Forensic Psychology Booklet

FORENSIC
PSYCHOLOGY
YEAR 13 PSYCHOLOGY
MISS FERGUSON
NAME: ________________
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SPECIFICATION
SPECIFICATION RELEVANT STUDIES
ADDITIONAL QUESTIONS
DETAILS
Problems in - Historical Differences in 1. Describe and evaluate ways of
defining crime. Stalking; Pakes and measuring crime. Refer to
Ways of Winstone (2007) evidence and/or published
measuring - Internet and examples in your answer (16
crime, Identification Fraud marks)
including Wall (2007) 2. Explain two factors in making the
official - Honour Killings definition of crime problematic (4
statistics, Welchman and Hossain marks)
victim surveys (2006) 3. Outline one way of measuring
and offender - Conscious Rule crime (2 marks)
surveys Breaking Blackburn 4. Outline two strengths of using
(1993) victim surveys to measure crime
- Anti-Social Behaviour (4 marks)
Hatcher & Hollins 5. Outline two weaknesses of using
(2005) official statistics to measure
crime (4 marks)
6. Explain why offender surveys are
useful (3 marks)
Offender - Top-down General 7. Analyse how Canters research

profiling: the Principles Ressler illustrates the steps in scientific
top-down - Organised vs method. E. g. Select an existing
approach, Disorganised - Turvey theory. Generate a testable
including (2002) hypothesis. Carry out research to
organised and - False Dichotomy - test the hypothesis. Either accept
disorganised Carter (2004), Alison OR reject your hypothesis support
types of (2002) or modify your theory
offender; the - Bottom-up 8. Explain the difference between
bottom-up - Statistical profiling top-down and bottom-up
approach, Canter methods of profiling (3 marks)
including - Geographical profiling 9. Outline two strengths of top-down
investigative Goodwill & Alison profiling (4 marks)
Psychology; (2006), Davis (1997) 10.Explain the difference between
geographical - Usefulness of Profiling organised and disorganised types
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profiling Gudjonsson & Copson of crime (3 marks)
(1997) 11.Outline two weaknesses of using
- Experimental Research criminal profiling (4 marks)
into Profiling Alison et 12.Outline one case study where
al (2003) criminal profiling has helped to
- Psychology Review, Vol. identify the victim (4 marks)
16, 4 (April, 2011)
article
Biological - Somatotype Glueck & 13.Outline one study in which the

explanations Gleuck (1956), West & atavistic form was investigated.
of offending Farington (1973) Include details of what the
behaviour: an - Twin Studies Grove psychologist(s) did and what was
historical (1990), Christiansen found (4 marks)
approach (1977) 14.Outline and evaluate biological
(atavistic - Adoption Studies explanations for offending
form); Mednick (1984) behaviour (16 marks)
genetics and - Gene-Environment 15.Identify which neurotransmitters
neural Interaction Plomin & are implicated in offending
explanations Asbury (2005) behaviours (3 marks)
- Genetic Abnormality 16.Outline one study which supports
Brunner et al (1993) the role of a neurotransmitter in
- Hemispheric offending behaviour (4 marks)
Dysfunction Raine et 17.Outline evidence to suggest that
al (1997) there is a genetic underpinning to
offender behaviour (8 marks)
18.What evaluative points can be
made about the atavistic form
theory of offending? (10 marks)
Psychological - Social Learning 19.Explain Eysencks theory of

explanations Sutherland (1939) offending behaviour (4 marks)
of offending - Criminal Norms 20.What strengths does Eysencks
behaviour: Farrington et al (2006) theory have? (4 marks)
Eysencks - Minimalisation of 21.Outline evidence to suggest that
theory of the Consequences Palmer the level of moral reasoning may
criminal (2005), Palmer and affect offending behaviour (8
personality; Holin (2000), Sykes & marks)
cognitive Matza (1957) 22.Explain what is meant by hostile
explanations; - Effectiveness in attribution bias (2 marks)
level of moral Explaining Offending 23.Explain what is meant by
reasoning and Behaviour Ashkar & minimalisation (2 marks)
cognitive Kenny (2007), Palmer & 24.How does differential association
distortions, Hollin (2000) theory explain offending
including - Moral Reasoning in behaviour? (3 marks)
hostile Young offenders V 25.How does the development of the
attribution Alexio & Norrus (2000), superego affect offending
bias and (support for personality behaviour? (4 marks)
but not moral 26.Outline two weaknesses of the
minimalisation
reasoning) psychodynamic theory of
; differential
offending (4 marks)
association
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theory;
psychodynami
c explanations
Dealing with - Rehabilitation Davies 27.Explain the aims of custodial

offending and Raymond (2000) sentencing (4 marks)
behaviour: the - Self-Efficacy and 28.What are the proposed
aims of Commitment to psychological effects of custodial
custodial Change, Stronger Social sentences for the offender (4
sentencing Support Networks marks)
and the Scottish Govt report, 29.Outline evidence to suggest why
psychological (2011) recidivism occurs (4 marks)
effects of - Effects of Custodial 30.Explain what is meant by the
custodial Sentences Zimbardos behaviour modification of
sentencing. Prison Experiment offenders (6 marks)
Recidivism. - Use and Effectiveness 31.Outline evidence to support the
Behaviour of Behaviour use of anger management with
modification in Modification in prisoners (6 marks)
custody. Anger Custodial Setting 32.Explain what restorative justice
management Cohen & Filipczak programs entail (8 marks)
and (1971), Andrews &
restorative Bonta (2006)
justice - Use and Effectiveness
programmes of Anger Management
Ireland (2000)
- Use and Effectiveness
of Restorative Justice
Sherman & Strang
(2007), Hayes (2005)
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DEFINING AND MEASURING CRIME
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
To explain how crime is a dynamic construct

To outline social, cultural, historical and political influences on the definition of crime
and the
concepts of age intent and causes in defining crime

To develop an understanding of crime and how it is measured

To explain methods of measuring crime, including their strengths and limitations

Which of the following laws are true and which ones are made up?
T F
1. It is illegal to die in the Houses of Parliament
2. In Liverpool, it is illegal for a woman to be topless except as a clerk in a
tropical fish store
3. In the UK a pregnant woman can legally relieve herself anywhere she
wants, including in the helmet of a policeman
4. The head of any dead whale found on the British coast automatically
becomes the property of the King, and the tail belongs to the Queen
5. In the city of York it is legal to murder a Scotsman within the ancient city
walls, but only if he is carrying a bow and arrow
6. In Ohio, it is illegal to get a fish drunk
7. In Utah, it is illegal to walk down the street carrying a paper bag
8. In Alabama, it is illegal to be blindfolded while driving a vehicle
9. In Florida, unmarried women who parachute on a Sunday could be jailed
10.In Vermont, women must obtain written permission from their husbands to
wear false teeth
11. In Tasmania, homosexuality is illegal
DEFINING CRIME (LIMITATIONS)

An act committed in violation of the law where the consequence of convictions by a
court is punishment, especially where the punishment is a serious one, such as
imprisonment. They are offences against the community (Blackburn, 1993). Crimes
have consequences that may range from trivial to highly injurious. They are usually;
socially disapproved of and involve a violation of moral rules. But what about using
work stationery for personal use or exceeding the speed limit, possessing marijuana or
consensual sex between fifteen-year-olds?
Are there any acts that everyone can agree are deserving of legal punishment?
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Criminal law in the areas of sexual conduct, religious conduct and drugs and alcohol
varied greatly over time and between different places, for example
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Therefore, there are cultural and historical issues in defining crime. What is considered
a crime in one culture may not be judged as such in another. For example, in the UK
having more than one wife is illegal, but it is not in countries where polygamy is
practiced. Definitions of crime change over time. For example, a parents right to smack
their child was outlawed in 2004. Homosexuality was considered to be a crime until
1967 in the UK, but is still illegal in many Asian and African countries. A basic
conclusion that can be drawn is that a crime is an act that violates the criminal law of a
particular society at a particular time.
Fill in the table by considering how each of the listed factors could affect
crime as a construct. I. e. How could the following qualities affect whether
you are convicted of a crime? Give an example
Cultural Definitions of crime vary cross-culturally. E. g. Some cultures practice

polygamy but this is illegal in the UK
Social
Historical
Political
Age
Circumsta (I. e. Has a crime actually been committed in the eyes of the law?)
nce
CRIMINAL AND NON-CRIMINAL ACTS

It is useful to consider how criminal and non-criminal acts are distinguished legally. A
crime has not been committed unless there is actus reus (guilty act), an act voluntarily
carried out and mens rea (guilty mind), an intention to commit the act.
In this view;
- Acts that have not been chosen by the individual are not crimes: an injury caused
by a person having an epileptic fit satisfies neither actus reus or mens rea
- A person who acts under compulsion: a bank manager who open the bank vault to a
gang who are holding relatives hostage and threatening to kill them does not satisfy
actus reus because the act is not voluntary, although it is intentional
- People might commit acts that they do not realise are against the law, but
ignorance of the law is no excuse
- There are strict liability offences where a persons intentions are considered
irrelevant to their guilt: a man who has sexual intercourse with a girl under the age
of 13 years is guilty of rape regardless of what he believed her age to be (even if
the girl told him she was older!)
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- Establishing mens rea can be difficult: the person could not have prevented
themselves from acting in violation to the law through mental illness
1. Explain two problems in defining crime (6 marks)

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2. Plan an essay in bullet points What is crime? look at examples and
evidence and developing a line of argument locating research to justify
the points you make
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WAYS OF MEASURING CRIME
METHO DETAILS STRENGTHS WEAKNESSES
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Government records of - Can be combined with - They significantly
Official the total number of crime victim surveys and underestimate the
Statisti reports to police and self-report studies to true extent of crime
cs recorded in official figures estimate the real rate because many crimes
which are published by of crime go unreported by
the home office annually - Are a cheap and victims or unrecorded
to provide a useful easily available by police (an
snapshot of the number of resource estimated 75% known
crimes occurring in - They contain a large as the dark figure of
specific regions across the amount of information crime!)
country. This allows the - They show - Policing priorities may
government to develop change/trends over distort figures. E.g.
crime prevention time Nottinghamshire
strategies, policing - Can compare crime experienced a spike of
initiative and direct rates in different parts thefts but this was
resources to where they of the UK found to be because
are most needed the police were more
likely to record thefts
of under 10 than
other areas
- Political parties can
manipulate or focus
on statistics for their
own political interests
The courts records - Can be combined with - Susceptible to bias
Court convictions for criminal victim surveys and - Police must first
and offences and the prison self-report studies to identify and arrest a
Prison system records how many estimate the real rate suspect, prosecution
Statisti offenders are in prison of crime needs evidence, and
cs and what they were - Are a cheap and the jury may be
convicted of easily available unconvinced by
resource evidence
- They contain a large - A prolific offender
amount of information may be convicted of
- They show only a few of the
change/trends over many offences that
time they have actually
- Can compare crime committed
rates in different parts - Prison sentencing
of the UK may be politically
determined. E.g.
Government
crackdown on drug
offences
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Record peoples - Highlights the number - Problem of basing
Victim experience of crime over of crimes never statistics on victims
Survey a specific period by recorded by the police, memories
s documenting the crime therefore have greater (telescoping:
they have been a victim accuracy than official misremembering the
of in the last year. 50,000 statistics. E.g. In year that the crime
households are randomly 2006/7, official actually happened)
selected annually to take statistics suggested a could lead to biased
part in The Crime Survey 2% decrease in crime statistics
for England and Wales but the BCS showed a - People could lie
(The British Crime 3% increase - People still appear to
Survey). In 2009, a - Gives true extent of under-report crimes.
separate survey was patterns of E.g. sexual offences
introduced to record the victimisation - Does not include
experiences of young - Focuses on the corporate crime or
people aged 10-15 problems as people white collar crime
experienced them - In some cases, the
- May uncover some victim cannot be
hidden figure of crime questioned. E. g. Child
- Identifies local, abuse
geographically
focused figures
Individuals volunteer - Provide insight into - Responses may be
Offend details of the number and how many people are unreliable because
er types of crimes they have responsible for certain confidentiality is
Survey committed, such as The offences. This helps assured
s Offender Crime and deployment of - Offenders may want to
Justice Survey (2003- resources to areas conceal some of the
2006) which was the first which might prevent more serious crimes
national self-report survey further crime, such as they have committed
of its kind. Offender alcohol dependence or exaggerate for
surveys tend to target programs bravado
groups of likely offenders - Give the best chance - The targeted nature of
based on risk factors of picking up the dark the survey means that
(previous convictions, side of crime because certain types of crime
age, and social they have the I. e. burglary are over-
background. Etc.). They knowledge of what represented and
also look at the indicators crimes are occurring middle-class offences
of repeat offending, when this official such as corporate
trends in offending, drug channel to the crime and fraud are
and alcohol use and the criminal underworld unlikely to be included
relationship between can provide
perpetrators and victims information that is
otherwise inaccessible
A self-report study is a - Reveal information - Problem of validity-
Self- type of survey, about the offenders people may lie or
Report questionnaire, or poll in not caught by police exaggerate
Survey which respondents read - Its possible to find out - Problem of
s the question and select a about the social class, representativeness-
response by themselves gender, age & most surveys are on
without researcher ethnicity of the young people &
interference. A self-report offender students
is any method which - It useful to find out - Problem of relevance-
involves asking a about victimless crime majority of crimes
participant about their - Anonymous and uncovered are trivial
feelings, attitudes, beliefs confidential - People dont want to
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and so on - No interviewer talk about their
removes the human criminal activity
element - Often focus on
- Can record crime not delinquent rather than
in official statistics criminal behaviour
- People may not
cooperate
GENERAL ISSUES None of these measures is useless: each provides a different

perspective of the extent of crime. Also, different measures may be useful for different
purposes. E.g. To find trends rather than establish definitive numbers. Each of the
methods presented have issues in terms of reliability and validity, therefore they should
be triangulated. All crime figures should be carefully scrutinised and interpreted with
caution, whilst considering the dark figure of crime. A multi-disciplinary approach
should be advocated when measuring crime: a combination of all available methods
provides the best insight into the true extent of offending
3. Fill in the gaps in this paragraph
Official Crime Statistics provide a lot of ___________________ (that is numerical data) such
as the numbers of offences recorded by the ___________________, crimes solved,
sentencing patterns and the social characteristics of victims and offenders. As
___________________ sources, these statistics have the practical advantage of being
readily available and are ___________________ to carry out.
Critics point out, however, that such statistics must be treated with
___________________. Because they provide an ___________________ figure of crime
committed. First, official statistics exclude the - those crimes that the
victims are unaware of. Secondly, even if a crime has been detected, we cannot
assume that it will be ___________________ . ___________________ or recorded. Thirdly,
even if we report a crime to the police, this does not necessarily mean that they will
___________________ it. For example, the police may regard the offences as too petty to
follow up.
The British Crime Survey, in 1995 found only 23% of crimes committed were actually
reported and recorded. This means that Official Crime Statistics ignore the
___________________ of undetected, unreported and unrecorded crime.
4. Outline two problems with official statistics as a way of measuring crime
(4 marks)
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5. Outline and briefly evaluate one way of measuring crime (5 marks)
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6. An alarming fall in the number of rape convictions has lead the Director of
Public Prosecutions to express concern that victims are not having their
cases dealt with properly. Recent figures revealed that 129 fewer rape
suspects were convicted in 2013 than the year before, and the number of
rape cases referred to prosecutors for charging has fallen by a third since
2011, despite a rise in offences recorded by police. How does the
information above illustrate some of the problems with official statistics
as a way of measuring crime?
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OFFENDER PROFILING: THE TOP-DOWN APPROACH

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
To explain top-down approaches to profiling

To be able to distinguish between organised and disorganised types of offenders

Psychological profiling 'worse than useless'?

