EEE 1003

ELECTRICAL WORKSHOP

Laboratory Manual

SCHOOL OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Course Code: L T P J C
ELECTRICAL WORKSHOP
EEEXXXX 0 0 2 0 1
Course
None
Prerequisites

To understand the basic concepts of Electrical Engineering and apply it in the

design / installation of Electrical Systems.
Objectives In-depth knowledge in wiring and its standards.
Use measuring devices appropriately in an electric circuit.
Design an electrical layout for a given requirement.
Develop electronic circuits using PCB
2. Having a clear understanding of the subject related concepts and of
contemporary issues.
5. Have Design thinking ability.

9. Having problem solving ability- solving social issues and engineering problems
Expected
14. Having an ability to design and conduct experiments.
Outcome
17. Having an ability to use techniques, skills and modern engineering tools
necessary for

Engineering practice.

(a) Introduction (i) Conventional symbols for electrical installation, Wiring tools and
Accessories, fuse, MCBs (ii) Electrical safety rules and Indian Electricity rules (iii)
Multimeter and its testing of different components (iv) Single phase Energy meter (vi)
1
Electrical appliances: kettle, fan, iron box, refrigerator, grinder, water heater (vi) UPS
and its maintenance
(b) Cable joints
2 Wiring circui t for a single lamp and a fan with regulator.

3 Staircase wiring circuit layout for multistorey buildings.

4 Hospital wiring circuit with buzzer and lamps.

5 Godown wiring circuit.

6 Fluorescent lamp connections.

7 Measurement of power and energy consumed by a given AC load.

8 Study of earthing and measurement of Earth pit resistance.

9 PCB fabrication, soldering and testing of a rectifier circuit.

10 Electrical layout for a residential application using CAD software.

1. S.L.Uppal, Electrical Wiring Estimating and Costing, Khanna publishers,

NewDelhi, 2008.
2. K. B. Raina and S. K. Bhattacharya, Electrical Design Estimating and Costing,
Reference Wiley Eastern Limited, 2010.
Books 3. The Indian Electricity rules 1956, Law publishers, Allahabad.
4. National Electrical Code 2011-IS-732-1983, Code of practice for electrical
wiring installation, Indian standards.

Mode of Continuous Assessment (100%)

Evaluation
Recommended by the Board of Studies on 05.06.2015
Date of approval by the Academic Council

CONTENTS

Title of the Experiment Date of Marks Signature

S.No
Experiment
a) Introduction (i) Conventional

symbols for electrical

installation, Wiring tools and

Accessories, fuse, MCBs (ii)

Electrical safety rules and

Indian Electricity rules (iii)

Multimeter and its testing of

1
different components (iv) Single

phase Energy meter (vi)

Electrical appliances: kettle,

fan, iron box, refrigerator,

grinder, water heater (vi) UPS

and its maintenance

(b) Cable joints

Wiring circuit for a single lamp

2
and a fan with regulator.

Staircase wiring circuit layout

3
for multi-storey buildings.

Hospital wiring circuit with

4
buzzer and lamps.

5 Go-down wiring circuit.

6 Fluorescent lamp connections.

Measurement of power and

7 energy consumed by a given AC

load.

Study of earthing and

8 measurement of Earth pit

resistance.

PCB fabrication, soldering and

9
testing of a rectifier circuit.

Electrical layout for a residential

10
application using CAD software.
 EXPERIMENT NO 1

CONVENTIONAL SYMBOLS FOR ELECTRICAL INSTALLATION

The symbols used for electrical installation are listed below.

Symbol Component name Meaning

Wire Symbols

Electrical Wire Conductor of electrical current

Connected Wires Connected crossing

Not Connected Wires Wires are not connected

Switch Symbols and Relay Symbols

SPST Toggle Switch Disconnects current when open

SPDT Toggle Switch Selects between two connections

Momentary switch - normally

Pushbutton Switch (N.O)
open
 Momentary switch - normally
Pushbutton Switch (N.C)
closed

SPST Relay
Relay open / close connection by

an electromagnet
SPDT Relay

Ground Symbols

Used for zero potential reference

Earth Ground
and electrical shock protection.

Connected to the chassis of the

Chassis Ground
circuit

Digital / Common

Ground

Resistor Symbols

Resistor (IEEE)
Resistor reduces the current flow.
Resistor (IEC)

Potentiometer (IEEE)
Adjustable resistor - has 3

terminals.
Potentiometer (IEC)

Variable Resistor /

Rheostat (IEEE) Adjustable resistor - has 2

Variable Resistor / terminals.

Rheostat (IEC)

Trimmer Resistor Preset resistor

 Thermal resistor - change

Thermistor resistance when temperature

changes

Photo-resistor - change
Photoresistor / Light
resistance with light intensity
dependent resistor (LDR)
change

Capacitor Symbols

Capacitor is used to store electric

Capacitor
charge. It acts as short circuit

with AC and open circuit with

Capacitor
DC.

