising means and costs is to provide the basis for analysing
expenditure estimates, and then monitoring expenditure patterns and progress. By dividing
a project up into components, costs can be categorised by activity area (eg. management,
research, training) by adding the totals for each component. There is also a need, however,
to specify the cost items within components, and to aggregate them between components. It
is usual, for example, to want to know (among other things) total personnel, equipment and
material supply costs irrespective of which project component they are included under.
This is achieved by allocating inputs and costs to established cost categories.

At the most aggregated level, these costs are normally shown as Capital Costs and
Operating Costs. Within these two categories, costs are further divided into types of capital
or operating expenditure. As a general rule, it is best to divide your costs into no more than
10 further categories for the purpose of presenting cost summaries in a project design
document. The categories used by Tempus are:

Organisational Grants Mobility Grants

Staff costs Staff Mobility
Equipment Student Mobility
Other Costs
Overheads

In practice, the project planner will usually be given established cost categories to work
with. It is important that the planner fully understands what these categories do and do not
include.

Figure 15: Example of Categorising Means

With the cost categories determined, means should be listed

under each activity by category. For example:-

1.1.1 Prepare training materials

Staff costs
External expertise (academic fees and administrative
costs)
Mobility

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 Objective-Oriented Project Design & Management

Equipment
Photocopying facilities
Overheads
Office supplies
Other
Travel inside the EU and local travel

Specify Units, Quantity and Unit Costs

Once all the required means have been accounted for, the units (kilograms, months, etc.),
quantities required, and unit costs can be specified and entered into the table. Quantity and
unit cost data can then be used to compute actual quarterly, annual and total costs and
(referring back to the activity schedule) scheduled in the appropriate time-frame. As with
the activity schedule, timing intervals can be adjusted to fit the planning period - for
example, an annual budget need only be scheduled in a quarterly format, while a quarterly
budget will use a weekly format.

It is vital that project costings are based on accurate and realistic figures if a meaningful
appraisal of costs and benefits is to be subsequently carried out, and the correct investment
decisions made. Unit costs of inputs to be purchased from private suppliers should be
checked by adequate investigation of the current market.

Unit costs need to be identified for all inputs. Where this is difficult, (for example,
developing training materials), it might be more practicable to allocate a lump sum for
materials (based on previous experience of resource requirements), and specify therefore
that one unit is required at the time when materials are to be developed. In such cases, the
unit column can simply be described as lump sum.

Specify Funding Source

All Tempus projects are supported by external finance as well as domestic resources. Project
costings should thus show the allocation of costs between the different funding sources so
that each party is clear about their respective contributions. How costs are to be allocated
should be determined through discussions between the partners and Tempus.

The funding source column in the cost schedule should be given a letter code to show who
is funding the inputs in question. This letter code can then be used to sort all identified costs
to determine respective totals.

Schedule Costs
Costs should be calculated in constant prices, and an allowance for physical contingencies
may be shown separately. Costs are scheduled in the spreadsheet through using simple
formulas to multiply the annual quantity by the unit cost.

Estimate Recurrent Costs

At the end of the project life, the partner university will be required to meet any recurrent
costs of maintaining the activities or facilities that have been established by the project.
These costs may be covered (fully or partly) through increased revenue that has been

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 Objective-Oriented Project Design & Management

generated through project activities (e.g. course fees). Whether or not this is the case, it is
important that the net recurrent cost implications of the project are clearly specified so that
the future impact on the universitys budget can be determined.

The analysis of recurrent cost implications should begin with identifying those costs which
are likely to continue at the end of the project's life. The most likely areas in which these
costs will occur are:
Staff costs, allowance and training costs
Mobility, local travel and travel within the EU
Maintenance of equipment
Utility costs (such as electricity, water and telephone charges)
Consumable materials and supplies (such as stationery, food, teaching materials,
medical supplies)

An example of a cost schedule is presented in figure 15.

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 Objective-Oriented Project Design & Management

Figure 16: Example of a Cost Schedule

4. Specify units
1. Copy activities from
activity schedule 5. Specify quantity 6. Estimate unit costs

7. Identify funding
COST SCHEDULE FOR TEMPUS PROJECT
Unit Quantity per planning period Cost Funding Costs per planning period Project Annual
Activities 1st qtr 2nd qtr 3rd qtr 4th qtr per unit source 1st qtr 2nd qtr 3rd qtr 4th qtr total recurrent
costs

8. Schedule costs
4. Conduct teacher training
9. Calculate total
4.1 Prepare teacher training materials
10. Estimate recurrent costs
Staff costs
Internal personnel manmonths 6 6 6 6 1,000 Partner 6,000 6,000 6,000 6,000 24,000
External experts manmonths 1 1 2,000 Tempus 0 2,000 0 2,000 4,000
Equipment
Computers no. 8 4 1,200 Tempus 9,600 4,800 0 0 14,400
Printer no. 1 3 600 Tempus 600 1,800 0 0 2,400
Stationery lump sum 1 2,000 Tempus 2,000 0 0 0 2,000 2,000

2. Specify inputs 3. Put inputs into

cost categories

Prepare Cost Summary Tables

With the cost schedule properly prepared, the job of preparing cost summary tables is made
much easier. If it has been entered into a computer spreadsheet, most programmes will
allow you to sort your costs using the codes you have used to show funding source and
input/cost code.

A summary of project costs should be presented. The summary tables should usually
include:
partner university contribution by cost category and year
local contribution by cost category and year
total costs by cost category and year
partner university, local and total costs by project component
net recurrent cost implications

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 Objective-Oriented Project Design & Management

Summary: The Logical Framework Approach - A Step-by-Step Guide

A properly planned project addressing the real needs of the stakeholders cannot be
achieved without an analysis of the existing situation. Thus it is important to bring
together representatives of all key stakeholders in the Analysis Phase.

The logframe, for all its advantages when clearly understood and professionally
applied, provides no magic solution to identifying or designing good projects. It must
be seen as a dynamic tool, which should be re-assessed and revised as the project itself
develops and circumstances change.

Objectives should have the following characteristics: They should be

Realistic, Specific and Measurable

Simply stating an objective is not sufficient. To ensure that an objective is measurable,

it must be accompanied by indicators which specify Quantity, Quality and Time (often
known as QQT).

The measurement column specifies the source of information and means of collection
should be specified. It should include
the format in which the information should be made available
who should provide the information
how regularly it should be provided

Means are the human, material and financial resources required to undertake the
planned activities and manage the project. In order to provide an accurate estimate of
the means and costs required for a project, planned activities and management
support activities must be specified in sufficient detail.

An activity schedule is a method of presenting the activities of a project which

identifies their logical sequence and any dependencies that exist between activities. It
is also used as a means of identifying who will be responsible for implementing an
activity. The main skill is in getting the level of detail right. The breakdown should
stop as soon as the planner has sufficient detail to estimate the time and resources
required, and the person responsible for doing the work has sufficient instructions on
what has to be done.

It is vital that project costings are based on accurate and realistic figures if a
meaningful appraisal of costs and benefits is to be carried out subsequently, and the
correct investment decisions made.

At the end of the project life, the partner university will be required to meet any
recurrent costs of maintaining the activity or facility that has been established by the
project. It is important that these costs are clearly specified so that the future impact on
the universitys budget can be determined.

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 Objective-Oriented Project Design & Management

Chapter 1.3 The Logical Framework Approach and Objective-Oriented Project

Implementation
Projects are risky and uncertain things requiring that scarce resources are utilised
efficiently to achieve agreed objectives in a cost-effective and timely manner. This is the
task of project management. In order to achieve this, project managers must undertake a
whole series of generic management tasks, quite apart from the activities of the project
itself. These include:
further specify the project objectives, using the planning documents, as a basis for
preparing a detailed implementation strategy
develop appropriate activities and determine the required inputs and outputs
select realistic, measurable performance indicators
prepare realistic workplans and schedules, based on available resources and staff
capabilities
determine the organisational requirements for implementation, and allocate
responsibilities among units and staff
supervise the performance of staff and units
maintain detailed records of physical and financial progress
monitor the project, so that adjustments can be made to ongoing or planned activities
provide periodic reports to the responsible agencies and institutions (e.g. European
Commission, ETF)

Applying the LFA to a Pre-Designed Project

It is common for the logframe approach to be applied to projects after identification has
been completed. However, the logframe approach remains a powerful management tool
for analysis of project design, as well as for project design itself. The only difference is
that the source of information for problems is the identification document or project
document rather than primary data sources such as interviews, surveys, reports and
statistics. Therefore, if a logframe has not been prepared already, the manager should
develop one on the basis of available documentation.

The identification document (Feasibility Study, Project Proposal or Preparation Report)

should contain a description of the problems which the project is designed to address and
should specify overall objective(s), specific objectives, outcomes and activities. The
procedure for applying the LFA is as follows:

1. Mark the problems listed in the document

2. Build a problem tree
3. Reformulate these problems into objectives
4. Mark the objectives listed in the document
5. Compare objectives listed in the document with the reformulated problems:
for those which are identical mark one with * and discard the other
for those objectives listed in the document but which do not have a corresponding
reformulated problem, mark with !

