Janielle Bernice A.

Guion II-Zea

CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

Functions

Transport the oxygen and carbon dioxide, soluble food materials, organic wastes,
and hormones

Regulation of the pH of tissues

Protection of the body against invading microbes

Regulation of body temperature in warm-blooded animals

It is the transport system that takes care of the needs of all other systems

Basic Components

THE BLOOD

A specialized connective tissue

The main transporting medium of the body

8% of total body weight (4 to 6 liters in average adult)

Considered to be the essence of life

Composition of Blood

1. Plasma

Fluid portion of the blood

55% of total blood volume

90-92% water, 7-8% plasma proteins, and 1-2% salts and other components

Average pH of 7.4

2. Forced Elements

Include the cells (erythrocytes and leukocytes) and cell fragments

(thrombocytes)

45% of total blood volume

95% RBC; 5% WBC and platelets

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Erythrocytes

Red blood corpuscles (RBC)

Small, biconcave disks with polysaccharides on the outer membrane

Almost the entire interior is packed with hemoglobin

About 4-6 million cells per mm3, and each one of these cells contains about 200
million hemoglobin molecules

Hemoglobin contains 4 globin protein chains each associated with heme, an iron
containing group, iron combines loosely with oxygen, and this way oxygen is
carried in the blood

Responsible in the transport of oxygen to body tissues

In mammals, short life (less than 4 months), due to lack of nucleus

Manufactured in the red bone marrow of the skull, the ribs, the vertebrae, and
the long bones

Destroyed in the liver and the spleen

When RBC are destroyed, hemoglobin is released, the iron is recovered and is
returned to the red bone marrow, and the heme portions undergo chemical
degradation and are excreted by the liver as bile pigments

Leukocytes

White blood cells (WBC)

Less than 1% of the cells in human blood

About 5000-9000 cells/mm3

Larger then RBC (about twice the size), with nucleus, no hemoglobin, essentially
colorless

Not confined to the bloodstream, migrate out into the interstitial fluid

Play important function in the immune system

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Types of Leukocytes

1. Granulocytes - with granules; have lobed nucleus

2. Agranulocytes - with no obvious granules; and have indented nucleus

Types of Granulocytes as to Staining Properties

1. Neutrophils - with granules that do not take up a dye

Nucleus with two to five lobes

Stick to the interior walls of blood vessels at the site of injury, where they
engulf microorganisms in the infected tissues

62% of WBC

2. Eosinophils - with granules that take up the red dye eosin

Nucleus with two lobes

2% of WBC

3. Basophils with granules that take up a basic dye staining them a deep blue
coloration

Nucleus with two lobes

Rupture and release chemicals that enhanced the inflammatory response

1% of WBC

Types of Agranulocytes as to function

1. Monocytes- large agranulocytes

Two to three times larger than RBC

Nuclear shape varies from round to lobed

Give rise to macrophages to enhance the inflammatory response

3% of WBC

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2. Lymphocytes- small agranulocytes

Only slightly larger than RBC

Nucleus nearly fills cells

Responsible for the immune system

32% of WBC

Thrombocytes

Called as platelets in humans

From fragmentation of megakaryocytes, large cells in the bone marrow; no
nucleus

About 250,000/mm4

Involved in blood clotting or coagulation

ABO Blood Classification

The most common system of blood grouping

Transmitted by Mendelian heredity

A prerequisite for blood transfusion

Based on the types of protein present in the surface of red blood cells (antigen A and
antigen B) and in the plasma (anti-a and anti-b)

Agglutination (clumping of blood cells) will form when antigen A combines with
anti-a or antigen B combines with anti-b

Four blood types are known A,B,AB (universal recipient) and O (universal donor)

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Table 1 Antigen and antibody content of the ABO blood type

Blood Type Cellular Antigen Plasma Antibodies

A A anti-a
B B anti-b
AB A and B none
O None anti-a and anti-b

Table 2 Transfusion relationship of the ABO blood type

Blood Type Can donate blood to... Can receive blood from...
A A and AB A and O
B B and AB B and O
AB AB A, B, AB and O
O A,B,AB and O O

THE HEART

The main pumping organ of the body

Highly muscular organ located in the mid-ventral region of the thoracic cavity

Enclosed by a tough connective tissue, the pericardium

Chambers of the Heart

1. Atria or Auricles have thin walls, receive blood from the veins and pump it into
the ventricle

2. Ventricles with much thicker walls, pump the blood out of the heart to all parts of
the body

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Types of Heart as to Numbers of Chambers

1. Two-chambered heart found in fishes and it has one auricle and one ventricle

2. Three-chambered heart found in amphibians and reptiles, it has two auricles and
one ventricle. It exhibits double but incomplete circulation but there is slight mixing
of venous and arterial blood in the ventricle

3. Four-chambered heart found in birds and mammals, it has two auricles and two
ventricles, exhibits double and complete circulation, no mixing of venous and
arterial blood in the ventricle.