Murder inquiries may be misled or delayed by psychologists who see themselves as real-life
Crackers, researchers claim. Police forces routinely ask behavioural scientists to draw up profiles
of killers who are still at large, based on a knowledge of the victim and details recorded at the
crime scene. But according to a team of psychologists at Birmingham City University, the
practice of offender profiling is deeply unscientific and risks bringing the field into disrepute.
In many cases, offender profiles are so vague as to be meaningless, according to psychologist

Craig Jackson. At best, they have little impact on murder investigations; at worst they risk
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misleading investigators and waste police time, he said. The Home Office holds a register of
psychologists and other professionals who are qualified to give offender profiles to police forces
after reviewing details of a crime.
"Behavioural profiling has never led to the direct apprehension of a serial killer, a murderer, or a
spree killer, so it seems to have no real-world value," Jackson said. "It is given too much
credibility as a scientific discipline. This is a serious issue that psychologists and behavioural
scientists need to address," he said. "People believe psychologists like 'Cracker' can exist." In
the 1990s television series, police apprehended criminals with help from an overweight, chain-
smoking alcoholic psychologist.
A report criticising offender profiling by Jackson and two colleagues will be published in the legal
journal, Amicus, next month. He will describe his research at the British Science Festival in
Birmingham this week. Behavioural profiling became popular in the US in the 1970s when
psychologists working with the FBI used questionnaires to interview 36 imprisoned serial killers.
Their responses were used as a basis for drawing up profiles of future murderers.
Research since then has found that serial killers are unreliable interviewees, a realisation that
undermines the foundations behavioural profiling was built on, Jackson claims. Behavioural
scientists rarely have a major influence on the direction of murder inquiries, but Jackson said
investigators can come under pressure to consult them to appease the media and victims'
families.
Jackson quoted one behavioural scientist as saying he "climbs inside the minds of monsters" and
"takes the expression frozen on the face of a murder victim and works backwards". "They bring
themselves forward as if they are shamans who are cursed by nightmares and picturing dead
people," Jackson said.
Carol Ireland, vice chair of forensic psychology at the British Psychological Society, said offender
profiling is not widely practised by forensic psychologists. "Whatever we are doing as forensic
psychologists, it should be based in science and theory. If it's not then we need to explore what
we are doing. Ultimately we are scientist-practitioners," she said.
What is your opinion of the Guardian article Psychological profiling 'worse

than useless'?
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OFFENDER PROFILING
Offender profiling is an investigative tool employed by the police when solving crimes.
The main aim is to narrow the field of enquiry and list the likely suspects. Professional
profilers usually work alongside the police, especially for high-profile murder cases.
Although individual methods vary, the compiling of a profile will generally involve
careful scrutiny of the crime scene and analysis of the evidence (including witness
reports) to generate hypotheses about the probable characteristics of the offender
(their age, background, occupation, appearance. Etc.
FOUR MAIN APPROACHES TO PROFILING (AINSWORTH, 2001)
The geographical approach looks at patterns in the location and timing of
offences to make judgements about links between crimes and suggestions about
where offenders live and work.
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Investigative psychology grew out of geographical profiling and uses
established psychological theories and methods of analysis to predict offender
characteristics from offending behaviour.
The typological approach involves looking at the characteristics of crime scenes
to assign offenders to different categories, each category of offender having
different typical characteristics.
The clinical approach uses insights from psychiatry and clinical psychology to aid
investigation where an offender is thought to be suffering from a mental illness of
other psychological abnormality.
1. Define what is meant by offender profiling (3 marks)

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THE TOP-DOWN (AMERICAN or TYPOLOGY) APPROACH
The top-down approach to profiling originated in the United States from work carried
out by the FBI in the 1970s, specifically the FBIs Behavioural Science Unit drew upon
gathered data from in-depth interviews with 36 sexually motivated serial killers,
including Ted Bundy and Charles Manson. Offender profilers who use the top-down
approach will match what is known about the crime and the offender to a pre-existing
template that the FBI developed.
Murderers or rapists are classified as one of two categories ORGANISED or
DISORGANISED, which will inform subsequent police investigation. This distinction is
based on the idea that serious offenders have certain signature ways of working (their
modus operandi) and these generally correlate with a particular set of social and
psychological characteristics relating to the individual
ORGANISED DISORGANISED
- Show evidence of having planned the - Show little evidence of planning,
crime carefully in advance suggesting that the offence may be
- They prepare by bringing the spontaneous or spur-of-the-moment
necessary materials to the crime - They are out-of-control and leave a
scene chaotic crime scene. The crime scene
- The victim is deliberately targeted tends to reflect the impulsive nature
using criteria of age, appearance, of the attack the body is usually still
lifestyle occupation or other factors. at the scene and there appears to
Several victims reflect that the have been very little control over the
killer/rapist will have a type part of the offender
- They may establish contact with their - The victims may have basic features
victims by presenting themselves in common E. g. all women, but there
initially in non-threatening ways. E. g. is little to suggest that they have been
By impersonating a figure of trust or carefully selected and are often
authority targets of opportunity
- They choose locations where they - They surprise their victims and often
believe they are unlikely to be kill them at or near the scene where
disturbed they first strike
- They maintain a high degree of - The victims is often killed quickly
control during the crime disorganised killers generally do not
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- Operate with a detached, surgical bind or control their victims
precision - Their weapons are usually improvised
- They tend to torture their victims and - There is usually little to no attempt to
keep them under control for some conceal the body or to hide or remove
time before killing them evidence
- The victim is often bound - Trophies are taken infrequently and
- They leave little evidence or clues at the killer rarely follows their crimes in
the scene and they often hide the boy the news
in an attempt to make discovery less - They tend to have a lower-than-
likely average IQ, have poor social skills,
- They tend to be of above-intelligence, poor hygiene, be in unskilled work or
in a skilled, professional occupation unemployed, and often have a history
and are socially and sexually of sexual dysfunction and failed
competent relationships
- They are usually married and may - They tend to live alone and often
have children relatively close to where the offence
- May increase the sophistication of took place
their crime with each new attack - They may be suffering from acute
- They frequently take trophies from the psychological disturbance and could
crime scene and may follow coverage be psychotic
of their crimes in the news media
2. Distinguish between organised and disorganised types of offender (4

marks)
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3. Theodore Robert Ted Bundy is one of Americas most notorious serial
killers. During the 1970s he is known to have raped, tortured and
brutally murdered over 30 women (although the actual figure may be
much higher) across seven states. He was handsome, charming and
highly intelligent he attended and excelled at the University of
Washington, then law school. While a student, Bundy fell in love with a
wealthy young woman from California. Devastated by their subsequent
breakup, many of Bundys victims resembled his college girlfriend, they
were attractive with long, dark hair parted in the middle. His killings
followed a gruesome pattern of raping his victims before beating them
to death. After escaping police custody twice, Bundy was eventually
executed by electric chair in 1989. To what extent does Bundy fit the
profile on the organised offender? (6 marks)
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CONSTRUCTING AN FBI PROFILE
STAGE 1 The profiler gathers and reviews the evidence/information

Data Assimilation from multiple sources (crime scene photographs, police
reports, pathology reports. Etc.)
STAGE 2 Profilers decide whether the crime scene represents an
Crime Scene organised or disorganised killer
Classification
STAGE 3 Hypotheses are generated in terms of sequence of events,
Crime behaviour of the victim. Etc.
Reconstruction
STAGE 4 Profilers construct a sketch/hypotheses of the likely
Profile Generation offender. E. g. of demographic background, physical
characteristics, behavioural habits. Etc.
THE SEVEN DECISION-MAKING TOOLS OF THE FBI USED IN CONSTRUCTING A

PROFILE
1. Determining whether the killing was an isolated incident or part of a killing spree
2. Determining whether it was a deliberate, premeditated murder or not
3. Classifying the victims as high- or low-risk due to their vulnerability to ascertain
the motive
4. Estimating how much risk the criminal took in committing the crime which will
give insight into who they are
5. Identifying the extent to which the crime has escalated from previous offences or
the potential it has to escalate
6. The time of day crimes are committed gives a profiler clues to the criminals
daily routine and risk levels
7. Location factors can inform the profiler about the criminals environment,
transport options and even where they might live
EVALUATION OF THE TOP-DOWN APPROACH
1) Top-down profiling is best suited to crime scenes that reveal important details
about the suspect, such as rape, arson and cult killings, as well as crimes that
involve macabre practices or acting out fantasies. Profiling cannot be used for
more common offences such as burglary or destruction of property do not lend
themselves to profiling because the crime scene reveals little about the offender
STRENGTH OR LIMITATION
2) The typology classification is based on the (outdated) assumption that offenders

have patterns of behaviour and motivations that remain consistent across
situations and contexts. Therefore, the top-down approach is likely to have poor
validity when it comes to identifying suspects and predicting their next move
because it relies on static models of personality
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3) Canter et al (2004) used the smallest space technique to analyse data from 100
murders in the US. The details of each case were examined using 39
characteristics thought to be typical of organised and disorganised killers.
Although the findings suggested evidence of a distinct organised type, this
wasnt the case or disorganised type, undermining the whole classification
system. However, the organised/disorganised distinction is still used by profilers
today and is widely supported
4) The behaviours that describe each of the organised and disorganised types are
not mutually exclusive, therefore a variety of combinations could occur in any
given murder scene. Goodwin (2002) asks how police investigators would classify
a killer with high intelligence and sexual competence who commits a
spontaneous murder in which the victims body is left at the scene.
a. Holmes (1989) suggested that there were four types of serial killer:
visionary, mission, hedonistic, power/control
b. Keppel & Walter (1999) focus more on the motivations killers might have
rather than trying to determine specific types
5) The top-down approach was developed from interviews in the 1970s from 36
killers in the US 36 were serial killers and the other 11 were single or double
murderers. This is two small and too unrepresentative a sample upon which to
base a typology system that may have significant influence on the nature of
police investigation
6) It is not sensible to rely on self-report data with convicted killers when
constructing a classification system
7) Has been enormously influential and has been adopted by law enforcements
agencies across the world (who have adapted and enhanced it). These offender
topologies are useful in allowing offences to be linked
8) Having two main categories of criminal is very simplistic. It is likely that criminals
do not fit neatly into either category therefore making it difficult to predict their
characteristics. It is likely that there are more than two types and the distinction
is too restrictive
9) Each crime scene is unique and there are many different variables that should be
accounted for. This makes the typological definition difficult to apply and affects
its accuracy
4. Outline two strengths and two limitations of the Top-down Approach (8

marks)
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5. Would you classify Crime Scene 1 as being organised or disorganised?
Explain your answer
ORGANISED CHARACTERISTICS DISORGANISED CHARACTERISTICS
OVERALL EVALUATION:
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Explain your answer
OVERALL EVALUATION:
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Explain your answer
OR
OVERALL EVALUATION:
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8. Crime Scene 4: A teenage victim was attacked in the morning on a
secluded path that is very rarely used. She was seized from behind, dragged
into some bushes, gagged and bound with duct tape, and sexually assaulted.
The path cannot be seen from nearby roads, and can only be accessed from
an estate on one side. The victim had unexpectedly spent the night at a
friends house and had not used the path before. Would you classify Crime
Scene 4 as being organised or disorganised? Explain your answer
OVERALL EVALUATION:
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9. Crime Scene 5: Between 1986 and 1988, seven attacks on elderly women
took place in tower blocks in Birmingham. Women in their 70s and 80s, often
infirm, were followed into the lifts by a stocky young man who took them to
the top floor of the tower block. He would rape the women, and then flee.
Consistent patterns seem to suggest the same man was responsible. In his
interactions with the women he appeared confident and at ease. He made no
attempt to disguise himself and forensic evidence was found on each
occasion. Police eventually arrested Adrian Babb, an attendant at the local
swimming pool, to which all of Babbs victims were regular visitors. Would
you classify Crime Scene 5 as being organised or disorganised? Explain your
answer
OVERALL EVALUATION:
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Food for Thought/Discussion: How do all of these cases illustrate some of the
problems with the top-down approach to offender profiling?
OFFENDER PROFILING: THE BOTTOM-UP APPROACH

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
To explain the bottom-up approach to profiling, investigative psychology and
geographical profiling
To use research evidence to evaluate the usefulness of offender profiling

THE BOTTOM-UP APPROACH
The Bottom-up Approach generates a picture of the offender their likely
characteristics, routine behaviour and social background through systematic analysis.
It does not begin with fixed topologies like the Top-Down Approach, rather the profile is
data-driven and emerges as the investigator engages in deeper and more rigorous
scrutiny of the details of the offence.
1. In the context of offender profiling, explain what is meant by the bottom-
up approach (3 marks)
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2. Plot the locations of the burglaries on the map. Suggest; how many
offenders were responsible and what other expectations you have about
these offenders
21
Location Number Expectations about Offenders
of
Offende
rs
Alverstone
Avenue, near the
junctions with
Ashen Grove
Near the corner
of Home Park
Road and Arthur
Road
Wimbledon Park
Road, on the
corner with
Gartmoor
Gardens
Tranmere Road,
near the junction
with Magdalen
Road
INVESTIGATIVE PSYCHOLOGY
Investigative Psychology attempts to apply statistical procedures, alongside
psychological theories, to the analysis of crime scene evidence. The aim is to establish
patterns of behaviour that are likely to occur, in order to develop a statistical database
which then acts as a baseline for comparison. Specific details of offences can be
matches against this database to reveal important details about the offender, their
personal history, family background. Etc. This may also determine whether a series of
offences are linked in that they are likely to have been committed by the same person.
The concept of INTERPERSONAL COHERENCE is central to the approach.