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6. Build an objective tree:

Objectives marked * refer to objectives and corresponding problems listed in the
identification document
Objectives marked ! refer to objectives listed in the identification document but
with no corresponding problem listed
Objectives not marked refer to those for which only problems were listed in the
identification document
7. Analyse inconsistencies in the projects design:
problems not addressed by objectives
objectives for which no corresponding problem was identified
differences in cause-effect/means-ends relationships between the problem tree and
objective tree
8. Formulate questions to be addressed during next stage of project preparation, and
which will lead to project redesign
9. Prepare the logframe, activity schedule, resource and cost schedules as described
earlier

Monitoring and Reporting

Once a project has been planned and financial support been secured, the most important
part begins - implementation. It is very rare for any project to go exactly according to
plan. In fact it is not uncommon for a project to take on a direction and a momentum that
was completely unanticipated during planning. Project management now has the
important and difficult task of establishing sufficient controls over the project to ensure
that it stays on track towards the achievement of its objectives. This is done by
monitoring which can be defined as:

the systematic and continuous collecting, analysing and using of information for the
purpose of management control and decision-making.

Project monitoring is an integral part of day-to-day management. Its purpose is to

provide the information by which management can identify and solve implementation
problems, and assess progress in relation to what was originally planned.

On a Tempus project, monitoring is undertaken at three distinct levels:

By the project team, for the control of day-to-day activities;
By the contractor, through formal progress reports to the ETF Programme Manager;
and
By external monitors, who are independent of contractors and report to all parties
involved in the project and make recommendations for decision making.

Designing a Monitoring System

There are five steps in the design and specification of a monitoring system:

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1. Analyse project objectives to clarify project design. Good monitoring depends on

clearly stated objectives. The logframe approach helps to ensure that objectives are
correctly written and that actions are designed to lead to outputs and objectives. This
logical sequence simplifies the choice of monitoring indicators.
2. Review implementation procedures to determine information needs at the different
levels of the project management structure. The level of detail of information required,
and the frequency of reporting, will vary according to the level of management.
Essentially, this step means matching information needs to decision-making roles.
3. Review indicators for use in measuring achievement of objectives. Within the project
implementation team the priority focus will be on physical and financial monitoring of
activities and outcomes. The tools for this are good record keeping for comparison of
actual expenditure against budgets, and progress against the projects activity
schedule.
4. Design report formats to provide managers at different levels within the project with
access to relevant and timely information which facilitates easy analysis.
5. Prepare an implementation plan for the monitoring system which specifies the
necessary staff, skills and training required, and clearly allocates information
collection and reporting responsibilities.

Analyse Project Objectives

Analysis of objectives during project design has been dealt with in section 3.1. However,
some time may have passed since the project was designed, and the project environment
or the actors involved may have changed. It is sensible therefore to start implementation
with a project start-up workshop. The purpose of this workshop would be to bring
together the stakeholders to review project documents and key assumptions. Project
objectives should be revised to ensure that they are clearly stated and remain realistic,
specific and measurable. These will now form the basis for the Monitoring & Evaluation
system.

Review Implementation Procedures

The logframe provides the framework for identification of information needs as a whole.
It is important though to relate information needs to the different levels of the
management structure. In reality, the level of detail of information required and the
frequency of reporting will vary according to the level of management. For example,
project administrators will need information about day-to-day activities, while the
contractor will require more summarised information about achievement of outputs or
deviations from the workplan which he/she may need to forward to the programme
implementation agency. Figure 16 illustrates this principle. A review of implementation
procedures involves a review of what activities will be undertaken and by whom. This
should be done with reference to the activity schedule.

By reviewing implementation procedures (who does what) in consultation with partner

institution staff, the various roles, functions and responsibilities are clarified, and a clear
link can be made between information needs and levels of management. This process can
be assisted by drawing up a table which lists the information user, what is required, the
source of the information, and who is responsible for preparing the report.

Figure 17: Information Needs and Levels of Management

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 Objective-Oriented Project Design & Management

Programme manager Summarised

External monitor
Flow of
ProjectContractor information

Project team
Detailed

Volume of information

Effective reporting is dependent on the users and reporters having a common

understanding of why a report is required and what it will be used for. However,
experience shows that this approach has two important weaknesses; first, it assumes that
users know what they need in advance, second, users tend to request more information
than they really need. Both situations are to be expected during the early stages of a
programme when the roles and functions of university and partner staff are still being
clarified. In practice they may not be resolved over time when a third weakness may
become apparent; users are not aware of what information is available. Given that both
the users and uses are expected to change over time the identification of information
requirements will be an iterative process, and the onus will be on those responsible for
Monitoring & Evaluation (M&E) to undertake a continual review of users requirements
through:
attending planning and review meetings to note what appears to be lacking or
redundant for effective decision making
encouraging comments and suggestions on the content and format of reports directly
from user to reporter

Review Indicators
Selection of indicators has already been discussed in Chapter 1.2. However, poorly
specified indicators have frequently been cited as a major weakness in the design of M&E
systems. Common problems encountered in the selection of indicators include:
selection of too many indicators - People have a tendency to over-estimate the
amount of information they need to make decisions. Specification of information
needs involves a trade-off between the amount of information required to make
decisions, and the amount of information that a decision-maker can practicably read
and analyse. All too often, a manager over-specifies his or her information needs, only
to find that it is simply impossible to read the reports and absorb the information
contained in them. Information needs must be related to levels of management, and
selection of indicators should reflect this through the specification of a minimum set of
information. More detail is required at the day-to-day operational level, while
aggregated and summarised data is used at higher levels.
selection of overly-complex indicators which present major problems for data
collection, either in terms of the skills or the resources required. Qualitative indicators
are also a means of conveying complex information in summarised form.
over-concentration on progress indicators which provide insufficient information on
the performance of the project. A common response to such a criticism is that it is not
possible to measure impact during the lifetime of a project. However, by using leading

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 Objective-Oriented Project Design & Management

indicators4, it should be possible to gain a clear indication of the likelihood of achieving

objectives - if clients are satisfied with the services being provided by the project, then
it is likely that they will continue to utilise these services and therefore that this change
in their behaviour will translate into real benefits in the longer term. Selection of
impact indicators is a critical part of project design and can in fact sharpen definition
of objectives and identification of intended clients. It should form an important focus
for early discussions between project partners.

Reporting
Project managers will want to review progress very frequently, perhaps weekly or
fortnightly, against their contracted budget and planned activities. Much of this data will
be of an operational nature for internal use by the project team. A few selected items, plus
aggregated data on equipment and materials, are considered key indicators for
reporting in the progress reports.

4
A leading indicator is a proxy for an impact indicator.

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 Objective-Oriented Project Design & Management

Management Tip 2: Recording and Reporting

A manager must have timely and relevant

information on which to make decisions. Take time
to establish what your most important information
needs are. Too much information can be as much of
a problem as too little.
Create a structured filing system, even for a small
project of short duration. Date and file a copy of all
correspondence sent and received.
Respond to reports from your colleagues. Lack of
feedback is a major cause of breakdown in
reporting systems.

Monitoring cannot be described as being successful simply because the required

information is collected. The information collected must be communicated - in the right
form, to the right person, at the right time. Only then can timely and appropriate
management decisions be made to address problems and ensure that the project is
brought back on track.

Mechanisms for communication must be established to ensure that the necessary

information is generated and utilised in a timely and effective manner. Two important
types of mechanism are:
Project progress reports - these are periodic summaries (perhaps weekly, monthly or
quarterly) of project progress incorporating key information from the physical and
financial indicators included in the logframe, activity schedule and cost schedule. It is
not sufficient for team members to report simply that things are going according to
plan. They must also provide the evidence of this.
Progress review - get together on a regular basis to review progress against the plan.
This may be an opportunity for written reports to be presented and discussed, or
simply for a rapid oral assessment of current issues and problems. However, reviews
can be damaging if they are too frequent or too drastic. The temptation is often to go
back to the plan and adjust it in the light of experience. This is acceptable up to a point,
but if you find yourself spending more time planning than doing, then you have
obviously got the balance wrong. It is also at times of crisis that organisations focus
more on task accomplishment and forget about the process. Try to build on
achievements rather than just continually adjusting the plan.

Progress Reports
Progress reports are usually written in a standard format allowing for comparison
between reports over time. The contents of the reports should match closely the logframe
and its related outputs - ie. the activity schedule, budget and cost schedule. In each of
these, targets will have been set: in the logframe, indicators of achievement (specifying
quantity, quality, time) will have been identified at the levels of outcome, specific
objectives and overall objectives; while in the activity schedule milestones will have been
established for the completion of activities; and in the cost schedule, expenditure will
have been estimated and placed in a calender.

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 Objective-Oriented Project Design & Management

The purpose of progress reports is to provide updates on achievements against these

indicators and milestones, using the following framework:

Data about intended achievements, is compared with

Data on actual achievements, to identify...
significant deviations from plan, as a basis for...
identification of problems and opportunities, to identify...
corrective action and alternatives.

Within this framework, the report should cover the following areas:
A summary of the current status of the project against indicators for specific objectives
and outcomes
The major activities undertaken during the period of the report, as compared to the
activity schedule
Expenditure during the period of the report, and cumulative to date, as compared to
the budget and cost schedule
Estimates of the number of clients or beneficiaries served during the period
The current and anticipated problems, including planned remedial actions
Planned major activities and schedules for the next period.