The Human Heart

Cone-shaped muscular organ about the size of a fist

Located between the lungs, tilted, the apex is directed to the left

Internally, the left and right sides are separated by a septum,

Atria and ventricles are separated by atrioventricular valves, tricuspid valve on the
right and bicuspid valve on the left

Between ventricle and its vessels, regulated by a semilunar valve, pulmonary and
aortic semilunar valves

The Heartbeat

About 70 times/minute depending on the age

Each heartbeat lasts about 0.85 sec

Cardiac cycle includes systole (contraction of heart muscle) and diastole

(relaxation of heart muscle)

Contraction is intrinsic (outside nervous stimulation) due to nodal tissue

SA (sinoatrial) node in the upper dorsal wall of right atrium, initiates atrial
contraction, also called as pacemaker

AV mode (atrioventricular) node in the base of the right atrium, initiates

ventricle contraction

Expels 60 mL of blood per beat

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THE BLOOD VESSELS

Types of Blood Vessels as to Direction of Blood Flow

Arteries

Carry oxygenated blood away from the heart, except pulmonary arteries,
which carry deoxygenated blood away from the heart going to the lungs

Branched into arterioles connecting small arteries to capillaries

Capillaries

Connect arteries and venules

About 0.5 to 1 mm long

Could be found in the metabolic organs

Veins

Carry deoxygenated blood towards the heart, except pulmonary veins, which
carry oxygenated blood towards the heart

Branched into venules, connecting small veins to capillaries

Layers of the Blood Vessels (except capillaries and venules)

1. Tunica intima (inner layer) includes endothelium

2. Tunica media (middle layer) includes elastic and smooth muscle tissue

3. Tunica adventitia or tunica externa (outer layer)

Circulation

Pulmonary circulation

The pulmonary circulatory system is the portion of the cardiovascular system in which oxygen-
depleted blood is pumped away from the heart, via the pulmonary artery, to the lungs and returned,
oxygenated, to the heart via the pulmonary vein.

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Oxygen deprived blood from the vena cava, enters the right atrium of the heart and flows through
the tricuspid valve (right atrioventricular valve) into the right ventricle, from which it is then
pumped through the pulmonary semilunar valve into the pulmonary artery to the lungs. Gas
exchange occurs in the lungs, whereby CO2 is released from the blood, and oxygen is absorbed.
The pulmonary vein returns the now oxygen-rich blood to the heart.

Systemic circulation

Systemic circulation is the circulation of the blood of to all parts of the body except the lungs.
Systemic circulation is the portion of the cardiovascular system which transports oxygenated
blood away from the heart, to the rest of the body, and returns oxygen-depleted blood back to the
heart. Systemic circulation is, distance-wise, much longer than pulmonary circulation,
transporting blood to every part of the body.

View from the front, which means the right side of the heart
is on the left of the diagram (and vice-versa)

Coronary circulation

The coronary circulatory system provides a blood supply to the

heart. As it provides oxygenated blood to the heart, it is by
definition a part of the systemic circulatory system.

Diseases

Heart Diseases

Congenital Heart Disease

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This disease is also known as Blue Baby Syndrome. It is the disease

common in newly born infants. It occurs when the opening between the right and
left atria or right and left ventricles remain open. These openings should close
soon after birth.

The malformation of the heart allows the mixing of oxygen-rich and

oxygen-poor blood. This condition is indicated by the bluish tinge of the skin due
to insufficient supply of oxygen.

This congenital heart defect may be due to genetic disorders. Others may
be caused by viral infections or exposure to certain chemicals during the early
stages of the mothers pregnancy. This heart defect can be treated successfully
with surgery performed within a few weeks or months from birth.

Heart Failure

The final stage in almost any type of heart disease is heart failure, also
known as congestive heart failure. In this condition, the heart muscles are weaken
and are unable to pump enough blood to the body.

If the left side of the heart is affected, the victim will develop weakness,
breathlessness, and a cough with much sputum.

If the right side of the heart is affected, there will be pain and pulsation
in the liver and in the large veins and other symptoms that are mistaken as
appendicitis or gall bladder infection.

Early symptoms are weakness, lack of endurance, dull pain in the legs,
soreness in the region of the liver or over the heart, and palpitation and swelling in
the ankles.

Blood Vessel Diseases

Hypertension

Hypertension is also known as high blood pressure. It is also called high blood
pressure because the blood pressure when measured is higher than normal. That
is, the systolic pressure is higher than 120 and the diastolic is higher than 80.
Hypertension develops when the bodys blood vessels narrow, causing the heart to
pump harder than normal to push blood through the narrowed openings.

The symptoms of high blood pressure vary greatly. Dizziness,

headache, and a ringing sensation in the ears are the most common symptoms.

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If hypertension is untreated, it can lead to heart failure, brain stroke, or

kidney impairment. A change in lifestyle such as a low-salt diet, a diet rich in
fruits, vegetables, and plant fibers, maintenance of ideal weight, and getting some
exercises can treat some cases of hypertension.