Interpersonal coherence is the way an offender behaves at the scene, including
how they interact with the victim, may reflect their behaviour in more everyday
situations. For instance, whilst some rapists want to maintain maximum control
and humiliate their victims, others are more apologetic, which might tell police
something about how the offender relates to women more generally
The significance of TIME AND PLACE is also a key variable and, as in geographical
profiling, may indicate where the offender is living. Forensic awareness describes
those individuals who have been the subject of police interrogation before; their
behaviour may denote how mindful they are of covering their tracks
CRIMINAL CHARACTERISTICS placing criminals into categories is a useful
exercise to help the police
CRIMINAL CAREER this considers how far into their criminal experience
offenders are, and how their pattern of crime might progress
FORENSIC AWARENESS this highlights the fact that offenders who show an
awareness of forensic investigation. E. g. by cleaning a crime scene, will probably
have committed a crime before and have been through the criminal justice
system
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3. Explain one strength and one limitation of investigative psychology (6
marks)
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GEOGRAPHICAL PROFILING (Rossmo, 1997)
Geographical profiling used information to do with the location of linked crime scenes to
make inferences about the likely home or operational base of an offender known as
crime mapping. It can be used in conjunction with psychological theory to create
hypotheses about how the offender is thinking as well as their modus operandi. The
assumption is that serial killers will restrict their work to geographical areas they are
familiar with, and so understanding the spatial pattern of their behaviour provides
investigators with a centre of gravity which is likely to include the offenders base
(often in the middle of the spatial pattern). It may also help investigators make
educated guesses about where the offender is likely to strike next the jeopardy
surface.
Geographical profiling can also be used to;
- identify which offences are linked (I. e. carried out by the same offender) and
which are not, to help focus investigations
- predict characteristics of the offender(s) responsible for a series of offences
- understand the link between offending and location, such as why certain
places attract more crime than others and why, even in high crime
neighbourhoods, some addresses are repeatedly victimised and others are
left alone
- help police and other official bodies target crime prevention resources in the
right areas and in the right sort of ways
The pattern of offending is likely to form a circle around their usual residence, and this
becomes more apparent the more offences there are. Such spatial decision-making can
offer the investigative team important insight into the nature of the offence (whether it
was planned or opportunistic), as well as revealing other important factors about the
offender such as their mental maps, mode of transport, employment status ,
approximate age. Etc.
ASPECTS OF GEOGRAPHICAL PROFILING
CENTRALITY - Canter and Larkin (1993) proposed two models of offender behaviour;
THE MARAUDER who operates in close proximity to their home base
THE COMMUTER who is likely to have travelled a distance away from their usual
residence
ROUTINE ACTIVITY THEORY (RAT) starts from three coinciding circumstances: a
motivated offender, a suitable victim and the absence of a capable guardian. It does
not explain why people commit crimes, but assumes that in any given area there are a
certain number of people who are motivated to do so. Dragnet is a computer program
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which uses information about the location of offences to predict where an offender is
likely to live.
CIRCLE THEORY OF ENVIRONMENTAL RANGE (LOCATEDNESS) proposes that the
majority of the time, if a circle is drawn that encompasses all of a series of linked
crimes, the offender will be based somewhere within that circle. Snook et al (2005)
examined the offence locations of 53 serial murderers in Germany. In 63% of cases the
killer lived within 6 miles of where the bodies were found. Godwin and Canter (1997)
found that 85 per cent of the offenders they studied lived inside the circle
encompassing their offences.
MENTAL MAPS People frequently develop internal representations of the world they
live in, particularly areas they make frequent use of. These mental maps do not
accurately represent reality, rather the perspective and experience of the individual. E.
g. a car driver will have a different mental map of London than a bus user. Because a
criminals offences are likely to be influenced by their mental map of an area, the
distribution of their offences can be used to make inferences about them. For example,
Canter used the locations of John Duffys attacks to predict that he would be someone
with more knowledge of the railway network than a casual rail user. It turned out that
Duffy was employed as a carpenter by British Rail.
TIMING OF OFFENCES - Ainsworth (2001) stresses that geographical information about
offending becomes much more useful when it is combined with temporal information.
For example, a spate of burglaries that occur between 3pm and 4pm might be carried
out by teenaged offenders, since this is the time when the typical British school day
finishes, and teenagers will be travelling home. However, the prevailing type of crime
varies over the course of the year. E. g. Burglaries peak at Christmas, Easter and over
the summer, as this is when large numbers of student-occupied properties are left
empty.
COMPARATIVE CASE ANALYSIS other crimes should be considered as being committed
by the same offender. This connection is actively sought because the more crimes
committed by one particular person, the greater the accuracy and application of
geographical profiling
4. Explain one strength and one limitation of geographical profiling (6 marks)
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HOW TYPOLOGICAL AND GEOGRAPHICAL PROFILING DIFFER
BOTH
GEOGRAPHICAL TYPOLOGICAL
(SIMILARITIES)
- Represent - Looks at the - Focuses primarily on behavioural
attempts to distribution of evidence obtains at the scenes of
work out the series of crimes specific crimes
characteristics - Potentially can - Evidence about how the offender
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of an offender be applied to all committed the crimes is used to assign
from the sorts of crime them to a particular category of offender
characteristics - Favoured in the - Different categories of offender are
of their offences UK believed to have different psychological
- Both can be - Originates in characteristics
used as an psychological - Category information is combined with
adjunct to expertise other insights to build up a picture of the
conventional - Based primarily sort of person who committed the crime
police work to on empirical, - Tends only to be used in cases of
help police link quantitative, stranger murder and rape where several
crimes, focus statistical offences are connects in a series
their methods - Favoured in the US
investigation - Originates in law enforcement expertise
and narrow the - Based primarily on qualitative data and
suspect field experience
EVALUATION
1. EVIDENCE SUPPORTS INVESTIGATIVE PSYCHOLOGY Canter and Heritages
(1990) content analysis of 66 sexual assault cases. The data was examined using
small space analysis and several characteristics were identified as common in
most cases, such as the use of impersonal language and lack of reaction to the
victim. This can lead to an understanding of how an offenders behaviour may
change over a series of offences or in establishing whether two or more offences
were committed.
2. EVIDENCE SUPPORTS GEOGRAPHICAL PROFILING Lundrigan and Canter (2001)

collated information from 120 murder cases involving US serial killers. Smallest
space analysis revealed spatial consistency in the behaviour of the killers. The
location of each body disposal site was in a different direction from the previous,
creating a centre of gravity
3. HAS A SCIENTIFIC BASIS Canters argument is that bottom-up profiling is more

objective and scientific than the top-down approach as it is more grounded in
evidence and psychological theory, and less driven by speculation and hunches.
Investigators are able to manipulate geographical, biographical and
psychological data quickly to produce insights and results that assist in the
investigation
4. THERE IS A WIDER APPLICATION It can be applied to a wider range of offences

than the top-down approach because it locates offender of many different
crimes. It can be used to locate the likely home of burglars given that they focus
their crime in a familiar place, often not too far from where they live
5. THERE ARE MIXED RESULTS FOR PROFILING There have been some significant
failures with the bottom-up approach (E. g. Rachel Nickell) and studies examining
the effectiveness of offender profiling have produced mixed results. E. g. Copson
25
(1995) surveys 48 police forces and found that the active provided by the profiler
was judged to be useful in 83% of the cases, but only in 3% did it lead to
accurate identification of the offender
6. LACK OF AVAILABLE INFORMATION - The technique requires statistical

information from previous crimes, which may not be easy to gather
7. OTHER CONSIDERATIONS NEED TO BE MADE such as their psychological

characteristics. As geographical profiling focuses on location, important
information could be missed, especially if location is used in isolation
RESEARCH ON OFFENDER PROFILING
Snook et al. Found that the number of cases using profiling to investigate crime
(2008) has increased, suggesting that police officers have started to
recognise its credibility
Pinizzotto Identified that out of 192 requests for criminal profiles, only 17%
(2012) were actually useful for identifying the suspects. However, it showed
that 77% of respondents indicated that the profiles has assisted
them to focus on the investigations
Abumere Found more than 75% of the British police officers asked said that
(2012) the advice of the profiler has been useful to them in making
predictions about crime. The advice improved their understanding of
the offender, including their ideas and feelings Dutch police officers
stated that they found profilers advice too general and others stated
that the follow-up work needed was not financially viable. They also
did not take the profilers advice when it contradicted with their own
ideas
Shanahan Found the responses to questionnaires sent out by the Criminal
(2008) Investigation Department to evaluate the effectiveness of criminal
profiling, were negative. This was only when it had not worked
effectively, but it was found that police officers still expressed
confidence in criminal profiling and its potential to help them
5. In 1992, 21-year-old Rachel Nickeel was stabbed 47 times and sexually

assaulted in a frenzied attack on Wimbledon Common. Her 2-year-old son was
the only witness. Police launched a massive manhunt and enlisted criminal
profiler Paul Britton to help with the enquiry. The investigation quickly
targeted Colin Stagg, a local man who often walked his dog on the common
and fitted the offender profile Britton had drawn up. Over the course of five
months, an undercover policewoman pursued Stagg feigning a romantic
interest in him and tried to get him to confess to Rachels murder. When the
case eventually came to court, the judge threw it out the only link between
Stagg and Rachels death was Brittons profile and the expensive undercover
operation. In 2008, following new forensic evidence, Robert Napper was
convicted of Rachels murder. Napper had originally been ruled out of the
enquiry at an early stage because he was several inches taller than the
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profile. How does this case illustrate some of the problems with offender
profiling?
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6. David Canter, a leading investigative psychologist assisted police with an
investigation into a series of rapes and murders in the 1980s. Canter applied
psychological principles to the evidence to suggest where the offender was
living (near the attacks), his job (semi-skilled railway labour), his social life
(loner) and his history of offending. Canters profile lead the police to John
Duffy, who was placed under observation and subsequently arrested,
charged, tried and convicted. The following profile was not used to prove that
Duffy was the attacker, its contribution to the case was to help the police
narrow down their list of thousands of suspects and to target their
subsequent investigations more effectively. How does this case support the
Bottom-up Approach?
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7. Outline how a top-down approach to investigating the crime might differ
from a bottom-up approach? Which of these two approaches do you think is
most scientific and why? Consider purpose, assumptions, use of
categories/types, types of crime applicable and evidence base
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BIOLOGICAL EXPLANATIONS: ATAVISTIC FORM
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LEARNING OBJECTIVES
To develop an understanding of biological explanations for offending behaviour

To outline and evaluate the physiological theories of Lombrosos atavistic form and
Sheldons
Somatotype
AN HISTORICAL APPROACH TO OFFENDING
In 1876, Cesare Lombroso, an Italian physician suggested that criminals were genetic
throwbacks a primitive sub-species who were biologically different from non-
criminals. Lombrosos theory of atavistic form is speculative and nave by todays
standards, though he is credited with moving criminology into a more rigorous and
scientific realm, and his ideas have laid the foundation for the modern offender profiling
techniques which were to follow
Lombroso saw offenders as lacking evolutionary development, as their savage and
untamed nature meant that they would find it impossible to adjust to the demands of
civilised society and would inevitably turn to crime. As such, Lombroso saw criminal
behaviour as a natural tendency, rooted in the genealogy of those who engage in it
1. Outline how the atavistic form can explain offending behaviour (3 marks)
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ATAVISTIC CHARACTERISTICS
Lombroso argued that the criminal sub-type could be identified as being in possession
of particular physiological markers that were linked to particular types of crime, that
are biologically determined atavistic characteristics. I. e. features of the face and head
that make criminals different from the rest of society
GENERAL CRIMINAL CHARACTERISTICS - Narrow, sloping brow

- A strong, prominent jaw
- High cheekbones
- Facial asymmetry
- Dark skin
- The existence of extra toes, nipples and
fingers
- Non-physical traits such as insensitivity to
pain, use of criminal slang, tattoos and
unemployment
MURDERERS ATAVISTIC - Bloodshot eyes

CHARACTERISTICS - Curly hair
- Long ears
SEXUAL DEVIANTS ATAVISTIC - Glinting eyes

CHARACTERISTICS - Swollen, fleshy lips
- Projecting ears
28
FRAUDSTERS ATAVISTIC - Thin
CHARACTERISTICS - Reedy
2. Use the following photos to complete the table:

1. 2. 3. 4.
WHAT FACIAL/PHYSICAL DOES THIS SUPPORT OR

SERIAL
FEATURES DO THEY HAVE CHALLENGE LOMBROSOS
KILLER
THAT LOMBROSO IDENTIFIED? EXPLANATION?
1. Fred West
2. Jeffrey
Dahmer
3. Ian Brady
4. Myra Hindley
RESEARCH
Lombroso examined the facial and cranial features of 383 dead and 3839 living Italian
convicts, and proposed that the atavistic form was associated with a number of
physical anomalies which were key indicators of criminality. He concluded that 40% of
criminal acts could be accounted for by atavistic characteristics
Hooton (1939) conducted a twelve year study comparing 12,873 male prisoners in ten
stated in the USA with a control group of 3,023 men to investigate whether there were
any physical differences. He argued that criminal behaviour was due to biological
29
inferiority and degeneration. He also argued that a variety of unattractive physical
characteristics could be ascribed to criminals including, sloping foreheads, protruding
ears and narrow jaws (which differed from those described by Lombroso)
EVALUATION
1. CONTRIBUTION TO CRIMINOLOGY Lombroso has been hailed as the father of
modern criminology for arguing for the interaction of biological, psychological
and social factors in causing criminal behaviour. He shifted the emphasis in
criminology from a moralistic discourse (where offenders were judged as wicked
and weak-minded) towards a more scientific realm (evolutionary influences and
genetics). By trying to describe how particular types of people are likely to
commit particular types of crimes, Lombrosos theory heralded the beginning of
criminal profiling. This was a shift from the study of criminality from a moral
basis to an empirical one
2. SCIENTIFIC RACISM DeLisi (2012) have criticised Lombrosos distinct racial

undertones. Many of the features that Lombroso identified as criminal and
atavistic and most likely to be found among people of African descent. Also, his
description of the atavistic as being uncivilised, primitive, savage supports the
eugenics philosophies that were popular of the time
3. CONTRADICTORY EVIDENCE Goring (1913) conducted a comparison between

3,000 criminals and 3,000 non-criminals and concluded that there was no
evidence that offenders are a distinct group with unusual facial and cranial
characteristics (though he did suggest that many people who commit crime have
lower than average intelligence). This questions the key element of Lombrosos
theory that criminals are different in terms of their appearance
4. POOR CONTROL IN LOMBROSOS RESEARCH Lombroso did not compare his

criminal sample with a non-criminal control group. If he had done so, it is
possible that the significant differences in the atavistic form may have
disappeared. Additionally, Lombroso failed to control for other important
variables such as the fact that many of the criminals he studied had suffered
from a history of psychological disorders that may have confounded results
5. CAUSATION IS AN ISSUE Even if there were some criminals who have some
atavistic elements in their facial appearance, this does not necessarily mean that
this is the cause of their offending. Facial and cranial differences can also be
influenced by other factors, such as poverty or poor diet, rather than an
indication of delayed evolutionary development
6. SAMPLING BIAS Lombrosos sample is likely to have contained a large number

of people with psychological disorders and chromosomal abnormalities, so he has
not distinguished adequately between criminality and pathology
30
7. CURRENT UNDERSTANDING - our current understanding of genetic influences on
behaviour does not support the idea that complex behaviours (like most criminal
activities) are controlled by single genes
8. HE LATER MADE ADJUSTMENTS TO HIS THEORY - he modified his theories quite
extensively over the course of his career. He eventually came to believe that only
about a third of criminality was directly attributable to atavistic features. The
majority of criminal behaviour in his later theories was the result of
environmental factors such as poverty and poor education
3. Briefly discuss two contributions the atavistic form theory made to our
modern understanding of crime (4 marks)
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4. If you were to re-investigate Lombrosos hypothesis that criminals are
physiologically different from non-criminals what changes would you make
to Lombrosos study in order to improve it?
Appropriate
Sample and
Method of
Selection
A Suitable
Comparison/Contro
l Group
The Experimental
Design
The IV, DV and IV =

Hypothesis DV =
HYPOTHESIS =
Control of Possible
Confounding
Variables
How You will