Managing Project Financial Resources

Once approval has been given for a project to start, financial management can begin.
Financial management is concerned with the preparation of budgets for the those
working under the project, setting up arrangements to receive and make payments,
monitoring and reporting actual expenditure compared with planned estimates, and
preparation of historical accounts.

Accounting records must be kept to ensure regulations are complied with. Accounts may
have to be audited and so this duty must be taken very seriously. Financial management
is an important element of overall project management and whoever undertakes this role
makes an important contribution to the management team.

Planning a Budget and Cashflow

The first task for the financial manager is to review the proposed budget in the project
document. If the project is approved soon after the application was prepared, the original
budget should remain valid. However, if a long period of time has elapsed since
preparation, or parts of the proposal were amended, the budget should be recalculated to
match the approved funding.

Terminology
Three similar terms are used for financial planning. They each have
different meanings:

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 Objective-Oriented Project Design & Management

A budget is a statement of the resources required to carry out a

task, and the unit prices and total costs of the task.
A cost schedule contains the same information as a budget, but
shapes the information and places it in a time frame. Cost
schedules are described in Chapter 1.2. step 8.
A cashflow sets out both receipts (income) and payments
(expenditure) in a time-based table, with the items shown in the
exact time period when the transaction is expected to take place.
The net balance from each time period is accumulated for the
duration of the cash flow to show periods of surplus and deficit.

Once the budget is in order, the next step is to prepare a cashflow. A cashflow is similar
to a cost schedule but it:
shows both expenditure and sources of income
analyses expenditure and income in the time period when each will occur
enables the calculation of the net balance of funds available to the project - this is to
help estimate whether purchases are affordable at a given date

Cashflows can be prepared with either short (one week or one month) or long (three or
six-month) time periods. For most projects a monthly cashflow would be the most
appropriate scale.

An example of a cashflow is presented in Figure 18. The example shows that some
receipts and payments are regular, occurring every month, while others are lumpy and
only occur at specific times. The result is that in four of the months, the resulting Net
Balance is negative. If the project has no way of financing this deficit, plans must be made
to defer some expenditure until there are enough funds to meet payments. Alternatively,
it may be possible to bring forward the dates of receipt of income.

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 Objective-Oriented Project Design & Management

Figure 18: Example of Project Cashflow

,

Items Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun

INCOME
Government grants 15,000 15,000 20,000 20,000
University 12,000 12,000 12,000 12,000 12,000 12,000 12,000 12,000 12,000 12,000 12,000 12,000
Tacis/Tempus 19,000 4,500 4,500 6,000
Sub Total 27,000 31,000 12,000 27,000 12,000 16,500 36,500 12,000 12,000 38,000 12,000 12,000

EXPENDITURE
Office rent & cleaning 40 2,790 40 40 2,790 40 40 5,000 60 60 5,000 60
Telephone/fax 886 886 886 886
Equipment hire 386 386 386 386
Printing, stationery 350 350 350 350 350 350 350 350 350 350 350 350
Canteen 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25
Staff costs 13,407 13,407 16,644 15,694 15,694 16,138 16,138 16,138 16,138 16,138 16,138 16,138
Laboratory equipment 4,500 6,000
Air travel 1,500 4,500
New vehicle 17,500
Vehicle operating 295 295 295 295 295 295 295 295 295 295 295
Sub Total 13,822 37,139 17,354 16,790 24,540 16,848 21,734 22,694 16,868 23,254 22,694 16,868

NET INFLOW/OUTFLOW 13,178 -6,139 -5,354 10,210 -12,540 -348 14,766 -10,694 -4,868 14,746 -10,694 -4,868

Balance brought forward 0 13,178 7,039 1,685 11,895 -645 -993 13,773 3,079 -1,789 12,957 2,263
Net Balance 13,178 7,039 1,685 11,895 -645 -993 13,773 3,079 -1,789 12,957 2,263 -2,605

The cashflow is an important planning tool:

it shows the projected financial situation of the project at a glance;
it is easy to read even for non-financially trained team members;
if prepared on a computer spreadsheet it is easy to update and amend; and,
it forms the basis for management reporting.

Keeping Accounts
If the project is a large one it is most likely that a professional accounting department at
the contractors office will handle the practical issues of keeping historical accounts. For
smaller projects, however, and in some other cases of personal preference, project
managers may wish to keep their own records. The best way is to use double-entry
bookkeeping, a standard internationally recognised technique, and beyond the scope of
this manual.

For smaller-scale projects or personal records a simple single-entry analysis ledger is

usually adequate. The ledger is used to record each item of income or expenditure and
analyse by source and application. The categories of analysis should match the
expenditure categories used in the cost schedule and cashflow, although more detail can
be kept if required. An example of an analysis ledger is presented in Figure 19.

Figure 19: Example of an Analysis Ledger

Item Date Serial No. Amount Office Phone Equip Print Canteen etc.

Cleaner 28/07/97 Natalia 23 38.50 38.50

Coffee 20/07/97 PC 22 15.00 15.00
Soap and cloths 29/07/97 PC 23 7.50 7.50
Phone bill 05/08/97 Tel 677 674.00 674.00
Photocopier service 07/08/97 OEM 44 145.00 145.00
Fax & letterhead paper 08/08/97 Print 82 126.00 56.00 175.00
etc.

The example shows how systematic records of payments enable a running check to be
kept about expenditure against project categories.

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 Objective-Oriented Project Design & Management

Managing the Financial Data

Regularly, not less than monthly, the financial manager should prepare an analysis of the
expenditure and income, by category. This analysis can then be compared with the
budget and the cashflow. The purpose of the analysis is to identify any situation where
the actual performance has deviated from plan. There are many reasons why expenditure
might vary from plans: foreign exchange variations; price inflation; changes in equipment
specification; and change in quantities ordered. No plan is perfect and it is to be expected
that actual performance will vary. Close financial monitoring will ensure that the project
manager is kept fully informed and can react to changes before they cause unexpected
problems.

Financial reports
Periodically, most typically at quarterly or six monthly intervals, a formal set of financial
reports should be prepared to compare actual expenditure against the budget. The
reports should be prepared for the project as a whole and for individual partners if they
are separately managed. Summary reports should also be prepared to analyse
expenditure by category and by source of funds (this is especially important is cases
where the project receives funds from more than one donor).

The analysis should show the budgeted amount for the year, the cumulative expenditure
to date and the balance remaining. An example is shown in Figure 20.

Figure 20: Example of a Financial Report

Item Budget Cumulative Balance

Expenditure remaining

Staff costs 27,000 21,240 5,760

Equipment 17,750 12,670 5,080
Overheads 5,400 3,000 2,400
Mobility 37,125 28,150 8,975
Other 11,000 7,580 3,420

Totals 98,725 72,640 25,635

After the analysis has been finalised the cashflow should be updated for the following
six- or twelve month period. In this way, the cashflow becomes a rolling tool, for the
project manager.

Project Review and Evaluation

Evaluation can be defined as a periodic assessment of the relevance, efficiency,
effectiveness, impact, economic and financial viability, and sustainability of a project in
the context of its stated objectives. The purpose of evaluation is to review the
achievements of a project against planned expectations, and to use experience from the
project to improve the design of future projects and programmes. Evaluation draws on
routine reports produced during implementation and may include additional
investigations by external monitors or by specially constituted missions.

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 Objective-Oriented Project Design & Management

Evaluation Criteria
A major issue which affects any evaluation is the choice of criteria. The EU uses the
following criteria:

Relevance - the appropriateness of project objectives to the problems which it was
supposed to address, and to the physical and policy environment within which it
operated
 Economy - the cost and quality of project inputs (human and material)
 Efficiency - the cost-effectiveness with which inputs and activities were converted
into outputs, and the quality of outputs achieved
 Effectiveness - an assessment of the contribution made by outputs to achievement of
the specific objectives of the project, and how assumptions have affected project
achievements
 Impact - the contribution of the project to the wider sectoral objectives summarised
in the projects Overall Objectives, and to the general development objectives
 Economic & financial viability - the social costs and benefits of the project in terms
of its impact on income distribution,. macroeconomic, budgetary and other macro
variables
Sustainability - the likelihood of a continuation in the stream of benefits produced
by the project, particularly continuation of the projects activities and achievement of
outcomes, and with particular reference to development factors of policy support,
economic and financial factors, socio-cultural aspects, gender, appropriateness of
technology, ecological aspects, and institutional capacity

Linkage to the Logframe

The steps involved in an evaluation exercise closely follow the hierarchical objective
structure of the project design. By following this systematic approach all aspects of the
projects achievements are evaluated.

Costs
Actual input costs compared to plan - this is the basis of variance analysis. Was there a
budget revision; how did the nature and timing of inputs compare with plan; did the
recipient agency or other donors fulfil their planned contributions? These data will have
been monitored and reported in progress reports. Such reports are a key source of data
for evaluation.

Activities
Actual schedule and completion compared with plan. Were there delays or time savings?
Which organisation was responsible for delays? What effect did deviations from plan
have on the project? These data will have been monitored and reported in progress
reports. Action to overcome problems and an independent assessment of progress will
also be available from the reports produced by external monitors.