Polarized Capacitor Electrolytic capacitor

Polarized Capacitor Electrolytic capacitor

Variable Capacitor Adjustable capacitance

Inductor / Coil Symbols

Coil / solenoid that generates

Inductor
magnetic field

Iron Core Inductor Includes iron

Variable Inductor

Power Supply Symbols

Voltage Source Generates constant voltage

Current Source Generates constant current.

AC Voltage Source AC voltage source

Electrical voltage is generated by

Generator mechanical rotation of the

generator

Battery Cell Generates constant voltage

Battery Generates constant voltage

Generates voltage as a function

Controlled Voltage Source of voltage or current of other

circuit element.

Generates current as a function

Controlled Current
of voltage or current of other
Source
circuit element.

Meter Symbols

Measures voltage. Has very high

Voltmeter
resistance. Connected in parallel.

Measures electric current. Has

Ammeter near zero resistance. Connected

serially.

Ohmmeter Measures resistance

Wattmeter Measures electric power

Lamp / Light Bulb Symbols

Lamp / light bulb

Generates light when current

Lamp / light bulb
flows through

Lamp / light bulb

Diode / LED Symbols

Diode allows current flow in one

Diode direction only - left (anode) to

right (cathode).

Allows current flow in one

direction, but also can flow in the

Zener Diode
reverse direction when above

breakdown voltage

Schottky diode is a diode with

Schottky Diode
low voltage drop

Varactor / Varicap Diode Variable capacitance diode

Tunnel Diode

Light Emitting Diode LED emits light when current

(LED) flows through

Photodiode allows current flow

Photodiode
when exposed to light

Transistor Symbols

Allows current flow when high

NPN Bipolar Transistor
potential at base (middle)

Allows current flow when low

PNP Bipolar Transistor
potential at base (middle)
 Made from 2 bipolar transistors.

Darlington Transistor Has total gain of the product of

each gain.

JFET-N Transistor N-channel field effect transistor

JFET-P Transistor P-channel field effect transistor

NMOS Transistor N-channel MOSFET transistor

PMOS Transistor P-channel MOSFET transistor

Misc. Symbols

Motor Electric motor

Change AC voltage from high to

Transformer
low or low to high.

Electric bell Rings when activated

Buzzer Produce buzzing sound

The fuse disconnects when

Fuse
current above threshold. Used to

protect circuit from high

Fuse
currents.

Converts electrical signal to

Loudspeaker
sound waves

Converts sound waves to

Microphone
electrical signal
 WIRING TOOLS AND ACCESSORIES

Rasp Cut Files:

Size: 15-20-30

Uses: It is rough file used to file wooden things avoid from rust. Do not use without

hands.

Spanner set, Double ended, Ring box spanner:

Uses: Spanner comes in different size to suit different purpose. They are used to

tighter and loose bolts, nuts and screws.

Precautions: Do not key a hammer, the proper key for proper nut.

Crimping Tools:

Size: 1.5, 2.5 and 6mm

Uses: As soldering on aluminium, conductor is difficult.

Precautions: Do not twist the open tape. Avoid haunt rust.

Measuring Tape:
Size: 10-20 mm

Uses: used for measuring the dimensions of winding. It is made of steel / cloth

Neon Tester:

Specification: 500 V]

Uses: It consists of a glass bulb containing neon gas and two electrodes. A high value

of resistance.

Precautions: Do not drop it. Do not use it as a screw driver if not specified.

Screw Driver:

Size: 10, 20, 30 cm

Uses: Used for loosening, Tightening (or) to keep screws in position.

Precautions: Avoid grazy / oily handle,do not used in place proper size for particular

screws.
Nose Piles / Flat Nose Piles:

Size: 10 cm

Uses: For holding, hoisting / joining the wire at narrow places.

Precautions: Do not cut steel substance, protect from rust

Electrician Knife:

Size: 10 cm

Uses: It has two blades. One for removing insulation of wires and other for cleaning

the wires.

Precautions: Protect from rust, do not use it for cutting wires.

Cross Pen Hammer Tools:

Size: Kg to 2 Kg

Uses: Used for fixing clip and making gilties hole in wall

Precautions: Never use loose handle hammer. Hammer handle not be greasy.

Switch:

It is used to make or break an electric circuit.

 In an electrical installation, each load is required to be switch ON and OFF,

the supply is dead when the switch is at OFF position

Lamp Holder:

Lamp holder is used to support the lamp and also to connect it electrically to

the supply system.

Lamp holders are normally available with bakelite exterior and porcelain

interior or brass exterior with porcelain interior.