Analyse the Data
SHELDONS SOMATOTYPE THEORY
31
Sheldon believed that criminality
is linked to temperament and
temperament is linked to bodily
build: ectomorph (thin),
endomorph (fat) or mesomorph
(muscular). The mesomorphs
personality makes him more
likely to engage in criminal
activity. Sheldon (1949) rated
thousands of photographs on 1-7
for mesomorphy. College
students and delinquents were
compared and delinquent had
higher mesomorphy ratings (4.6
versus 3.8)
A reanalysis by Hartl et al. (1982) found that the most seriously delinquent of Sheldons
sample had a mean mesomorphy rating of 5, adding further support to the theory.
Although Sutherland claimed that Sheldons method for distinguishing delinquents from
non-delinquents was not valid, a number of other studies have confirmed that there is a
small association between bodily build and criminality (Putwain & Sammons, 2002).
This might be because of higher testosterone levels (higher aggressiveness), that
people react to mesomorphs in ways that increase their risk of criminal behaviour or
that stereotypes about these individuals may mean that they are drawn into delinquent
activities by their peer groups
Sheldons constitutional psychology is no longer taken seriously, but there is a small

association between body build and criminality. This can be explained by
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EVALUATION OF SHELDON
- Sheldon did not use the legal criteria for delinquency
- The theory established and reinforced the idea of the criminal stereotype
- The link cannot be proved as being causal
- High testosterone levels may affect both body shape and aggressive behaviour
- Some research has supported the link between body shape and delinquency, but
other studies have found no association
5. Outline Sheldons Somatotype Theory (3 marks)
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6. Evaluate Sheldons Somatotype Theory (6 marks)
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THE EXTRA Y HYPOTHESIS
A slightly later physiological theory suggested that some crime might be attributable to
a chromosomal abnormality. Rather than having XX or XY individuals, atypical
chromosomal combinations may occur, such as Kinefelters syndrome, where the
combination of XXY results in the male form possessing some female characteristics.
Since an extra X appears to feminize men, some theorists speculated that an
additional Y chromosome might hyper masculinise men who had it. Since men are
more aggressive than women, it might be that men who have XYY chromosomes might
be more aggressive than other men and hence more likely to commit violent crimes.
The idea was advanced that offender populations in prisons and hospitals would be
likely to contain large numbers of XYY men. In 1965 British geneticists carried out a
study of patients in a hospital for the developmentally disabled and that found nine
patients, averaging almost 6 feet, had an XYY genotype rather than XY. It was
subsequently concluded that XYY individuals had violent tendencies, and even that
they should be institutionalised.
Some claims were made that high profile, prolific offenders, such as the killer Richard
Speck, had the XYY pattern because he was tall, suffered for acne and clearly had
aggressive tendencies. (In 1972, Specks genotype was analysed and found to be
normal XY, but by this point the false association of Speck with the XYY genetic
condition had been incorporated into high school biology textbooks, college genetics
textbooks and medical school psychiatry textbooks, where misinformation still persists
decades later).
RICHARD SPECK: AN XYY INDIVIDUAL?
In July 1966, Richard Speck broke into a dormitory housing eight nurses where he
bound and gagged each resident, then lead each out of the room to be raped, tortured
and killed. Speck was positively identified by one of his intended targets who survived
by hiding under a bed. The jury found Speck guilty after forty-nine minutes of
deliberation and he was sentenced to the electric chair. Later he was re-sentenced to
hundreds of years in prison, where he died in 1991. No one claimed his body. It was
eventually established that XYY men are rare in the general population but more
common in the offender population (Howitt, 2009)
ISSUES WITH XYY
The problem is that XYY men tend to commit non-violent crime, not violent crime as the
XYY hypothesis predicts (Epps, 1995). Reasons why include;
- Although testosterone levels amongst XYY men are no different from XY men, and
they are no more aggressive than the general population, they are at a substantially
increased risk of developmental delay and learning difficulties (Graham et al, 2007)
- There is a small association between learning difficulties and criminal behaviour. IQ
scores amongst convicted offenders are marginally lower than the general
population (Hollin, 1992)
- There is a slightly higher prevalence of mild learning difficulties amongst offender
groups (Lund, 1990). It might therefore be the case that the higher than expected
number of XYY men in the offender population is a consequence of the learning
difficulties associated with the condition.
33
7. Single factor theories of criminality are always likely to fail because
a) Crime is not a natural or homogenous category of behaviour
b) It is self-evidently the result of interaction between a range of factors
c) Different explanations for different types of crime
d) All of the above
8. Discuss one historical approach to offending behaviour. Refer to evidence

in your answer (16 marks)
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BIOLOGICAL EXPLANATIONS: GENETIC AND NEURAL

EXPLANATIONS
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
To describe and evaluate research into genetic and neurological explanations

To explain the role of twin and adoption studies in investigating genetic contribution

To use knowledge of methodology, issues and debates (confounding variables,
sampling control of variables, limitations of correlational research, inferences, nature v
nurture, reductionism, determinism, social sensitivity, policy implications of biological
determinism) to evaluate explanations
GENETIC EXPLANATIONS
Genetic explanations for crime suggest that would-be offenders inherit a gene or
combination of genes that predispose them to commit crime.
TWIN Early twin studies generally found higher concordance for criminality
STUDIES amongst MZ than DZ twins, which would support the suggestion of a
genetic influence. However, much of the early research was flawed by
a combination of small samples and poor methods for determining
zygocity (i.e. whether a particular twin pair was MZ or DZ). Better,
more recent studies have addressed these issues and it is noteworthy
that they have generally produced lower estimates for the heritability
of criminal tendencies than the early research (Putwain & Sammons,
2002).
Lange (1930) conducted the first criminal twin study. He investigated
13 monozygotic (MZ) and 17 dizygotic (DZ) twins where one of the
twins in each pair had served time in prison. Lange found that 10 of
the MZ twins, but only 2 of the DZ twins had a co-twin who was also in
prison. Lange concluded that genetic factors must play a predominant
part in offending behaviour
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Christianson (1997) studied 87 MZ and 147 DZ pairs and found a
concordance rate of 33% for MZs and 12% for DZs which supports the
view that offending may have a genetic component
CANDIDATE There is an assumption that any particular behaviour is affected by
GENES many different genes. It is assumed that genes must also interact with
the environment. Therefore there is the potential to develop in
particular ways but behavioural potentials will only be fulfilled with
the operation of a suitable environmental trigger. Today, there is no
assumption that crime is caused by defective genetic inheritance,
rather the genetic influences which may lead to crime are regarded as
part of the normal genetic variability within our species
Tiihonen et al. (2014) analysed 900 offenders and found that there
were genetic abnormalities on two genes that are associated with
violent crime the MAOA gene (dopamine and serotonin) and CDH13
(linked to substance abuse and ADD). Individuals from this Finnish
sample were thirteen times more likely to have a history of violent
behaviour, however this research has not yet been replicated
DIATHESIS- If genetics do have some influence on offending, it seems likely that
STRESS this is at least partly moderated by the effects of the environment. A
MODEL tendency towards criminal behaviour may come about through the
combination of genetic predisposition and biological or psychological
trigger. E. g. Being raised in a dysfunctional environment or having
criminal role models
FAMILY Criminal behaviour has a tendency to run in families. Osborne and
STUDIES West (1982) compared the sons of criminal and non-criminal fathers.
They found that 13 per cent of the sons of the non-criminal fathers
had criminal convictions, compared with 40 per cent of the sons of
criminal fathers. However, it is possible that criminal behaviour is
learned within the family or that a third variable, such as poverty,
accounts for criminal behaviour in both fathers and sons (Hollin,
1989).
Farrington (1996) monitored 411 males living in London from age
eight to thirty-two years through interviews and crime records. These
conviction rates were compared with convictions of their biological
mothers and fathers, and close family members. The study found:
- 64% of families had at least one convicted person
- 6% of families accounted for 50% of all convictions
- Convictions of one family member were strongly related to
convictions of every other family member
- 75% of convicted mothers/fathers had a convicted child
Farrington concluded that offending is strongly concentrated in
families and is demonstrated from one generation to the next
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ADOPTION In an adoption study, the similarities between adopted children and
STUDIES their biological and adoptive offspring are compared. Where the
similarity is greatest with the adoptive parents an environmental
influence can be assumed on the characteristic in question.
Conversely, where there is greater similarity with the biological
parents this may indicate a genetic influence.
Limitations of adoption studies include;
- It may not be criminality which is being inherited. E.g. There is a
heritable predisposition towards alcoholism which is associated
with violent crime, which may be where the genetic link comes
from
- Similarities between biological parents and their offspring need not
be genetic. E. g. Poverty, low-socioeconomic status and
developmental problems caused by maternal stress during
pregnancy, which can contribute to crime
- Many adopted children are not adopted at birth and their life
experiences prior to adoption may significantly affect their later
development
Crowe (1972) found that where the biological mother had a criminal
record, the child ran a 50 per cent risk of acquiring one by the age of
18, compared with only a 5 percent risk where the biological mother
did not have a criminal conviction.
Hutchings and Mednick (1975) found that where neither biological nor
adoptive father had a criminal record, the son went on to get one
about 10 percent of the time. This rose to 11 percent where only the
adoptive father had a criminal record, 21 percent where only the
biological father had one and 36 percent where both had a criminal
record.
Mednick et al (1994) found no relationship between the number of
criminal convictions of adoptive parents and their adopted children
but a significant correlation between the number of criminal
convictions of the biological parents and their offspring (although only
for property crimes, not violent crimes).
WHAT IS - Abnormalities in the CNS, particularly the brain leads to poorer
BEING cognitive functioning or problems regulating behaviour
INHERITED? - Abnormalities in the ANS the individual will only react to strong
stimuli which might impair learning or lead to a greater tendency
for stimulation seeking
- Abnormalities in the endocrine system atypical hormonal activity
might conceivable be connected with certain types of offences. E.
g. the role of testosterone in sexual/violent crimes
1. Outline the genetic explanation of offending (3 marks)
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NEURAL EXPLANATIONS
Evidence suggests that there might be neural differences in the brains of criminals and
non-criminals. Much of the evidence in this area is investigated using individuals with
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antisocial personality disorder. APD is associated with reduced emotional responses, a
lack of empathy for the feelings of others and is a condition that characterises many
convicted criminals
BIOCHEMICA NORADRENALINE part of the flight-or-fight response by helping to

LS respond in a threatening situation. High levels are linked to violence
IMPLICATED and aggression, so consequently it is easy to explain some crimes as
IN being underpinned by chemical unbalance
OFFENDING SEROTONIN regulates mood and impulse control. Low levels would
BEHAVIOUR mean more impulsivity, and in emotional situations they could react
easily because their capacity to hold back is limited
Higley et al. (1996) found that levels of serotonin were negatively
correlated with impulsive behaviour and extreme aggression, but not
general aggression, in male non-human primates
DOPAMINE has been linked to addiction I. e. Substance abuse, which
makes crime more likely. The greater the activity, the greater the
feeling of pleasure, which makes addition more likely
Raine has conducted many studies of the APD brain, reporting that
PREFRONTAL there were several dozen brain-imaging studies demonstrating that
CORTEX individuals with antisocial personalities have reduced activity in the
prefrontal cortex (the part of the brain that regulates emotional
behaviour
Raine et al. (2000) found an 11% reductions in the volume of grey
matter in the prefrontal cortex of people with APD compared to
controls
Raine et al. (1997) investigated whether there was any difference
between the brain activity of murderers and non-murderers. 41
violent murderers who claimed not to be guilty by reason of insanity
underwent PET scans. Raine found some differences in brain activity
in areas linked to aggression, such as the prefrontal cortex and the
limbic system
Recent research suggests that criminals with APD can experience
MIRROR empathy but do so more sporadically than other people
NEURONS Kaysers et al. (2011) found that only when criminals were asked to
empathise (with a person depicted on film experiencing pain) did their
empathy (controlled by mirror neurons in the brain) activate. This
suggests that APD individuals have a neural switch that can be
turned on and off, unlike a normal brain which has the empathy
switch permanently on
LIMBIC The central part of the brain where emotions are regulated (could be
SYSTEM implicated in criminal behaviour). Criminal psychopaths (personality
disorder) have problems processing emotions and empathy. There is
no remorse or guilt if their actions affect others in a negative way,
which could lead to planned and organised offending as a method of
self-serving
Kent et al. (2001) used fMRI scanning to ascertain any abnormalities
in the psychotic brain during an emotion-based task. When compared
to criminal non-psychopaths and non-criminal controls, criminal
psychopaths showed much less activity in the limbic system and
greater use of their frontal lobe (suggesting an element of planning
and control)
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MATURATION Suggests that slow wave activity represents delayed brain maturation;
RETARDATIO consistent with presentation of psychopaths as immature, child-like,
N self- centered
2. Outline the neural explanation of offending (3 marks)

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3. Outline one study that has investigated a neural explanation of offending
(3 marks)
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EVALUATION OF THE BIOLOGICAL APPROACH
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
Mednick et al. (1984) conducted a study The presumed separation of genetic and
that supports the diathesis-stress model. environmental influences by adoption
When neither the biological or adoptive studies is complicated by the fact that
parents of 13,000 Danish adoptees had many children experience late adoption.
convictions the percentage of adoptees Similarly, many adoptees maintain
that did was 13.5%. The figure rose to regular contact with their biological
20% when either biological parent had a parents following their adoption, which
conviction, and to 24.5% when both makes it difficult to assess the
adoptive and biological parents had environment impact the biological
convictions parents might have
Biochemical explanations are relevant Because most twins are raised in the
more to everyday behaviour, and that same environment, this presents as a
they may lead to offending behaviour in major confounding variable. Concordance
some circumstances rates may be due to shared learning
experiences rather than genetics
Early twin studies were poorly controlled
and judgments of MZ or DZ were based
on appearance rather than DNA testing
lacks validity
Twin studies generally involve small
sample sizes and as twins as an unusual
sample in themselves, they may not
represent the rest of the population
A criminal gene presents a dilemma as
the legal system is based on the premise
that criminals have personal and moral
responsibility for their crimes (unless
mentally ill). Ethically, what does society
do with people who are suspected of
carrying criminal genes? What
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implications does this have for
sentencing?
Reducing complex criminality to a genetic
or neural level may be inappropriate and
overly simplistic
Much of the research into
neurotransmitters has been conducted on
animals which creates issues of validity
and generalisability
The biochemical explanations are
reductionist, because they simplify
criminal behaviour in terms of biology. It
is likely that the issue is far more
complex
Brain functioning issues may be a result
of abuse in childhood. I. e. being beaten,
which raises the issue of culpability
Sample sizes are small because the
target population may be hard to access
and using brain scanning is time-
consuming and expensive
4. Researchers conducted a study in which they compared the total brain

volume of violent criminals with non-violent criminals using an MRI scan. An
unrelated t-test revealed that there was a difference in total brain volume
between the two groups and that this was significant at the 0.05 level.
Write a suitable non-directional hypothesis for the investigation (2 marks)
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5. Explain what is meant by interval data. Refer to the investigation in your
data (3 marks)
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6. Explain what is meant by the phrase significant at the 0.05 level (2 marks)
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7. Distinguish between a Type I and a Type II error in psychological research.
Refer to the investigation in your research (4 marks)
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8. Make a concept map detailing how biological, cognitive, behavioural,

psychodynamic and humanistic approaches might explain offending
behaviour. Draw links between each of the approaches
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PSYCHOLOGICAL EXPLANATIONS: EYSENCKS THEORY
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
To develop an understanding of the psychological explanations of offending behaviour

To outline key features of Eysencks personality dimensions and the role of extraversion
and
neuroticism in offending
To outline research into the relationship between personality and criminality and
explain limitations
To explain methodological limitations of research into the relationship between
personality and
criminality
To evaluate personality factors in explaining criminality

Here are some questions about how you think, feel and act. Decide whether
yes or no represents your usual way of thinking, feeling or acting, and
then check the appropriate answer. Dont spend too much time on any
question; go with your first reaction, rather than thinking for a long time
about how you want to respond. This isnt a test of intelligence or ability, just
a measure of how you behave.
YES NO
1. Do you like plenty of excitement and bustle around you?