Outcomes

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 Objective-Oriented Project Design & Management

Indicators of the immediate output from project activities compared with plan. Many of
these indicators will be process indicators which report successful completion of a task
e.g. new curriculum drafted and approved by September 30th. Others will be quantified
targets such as number of managers training in market analysis. A third level is
concerned with the efficiency of project activities.

Efficiency indicators compare actual inputs as a ratio of actual outputs: e.g. average cost
of training per participant; number of graduates being advised per careers advisor per
month; percentage of recent graduates finding jobs in their specialist disciplines. Most of
these data will be obtainable from project records and will have been reported in progress
reports. Calculation of these ratios will permit comparisons to be made over the life of the
project, to see if performance has improved, and comparison with other projects.

Specific Objectives
Indicators of the achievement of project objectives through the creation of outcomes.
These effectiveness indicators show whether or not the project has achieved its purpose
and whether project activities are sustainable. Eg. Do students put their new skills and
knowledge into practice; does the operational performance of social welfare agencies
improve after hiring newly trained graduates from university?

If the projects actual performance does not compare well with the plan, the evaluator
must investigate further. Is the poor performance due to problems arising from the initial
problem analysis, from the project design, or from implementation? Three of the
sustainability factors are of special importance here. To what extent was the institutional
and managerial capacity of the project accurately assessed? To what extent was necessary
policy support properly implemented? To what extent was the financial viability of the
proposed organisation adequately appraised?

Lastly, the evaluation should examine the standard and quality of goods and services
generated by the project, in the opinion of final beneficiaries. E.g. Have trainees gained
new skills? Do their employers find those skills to be relevant and beneficial? Evaluation
of effectiveness and sustainability will require the evaluator to gather data from outside
the project organisation, through meetings and visits to beneficiaries and other
organisations.

Overall objectives
The final stage is to assess the contribution of the project to the wider sectoral objectives,
e.g. the overall aim of the Tempus programme. Because each individual project is just
one element in a programme of activities, assessment of overall objectives may be best
undertaken as part of a thematic or sectoral evaluation, e.g. external evaluation of the
whole Tempus programme.

Opportunities for Evaluation

The approach adopted by many agencies, including the World Bank and DG VIII of the
European Commission, is to programme formal evaluation reports at specific stages in
the project cycle and to supplement these with ad hoc studies. The specific reports would
typically be:

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 Objective-Oriented Project Design & Management

At Mid-Term, in the case of projects lasting longer than 15 months. The objective of
such a report is to review progress and propose alterations to objectives and activities.
At Project Completion, to document the resources used, results and progress towards
objectives. The objective is to generate lessons about the project which can be used to
improve future designs.
After Completion. An ex post evaluation is undertaken some time after
implementation is finished, perhaps as long as two or three years. The main objective
is to study the effects and impact on the partner institution and the sectoral impact,
sufficiently long after implementation for issues of sustainability to have stabilised.

Further ad hoc studies are used to investigate themes, such as sectoral projects within one
country for example; common designs undertaken in several countries, such as
economics projects; or types of intervention, such as curriculum development. The
advantage of themed studies is that several small projects can be evaluated at one time
and their results related to wider policy objectives.

Evaluation Protocol
The objectives and scope of the evaluation should be clear to all involved. This includes
making sure that the project has a clearly defined idea as to how the evaluation
information will be used. Consultations must therefore be held to make sure that the
needs of all parties to the evaluation are covered by the original project proposal and the
workplan.

All necessary documentation should be prepared prior to the evaluation to provide

background information pertinent to the key areas being evaluated. Examples are project
description, the projects aims and objectives, the logframe matrix, chronological
presentation of project phases, survey of costs and budgets, copies of key documents,
target and actual outcomes of different types of microprojects and any other details
relating to project implementation.

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Summary: The Logical Framework Approach and Project Implementation

LFA can be applied to a pre-designed project. The main difference is that the source of
information on the problems is project documentation rather than primary data
sources.

Monitoring is defined as the systematic and continuous collecting, analysing and

using of information for the purpose of management control and decision-making.
The purpose of monitoring is to provide the information by which management can
identify and solve implementation problems, and assess progress in relation to what
was originally planned.

There are five steps involved in designing a monitoring system:

Analyse project objectives
Review implementation procedures
Review indicators
Design report formats
Prepare an implementation plan for the monitoring system

Successful monitoring involves more than just the collection of information. It requires
that the information is communicated to the right people in the right form at the right
time.

Evaluation is an assessment of how well a project has succeeded in meeting its direct
objectives and contributed to wider sectoral goals. It is undertaken after
implementation and draws on data produced by monitoring, but also requires
information from outside the project about the projects impact on target beneficiaries.

There are seven fundamental elements to be examined during evaluation:

relevance - the appropriateness of project objectives
economy - acceptable level of costs incurred
efficiency - correct use of resources to produce outcomes
effectiveness - did the outputs achieve the specific objectives
impact - the contribution of the project to its wider sectoral objectives
economic & financial viability - the social costs and benefits of the project
sustainability - the ability of project-created entities to continue operations

The structure of the logframe provides a framework for systematic evaluation.

Integrated documentation ensures that objectives, risks and sustainability are
investigated during preparation. This helps evaluation by providing a logical structure
for the project and by identifying appropriate indicators.

Formal mid-term, completion and ex-post evaluations can be supplemented by ad hoc,

thematic or sectoral studies.

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Part 2: Project Management Skills

Project management is not just about setting objectives and preparing progress reports. It
is also about managing people. For this, everyday skills are required - for example, how
to make yourself clearly understood during a meeting, or how to use your time
efficiently. Although often taken for granted, these skills can sometimes mean the
difference between success and failure. Part 2 provides some guidelines on how to
improve your everyday project management skills, to help you in your own work, and
in your interaction with others.

Chapter 2.1 outlines the benefits of teamwork. It explains the four stages of group
development, and suggests a number of techniques that can enhance group sharing of
roles and responsibilities, and therefore lead to improved team performance.

Chapter 2.2 looks at how to make oral and written communication more effective. It
stresses the need to plan oral communication in advance wherever possible, and to keep
written records of oral agreements and decisions. Guidance is provided on how to
structure and present clear and concise written communications so that the information
contained in them is received and understood.

Chapter 2.3 explains that meetings are a management tool to achieve effective
communication, and to save time. It outlines how to plan for, and manage a meeting
effectively. It emphasises the need for a well thought out agenda, and for keeping good
records in the form of action minutes.

Chapter 2.4 explains the importance of managing the use of one of your most valuable
resources - time. The section briefly describes the main causes of poor time management,
and suggests the use of: i) a daily diary; ii) the prioritisation of work functions and tasks;
and iii) the allocation of a short amount of time to plan each day, week and month.

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Chapter 2.1 Teamwork

The principle underlying teamwork is that the collective effort of a group can produce a
greater effect than the combined efforts of individuals. Although this sounds a little like
saying that 2 + 2 = 5, it is often the case that a group can be more productive together
than working separately - for example, by bouncing ideas back and forth, or by building
on each others different perceptions and knowledge.

However, just because a group of people are working together on a particular task does
not mean that they are operating as a team. To be classified as a team, the group should
be viewed as a self-managing unit, which operates in the spirit of cooperation,
coordination and commonly understood procedures. This in turn leads to a number of
advantages:
Decision-making - a team whose members are involved in making decisions, in
setting objectives and establishing work practices, will be better able to make decisions
about their own work, requiring less supervision and management from above.
Motivation - through belonging to a team, individuals can participate in team
achievements which may be beyond their own individual potential. With shared
recognition for success comes shared accountability for team actions. Thus there are
opportunities for enhancing self-esteem from team successes, and minimising stress
through shared responsibility for failure.
Innovation - teams are particularly good in situations where there is no established
approach or procedure. This is particularly the case for organisations undergoing
change. By combining its broader base of skills and experience, the team can out-
perform the individual.

The net result of these factors is that a team is often harder-working, and more efficient at
completing a task than a group of individuals working without a group process.

How Groups Develop

There are four recognised stages of group development which are explained below and
illustrated in figure 21:
Forming - when the group first comes together, everyone is polite and individuals are
careful about voicing their own opinions. The groups tends to defer to its leaders
Storming - factions form, personalities clash, and every agreement is the result of a
fierce battle. Effective communication is not possible as no-one is listening. Many
groups do not pass beyond this stage, and so collapse.
Norming - the various factions begin to see the merits of working together, and a new
spirit of cooperation emerges. Team members begin to feel comfortable in voicing their
own opinions, and people start to listen to each other.
Performing - the culmination of all of the battles when the group forms a cohesive and
effective operating unit. A high degree of group support is provided to team members
and to decisions made by the group. The level at which the group performs should be
well above the level at which it was formed.

Figure 21: The Dynamics of Group Development

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Performing

Group
effectiveness
Forming

Storming Norming

Group effort

The speed with which a group becomes able to perform is a reflection of the time and
effort spent in managing the group process. There are two types of skills which a group
requires to be able to perform - managerial skills and interpersonal skills. It is the
accelerated acquisition of these skills that reflects successful management of the group
process. Management skills are explained below, while interpersonal skills are explained
in Chapters 2.1 to 2.2.

Management Skills
The basic functions of a manager include strategic planning, setting goals, deciding
budgets, monitoring performance, etc. The principle of teamwork is to enable the group
to undertake management functions collectively.