Brass holders are costlier but durable compared to the bakelite lamp holders.

Ceiling Rose:

It has one flexible cord attached to it.

Specially designed ceiling roses are used for multiple pedants.

Plug:
 It is used for tapping power from socket outlets.

The Electrical supply from socket outlet is given to the portable appliances like

radio, table fan etc. with the help of plug.

FUSE AND MCB

The fuse is an electronic device, which is used to protect circuits from over

current, overload and make sure the protection of the circuit. There are many

types of fuses available in the market, but function of all these fuses is same.

Fuse consists of a low resistance metallic wire enclosed in a non-combustible

material. Whenever a short circuit, over current or mismatched load

connection occurs, then the thin wire inside the fuse melts because of the

heat generated by the heavy current flowing through it. Therefore, it

disconnects the power supply from the connected system. In normal

operation of the circuit, fuse wire is just a very low resistance component and

does not affect the normal operation of the system connected to the power

supply.

Typical uses and applications of fuses:

Electronic Fuses can be used in all types of electrical and electronic

applications including:

Motors

Air-conditions
 Home distribution boards

General electrical appliances and devices

Laptops

Cell phones

Game systems

Printers

Digital cameras

Portable Electronics

LCD monitors

Scanners

Battery packs

Hard disk drives

Power convertors

Fuses can be divided into two main categories according to the type of input

supply voltage.

AC fuses

DC fuses

There is a little difference between AC and DC Fuses used in the AC and DC

Systems. In a DC system, when the metallic wire Melts because of the heat

generated by the over current, then Arc is produced and it is very difficult to

extinct this arc because of DC constant value. So in order to minimize the

fuse arcing, DC fuse are little bigger than an AC fuse which increase the

distance between the electrodes to reduce the arc in the Fuse. On the other

hand, i.e. in the AC system, voltage with 60Hz or 50Hz frequency changes it

amplitude from zero to 60 times every second, so arc can be extinct easily as
compared to DC. Therefore, AC fuses are little bit small in sizes as compared

to DC fuses.

Fuses can also be categorized based on one time or multiple Operations.

1) One time use only Fuse 2) Resettable Fuses

ONE TIME USE ONLY FUSE

One time use fuses contain a metallic wire, which burns out, when an over

current, over load or mismatched load connect event occur, user has to

manually replace these fuses, switch fuses are cheap and widely used in

almost all the electronics and electrical systems.

RESETTABLE FUSES:

Resettable fuse is a device, which can be used as multiple times without

replacing it. They open the circuit, when an over current event occurs and

after some specific time they connect the circuit again. Polymeric positive

temperature coefficient device (PPTC, commonly known as a resettable fuse,

poly-switch or poly-fuse) is a passive electronic component used to protect

against short current faults in electronic circuits.

Application of such fuses is overcome where manually replacing of fuses is

difficult or almost impossible, e.g. fuse in the nuclear system or in aerospace

system.

OTHER TYPES OF FUSES

Cartridge fuses:

They are used to protect electrical appliances such as motors air-conditions,

refrigerator, pumps etc, where high voltage rating and currents required. They

are available up to 600A and 600V AC and widely used in industries,

commercial as well as home distribution panels.

There are two types of Cartridge fuses.

1. General purpose fuse with no time delay and

2. Heavy-duty cartridge fuses with time delay.

Both are available in 250V AC to 600V AC and its rating can be found on the

end cap or knife blade.

Blade Type fuses:

This type of fuses (also known as spade or plug-in fuses) comes in plastic

body and two metal caps to fit in the socket. Mostly, they used in automobiles

for wiring and short circuit protection.

MINIATURE CIRCUIT BREAKERS (MCB)

Miniature Circuit Breakers are electromechanical devices which protect an

electric circuit from an overcurrent. The overcurrent, in an electrical circuit,

may result from short circuit, overload or faulty design. An MCB is a better

alternative to a fuse since it does not require replacement once an overload is

detected. Unlike fuse, an MCB can be easily operated and thus offers

improved operational safety and greater convenience without incurring large

operating cost.

Miniature Circuit Breakers are used to protect lower current circuits and have

the following Specifications.

Current rating Amperes

Short Circuit Rating - Kilo Amperes (kA)

Operating Characteristics - B, C or D Curves

Miniature Circuit Breakers are usually available in the range of 0.5A to 100A.

An MCB's Short circuit rating is given in kilo amps (kA), and this indicates

the level of its ability to work. For example a domestic MCB would normally

have a 6kA fault level, whereas one used in an industrial application may

need a unit with a 10kA fault capability.

Working Principle of MCB

There are two arrangement of operation of miniature circuit breaker. One due

to thermal effect of over electric current and other due to electromagnetic

effect of over current. The thermal operation of miniature circuit breaker is

achieved with a bimetallic strip.