Stroke

Stroke is also known as cerebrovascular damage. It is caused by the lack

of blood flow to the brain. It may be caused by a blood clot in one of the arteries
of the brain or the rupture of an artery wall in the brain with the accompanying
escape of the blood into the brain tissue.

A stroke may result in sudden death or permanent damage to the brain

tissue and, in many cases, permanent disability for the patient. A patient who has
had a stroke may develop paralysis on one or both sides of the body. He or she
may have difficulty in walking, eating, or doing other daily activities and the
ability to speak clearly. The symptoms of the stroke are numbness of the face,
limbs, and some parts of the body, unexplained dizziness, and sudden fall.

Blood Diseases

Anemia

An abnormally low number of red blood cells or low levels of hemoglobin

characterize anemia. One of the major symptoms of anemia is fatigue due to the
failure of the blood to carry enough oxygen to all of the tissues. The following are the
types of anemia:

Iron-deficiency Anemia

Iron-deficiency anemia occurs because the marrow fails to produce

sufficient red blood cells. When insufficient iron is available to the bone marrow,
it slows down its production of hemoglobin and red blood cells. Some symptoms
of iron-deficiency anemia are fatigue, faintness, palpitation, shortness of breath,
headache and, in severe cases, deformed fingernails.

Adding supplemental iron to the diet is often sufficient to cure iron-

deficiency anemia. Eating vegetables rich in iron and other green leafy vegetables
may correct this disorder.

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Aplastic Anemia

Aplastic anemia is due to the inadequate production of blood cells in the red
bone marrow. In some cases, it is the result of long exposure to toxic chemicals
such as lead, benzene, or arsenic. Radiation from nuclear explosions or x-rays can
also damage the marrow because the radioactive elements involved have a strong
affinity with the bone marrow.

Sickle-cell Anemia

Sickle-cell anemia is a genetic disorder. It is caused by a defective gene that

produces an abnormal form of hemoglobin, a component of red blood cells
responsible for transporting oxygen from the lungs to the tissues. The abnormal
hemoglobin carries the normal disc-shaped red blood cells to deform into sickle-
shapes.

Sickle-cell anemia causes severe infections and damage to major organs.

The symptoms may appear at about six months of age. These include episodes of
unpredictable pain in the back, chest and abdomen and swelling of the hands and
feet. It can also lead to the enlargement of the abdomen and heart and other
serious infections.

Polycythemia

Polycythemia is a condition wherein the blood contains an abnormally large

number of red blood cells. For this reason, the total amount of hemoglobin is also
increased accounting for a deeply flushed appearance of the patients face. The blood
becomes thick that the small blood vessels may be obstructed, producing partial
blindness and mild stroke. The symptoms of polycythemia are headache, dizziness,
fainting spells, and unusual itchiness after taking a bath, a feeling of fullness in the
head, frequent nosebleeds, and sometimes swelling of the ankle.

Leukemia

Leukemia is a type of cancer that affects the blood cells. Blood cells are made
in the bone marrow. Leukemia begins when an immature blood cell called the
progenitor cell divides uncontrollably, becoming cancerous. There is also a
significant decrease in the concentration of red blood cells in the blood.

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Signs of leukemia include pale skin, fatigue, and shortness of breath.

Nosebleeds, gum bleeding, and a tendency to bruise easily are also signs of
leukemia. The victim has pale skin with many pinhead-sized red spots on it,
reflecting a decrease in the concentration of platelets in the blood. Likewise, the
lack of functional white blood cells makes patients with leukemia prone to
infection. The causes of leukemia include exposure to radiation for long periods
of time and genetic abnormalities.

Hemophilia

Hemophilia is a hereditary blood disease characterized by the inability of

blood to clot leading to hemorrhage or uncontrolled bleeding, even from minor
injuries.

Insufficiency or lack of blood proteins, called clotting factors that participate

in blood clotting, causing the disease.

Prevention of injury Is important for the patient with hemophilia. When

bleeding occurs, replacement therapy may be necessary. Freshly frozen blood
plasma can be used to treat mild forms of this disease.

Purpura and Petechiae

Purpura is a condition wherein there are numerous small patchy hemorrhages on

the skin.

Petechiae are tiny pinpoint hemorrhages occurring around the hair follicle.

Purpura and petechiae result from toxic or chemical injury to blood vessels due to
a low platelet count. Poor nutrition, advancing age, hormonal imbalance, and
certain drugs may also cause these disorders.

Technologies

Electrocardiogramfor cardiac electrophysiology

Sphygmomanometer and stethoscopefor blood pressure
Pulse meterfor cardiac function (heart rate, rhythm, dropped beats)
Vessel cannula or catheter pressure measurementpulmonary wedge pressure or in
older animal experiments.

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Janielle Bernice A. Guion II-Zea

Important Things to Know

If all the blood vessels in your body were put end to end, they would cover a distance
if about 100 000 km

A drop of blood contains about one billion red blood cells and two billion white
blood cells

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