In the short-term, a newly formed group may appoint a facilitator to suggest systems and
structures which will enhance group skills and focus individuals minds on the group
process. However, in the longer term, facilitation should be performed equally by every
team member.

Some additional techniques for enhancing group sharing of roles and responsibilities
include:
Brainstorm - when new ideas are needed, hold a short meeting to generate
suggestions from the group. Do not comment on any of the suggestions until the
group has put forward all of its ideas, or the specified time period is up. Only then
should each idea be analysed at length. In general, the more that ideas are bounced
around within a group, the better will be the groups understanding of the task or
problem in hand.
Avoid single solutions - the first idea is not always the best. Look for alternatives, and
evaluate them as a team. Even after a plan has been agreed, be prepared to change it.
Keep written records - if decisions are not recorded, they may be forgotten or
misinterpreted, and therefore need to be re-discussed. In group meetings, record
decisions clearly on a flip chart as soon as they are made. Summarise these decisions,
and the allocation of responsibility in action minutes.
Ensure constructive feedback - make criticism neutral by focusing on the task and not
the personality. Accompany every criticism with a positive suggestion for

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improvement. When somebody does something well, praise them for it. Emphasise
what progress is being made.
Explore failure - do not simply brush failures aside and move on. As a group, analyse
why something did not work, and try and devise a mechanism that will ensure the
same mistake is not repeated.
Share authority - there should be no rigid hierarchy in the group. Authority should be
assumed by the person most suited to the task, and relinquished as soon as the task is
completed.

Putting these tips into practice is not always straightforward, but the first step is to
recognise the need for time and resources to be allocated to the planning, monitoring and
review of team development. One possible method of starting the group process is to
start calling regular strategy meetings where the projects current position and direction
are discussed openly, and the ideas and input of all team members are sought.

Your Role Within the Team

The role you have within your organisation and the project team has a major impact on
your ability to influence your project and to be an effective administrator. Figure 22
represents a map of your role. Many of us operate in the central comfort zone where we
feel safe and confident because we have authority and are using our core skills. Therefore
the risk of failure is low. However, as soon as we step outside this comfort zone, we begin
to feel uncertain. We may be using only newly learned skills in which we are not yet
confident; or new demands are being placed upon us; or we are unsure of what our role
is. The response to this role map should not be to retreat into the comfort zone at every
opportunity, but to expand the comfort zone by developing skills and confidence, and
gaining greater authority in the eyes of others.

Figure 22: A Role Map

Undefined areas Comfort zone

of responsibility

Clearly defined Area of uncertainty

New
demands authority
& require- Core skills
ments Confidence
Area of opportunity

New skills &

knowledge

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Summary: Teamwork
A team is a self-managing unit which performs in an environment of cooperation,
coordination and commonly understood procedures.

There are four stages of group development: forming; storming; norming; performing

The first step in building a team approach is to allocate time and resources to
developing a team process. The speed with which a group of individuals becomes a
team is determined largely by the importance which management attaches to this
process.

There are a number of techniques which can enhance teamwork:

brainstorm ideas as a group
avoid single solutions
keep written records of team decisions
ensure that all feedback is constructive
analyse failure to establish its causes
share authority among the team

The individuals responsibility to the team lies in expanding his/her comfort zone by
developing his/her skills and confidence, and gaining greater authority in the eyes of
the team.

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Chapter 2.2 Communication

Oral Communication
Oral communication in the management sense does not refer to chatting, but to the
conveying of work-related information. Whether the conversation is face to face, or over
the telephone, oral communication includes speaking and listening. For effective oral
communication, you must make your message understood; understand the messages sent
to you; and exert some control over the flow of the conversation.

It is not generally appreciated that there is a method to conversation, but without it many
problems will arise, especially when communicating across cultural and language
boundaries. All oral understandings and decisions should be recorded. This is automatic
in written communication, but oral agreements can easily be forgotten. By keeping a
record of conversations and telephone calls, you reduce the chances of misunderstanding
and disagreement.

Speaking
When you would like to talk to someone on a project-related matter, whether face-to-face
or by telephone, you should try to plan it in advance. Make a note on paper what the
purpose of the conversation is, and plan on how you want to achieve this - the points you
need to make, the contextual information you should provide, and the questions you
must ask. Tips for effective conversation are:
be assertive - always state your points clearly, acknowledge the other persons
viewpoint (even if you disagree), and state what should happen next as a result of the
conversation.
maintain control - being assertive does not mean being aggressive. Do not lose your
temper as this will reduce the chances of the other person listening. Always check the
facts to ensure that you have not misunderstood the situation.
use open questions - do not ask closed questions which just elicit a Yes or No
response. By asking open questions, you encourage the other person to provide more
detailed information.
listen - do not forget that a conversation is a two-way process. Let the other person
convey information to you.
summarise - at the end of the conversation, summarise your understanding of the
outcome - what should be done next?

Listening
When listening to someone else speaking, there are some simple tips which can help
reduce the chance of a misunderstanding.
Repeat it - after the other person finishes speaking, seek confirmation of what was
said - So, if I understand you correctly, what you mean is that...
Record it - after the conversation, spend a couple of minutes jotting down on a piece
of paper what was said, who said it, the date and time, and put it in the relevant file

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Write back - if the conversation covered some particularly important information

which may affect you or your organisation significantly, write back to the speaker,
confirming what was agreed. This not only enables you to confirm what the actual
agreement was, but provides a written record to be retained in your filing system.

Management Tip 3: Telephone Calls

Before making the telephone call, write down:

the aim of the call - what you want to achieve

an agenda of points you need to make

the questions you must ask
At the start of the call:

always state your name

ask if it is a convenient time to talk

state clearly why you are calling
During the call:

tick off the points on your agenda as they are dealt with

check whether or not all of your points have been covered

at the end, summarise what has been agreed during the call

Written Communication
Management writing is the main form of communication within and between
organisations. The written word may be in the form of letters, faxes, e-mail, minutes,
memoranda or reports. Because we write so much, it can be a time-consuming chore.
However, writing a well-structured and easily comprehensible document is a satisfying
and efficient use of your time.

Documents convey information. Writing a document provides an opportunity to

structure thoughts, clarifying the issues to both writer and reader. Unlike literature,
management writing should get straight to the point, conveying only the significant
information in as few words as possible. The following factors should always be
considered when writing a document:
Objective - what is the aim of the document?
Audience - who is the document aimed at?
Structure - how can the information be presented clearly and concisely?
Draft & edit - does the document fulfil its aim clearly and concisely?

Objective
You must have a definite reason for writing the document, and then focus clearly on this
aim. If you do not know why you are writing it, then you probably should not be doing
so.

Audience
As well as being clear on your own aim in writing the document, you should also
consider what the reader would like to achieve. If you get this right, then you will

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succeed in getting the readers attention, and therefore in conveying your message. Ask
yourself:
what do they already know?  leave it out
what background do they need?  include it
what do they want to know?  emphasise it

Structure
Structure is used to make the information more accessible to the reader. This means
breaking down the aim of the document into sections, sub-sections and paragraphs so
that the information is presented in smaller, more digestible pieces - rather similar to the
process of developing a work breakdown structure as explained in section 1.2. step 7. As
a general rule each paragraph should convey only one idea - if it serves no purpose, then
remove it. Where possible each paragraph should include:
a statement of the idea
a development of the idea
an explanation of the idea and its context
an illustration or evidence to support it

Figure 23 below illustrates good structure.

Figure 23: Structuring a Document

Statement of the idea Development

Structure
Structure is used to make the information more accessible to the reader. This means breaking
down the aim of the document into sections and sub-sections and paragraphs so that the
information is presented in smaller, more digestible pieces - rather similar to the process of
developing a work breakdown structure as explained in section 2.3. As a general rule each
paragraph should convey only 1 idea - if it serves no purpose, then remove it.
Illustration Explanation

Draft and Edit

Whether you are writing a letter, memo or report, always prepare a first draft and then
check this to see if it actually says what you want it to do. If the document is particularly
important, ask a colleague to read it through, or leave it overnight so that you can look at
it afresh the next day. If you are writing on behalf of others, check with them to ensure
that you are truly representing their views. Other ideas to help you include:
Start well - state the aim of the document right at the beginning
Layout - make effective use of titles; white space; bullet points; etc.
Style - keep sentences short and avoid jargon; if the document is unavoidably long,
add an executive summary
Emphasis - use bold, underline or italics to highlight important points
Diagrams - use with care; make them simple and label them clearly

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Check - proof read for spelling mistakes and simple errors (do not just rely on the
computers spellcheck); read out loud to ensure that punctuation makes the document
easier to read
End well - summarise the key information you want to convey

Different Types of Documents

Listed below are the main types of documents, and the basic information that should
always be included.

 Fax name, title and organisation of sender

fax number of sender and date sent
name, title and organisation of receiver
subject name
number of pages included
 E-mail name, title and organisation of sender
name, title and organisation of receiver
subject name
e-mail addresses and date are included automatically
 Letter name, title and organisation of receiver
full postal address
date
subject name
name, title and organisation of sender
 Report Title
Date
Table of contents
List of acronyms
Name of author
Executive summary
Main body of text
Introduction
Conclusions
Recommendations

Appreciating Differences
If your ability to complete your tasks efficiently is described as your job competence,
then your ability to relate effectively with other people in the process can be described as
your communication competence. These two types of competence can be equated to the
concepts of task management and process management. Appreciating differences
between project partners, especially in different countries, is an important step in
achieving an integration of these two competencies.