2. Do you like working alone?

3. When you get annoyed do you need someone friendly to talk to about it?

4. Are you often lost in thought?

5. Do you sometimes feel happy, sometimes sad, for no real reason?

6. Do you worry too long after an embarrassing experience?

7. Are you moody?

8. Have you often lost sleep over your worries?

9. Have you sometimes told lies in your life?

10.Do you sometimes laugh at a dirty joke?

EXTRAVERSION = NEUROTICISM = PSYCHOTICISM =
NB: this is not a full version of the EPI and does not produce valid
psychometric measurements. It has been produced for
educational/illustrative purposes only and should not be used for any other
purpose. The full EPQ has 100 items and the shortened version has 48.
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PERSONALITY
The term personality is generally used to refer to relatively stable characteristics of a
person that make their behaviour consistent across situations. Hans Eysenck (1964) put
forward a theory of criminal behaviour based on a very influential theory of personality
he had earlier devised and which he continued to develop throughout his career.
Although this theory is usually referred to as a personality theory of offending, it is
important to appreciate that Eysencks theory conceives of criminal behaviour as the
outcome of interactions between processes occurring at several different levels of
explanation.
THE BASIS OF PERSONALITY THEORY
Eysenck (1947) proposed that a trait theory which states that all personalities are made
of certain traits and that behaviour could be represented along two dimensions:
introversion/extraversion (E) and neuroticism/stability (N). The two dimensions combine
to form a variety of personality characteristics or traits. Eysenck later added a third
dimension psychoticism (P)
He proposed that our personality traits are biological in origin, through the type of
nervous system we inherit. Therefore all personality types, including CRIMINAL
PERSONALITY type have an innate, biological basis.
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- Extraverts have an underactive nervous system which means that they
constantly seek excitement, stimulation and are likely to engage in risk-taking
behaviours. They tend not to condition easily and do not learn from their
mistakes. They are also sociable, impulsive, active and lively.
- Neurotic individuals tend to be anxious, depressed, nervous, jumpy,
obsessive and over-anxious. This general instability means that their
behaviour is often difficult to predict, however they often react very strongly
to aversive stimuli.
- Psychotics are insensitive, unconventional and lacks a conscience. They are
also cold, uncaring, solitary and aggressive.
THE CRIMINAL PERSONALITY
The basic ideas underlying Eysencks theory are that;
- Offender demonstrate distinctive personality traits or behaviours
- There is an apparent genetic basis for personality traits
- Development of conscience, which can stop offending, may be faulty
The criminal personality type is neurotic-extravert a combination of all the above
characteristics described above. Eysenck suggested that the typical offender will also
score highly on measures of psychoticism a personality type that is characterised as
cold, unemotional and prone to aggression.
- HIGH EXTRAVERTS are drawn to criminal behaviour by the thrill of
committing a crime
- HIGH NEUROTICS are more likely to commit crimes in emotionally charged
situations
THE ROLE OF SOCIALISATION
Personality is linked to criminal behaviour via socialisation processes. Eysenck saw
criminal behaviour as developmentally immature (selfish and concerned with
immediate gratification). These individuals are impatient and cannot wait for things.
The process of socialisation is one in which children are taught to become more able to
delay gratification and more socially oriented. Eysenck believed that people with high E
and N scores had nervous systems that made them difficult to condition and as a result,
they would not learn easily to respond to antisocial impulses with anxiety.
Consequently, they would be more likely to act antisocially in situations where the
opportunity presented itself.
THE BIOLOGICAL BASIS
Eysenck argued a biological basis to personality, with an inherited predisposition to
certain traits. For extraversion, Eysenck argued that the RETICULAR ACTIVATING
SYSTEM (RAS) which modulates the level of cortical arousal in the brain, was
responsible. If the residual level of activation is low, then a person will seek stimulation
from the environment to raise the level. Similarly, introverts withdraw from too much
stimulation because their brain arousal level needed to be reduced for optimal brain
functioning.
With neuroticism, the biological basis was due to the autonomic nervous system. Some
people react swiftly and strongly to stress physiologically and those measuring high in
neuroticism would react quickly and to a greater degree. The biological basis for
psychoticism is not detailed, although Eysenck did believe that androgens and
testosterone might be implicated.
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1. Briefly explain Eysencks theory of criminal personality (3 marks)
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MEASURING THE CRIMINAL PERSONALITY
Central to Eysencks theory is the notion that personality can be measured. He
developed the Eysenck Personality Inventory (EPI) psychological test which locates
respondents along the E and N dimensions to determine their personality type. A later
scale was introduced to measure psychoticism. People who score high on P are
aggressive, antisocial, cold and egocentric. That is, most people have moderate E, N
and P scores. Extreme scores are rarer and the more extreme a score, the rarer it is.
EVIDENCE
- Rushton and Christjohn (1981) compared E, N and P scores with self-reports of
delinquency in schoolchildren and students. They found that those who reported
higher levels of delinquency also scored higher on E, P and N. These correlations are
consistent with Eysencks prediction.
- However, studies of official delinquency (e.g. comparing convicted offenders with
non-offenders) do not produce such clear cut results. Farrington et al (1982)
reviewed 16 studies of the relationship between E, N and P measures with criminal
convictions. They found that in the majority of cases offenders scored higher on P
and N but not on E.
- Hollin (1989) notes a similar pattern of findings: offenders generally show higher P
and N scores but not necessarily higher E scores. It is not clear why the relationship
between E and offending is so inconsistent. One possibility is that E scales actually
measure two things, sociability and impulsiveness and that criminality is associated
with the latter but not the former (Putwain & Sammons, 2002).
EVALUATION OF EYSENCKS THEORY
STRENGT WEAKNE EVALUATION POINT
H SS
Howitt (2009) applauds its attempt to integrate different
approaches but notes that the broad sweep of Eysencks theory
actually addresses few of the real concerns of forensic
psychologists, who are more interested in questions about specific
types of crime. Eysencks theory tells us that rapists and child
abusers are extravert, neurotic and psychotic, but it does not tell us
why they rape or abuse children
There is some empirical support for Eysencks theory, but a number
of critics have argued that the data are flawed. Research in this
area relies heavily on the self-report measures of personality
devised by Eysenck and colleagues
Eysencks theory may point in some useful directions where it
comes to preventing crime. His theory suggests that the underlying
tendencies that eventually manifest themselves as criminal
behaviour are detectable in childhood and that it may be possible
to modify the socialization experiences of high-risk individuals so
that they do not develop into offenders. This could lead to
interventions based on parenting or early treatment for
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delinquency and hence may be of great practical benefit in
reducing criminal behaviour
The research has made heavy use of comparisons between
convicted offenders and the general population. Such research
inevitably excludes those who commit crimes and are not caught
and convicted. Consequently, many of these studies may only be
telling us about the personality characteristics of unsuccessful
offenders
Mischel (1968) argues that the apparent consistency in peoples
behaviour is an illusion that arises from the fact that we typically
observe people in similar situations. If we accept this line of
argument then we must question the existence of the stable
personality traits on which Eysencks theory rests.
There is empirical support - Eysenck and Eysenck (1977) compared
2070 male prisoners EPI scores with 2422 male controls. Groups
were subdivided into age groups ranging from 16-69 years. On
measures of psychoticism, extraversion and neuroticism, across all
age groups, prisoners recorded higher scores than controls which
accords with the predictions of the theory
Eysencks criminal type is out-of-sync with modern personality
theories Digmans (1990) Five Factor Model of Personality
suggests that alongside P, N and E, there are categories for
openness, agreeableness and conscientiousness
There is an argument that the theory itself is somewhat circular.
Take the example of the psychoticism scale. To measure P,
respondents answer yes or no to a series of statements about
whether they act aggressively and selfishly. Their scores on such
scales are then used to explain why high P-scorers act
aggressively and antisocially
The idea that all offending behaviour can be explained by a single
personality type has been heavily criticised. Moffitt (1993)
proposed several distinct types of adult male offender based on the
timing of the first offence, and how long the offending persists
There is a cultural bias Bartol and Holanchock (1979) studied
Hispanic and African-American offenders in a maximum security
prison in New York and divided these into six groups based on their
criminal history and the nature of their offence. It was found that all
six groups were found to be less extravert than a non-criminal
control group. They suggested that this was because their sample
was a very different cultural group than that investigated by
Eysenck, which questions the generalisability of the criminal
personality
2. Identify and explain two criticisms of Eysencks theory of the criminal

personality (4 marks)
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3. Which of the three cases below most clearly fits Eysencks description
of the criminal personality. Explain your answer (4 marks)
CASE 1 Margaret CASE 2 Vince Douglas 3 Barry Phillips

Tibbs
Is a company Is a family man with a Is nineteen and a self-
accountant for a highly-paid job. His many confessed boy racer. Since
small form and has friends would describe him passing his test two years ago,
been stealing small as a steady bloke who is Barry has been convicted of
amounts of money well-adjusted. Vince is also a stealing cars and writing them
from petty cash for serial killer. He has off and has spent time in a
years. Since joining murdered dozens of women young offenders institute.
the firm eighteen over the years, leaves no Barry has also been given a
years ago, Margaret evidence at the scene and six-month suspended
has stolen thousands disposes of the bodies sentence for burglary and has
of pounds. She is without a trace. Vince tells since had to wear an
quiet, unassuming his wife of over twenty-five electronic tag. Barry also has
and does not have a years that he often stays drug and alcohol problems
great many friends at behind at the office and she and sees a counsellor
work has no reason to disbelieve regularly to help him with his
him depression
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4. How could the other two cases be seen as criticisms of Eysencks

theory? (8 marks)
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5. Discuss Eysencks theory of the criminal personality. Refer to evidence

in your answer (16 marks)
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PSYCHOLOGICAL EXPLANATIONS: COGNITIVE EXPLANATIONS

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
To develop an understanding of cognitive explanations for offending behaviour

48
To describe key features and processes of moral reasoning according to Kohlbergs
theory
To describe the use of dilemmas to investigate reasoning

To outline, evaluate and use research into moral development to evaluate cognitive
explanations for offending behaviour

LEVELS OF MORAL REASONING
Lawrence Kohlberg was the first researcher to apply the concept of moral reasoning to
criminal behaviour. Kohlberg proposed that peoples decisions on right and wrong can
be summarised in a stage theory of moral development:
LEVEL I STAGE 1 Punishment orientation: rules are obeyed to avoid

PRECONVENTIO punishment
NAL MORALITY
STAGE 2 Instrumental orientation or personal gain: rules
are obeyed for personal gain
LEVEL II STAGE 3 Good boy or Good girl orientation: rules are
CONVENTIONAL obeyed for approval
MORALITY
STAGE 4 Maintenance of social order: rules are obeyed to
maintain the social order
LEVEL III STAGE 5 - Morality of contract and individual rights: rules
POSTCONVENTI are obeyed if they are impartial; democratic rules are challenged
ONAL MORALITY if they infringe on the rights of others
STAGE 6 Morality of conscience: the individual establishes
his or her own rules in accordance with a personal set of ethical
principles
The higher the stage, the more sophisticated the reasoning. Kohlberg based his theory
on peoples responses to a series of moral dilemmas such as the Heinz dilemma.
Studies have found that criminals show a lower level of moral reasoning than non-
criminals. Kohlberg et al. (1973) found that a group of violent youths were significantly
lower in their moral development than non-violent youths even after controlling for
social background using his moral dilemma technique
THE HEINZ DILEMMA
In Europe, a woman was near death from a special kind of cancer. There was one drug
that the doctors thought might save her. It was a form of radium that a druggist in the
same town had recently discovered. The drug was expensive to make, but the druggist
was charging ten times what the drug cost him to make. He paid $400 for the radium
and charged $4,000 for a small dose of the drug. The sick womans husband, Heinz,
went to everyone je knew to borrow the money, but he could only get together about
$2,000, which was half of what the drug cost. He told the druggist that his wife was
dying and asked him to sell it cheaper or let him pay later. But the druggist said, No, I
discovered the drug and Im going to make money from it. So Heinz got desperate and
considered breaking into the mans store to steal the drug for his wife.
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Participants were then asked various questions including: Should Heinz steal the drug?
Why or why not? Does the druggist have the right to charge what he likes for the drug?
What if the dying person were a stranger, should he steal the drug?
KOHLBERGS MODEL AND CRIMINALITY
Criminal offenders are more likely to be classified at the pre-conventional level of
Kohlbergs model, whereas non-criminal have generally progressed to the conventional
level and beyond. The pre-conventional level is characterised by a need to avoid
punishment and gain rewards (less mature, childlike reasoning). Thus, adults and
adolescents who reason from this level may commit crime if they can get away with it
or gain rewards in the form of money, increased respect. Etc. This assumption is
supported by studies which suggest that offenders are often more self-centred and
display poorer social perspective-taking skills than non-offender peers (Chandler,
1973). Individuals who reason at higher levels tend to sympathise more with the rights
of others and exhibit more conventional behaviour such as honesty, generosity and
non-violence
1. Watch the Heinz Dilemma and state the level of reasoning and why you
think that this is the level achieved:
http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b008drfq
LEVEL OF MORAL EVIDENCE

REASONING
ACHIEVED
COGNITIVE DISTORTIONS
COGNITIVE - Are errors or biases in peoples information processing system

DISTORTIONS characterised by faulty thinking
- We all demonstrate this at some point, especially if they
behaviour was unexpected or out of character, but research has
linked this to the way in which criminals interpret other peoples
behaviour and justify their own actions
- Two types of cognitive distortions are; hostile attribution bias
and minimalisation
HOSTILE - A propensity for violence is often associated with a tendency to
ATTRIBUTION misinterpret the actions of other people to assume others are
BIAS being confrontational when they are not
- Offenders may misread non-aggressive cues (such as being
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looked at) and this may trigger a disproportionate, often violent,
response
- Schoenberg and Justye (2014) presented 55 violent offenders
with images of emotionally ambiguous facial expressions. When
compared with a non-aggressive matched, control group the
violent offenders were significantly more likely to perceive the
images as angry and hostile
- Dodge and Frame (1982) demonstrated that the roots of this
behaviour may lie in childhood. They showed children a video
clip of an ambiguous provocation (where the intention was
neither clearly hostile nor clearly accidental). Children who had
been identified as aggressive and rejected prior to the study
interpreted the situation as more hostile than those classed as
non-aggressive and accepted
- Epps and Kendall (1995) found that college students who had
high scores for anger and aggression demonstrated a high level
of anger and hostility when tested for hostile attribution bias,
even when the situation they were tested on was benign
MINIMALISATIO - Is an attempt to deny or downplay the seriousness of an offence
N and has been referred to as the application of a euphemistic
label (Bandura, 1973)
- For instance, burglars may describe themselves as doing a job
or supporting my family as a way of minimising the
seriousness of their offences
- Studies suggest that individuals who commit sexual offences are
particularly prone to minimalisation
- Barbaree (1991) found among 26 incarcerated rapists, 54%
denied they had committed the offence at all and a further 40%
minimised the harm they had caused to the victim
- Pollock and Hashmall (1991) reported that 35% of a sample of
child molesters argued that the crime they had committed was
non-sexual (they were just being affectionate) and 36% stated
that the victim had consented
2. Work in pairs to create a series of dialogues between offender and

interviewer that illustrate each type of cognitive distortion. Each pair will
enact a dialogue and the class has to guess which cognitive distortion it is
COGNITIVE CHARACTER DIALOGUE