To ensure that your own communication competence is effective, try to remember the
following tips:

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Display respect - if you are able, through gestures, eye contact, smiles and words of
encouragement, to convey to your colleague that you are interested in their point of
view, then they are much more likely to respond positively to what you have to say.
Respect forms the basis for a sound working relationship.
Be non-judgmental - if you find that you are being interrupted before you have
finished saying something, or that the other person is shaking their head in
disagreement while you are speaking, then you are less likely to achieve effective
communication. When a person believes she has been fully listened to, she is generally
more receptive to hearing reactions, whether they be positive or negative.
Recognise your views as your own - people who assume that others share their point
of view, and do not listen out for differences of opinion will find it more difficult to
form productive working relationships. Starting your sentences with I think... or
My feeling is... will help others see you as open-minded and sensitive. Keep in mind
that your own beliefs, knowledge, and attitudes are the product of your own past
experience.
Be sympathetic - most people find it far easier to deal with individuals who seem to
be able to understand things from their point of view. If you spend time trying to
establish an understanding of the other persons point of view, and then reflect this
understanding in your words and actions, then you will be able to communicate more
effectively.
Be flexible - whilst you shouldnt lose sight of the task in hand, you should also be
aware of how people feel in the process. Being flexible means adapting your behaviour
to the demands of the situation, and ensuring that people feel a part of the completed
task or project, and have learned something in the process.
Take turns - most people enjoy taking their turn in a discussion. This means that you
should neither monopolise the conversation, nor avoid taking part. By taking part and
taking turns, you indicate your interest in, and concern for, the other person.
Be tolerant of ambiguity - in many cross-cultural exchanges, ambiguity is the most
frustrating element. As you learn each others ways, so the ambiguities become less
common, and the frustrations are forgotten; but if you expressed your frustration
through hostility then this is less likely to be forgotten. Learning to manage the
frustration associated with ambiguity is an important step in your adaptation to a new
working environment.

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Summary: Communication
Effective communication is essential to successful project management. Wherever
possible, communication should be planned, and the outcome verified and recorded
on file.

Oral communication is not just about speaking and listening; it is also about exerting
control over the flow of conversation. When speaking:
be assertive
maintain control
use open questions
summarise the outcome

When listening to a conversation or telephone call:

repeat what you have heard
record it
consider writing a letter or fax to confirm any agreements made

Before finalising and sending a written document, you should always:

be clear on the objective of the document
identify its target audience and consider their information needs
map out the structure of the document
make a draft, and check it carefully for clarity, errors, and spelling mistakes

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Chapter 2.3 Meetings

Meetings are a means of bringing together a team of people to pool their resources
towards achievement of a common goal. This may be simply a five minute get-together to
review progress against the weeks scheduled tasks, or a major meeting between project
partners to determine the main features of the next phase of the project. With good
preparation and sound management, meetings can help save time, resolve problems,
allocate responsibility and monitor progress. Unfortunately they can also be pointless,
boring and inconvenient.

Deciding Whether to Go
It may seem a peculiar place to start, but the first step towards effective meetings is to ask
yourself whether you should attend or not. Even if you scheduled the meeting yourself, it
may be more appropriate to send a subordinate, or perhaps you should cancel it. If you
have been invited, you may decide that your presence would be of no use - either to
yourself or to those who invited you. Another scenario may be that you have been
invited but are clear on why your presence is required. Whatever the reason, if you are
unsure whether to attend or not, seek clarification of the meetings purpose and the
reason for your presence. You can then make an informed decision.

Preparing for a Meeting

Meetings should always be well-prepared. This means deciding what the agenda should
be, who will participate, and how long the meeting should last. The necessary
preparations are:
make an agenda and circulate it in advance for comments
decide who should attend
schedule the duration of the meeting

Agenda
The agenda is a summary of what will take place during the meeting. A good agenda
should state:
the objective of the meeting
the purpose of each section and the order in which they will be discussed
the information requirements (if any) from each participant
the venue, date and time of the meeting
the list of participants invited

Aside from informing participants of the purpose of the meeting, developing the agenda
forces you to justify the reasons for requesting the meeting; to think through what
information will be required; and to identify what must be done before the meeting. If the
meeting objective and section purposes are clearly stated, it also provides a basis for
monitoring and recording progress during the meeting. When sent out in advance it

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provides participants with the opportunity to suggest revisions, as well as time to

prepare their contributions.

Deciding who will participate

The larger the group, the less manageable it becomes, and the less likely it is that the
meetings objective will be achieved. By looking at the purpose of each section, try to
invite only those who need to be involved - as information providers or as receivers; as
decision-makers or decision-takers. If you are unsure, show the prospective participant
the agenda, and ask the person whether he/she feels attendance is necessary.

A chairperson should be appointed from among the participants. Tips on being a

successful chairperson can be found below. There is no definite rule on who should chair
the meeting. Although it is often the most senior person present who is appointed, in fact
this may not be appropriate. Whenever possible, the chair should be allocated to the most
competent chairperson. You may know from bitter experience who should not chair the
meeting!

Duration
The worst type of meetings never seem to end, with participants feeling trapped in the
room. As the sense of boredom and frustration increases, so contributions become less
and less useful, and discussion less focused. One way of avoiding such a situation is to
make it clear the starting and finishing times of the meeting, how long each section
should last, and stick to these times.

If discussions do go over time, draw the participants attention to this fact and try to speed
up discussions. If issues arise which are not on the agenda, ask for them to be put aside
for a future meeting, for which an appropriate agenda can be prepared.

Managing a Meeting
Whether you are chairing the meeting, managing from the sidelines, or just present as an
invited participant, you have an important role in ensuring the meeting is conducted
successfully. The first steps towards a successful meeting will have been taken during
preparation. It is vitally important that these preparations are now put to good use -
unfortunately, it is all too common for a well-prepared agenda to be ignored.

The keys to good meeting management are:

effective chairing
meaningful contributions
efficient minutes

Chairing a meeting
The chairperson plays a particularly important role. Tips for good chairmanship can be
found below, but even if you find yourself in a poorly-chaired meeting, there should still
be an opportunity to influence the chances for success.

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Management Tip 4: A Good Chairperson

Clarifies...........  the purpose of the meeting; the time at

which the meeting will finish; the house
rules to be observed by all participants
Summarises.....  progress after each stage; decisions which
have been agreed; issues and
disagreements for further discussion at
subsequent meetings
Ensures that.....  discussion remains focused on the stated
objectives of the meeting; participants
keep as close to the time schedule as
possible; all participants have an
opportunity to contribute or comment;
disagreements do not turn into
arguments

Making and responding to contributions

Meetings are highly structured conversations. It is important that contributions are clear
and concise, and directly related to the issue under discussion. As with any oral
communication, there are opportunities for ambiguity, misunderstanding and
disagreement.

It is highly likely that you will have something to say during discussions as well, even if
it is only to seek a clarification. (If not, then perhaps your decision to attend the meeting
was wrong!) It is a good idea to note down relevant points in the discussion as they arise.
Before you make your own contribution, think it through first and summarise it in bullet
points. This will help you speak clearly and concisely, especially if you are nervous
during important meetings.

There is also a skill in responding to the contributions of others. Some tips are
summarised below.

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Management Tip 5: Conduct During Meetings

Dont... Do...
 make people feel stupid by  treat a bad idea seriously, but state
laughing at bad or reasons why it should not be
impractical ideas pursued further
 directly criticise any  make clear what needs to be done,
person for not completing and by when; or if a reprimand is
a task necessary, wait until after the
meeting
 ignore participants  try to build on ideas expressed
contributions during the meeting, even if only
indirectly - eg. taking Sergies
earlier point, we could...
 leave shy or unconfident  solicit their views directly, and
participants to feel left out support their contributions

Keeping Minutes
At the start of the meeting, one person should be appointed to keep a record of the
meeting. The purpose of minutes is to record significant information, what decisions
were made, and who was party to them. Often though, minutes are a verbatim account of
what was said, with the result that they are overlong, do not highlight the important
points, and are seldom read.

A useful presentation format is sometimes described as action minutes, when only the
following information is presented (as illustrated in figure 24):
The subject
A summary of the main issues/problems raised
A summary of the action required
The name of the person responsible for completing the action
The deadline for completion

Figure 24: An Example of Action Minutes

Subject Issue

Problem
1. Curriculum development
New diploma course in economics is complete except for module on
welfare economics, which is estimated to be two weeks away from
completion. Delay has been due to absence of Professor Rubkin on
sick leave. His return is unlikely within the next two weeks.

Action: Senior Lecturer Baliakov to take over drafting of the

module, and complete it by 10th November.
Responsibility Deadline Action

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Summary: Meetings
The first step towards successful meetings is the decision whether to attend or not.

For effective meeting preparation, you should:

prepare an agenda in advance, and circulate it
be careful to invite only those whose knowledge or expertise is directly relevant to
the issues on the agenda
estimate how long the meeting will take, and give realistic start and finish times

In a well-managed meeting, the chairperson will:

clarify the meeting purpose, scheduling, and house rules
summarise progress, decisions, issues and problems
ensure that discussions remain focused, democratic and even-tempered

When attending a meeting, take notes of the key issues discussed. Before making your
own contribution, summarise what you would like to say in a bullet point list.

Use the action minutes format to ensure that a clear and concise record of discussions is
maintained. This should include:
subject
issues/problems
action required
person responsible
deadline
These minutes can be used at the start of the next meeting to review action from the
previous meeting.

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Chapter 2.4 Time Management

Most of us have been through that last-minute rush to complete a report, or prepare for a
meeting; or you may have experienced days when the time just disappeared. These are
symptoms of poor time management which can lead to reduced work performance and
stress. However, few people actually recognise the need to improve their own time
management, feeling that just because they have an appointments diary they are
somehow managing their time efficiently. In fact the causes of poor time management are
more complex than the mere absence of an appointments diary.

Reasons for Poor Time Management

To improve your time management, the first step is to look at how well you are
managing your time at present. See the self-study box below for instructions on how to
measure your current performance.

Self-study Exercise 1: Keeping a work diary

Keep a note of how you spend your time at work for 2 or 3

days. Fill in a table like the one below. When you start an
activity, record what it is and when you started. Then,
whenever you change what you are doing - even if it is just
having a cup of tea, or chatting to a colleague - record the
finish time. You might want to add a comment to describe the
activity further, to indicate who allocated the task to you, or to
explain why you changed from the previous one.
Activity Start Finish Comments

By keeping a record even for such a short time, you will

achieve two things - firstly an indication of the efficiency and
effectiveness of your current time management, and secondly a
benchmark against which to measure your future time
management.

There are three main causes of poor time management:

poor task scheduling
doing other peoples work
wasting time

Poor Task Scheduling

Deadlines can be daunting. You may worry whether you have left enough time to
complete the task, or dread the usual last-minute panic to get things done. Briefly though,
efficient scheduling of your tasks can be achieved by:
checking on exactly what is required and by when

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breaking the task down into smaller sub-tasks allowing you to estimate better the time
required, and to monitor progress
building in reviews of your progress after completion of tasks or sub-tasks so that you
can respond more quickly to delays

Having impossible deadlines imposed by your superiors or project partners can be

particularly difficult. By scheduling the work effectively though, you are able at an early
stage to: i) determine the feasibility of doing the job in the time available; ii) ask for more
assistance or resources; iii) ask for the deadline to be extended; iv) redefine the task to
match it to the time available; or v) at least make clear that the chances for meeting the
deadline are slim.

Doing Other Peoples Work

There are a number of reasons which cause you to do other peoples work - maybe you
would rather redraft a poorly worded letter prepared by a junior colleague than ask him
to redo it; perhaps your manager gave you a task which was not explained well enough,
so you spend time working out what you are supposed to be doing; or perhaps you
would simply like to help your colleagues with their work. Whatever the reason, this is
inappropriate task allocation. Check your work log to see how much time you spent
doing other peoples work. Have a look at your job description to see if you are doing
what you are supposed to do. If this is a problem, think about ways in which you can
minimise it - for example, assign secretarial duties to the secretary; explain to your
subordinate how you want the letter rewritten; seek clarification from your manager as to
exactly what she would like you to do.

Time wasting
There are a number of common causes of time wastage:

Socialising - telephone calls, conversations with office colleagues, popping out for a
snack. Although non-work related activities can provide a well-earned break, it is
important not to allow yourself to be diverted from important tasks such as the next
deadline. Consult your work log to see if this is a problem for you.
Start-up - it can often take time to switch from one task to the next, perhaps to
physically retrieve the appropriate file, or just to mentally change gear. Try to tackle a
few tasks for a long time rather than a lot of tasks for a short time. Other tips include:
grouping similar tasks together (eg. sending faxes); or putting interruptions into the
pending tray rather than allowing them to disrupt your current task. Use your work
log to identify which short tasks could be grouped together.
Enjoyable tasks - we often spend longer than we need on a task because we are
enjoying it. This may be making a letter or a fax look perfect, or tidying up the
stationery cupboard. To avoid doing this, allocate time realistically to the task before
you start, and then keep to the deadline.
Unpleasant tasks - conversely, you may find yourself delaying an unpleasant activity
by time-filling - perhaps on a more enjoyable task. Check your work log to see if any
tasks are being delayed just because they are dull or difficult.

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Improving Your Time Management

To improve your time management, you must undertake a quick review of your current
performance. Having maintained a work diary for a few days, you should be in a
position to look critically at how you spend your time, and to reallocate your time more
efficiently and effectively. The necessary steps to achieve improved time management
are:
Determine work objectives
Match time to tasks
Review technique

Work Objectives
You should have a job description, or terms of reference for your job. These should be
your starting point to clarify your work objectives - what you are being paid to do. If you
do not have a job description or any terms of reference, ask for some and discuss with
your manager. As a last resort, ask yourself what you do that needs to be done but
nobody else does.

Once you have listed your functions, try and prioritise them. First group together the
functions which you consider are most important; then group those which are least
important. Those that remain should be of middling importance. If you are unsure about
your prioritisation, ask your colleagues.

Match Time to Tasks

Now that you are clearer on your work objectives and priorities, look again at your work
diary. Try and link each task to a function. Look for unimportant tasks on which you are
spending a lot of time; and for important tasks on which you are spending little time.
Decide what time each task is worth in terms of your functions, and allocate an
appropriate amount of time accordingly. Although this sounds difficult, by re-appraising
your work you are sure to find some ways of saving time for re-allocation to more
important tasks, including those which you may have neglected up until now. There may
even be tasks which are not related to any of your functions, in which case you should
consider how to drop them. When you are confident on how your time should be
allocated, spend five minutes each morning to plan the day; fifteen minutes each Monday
to plan the week; and an hour to plan the strategy for each month.

Review technique
For the tasks that remain on your list, you may find time savings by considering different
ways of doing the same work - for example, if you find that you open and distribute mail
two or three times a day, reduce this to once only and spend the time saved on more
important tasks. If you have difficulty in thinking of new techniques, ask your colleagues;
they may have some bright ideas.

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Summary Time Management

Few managers and administrators recognise poor time management as a problem even
though it leads to reduced work performance and stress

The main causes of poor time management are:

wasting time
doing other peoples work
poor task allocation and scheduling

The first step in identifying whether time management is a problem is to maintain a

work diary for a few days

Improved time management can be achieved by:

determining work objectives and compare with work diary
reallocating time to tasks according to identified priorities
reviewing techniques for undertaking necessary tasks

To sustain improvements in time management spend:

5 minutes each morning to plan the day
15 minutes every Monday to plan the week
1 hour each month to plan strategy

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Glossary
Activities The specific tasks undertaken during a project as a result of
applying means or inputs.

Activity Schedule A method of presenting the activities of a project which identifies

their logical sequence and any dependencies that exist between
activities. A Gantt chart is the most commonly used tool. This is a
graphic representation similar to a bar chart, setting out the timing,
sequence and duration of project activities.

Accountability Responsibility. It identifies the particular person who has to

satisfactorily complete specific activities or tasks.

Appraisal Analysis of a proposed project to determine its merit and

acceptability in accordance with established criteria. This is the final
step before a project is agreed for financing. It checks that the
project is feasible against the situation on the ground, that the
objectives remain appropriate and that costs are reasonable.

Bottom-up Term used to describe decision making or development process

starting with the beneficiaries as opposed to the donor agency or
senior management.

Capital costs Purchase price or initial costs of buildings, plant, equipment and
machinery.

Contract Legal agreement between two parties, in the case of Tempus

between the contracting authority and a contractor. Contracts
include general conditions and special. Contracts are for a fixed
term.

Contractor The public or private organisation, consortium or individual with

whom the contracting authority enters into a contract. The firm,
individual or consortium to which a contract is awarded (in
Tempus mainly Universities)

Cost schedule The costs applied to an activity schedule (see above)

Delegation The diplomatic office representing the European Commission

accredited to countries or international institutions at the level of an
Embassy. The head of Delegation is often called Delegate or
Ambassador.

DG XXII The Directorate General (DG) of the European Commission dealing

with Education, Training and Youth. DG XXII is also in charge of
the Tempus programme. Technical assistance for the
implementation of Tempus is provided to DGXXII by the ETF (see
also European Training Foundation).

European The executive arm of the European Union. It initiates European

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Commission Union policy and is responsible for implementing policy decisions

taken by the Council of the European Union. The European
Commission is responsible on behalf of the European Union for the
ongoing management of the Phare and Tacis Programme, including
overall direction and implementation. It acts as contracting
authority for the award of Phare and Tacis contracts.

European Training The European Training Foundation (ETF) is an agency of the European
Foundation Union which works in the field of vocational education and training in
Central and Eastern Europe, the New Independent States and
Mongolia. The Foundation also provides technical assistance to the
European Commission for the Tempus Programme.

Evaluation (a) A periodic assessment of the relevance, performance, efficiency

and impact of a project in the context of stated objectives. It is
undertaken as an independent objective examination (which in the
case of Tacis takes place after the project(s) has ended) of the
background, objectives, results, activities and means deployed, with
a view to drawing lessons that may be more widely applicable.(b)
an examination of tenders to judge the most economically
advantageous offer

External Monitor The consultant undertaking monitoring of projects on behalf of

Tacis services.