DISTORTION
Egocentric
Bias
Hostile
Attribution
Bias
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Excessive
Blaming
Minimalisatio
n of
Consequenc
es
RESEARCH
Hollin et al. (2002) suggested that offenders were in a less mature stage of moral
development than non-offenders
Palmer (2003) looked at the association between moral development and
offending behaviour and suggested that it is specific moral values that are
associated with offending and that there is a relationship between the two
EVALUATION
1. EVIDENCE Palmer and Hollin (1998) compared moral reasoning between 210
female non-offenders, 122 male non-offenders and 126 convicted offenders
using the Socio-Moral Reflection Measure-Short Form, which contains 11 moral
dilemma-related questions such as not taking things that belong to others and
keeping a promise to a friend. The delinquent group showed less mature moral
reasoning than the non-delinquent group, which is consistent with Kohlbergs
predictions
2. EVIDENCE - Blackburn (1993) suggests that delinquents may show poor moral
development due to a lack of role playing opportunities in childhood, therefore
such opportunities to develop moral reasoning should therefore be provided
3. ALTERNATIVE THEORIES OF MORAL REASONING Gibbs (1979) proposed a
revised version of Kohlbergs theory comprising of two levels of reasoning:
mature and immature. In the first, moral decision are guided by the avoidance of
punishment and personal gain; in the second, by empathy, social justice and
ones own conscience. Gibbs argued that Kohlbergs post-conventional level
should be abandoned because it is culturally biased. This is supported by
Piagets theory of moral development which suggests that childlike (criminal)
reasoning is self-centred and egocentric which gives way to empathy and a
concern for the needs of others as children get older
4. APPLICATION OF RESEARCH Understanding the nature of cognitive distortions
has proven beneficial in the treatment of criminal behaviour. The dominant
approach for the rehabilitation of sexual offenders is CBT which encourages them
to face up to what they have done and establish a less distorted view of their
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actions. Studies suggest that reduced incidence of denial and minimalisation in
therapy is highly correlated with a reduced risk of reoffending
5. INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES the level of moral reasoning may depend on the type
of offence. Thornton and Reid (1982) found that individuals who committed
crimes for financial gain, such as robbery, were more likely to show pre-
conventional levels of moral reasoning than those convicted of impulsive crimes
such as assault, where reasoning of any kind tended not to be evident. Pre-
conventional moral reasoning tends to be associated with crimes in which
offender believe they have a good chance of evading punishment. Langdon et al.
(2010) has suggested that intelligence may be a better predictor of criminality
than moral reasoning which would explain the finding that groups of people with
very low intelligence are actually less likely to commit crime
6. DESCRIPTIVE, NOT EXPLANATORY The cognitive approach is good at describing
the criminal mind, but it is less successful when it comes to explaining it.
Cognitive theories are essentially after the fact theories and although they are
useful when predicting reoffending, they tend not to give much insight into why
the offender committed the crime in the first place
3. Using an example, explain what is meant by cognitive behaviour (3 marks)

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4. Outline one cognitive explanation of offending (4 marks)
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5. Outline one study in which a cognitive explanation for offending was
investigated (3 marks)
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ADDITIONAL RESOURCES TO WATCH
Kohlbergs stages - http://www.teachertube.com/video/kohlbergs-stages-184961
Kohlbergs Moral Development - http://www.teachertube.com/video/kohlbergs-moral-

development-222575
Family delinquency - http://www.slideshare.net/harilouise/farrington-et-al p00f8n7l
PSYCHOLOGICAL EXPLANATIONS: DIFFERENTIAL

ASSOCIATION THEORY
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LEARNING OBJECTIVES
To outline and evaluate differential association theory

To use research evidence to evaluate learning explanation for offending behaviour

To use a range of criteria and knowledge of methodology, issues and debates to
evaluate explanations
To develop an understanding of cognitive explanations for offending behaviour

DIFFERENTIAL ASSOCIATION THEORY
Individuals learn the values, attitudes, techniques and motives for criminal behaviour
through association and interaction with different people.
SCIENTIFIC BASIS
Sutherland developed scientific principles that could explain all type of offending, that
is, the conditions which are said to cause crime should be present when crime is
present, and they should be absent when crime is absent (Sutherland, 1924). This
theory is designed to discriminate between individuals who become criminals and those
who do not, regardless of race, class, or ethnic background. Etc.
CRIME AS A LEARNED BEHAVIOUR
Offending behaviour can be acquired through learning, which occurs most often
through the interactions with significant others that the child associates with, such as
family and peer groups. Criminality arises from two factors;
- LEARNED ATTITUDES TOWARDS CRIME
o When a person is socialised to a group, they are exposed to values and
attitudes; some will be anti-crime and some will be pro-crime
o Sutherland argues that if the number of pro-crime attitudes
encountered outweighs the number of anti-criminal attitudes, they will
go on to offend
o This learning process is the same, whether or not the individual is
learning criminality or conformity to the law
o Differential association suggests that it should be possible to
mathematically predict how likely it is that an individual will commit
crime if we have the knowledge of frequency, intensity and duration of
which they have been exposed to deviant and non-deviant norms and
values
- THE LEARNING OF SPECIFIC CRIMINAL ACTS

o As well as being exposed to pro-criminal attitudes, the would-be
offender may also learn particular techniques for committing crime. E.
g. how to break into someones house through a locked window or how
to disable a car stereo before stealing it
o Sutherlands theory explains why so many convicts released from
prison go on to reoffend. It is reasonable to assume that whilst inside
prison inmates will learn specific techniques of offending from other,
more experienced criminals that they may be eager to put into practice
upon their release.
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o This learning may be observational (imitation), or direct tuition from
criminal peers
1. Outline the differential association theory of offending (4 marks)
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RESEARCH
Matsueda (1988) argued that there needed to be much more research conducted
to improve the theorys ability to predict offending behaviour. He stated that one
of the main problems of the theory were that the concepts were too vague
Alarid et al. (2000) tested 1,153 newly convicted criminals for the extent to
which differential association theory could explain their offending behaviour.
They found that differential association theory served as a good general theory
of crime and that it could explain offending behaviour, especially in men. They
therefore argued that it was necessary to look at the context of offending and
use it to predict the likelihood of someone committing a crime
Osborne and West (1982) found that where the father had a criminal conviction,
40% of sons also acquired one by the age of 18, compared with only 13% of the
sons of non-criminal fathers.
2. Outline one study in which the differential association theory for offending
was investigated (3 marks)
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EVALUATION Use the PowerPoint to complete the Evaluation Table
STRENGTHS WEAKNESSES
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3. Briefly evaluate the differential association theory of offending (6 marks)
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4. Discuss the differential association theory of offending. Refer to at least
one other theory of offending in your answer (16 marks)
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PSYCHOLOGICAL EXPLANATIONS: PSYCHODYNAMIC

EXPLANATIONS
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
To outline and evaluate key features of psychodynamic theory for offending behaviour

To outline the role of association, reinforcement and consequences of actions,
observation, imitations
and identification in explaining criminal behaviour

THE INADEQUATE SUPEREGO
The superego, alongside the id and the ego make up the tripartite structure of
personality. The superego is formed at the end of the phallic stage of development
when children resolve the Oedipus/Electra complexes. The superego woks on the
morality principle and exerts its influence by punishing the ego through guilt for
wrongdoing, whilst rewarding it with pride for moral behaviour. Blackburn (1993)
argued that if the superego is somehow deficient or inadequate then criminal behaviour
is inevitable because the id is given free rein and not properly controlled. The three
proposed types of the inadequate superego are;
THE WEAK If the same-sex parent is absent during the phallic stage, the
SUPEREGO child cannot internalise a fully-formed superego as there is no
opportunity for identification. This would make immoral or
criminal behaviour more likely
THE DEVIANT If the superego that the child internalises has immoral or
SUPEREGO deviant values this would lead to offending behaviour. For
example, a boy that is raised by a criminal father is not likely to
associate guilt with wrongdoing
THE OVER-HARSH A healthy superego is like a kind but firm internal parent: it has
SUPEREGO rules, but is also forgiving of transgressions. In contrast, an
excessively punitive or overly harsh superego means the
individual is crippled by guilt and anxiety. This may
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(unconsciously) drive the individual to perform criminal acts in
order to satisfy the superegos overwhelming need for
punishment
THE MATERNAL DEPRIVATION THEORY

Bowlby (1944) argued that the ability to form meaningful relationships in adulthood
was dependent upon the child forming a warm, continuous relationship with a mother-
figure. The maternal bond was seen by Bowlby as being unique, superior to another
other, and vital to the childs well-being and development. Failure to establish a bond
during the first few years of life means the child will experience a number of damaging
and irreversible consequences in later life. One of these is the development of the
personality type, the affectionless psychopathy, characterised by a lack of guilt,
empathy and feeling for others. Such maternally deprived individuals are likely to
engaged in acts of delinquency and cannot develop close relationships with others, as
they lack the early experience to do so
EVIDENCE
Bowlby supported this claim with his investigation of 44 juvenile thieves.

Through interviews with these thieves and their families, he found that fourteen
showed personality and behavioural characteristics that could be classed as
affectionless psychopathy. Of these fourteen, twelve had experienced
prolonged separation from their mothers during infancy, in particular, the first
two years of their lives. In a non-criminal group, only two had experienced similar
early separation. Bowlby concluded that the effects of maternal deprivation had
caused affectionless and delinquent behaviour among the juvenile thieves
Blackburn (1971), for example, found that people convicted of extremely violent
assaults tended to have fewer previous convictions and scored lower on
measures of hostility than those convicted of moderately violent assaults
Megargee (1966) documented a series of cases of violence carried out by people
who were regarded as passive and harmless. For example, an 11 year-old boy
who stabbed his brother 34 times with a steak knife was described as polite and
softly spoken with no history of aggression (Gross, 1996). Megargee argued that
such cases represent a distinct sub-group of violent offenders whose shared
characteristic is an apparent inability to express their anger in normal ways and
who eventually explode and release all their anger and aggression at once,
often in response to a seemingly trivial provocation. Freudian formulations like
Megargees are unfashionable nowadays and more research attention is given to
the majority of violent offenders, whose problem is generally a lack of inhibition
of their anger, rather than too much inhibition
1. Outline one study in which a psychodynamic explanation of offending is
investigated (3 marks)
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DEFENCE MECHANISMS
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Defence mechanisms are used by the unconscious mind to reduce anxiety. This is
because psychodynamic theorists believe that anxiety will weaken the ego and the id
or the superego will become dominant. There are many documented defence
mechanisms, but the following are implicated in offending behaviour:
DISPLACEMENT - This is when the focus of a strong emotion is shifted from its
actual target to a neutral target
- An example for offending behaviour is when a young man
fighting a stranger in a pub because he is really angry with his
parents
SUBLIMINATION - This is when a strong id impulse is expressed in a more socially
accepted way
- For example, a football supporter wanting to murder but instead
getting involved in football hooliganism
- This is still not socially acceptable but is seen to be a diluted
expression of the unconscious desire
RATIONSALISAT - This is explaining behaviour in a rational and acceptable way
ION that is actually very negative
- Offenders use this defence mechanism as a form of justification
for their crime
- An example would be a woman who kills prostitutes because
she believes that they are a threat to civilised society
2. Outline one psychodynamic theory of offending (4 marks)

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EVALUATION
TIP: Students often evaluate psychodynamic theories very sloppily. Frequently they
make statements like there is no evidence for Freuds theories or psychodynamic
theories are unscientific. This is poor evaluation in the first case because its simply not
true and in the second place because without any further elaboration this is an
unsubstantiated and rather sweeping statement. When evaluating any theory: explain
the nature of your criticism, and dont make sweeping statements, especially if they
arent true.
1. GENDER BIAS The Freudian theory assumes that girls have a weaker superego
than boys. Having not experienced castration anxiety, girls are under less
pressure to identify with their mothers. So their superego and consequently their
sense of morality, is less fully realised. The implication is that females should be
more prone to criminal behaviour, but this is not supported by evidence.
Hoffman (1975) found hardly any evidence of gender differences when children
were required to resist temptation, and when there was, girls tended to be more
moral than boys
2. CONTRADICTORY EVIDENCE There is very little evidence that children raised
without a same-sex parent are less law-abiding as adult, which contradicts
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Blackburns weak superego argument. Similarly, if children who are raised by
deviant parents go on to commit crime themselves, this could be due to the
influence of genetics or socialisation, rather than the formation of a deviant
superego. The idea that criminal behaviour reflects an unconscious desire for
punishment seems implausible, as most offenders go to great lengths to conceal
their crimes and avoid punishment
3. UNCONSCIOUS CONCEPTS Psychodynamic explanations suffer from falsifiability.
The unconscious concepts are not suitable for empirical testing. In the absence
of supporting evidence, psychodynamic arguments can only be judged on their
face value rather than their scientific worth. For this reason, psychodynamic
explanations are often regarded as pseudoscientific and may contribute little to
our understanding of crime or how to prevent it, although Bowlby did provide
evidence to support his assertions
4. METHODOLOGICAL ISSUES WITH BOWLBYS RESEARCH Bowlbys work has been
criticised. His thieves study has been accused of researcher bias insofar as his
preconceptions of what he expected to find may have influenced the responses
of his interviewees. Bowlby failed to make the distinction between deprivation
and privation in his research
5. CORRELATION NOT CAUSATION Lewis (1954) analysed data drawn from
interviews with 500 young people and found that maternal deprivation was a
poor predictor of future offending and the link between children who have
experience frequent or prolonged separation from their mothers and committing
crime in later life, this does not necessarily indicate a causal link between
deprivation and delinquency. There are countless other reasons for this link. E. g.
genetics, differential association theory. Etc.
3. Write an evaluation of the psychodynamic approach to offending, using the
tip above. Make sure that each of your points is fully explained and
elaborated (6 marks)
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4. Jim spent the first five years of his life in a childrens home as his alcoholic
parents were judged unfit to take care of him. Jim is fifteen and has very few
close friends. His most recent school report described him as lacking
empathy and his progress grades were among the lowest in the class. In the
last few weeks, Jim has also started in get in trouble with the police. He has a
criminal record for vandalism after damaging a bus shelter and has started
stealing from the local shop.
4a. How would Blackburns inadequate superego theory explain Jims recent
criminal behaviour? (3 marks)
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4b. How would Bowlbys maternal deprivation theory explain Jims recent
criminal behaviour? (3 marks)
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5. Barry has never met his dad, he left Barrys mother before he was born.
Harry does live with his dad, but Harrys dad makes his living as a burglar.
Garrys parents are extremely strict, yet he is always in trouble with the local
police. It is almost as if Garry enjoys being in trouble. Barry, Harry and Garry
are all serving prison sentences. How would a psychodynamic psychologist
explain this (6 marks)
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6. Improve the paragraph by re-writing it: HINT: There is no link back to the
main issue
Bowlbys MDH predicts an association between maternal deprivation and

delinquency. The strongest support for this prediction comes from Bowlby
(1946) who found that juvenile thieves with an affectionless character were
more likely than a comparison group to have been maternally deprived early in
life. However, Bowlby classified children as maternally deprived with as little as
two weeks separation.
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DEALING WITH OFFENDING BEHAVIOUR: CUSTODIAL

SENTENCING
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
To develop an understanding of ways of dealing with offenders

61
To outline the purposes and psychological effects of custodial sentences

To explain how the effectiveness of different methods of teaching offending behaviour
can be assessed
To outline strategies for reducing recidivism

Reoffending rate increases, Thursday 31 January 2013
The challenge faced by the Government in tackling reoffending was underlined today by figures that revealed
a further rise in the number of criminals returning to crime. More than one in four criminals reoffended within a
year, committing 500,000 offences between them. This equates to a reoffending rate of 26.8 per cent, up from
26.3 per cent in the previous set of figures.
Around 280,000 offences were committed by criminals with 11 or more previous offences, while more than
50,000 of these were committed by nearly 11,000 criminals who had previously been jailed at least 11 times.
There was also a notable rise in the proportion of criminals handed prison sentences of less than 12 months
who reoffend, which increased from 56.6 per cent to 57.8 per cent.
Lower-risk offenders are to be supervised by private firms and charities on a payment by results basis, while
prisoners serving sentences under 12 months will be forced to undertake a period of rehabilitation upon
release for the first time. "These figures underline why transforming the way we rehabilitate offenders is now a
big priority for us. Reoffending rates have barely changed in a decade, and are now rising. We are now
pressing ahead with major reforms that are designed to tackle this unacceptable problem."
A total of 495,162 offences were committed by 171,949 offenders, 82% of whom were adults, within a year of
them being released from jail, convicted, cautioned or warned over drugs in the period. Some 3,300 were
serious violent or sexual offences by 2,800 offenders. For criminals leaving jail, the reoffending rate was 47.2
per cent in the period, up from 46.9 per cent the previous year.
The biggest increases in re-offending were among juvenile females and 40 to 49-year-olds.The biggest falls in
re-offending were among adult females, 21 to 24-year-olds, adults who received court orders and adults who
received prison sentences between 12 months and four years.
INFORMAL AIMS OF PRISONS

1. custody (containing prisoners on remand awaiting trial),
2. coercion (forcing prisoner to comply with legal judgements e.g. payment of
fines) and
3. punishment
AIMS OF CUSTODIAL SENTENCING

Custodial sentencing involves a convicted offender spending time in prison or another
closed institution such as a young offenders institute or psychiatric hospital. The main
reasons for this are:
1. DETERRENCE - The unpleasant prison experience is designed to put off the

individual from engaging in offending behaviour
- General deterrence aims to send a broad message to
members of society that crime will not be tolerated
- Individual deterrence should prevent the individual from
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repeating the same crime in light of their experience
- This view is based on the behaviourist view of conditioning
through punishment
2. INCAPACITATIO - The offender is taken out of society to prevent them from
N reoffending as a means of protecting the public
- This need will depend on the severity of the offence and the
nature of the offender. E. g. Individuals in society will require
more protection from a serial murderer than an elderly
person who refuses to pay their council tax
3. RETRIBUTION - Society is enacting revenge for the crime by making the
offender suffer and the level of suffering should be
proportionate to the seriousness of the offence an eye for
an eye the offender should pay for their crime
- Many people see prison as the best possible option in this
sense and alternatives to prison are often criticised as soft
4. REHABILITATIO - In contrast, many people see the main objective of prison to
N be to reform, not only punish
- Upon release, prisoners should leave prison better adjusted
and ready to take their place back in society
- Prison should provide opportunities to develop skills and
training or to access treatment programs from drug addition,
as well as give the offender a chance to reflect upon their
crimes
5. REFORM - Altering the offender so that they do not reoffend (similar to
rehabilitation)
1. Outline two aims of custodial sentencing (4 marks)

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THE PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF CUSTODIAL SENTENCING
STRESS AND DEPRESSION Suicide rates, and incidents of self-mutilation/self-harm

are considerably higher in prison than the general population (Crighton and Towl,
2008). The stress of the prison experience also increases the risk of psychological
disturbance following release. Other negative effects on mental health include;
overcrowding, low staff-to-offender ratio, lack of access to medical services and
physical exercise, together with the increased risk of physical assault
INSTITUTIONALISATION Having adapted to the norms and routines of prison life,
inmates may become so accustomed to these that they are no longer able to
function on the outside. Prisoners may also become institutionalised due to their
background and standard of living on the outside. E. g. If they are homeless, they
might like the routine of prison and the fact that they have a roof over their heads
and food available to them
PRISONISATION Refers to the way in which prisoners are socialised into adopting
an inmate code. Behaviour that may be considered unacceptable in the outside
world may be encouraged and rewarded inside the walls of the institution
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2. The classic illustration of the psychological effects of the prison
environment is Zimbardos Stanford Prison Experiment (1973). The study
demonstrated how quickly prisoners conformed to the role they had been
assigned, becoming helpless and apathetic in the process. Prisoners (and
prison guards) experienced de-individuation a loss of identity and self-
awareness as the experimental role overtook them. How does the Zimbardo
study illustrate the possible psychological effects of prison? (4 marks)
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RESEARCH
Zimbardos Stanford Prison study demonstrates the effects incarceration can

have on individuals. The mental health of one participant was so affects that he
had to withdraw from the study due to the withdrawal of freedom and treatment
from the guards. Caution should be used for generalisability to real prisons
because the setting was experimental and ecological validity low
Cheeseman (2003) found that many aggressive incidents in prison occurred
because of the need to relieve stress. This suggests that aggressive incidents in
prison could be due to the surroundings being highly stressful
Hollin (1992) stated in his research that there was evidence to suggest that
prison became home to some prisoners because they received three meals a day
together with a bed and companionship, which was preferable to what they had
to deal with outside of prison
THE PROBLEM OF RECIDIVISM
Recidivism refers to reoffending. Statistics produced by the Ministry of Justice in 2013
suggest that 57% of UK offenders will reoffend within a year of their release. In 2007,
fourteen prisons in England and Wales recorded reoffending rates over 70%. Although
statistics vary according to the type of offence committed, the UK has some of the
highest rates of recidivism in the world. Norway has the lowest reoffending rates in
Europe, less than half of those in the UK. Norwegian prisons operate differently they
are more open and greater emphasis is placed on rehabilitation and skills
development than there is in the UK. However, commentators have criticised Norway,
labelling it a soft option that does not sufficiently punish its inmates
PRISONERS There is an issue with prisoners getting used to being in prison

BECOMING and their day being organised. Their basic needs are being
INSTITUTIONALISED met and they have a sense of belongingness. Inmates
reported that support upon release was the main way to
prevent recidivism better employment prospects, help
reintegrating into family life and relationship counselling
NON-ADHERENCE The greatest amount of effect for reinforcement or punishment
TO BEHAVIOURIST is if it is received at the same time as the action but
PRINCIPLES sentencing occurs some time later, so the events do not
coincide (weak association). The strength of the association
needs to be strong to be effective
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MENTAL HEALTH The likelihood of reoffending is increased if an inmates mental
AND ADDICTION health is unstable. This could be previous suffering or
PROBLEMS prompted by the prison situation. If poor mental health,
especially addiction disorders, are not treated in prison, this
makes an offender more vulnerable to reoffending
3. What is recidivism? Briefly discuss recidivism in relation to two of the aims

of custodial sentencing (6 marks)
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4. Outline and evaluate one or more ways of dealing with recidivism (4
marks)
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EVALUATION
STRENG WEAKNE
TH SS
EVIDENCE SUPPORTS PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS Bartol (1995) has
suggested that imprisonment can be brutal, demeaning and
generally devastating. Suicide rates are around fifteen times higher
than the general population. A recent study by the Prison Reform
Trust (2014) found that 25% of women and 15%% of men in prison
reported symptoms indicative of psychosis
INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES it cannot be assumed that all offenders
will react in the same way to being in prison. Different prisons have
different regimes, so there are likely to be variations in
experiences. The length of sentence, reason for incarceration and
previous experience of prison may also be mitigating factors. Many
of those convicted may have had pre-existing psychological and
emotional difficulties at the time they were convicted. This makes it
difficult to make general conclusions that apply to every prisoner in
every prison
OPPORTUNITIES FOR TRAINING AND TREATMENT the rehabilitation
model is based on the argument that offenders may become better
people during their time in prison, and their improved character
means they are able to lead a crime-free life when back in society.
Most prisoners have access to education and training to assist
them with finding a job upon release. They may also have access to
treatment programs such as anger management programs and
social skills training to give them insight into their behaviour,
65
reducing the likelihood of recidivism. However, many prisons may
lack the resources to provide these programs
UNIVERSITIES FOR CRIME Prisoners may undergo a more dubious
education as part of their sentence. Incarceration with hardened
criminals may give younger or less experienced inmates the
opportunity to learn the tricks of the trade which may undermine
attempts to rehabilitate prisoners, making reoffending more likely
ALTERNATIVES TO CUSTODIAL SENTENCING Judge Geoffrey Davies
and KM Raymond (2000) concluded that government ministers
often exaggerate the benefits of prison in a bid to appear tough on
crime. The review suggested that in reality, prison does little to
deter others or rehabilitate offenders. Alternatives to custodial
sentencing, such as community service and restorative justice have
been proposed
NON-CUSTODIAL SENTENCING: ALTERNATIVES TO IMPRISONMENT
FINES a sum of money that the offender is Walker & Farrington (1981):
required to pay to the authorities, usually lower recidivism than probation
determined by the court. This system is economical, or suspended prison sentence
fines do not stigmatise the offender and a fine may Feldman (1993) lower
be imposed where other punishments are reconvictions than the
inappropriate alternatives for first offences
PROBATION offenders are released into the Oldfield (1996): prison 63%
community under the proviso that they must meet recidivism; probation 41%
certain conditions or risk further punishment. A recidivism
probation order might be given with a suspended
sentence or as a condition of early release from Roshier (1995): prison 64%;
prison. The conditions generally require that the probation 41%
offender is under the supervision of a probation
officer with whom he/she is expected to meet
regularly
REPARATION the offender is required to spend a Schneider (1986): restitution

specified time undertaking activities of benefit to marginally more effective than
the community. In the past, it has been known as alternatives, but depends on
community service and is now referred to as programme and community
community punishment
RESTITUTION the offender is required to do things

that directly compensate the victim(s) of their
crimes
5. Discuss the psychological effects of custodial sentencing. Refer to

evidence in your answer (16 marks)
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67
DEALING WITH OFFENDING BEHAVIOUR: BEHAVIOUR
MODIFICATION IN CUSTODY
LEARNING OBJECTIVE
To describe the use and evaluate of effectiveness of behaviour modification in a
custodial setting
Imagine that you are a prison superintendent with responsibility for the
effective management of offenders. Make a list of all the behaviours you
would consider to be good or desirable and would be positively reinforced
within your token economy system
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Which of the behaviours you have listed do you think would be the most
resistant to change? Why?
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BEHAVIOURIST PRINCIPLES
The behaviourist approach states that all behaviour is learned, therefore it should be
possible to encourage the unlearning of behaviour by applying the same principles that
brought it about in the first place. Behaviour Modification programs are designed with
the aim of reinforcing obedient behaviour in offenders, whilst punishing disobedience,
in the hope that the former continues and that latter dies out. Through the use of token
economies this is made possible, as it can be arranged and managed by prison staff,
and is something that all inmates within an institution would be required to adhere to
TOKEN ECONOMY
Based on operant conditioning, token economy involves reinforcing desirable behaviour
with a token which can then be exchanged for some kind of reward. Within prison walls,
desirable behaviour may include, avoiding conflict, following prison rules, keeping ones
cell orderly. Etc. Prisoners are given a token each time they perform a desirable
behaviour. These tokens are secondary reinforcers because they derive their value from
their association with a reward
The reward will vary from institution to institution but may include, phone calls to loved
ones, time in the gym/exercise yard, extra cigarettes or food. Etc. Each of the
behaviours and rewards should be made clear to prisoners before the commencement
of the program. It should also be emphasised that non-compliance or disobedience may
result in tokens and privileges being withheld or removed (a form of punishment)
SOCIAL SKILLS TRAINING
Offenders often have poor social skills that either make more likely to end up in
situations where offending is possible (e.g. being unable to resist peer pressure) or
which tend to exacerbate bad situations (e.g. managing potentially aggressive
68
encounters poorly). Social skills training aims to equip offenders with micro-skills (e.g.
eye contact, and personal distance) and macro-skills (e.g. assertiveness and
negotiation) that allow them to avoid and deal more effectively with potential offending
situations. There is no fixed set of techniques involved, but most programmes involve
direct instruction, backed up by observation of others and role playing, often in group
treatment settings
Three questions must be addressed when evaluating the impact of SST: (1) do the
offenders learn the skills? (2) Do the skills generalise beyond the training situation? (3)
Does SST actually reduce reoffending? Spence and Marziller (1981) suggest that
offenders do learn the relevant skills, but that they may disappear in the longer term:
skills were present after three months but not after six. Goldstein et al (1981) found
that generalization beyond the training situation occurred in only around 20 per cent of
cases, although Blackburn (1993) suggests that self-report data show a more positive
picture. Hollin (1992) confirms that SST is generally effective if assessed using
measures of behaviour and cognition (i.e. looking at whether the offenders have
learned the relevant skills) but suggests that its impact on reoffending is less clear
1. Outline the principles of behaviour modification (4 marks)
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CHANGING BEHAVIOUR
The desirable behaviour is broken down into small steps (called increments) and a
baseline measure is established. The behaviours to be reinforced are decided upon, and
all those who come into contact with offenders must follow the same regime of
selective reinforcement (prison officers may reinforce a particular prisoner for working
effectively within a group but turn the other cheek when provoked. Etc). The whole
program can be overseen by prison officials who are able to monitor the programs
effectiveness on the management of the prison as a whole, as well as on the behaviour
of individual offenders
RESEARCH EXAMPLES
Hobbs and Holt (1976) introduced a token economy program with groups of
young delinquents across three behavioural units (with a fourth acting as a
control). They observed a significant difference in positive behaviour compared
with the non-token economy group. A similar effect was found with offenders in
an adult prison (Allyon et al., 1979)
Rice (1990) examined the outcomes from 92 prisoners on a token economy
program in a maximum-security psychiatric hospital and found that if it was
effective for an individual then it continued to be so while in the institution and
that the success shown within the institution had no influence on the offenders
outcomes once released. This suggests that is works short-term only for some
individuals and has no rehabilitative benefits
Repucci and Saunders (1974) found that although behaviour management
programs should be easy to run in theory, they are not due to institutional
69
pressures, limited resources and inconsistency with staff which weakened the
impact
Hobbs and Tyllon (1976) found that the introduction of a behaviour modification
program in three young offenders institutions reduced the amount of
undesirable behaviour within the institution when compared with an institution
which has no such program, demonstrating the short-term benefits that
behaviour modification can have
2. Outline one study in which behaviour modification was investigated (3
marks)
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EVALUATION
1. EASY TO IMPLEMENT there is no need for specialist professionals. Rather, token
economies can be implemented by virtually anyone in the institution. They are
cost-effective and easy to follow once workable methods of reinforcement have
been established
2. USE DEPENDS ON CONSISTENT APPROACH FROM PRISON STAFF Bassett and
Blanchard (1977) found any benefits were lost after staff applied the techniques
inconsistently due to factors such as a lack of appropriate training of staff or high
staff turnover
3. LITTLE REHABILITATIVE VALUE Blackburn (1993) stated that behaviour
modification has little rehabilitative value and any positive changes in behaviour
that may occur whilst the offender is in prison may be quickly lost when they are
released. The token economy system is unlikely to progress outside the custodial
setting. This may be because law-abiding behaviour is not always reinforced on
the outside, or the rewards the offender receives from breaking the law may be
more powerful
4. ETHICAL ISSUES the terms and conditions of behaviour modification are
regarded as manipulative and dehumanising by several commentators (Moya
and Achtenburg, 1974). Participation in a token economy is often obligatory
rather than optional. Critics have argued that withdrawal of privileges such as
exercise or contact with loved ones is ethically questionable
5. PASSIVE TOKEN LEARNING behaviour modification only deals with surface
behaviour and encourages a passive form of superficial learning
6. INDIVIDUALLY TAILORED PROGRAMS ARE MOST EFFECTIVE Field et al. (2004)
examined a token economy program used with young people with behavioural
problems. The program was generally effective, although there were still a
number of young people who did not respond. Later, these youths were placed in
70
a special program where the rewards were more immediate and frequent, and
the results were more positive. This suggests that for maximum effectiveness the
program should be designed so that the rewards, and frequency of the rewards,
suit each individual
3. Explain one strength and one limitations of behaviour modification for
offenders (6 marks)
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4. A young offenders institute introduced a token economy system for a
period of six weeks. At the beginning of the program each offender was given
a rating out of 50 based on a questionnaire completed by prison staff. The
questionnaire included several measures of the offenders behaviour in
prison including level of compliance when dealing with prison staff and
relationship with other offenders. At the end of the program, the young
offenders were rated again using the same questionnaire
4a. Write a suitable hypothesis for the investigation above (2 marks)
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4b. Which experimental design has been used in the investigation above? (1
mark)
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4c. Explain why this experimental design was most suitable for the
investigation above (3 marks)
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DEALING WITH OFFENDING BEHAVIOUR: ANGER