Gantt Chart A method of presenting information graphically, often used for

activity scheduling. Similar to a bar chart. (see Activity Schedule).

Goal The wider objective to which a project contributes, usually specified

at the sectoral or national level.

Hierarchy of Activities, outcomes, specific objectives, overall objectives as

objectives specified in the intervention logic.

Human resources The management of people, usually in terms of the staff of projects.
management

Indicators Key indicator: The main or most important indicators which show
whether or not objectives have been achieved at each level of the
logframe hierarchy.
Process indicators show whether planned activities were carried out
(sometimes referred to as milestones).
Impact indicators show whether progress is being made towards
achievement of project objectives.

Inputs The resources (financial, physical and human) used in carrying out
the activities of a project.

Intervention Logic The strategy underlying the project. It is the narrative description of
the project at each of the four levels of the hierarchy of objectives
used in the logframe.

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Know-how Professional experience (technical knowledge) and expertise in the

broadest sense, coming from a wide range of public and private
organisations in the European Union or the partner countries. The
Tacis Programme provides grant finance for the provision of the
know-how. Know-how is delivered by providing policy advice,
consultancy teams, studies and training, by developing and
reforming legal and regulatory frameworks, institutions and
organisations, and by setting up partnerships, networks, twinnings
and pilot projects.

Logframe The matrix in which a projects intervention logic, assumptions,

objectively verifiable indicators and means of verification are
presented. An abbreviation of logical framework approach.

Logical A methodology for planning, implementation and evaluation of

Framework programmes and projects, involving problem, objective and
Approach strategy analysis, , with activity and resource scheduling. (Also
LFA.) This can be summarised in a one page logframe.

Lump sum In cost tables where an item comprises a number of small items
whose costs are difficult to identify, the cost is aggregated to a
lump sum.

Main The main period of project implementation which follows inception

Implementation and precedes handover.

Means See inputs

Means of The means by which the indicators or milestones will be recorded

Verification and made available to project management or those evaluating
project performance.

Milestone A type of indicator for short-term objectives which facilitate

measurement of achievements throughout a project rather than just
at the end. They also indicate times when decisions can be made.
See indicators (process).

Monitoring Monitoring is a continuous assessment of project implementation in

relation to agreed schedules, and the use of inputs, infrastructure,
and services by project beneficiaries. In the context of the Tacis and
Phare Programmes, monitoring is the regular overview of projects
by specifically employed personnel who provide information based
upon the agreed project planning and reporting documentation, for
project management and other interested parties. This is to ascertain
whether or not projects are on course and signal early warning of
potential problems to allow adjustments to be made with minimal
disruption. The immediate objective of monitoring is to provide a
regular reporting mechanism to the sectors, independent of
contractors or other outside bodies, to enable more focused project
management decisions to be reached to ensure that a project

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remains on course.

Narrative The first column in a logframe matrix used to describe the overall
objective, specific objective(s), outcomes and activities of a project.

Objective Description of the aim of a project or programme. In its generic

sense it refers to activities, outcomes, specific objectives, overall
objectives and goals.

Objective-oriented Setting objectives in order that you can work out a plan of action to
planning achieve these objectives.

Objective Tree A diagrammatic representation of the proposed project

interventions planned logically, following a problem analysis,
showing proposed means, resources and ends.

Operating costs (or recurrent costs) Costs which are incurred for operation and
maintenance which will continue to be incurred after the
implementation period of the project has ended.

Outcomes The outputs produced by undertaking a series of activities. The

results are what the project will have achieved by its completion
date.

Overall objectives Objectives in the wider sectoral and national sector, to which the
project is designed to contribute

Partner Countries Tacis partner countries include the New Independent States of the
or states former Soviet Union (less the Baltic States) and Mongolia. Phare
partner countries include the Baltic States, Bulgaria, the Czech
Republic, Hungary, Poland, Romania, Slovenia and the Slovak
Republic.

Phare Programme The Phare programme is a European Union initiative which aims to
help the countries of Central and Eastern Europe rejoin the
mainstream of European development and build closer political and
economic ties with the European Union. It does this by providing
grant finance to support the process of economic transformation
and to strengthen newly created democratic societies.

Problem Analysis A structured investigation of the negative aspects of a situation in

order to establish causes and their effects. It is undertaken prior to
designing an objective tree.

Programme A series of projects or activities with a global objective.

Progress Report An interim report on progress of work on a project submitted by the

contractor to the partner organisation and the Commission within a
specific time frame. It includes sections on technical and financial
performance. It is usually submitted quarterly.

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Project A series of activities designed to produce a specific result within a

limited time frame. Terms of Reference set the objectives and
parameters, and the work is implemented under contract.

Project Cycle The process which starts by determining reform priorities, through
to subsequent programming, project development, implementation
and evaluation.

Project Cycle A methodology for planning, implementation and evaluation of

Management projects and programmes based on the logical framework approach.
Two key features are its focus on project beneficiaries and its
integrated approach to documentation.

Project Elements The different levels of objective which make up the projects
intervention logic - overall objectives; specific objectives; outcomes;
activities.

Recurrent Costs See operating costs.

Resource Schedule The project budget.

Specific The central objectives of the project in terms of sustainable benefits

Objectives to be delivered to the project beneficiaries. It does not refer to the
services provided by the project (these are results), but to the
utilisation of these services by project beneficiaries.

Stakeholders Stakeholders are people, groups or institutions with interests in a

project.

Strategy A strategy is a plan of action which sets out the course and direction
that an organisation will take. It involves statements about the goals
and objectives of the organisation to which assistance will be
provided, and how such assistance will be provided.

Sustainability A project can be said to be sustainable when it continues to deliver

benefits for an extended period after the main part of the external
assistance has been completed.

Tacis Programme The Tacis Programme is a European Initiative which provides grant
finance for know-how to foster the development of market
economies and democratic societies in the New Independent States
and Mongolia.

Technical Specialists, consultants, trainers, advisers etc. contracted for the

Assistance transfer of know-how and skills and the creation and strengthening
of institutions. The term technical assistance does not accurately
describe the process of the transfer of know-how to the NIS, which
is a collaboration between specialists.

Tempus Tempus is a framework programme designed to stimulate

cooperation between higher education institutions in East and West,

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with the aim of supporting the reform of the higher education

systems in Central and Eastern Europe (Tempus Phare) and the
New Independent States and Mongolia (Tempus Tacis). See also
What is Tempus

Terms of Terms of Reference define the tasks required of the contractor and
Reference (TOR) indicate project background and objectives, planned activities,
expected inputs and outputs, budget, timetables and job
descriptions.

Workplan The schedule which sets out the activities and resources necessary
to achieve a projects results and purpose.

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Useful References

Project Cycle Management: Integrated Approach and Logical Framework

European Commission, DGVIII, Evaluation Unit, 1993 (available in English, French
and Russian)

The Logical Framework Approach (LFA) - A Handbook for Objective-Oriented

Planning
NORAD (Norwegian Agency for Development Cooperation), July 1996

LFA - a flexible tool for participatory development

Danida (Danish Agency for International Development Cooperation), February
1996

Guidelines for the Application of LFA in Project Cycle Management

SIDA (Swedish International Development Agency), Methods and Institutional
Development Unit, March 1996

Project Cycle Management (PCM) and Objectives-Oriented Project Planning (ZOPP) -

Guidelines
Deutsche Gesellschaft fur Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ), 1996

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Where to get further information on Tempus

More information can be obtained from the National Contact Points, the National
Tempus Offices, the Tempus Tacis Information Points, the Tacis Coordination Units or
the European Commission (DG XXII) and the European Training Foundation.

<<List of EU, CEE and NIS offices to be included by ETF>>

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Tempus Publications currently available

Guide for Applicants (Phare) - containing the annually reviewed national priorities as well
as all other information required for the submission of project proposals.

Guide for Applicants (Tacis) - containing all the information required for the submission of
project proposals.

Tempus Annual Report - containing background and statistical information on Tempus in

the Phare and Tacis region.

Tempus Phare Compendium - containing basic information on all projects currently in

operation in the Phare region.

Tempus Tacis Compendium - containing basic information on all projects currently in

operation in the Tacis region.

Tempus Country Monographs - containing background information on the activities and

impact of Tempus for a given country (only available for Bulgaria, the Czech Republic,
Hungary, Poland, Romania, the Slovak Republic and Slovenia).

Tempus at Work - a collection of double-sided country sheets with information about the
operations of Tempus in individual Phare and Tacis countries as well as the
contribution of individual EU countries to the programme.

TOP Studies - a series of five studies measuring the impact Tempus Phare has had in
certain fields. The titles available are: Tempus Student Mobility, The impact of
Tempus on National Reform, Tempus Contribution to University-Enterprise Co-
operation, Mutual benefits of Tempus project partnerships and Impact of Tempus
on Institutional Management.

Tempus Tacis Project Management Handbook- containing information on how to run a

Tempus Tacis Project

Apart from the Country Monographs, all of these documents are available on World
Wide Web and can be downloaded at the following address: http://www.etf.it. Upon
request, they may also be obtained via e-mail (info@etf.it) or on paper.

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