MANAGEMENT
LEARNING OBJECTIVE
To describe the use and evaluate the effectiveness of anger management programs
and restorative justice programs

COGNITIVE BEHAVIOURAL TREATMENT
71
Novaco (1975) suggests that cognitive factors trigger the emotional arousal which
generally precedes aggressive acts. In some people, anger is quick to surface especially
in situations perceived to be anxiety-inducing or threatening. Behaviourally, becoming
angry is reinforced by the individuals feeling of control in that situation. Anger
management programs are a form of cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) the
individual is taught how to recognise when they are losing control, and then
encouraged to develop techniques for conflict-resolution without the need for violence
THREE STAGES
1. COGNITIVE - The offender reflects on past experience and considers the

PREPARATION typical pattern of their anger
- The offender learns to identify these trigger situations and
the therapist makes clear that the offenders interpretation
of the event is irrational
- For example, the offender may view someone looking at
them as an act of confrontation. To redefine the situation as
non-threatening, the therapist is attempting to break an
automatic response for the offender
- This is a very individualised part of training as cues for
anger vary from person to person and it is vital to know
what situation will make the angry feeling escalate
2. SKILL - Offenders are introduced to a range of techniques and skills
ACQUISITION to help them deal with anger-provoking situations more
rationally and effectively
- May be cognitive: positive self-talk to encourage calmness
- May be behavioural: assertiveness training in how to
communicate more effectively
- May be physiological: methods of relaxation and/or
meditation. This promotes the idea that it is possible for the
offender to be in control of their emotions rather than be
ruled by them
3. APPLICATION - Offenders are given the opportunity to practice their skills
PRACTICE/TRAIN within a carefully monitored environment. E. g. Role play
ING - This often involves the offender and therapist re-enacting
scenarios that may have escalated to feelings of anger and
acts of violence in the past
- The offender must be committed they must see each
scenario as real
- The therapist needs to be brave as they are winding up the
offender
- Successful negotiation of the role play would be met with
positive reinforcement from the therapist
1. Outline anger management as a treatment for offenders (3 marks)

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EXAMPLES
Keen et al. (2000) studied the progress made with young offenders aged 17-21
years who took part in a nationally recognised anger management program. The
National Anger Management Package (1992, 1995) was devised by the England
and Wales Prison Service which comprises of eight two-hour sessions over a
three week period to match the stages described above. There were initial issues
with the offenders not taking the course seriously and individuals forgetting
routines, such as to bring in their diary, but the final outcomes were generally
positive. Offenders reported increased awareness of their anger management
difficulties and an increased capacity to exercise self-control
Koons et al (1997) examined the factors that seemed to contribute most to anger
management interventions with offenders. They found that offenders and
practitioners both suggested that an individualised program was effective
together with the way it was delivered by staff
Ireland (2000) showed that anger management programs can be very successful.
50 prisoners completed two measures of anger (self-report questionnaire and a
checklist of 29 problematic behaviours) both before and after the completion of a
twelve-hour anger management program spread over three days. There was also
a matched control group of 37 prisoners who did not have any intervention and
completed the same measures. There was found to be a 92% reduction in anger
levels for the intervention group on at least one of the measures
2. Outline one study in which the effectiveness of an anger management
program was investigated (3 marks)
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EVALUATION Use the PowerPoint to complete the Evaluation Table
STRENGTHS WEAKNESSES
73
3. Terry is serving a six-month sentence for a violent assault. Terry repeatedly
punched a man who had caused him to spill a drink after bumping into him at
the bar of a busy pub. Known to his friends as Mad Terry, he has served
time for similar incidents in the past. Terry has also hit his wife on two
occasions his explanation is that when she nags him, he sees red. Terry
has agreed to undertake a course of anger management during his prison
sentence. Explain the stages involved in anger management. Refer to Terry in
your answer (6 marks)
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4. Explain one strength and one limitation of anger management as a
treatment for offenders (6 marks)
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5. Discuss the use of anger management as a treatment for offenders. Refer
to evidence in your answer (16 marks)
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DEALING WITH OFFENDING BEHAVIOUR: RESTORATIVE

JUSTICE
LEARNING OBJECTIVE
To consider social and economic implications of sentencing in relation to ethics, social
sensitivity,
issues and debates policy and practices

CHANGING THE EMPHASIS
The basic principle of restorative justice is not new the idea of criminals paying back
their victims is thousands of years old. Historically, a person committed a crime against
the state. In contrast, restorative justice programs switch the emphasis to the needs of
the individual victim (to come to terms with the crime and move on) rather than the
states need to enforce the law and punish. Victims are encouraged to take an active
role in the process, whilst offenders are required to take responsibility and face up to
what they have done
THE RESTORATIVE JUSTICE PROCESS
75
Crime hurts, justice should heal. Restorative justice is a process of managed
collaboration between offender and victim based on the principles of healing and
empowerment. A supervised meeting between two parties is organised, attended by a
trained mediator, in which the victim is given the opportunity to confront the offender
and explain how the incident affected them. Similarly, the offender is able to see the
consequences of their actions, including the emotional distress it caused. It is seen as
an important part of the rehabilitation process
KEY FEATURES OF THE PROCESS
Focus of acceptance of responsibility and positive change for people who harm
others; less emphasis on punishment
Not restricted to courtrooms: survivors and those responsible for harm may
voluntarily choose to meet face-to-face in a non-courtroom setting. Other
relevant community members may also have a role in the process
Active, rather than passive, involvement of all parties in the process wherever
possible
Focus on positive outcomes for survivors and those who have engaged in
wrongdoing
VARIATIONS OF THE PROCESS
Not all restorative programs involve face-to-face encounters between the victim and
offender. Occasionally, the offender will make financial restitution to the victims with
may reflect the psychological damage done (or physical. E. g. In a break-in). The
offender may repair the damaged property themselves. Restorative justice is flexible
and can function as an alternative to prison or as an add-on to community service or
as an incentive which may lead to the reduction of an existing sentence
THE RESTORATIVE JUSTICE COUNCIL (RJC)
The RJC is an independent body whose role it is establish clear standards for the use of
restorative justice and to support victims and specialists in the field. The RJC advocates
the use of restorative practice in preventing and managing conflict in many areas
including, schools, childrens services, workplaces, hospitals, communities and prison
RESEARCH
Miers et al. (2001) examined the extent to which victims felt happy with restorative
justice programs. The majority of victims were happy with the outcome, although
some were cynical about the offenders sincerity and their motivation for taking
part. Some found that it made uncomfortable feelings resurface and some victims
found it intimidating
Sherman and Strong (2007) looked at the perspective and judgment of the
offenders. They found that offenders said they had found it beneficial and there was
a decrease in reoffending rates following the use of restorative justice
Latimer, Dowden and Muise (2012) found that restorative justice compares
favourably with other forms of punishment. The reoffending rate is lower and both
the victim and offender report higher levels of satisfactions with the technique
1. Outline how restorative justice has been used with offenders (6 marks)
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EVALUATION
- One of the strengths of custodial sentencing is that there is a degree of flexibility in
the way which programs can be administered. Programs can be tailored and
adapted to the needs to the individual situation although this presents difficulties in
terms of drawing general conclusions about the effectiveness of the approach
- The success of a restorative justice program may hinge upon the extent to which
the offender feels remorse for their actions. There is a danger that some offenders
become involved for the scheme to avoid prison, or for the promise of a reduced
sentence, rather than a genuine willingness to want to make amends with the
victim. Likewise, the victim may have an ulterior motive to seek revenge or
retribution of their own, meaning that restorative justice programs may not lead to
positive outcomes when participants do not agree to take part with the best of
intentions
- Shapland et al. (2007) concluded that every 1 spent on restorative justive would
save the criminal justice system 8 through reduced reoffending (though other
estimates are more conservative). However, if specialist mediators are required,
they are expensive and sometimes hard to find. Restorative justice programs often
suffer from high dropout rates as offender or victim may lose their nerve prior to the
scheduled meeting and withdraw from the scheme. Therefore, they may not be the
most cost-effective solution
- Feminists take offence to its use. The Womens Aid Organisation has called for a ban
on the use of restorative justice in domestic violence cases due to the imbalance of
power in the relationship between the abused and the abuser
- Despite the fact that restorative justice may reduce rates of recidivism, and might
prove to be much cheaper than running and staffing overcrowded prisons,
alternatives to custodial sentencing tend not to receive much public support as they
are regarded as soft options
2. Marias flat was burgled whilst she was asleep in bed. Although police
caught the burglar and most of her possessions were recovered, Maria has
had difficulty sleeping and concentrating during the day. The police have
asked Maria is she would like to take part in a restorative justice program
with the man who burgled her flat. Maria is thinking it over. Outline possible
features of Marias restorative justice program (3 marks)
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3. Consider how effective restorative justice programs are. Refer to the
experience of Maria in your answer (4 marks)
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4. Explain one strength and one limitation of restorative justice programs (6
marks)
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HOMEWORKS
HOMEWORK 1 Offender Profiling: Top-down Approach
Outline one investigation of the top-down approach to offender profiling. In your
answer, include what the psychologist did and what was found (3 marks)
Discuss the top-down approach to offender profiling. Refer to evidence in your answer
(16 marks)
HOMEWORK 2 Offender Profiling: Bottom-up Approach

Discuss investigative psychology and/or geographical profiling. Refer to evidence in
HOMEWORK 3 Biological Explanations

Discuss genetic and/or neural explanations of offending. Refer to evidence in your
answer (16 marks)
NOTE: THIS HOMEWORK MUST BE TYPED AND EMAILED TO MISS FERGUSON FOR AN
ACTIVITY NEXT LESSON
HOMEWORK 4 Cognitive Explanations

Describe and discuss cognitive explanations of offending. Refer to at least one other
explanation in your answer (16 marks)
HOMEWORK 5 Psychodynamic Explanations

Discuss two or more psychodynamic explanations of offending. Refer to evidence in
HOMEWORK 6 Behaviour Modification
78
Discuss behaviour modification in custody. Refer to the issue of recidivism in your
answer (16 marks)
HOMEWORK 7 Restorative Justice

Discuss restorative justice as a way of dealing with offenders (16 marks)
79

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What are some ways of measuring crime discussed in the text?

What are some ways of measuring crime discussed in the text?

What are two approaches to offender profiling mentioned?

What are two approaches to offender profiling mentioned?

FORENSIC

Offender - Top-down General 7. Analyse how Canters research

Biological - Somatotype Glueck & 13.Outline one study in which the

Psychological - Social Learning 19.Explain Eysencks theory of

Dealing with - Rehabilitation Davies 27.Explain the aims of custodial

DEFINING CRIME (LIMITATIONS)

Cultural Definitions of crime vary cross-culturally. E. g. Some cultures practice

CRIMINAL AND NON-CRIMINAL ACTS

1. Explain two problems in defining crime (6 marks)

GENERAL ISSUES None of these measures is useless: each provides a different

5. Outline and briefly evaluate one way of measuring crime (5 marks)

OFFENDER PROFILING: THE TOP-DOWN APPROACH

Psychological profiling 'worse than useless'?

In many cases, offender profiles are so vague as to be meaningless, according to psychologist

What is your opinion of the Guardian article Psychological profiling 'worse

1. Define what is meant by offender profiling (3 marks)

2. Distinguish between organised and disorganised types of offender (4

STAGE 1 The profiler gathers and reviews the evidence/information

THE SEVEN DECISION-MAKING TOOLS OF THE FBI USED IN CONSTRUCTING A

EVALUATION OF THE TOP-DOWN APPROACH

2) The typology classification is based on the (outdated) assumption that offenders

4. Outline two strengths and two limitations of the Top-down Approach (8

Explain your answer

ORGANISED CHARACTERISTICS DISORGANISED CHARACTERISTICS

Explain your answer

ORGANISED CHARACTERISTICS DISORGANISED CHARACTERISTICS

7. Would you classify Crime Scene 3 as being organised or disorganised?

ORGANISED CHARACTERISTICS DISORGANISED CHARACTERISTICS

ORGANISED CHARACTERISTICS DISORGANISED CHARACTERISTICS

OFFENDER PROFILING: THE BOTTOM-UP APPROACH

The concept of INTERPERSONAL COHERENCE is central to the approach.

2. EVIDENCE SUPPORTS GEOGRAPHICAL PROFILING Lundrigan and Canter (2001)

3. HAS A SCIENTIFIC BASIS Canters argument is that bottom-up profiling is more

4. THERE IS A WIDER APPLICATION It can be applied to a wider range of offences

6. LACK OF AVAILABLE INFORMATION - The technique requires statistical

7. OTHER CONSIDERATIONS NEED TO BE MADE such as their psychological

RESEARCH ON OFFENDER PROFILING

5. In 1992, 21-year-old Rachel Nickeel was stabbed 47 times and sexually

BIOLOGICAL EXPLANATIONS: ATAVISTIC FORM

GENERAL CRIMINAL CHARACTERISTICS - Narrow, sloping brow

MURDERERS ATAVISTIC - Bloodshot eyes

SEXUAL DEVIANTS ATAVISTIC - Glinting eyes

2. Use the following photos to complete the table:

WHAT FACIAL/PHYSICAL DOES THIS SUPPORT OR

2. SCIENTIFIC RACISM DeLisi (2012) have criticised Lombrosos distinct racial

3. CONTRADICTORY EVIDENCE Goring (1913) conducted a comparison between

4. POOR CONTROL IN LOMBROSOS RESEARCH Lombroso did not compare his

6. SAMPLING BIAS Lombrosos sample is likely to have contained a large number

The IV, DV and IV =

How You will

SHELDONS SOMATOTYPE THEORY

Sheldons constitutional psychology is no longer taken seriously, but there is a small

8. Discuss one historical approach to offending behaviour. Refer to evidence

BIOLOGICAL EXPLANATIONS: GENETIC AND NEURAL

BIOCHEMICA NORADRENALINE part of the flight-or-fight response by helping to