Whenever continuous over electric current flows through MCB, the bimetallic

strip is heated and deflects by bending. This deflection of bimetallic strip

releases mechanical latch. As this mechanical latch is attached with operating

mechanism, it causes to open the miniature circuit breaker contacts.

But during short circuit condition, sudden rising of electric current, causes

electro-mechanical displacement of plunger associated with tripping coil or

solenoid of MCB. The plunger strikes the trip lever causing immediate release

of latch mechanism consequently open the circuit breaker contacts. This is a

simple explanation of miniature circuit breaker working principle.

Types of MCB

1. Single Pole

2. 1 Pole (with N)

3. 2 Pole (DP)

4. 3 Pole (TP)

5. 3 Pole with N (TPN)

6. 4 Pole (4P)

ELECTRICAL SAFETY RULES

1. Do not work on live circuits. If unavoidable, use rubber gloves,

rubber mats etc.

2. Use wooden or PVC insulated handle screw drivers when working on

electrical circuits.

3. Do not touch bare conductors.

 4. Replace or remove fuses only after switching OFF the circuit

switches.

5. Never extend wiring by using temperory wiring.

6. Stand on rubber mats while working or operating switch panels,

control gears etc.

7. Always use safety belts while working on poles or high rise ponts.

8. Do not connect earthing to the water pipe lines.

9. Only skilled persons should do electrical work.

10. Wear all right protective clothing and use all the necessary safety

equipment.

11. If the victim is still in contact with the supply, Break the contact

either by switching off or by removing the plug or pulling the cable

free.

12. In any case avoid direct contact with the victim. Wrap your hands in

dry materials if rubber gloves are not available.

13. Do not give an unconscious persons anything to eat or drink and do

not leave an unconscious person unattended

14. Do not waste time by rendering first aid to the victim until breathing

has been restored and the patient can breathe normally unaided.

15. Make sure the victim is not in contact with the supply.
MULTIMETER AND ITS TESTING OF DIFFERENT COMPONENTS

A multimeter or a multitester, also known as a VOM (Volt-Ohm meter or Volt-

Ohm-milliammeter) is an electronic measuring instrument that combines

several measurement functions like voltage, current and resistance,

continuity test and in some meters diode/LED/transistor test. Here

continuity test is elaborated.

What is continuity?

You might be asking, "What is continuity?" But don't worry, it's quite simple!

Continuity means, are two things electrically connected. So if two electronic

parts are connected with a wire, they are continuous. If they are connected

with cotton string, they are not: while they are connected, the cotton string is

not conductive.

You can always use a resistance-tester (ohmmeter) to figure out if something

is connected because the resistance of wires is very small, less than 100

ohms, usually. However, continuity testers usually have a piezo buzzer which

beeps. This makes them very useful when you want to poke at a circuit and

need to focus on where the probes are instead of staring at the meter display.

For some basic circuits you can just look to see where the wires go to

determine continuity but it's always wise to use a multimeter. Sometimes

wires break or you're tired and can't easily follow all the PCB traces. Better to

check continuity all the time!

What is it good for?

Continuity is one of the most important tests. Here are some things it is good

for

Determine if your soldering is good. If your solder joint it is a cold solder

connection it will appear connected but in actually it is not! This can be really

frustrating if you are not experienced in visually detecting cold solder joints
Determine if a wire is broken in the middle. Power cords and headphone

cables are notorious for breaking inside the shielding, it appears as if the

cable is fine but inside the wires have been bent so much they eventually

broke.

Making sure something isn't connected. Sometimes a solder joint will short

two connections. Or maybe your PCB has mistakes on it and some traces

were shorted by accident.

Reverse-engineering or verifying a design back to a schematic

Remember!

You can only test continuity when the device you're testing is not

powered.

Continuity works by poking a little voltage into the circuit and seeing how

much current flows, its perfectly safe for your device but if its powered there

is already voltage in the circuit, and you will get incorrect readings

Always test to make sure your meter is working before starting the test by

brushing the two tips together, and verifying you hear the beep. Maybe the

battery is low or its not in the right mode.

Continuity is non-directional, you can switch probes and it will be the

same. If you are testing two points in a circuit and there is a (big) capacitor

between those points you may hear a quick beep and then quiet. That's

because the voltage the meter is applying to the circuit is charging up the

capacitor and during that time the meter 'thinks' its continuous (essentially)

Small resistors (under 100 ohms or so) and also all inductors will seem

like short circuits to a multimeter because they are very much like wires.

Likewise, continuity doesn't mean "short" it just means very very low

resistance. For example, if you have a circuit that draws an Amp from a 5V
supply, it will appear to be a 5 resistor. If you measure that with your meter

it will think its a short circuit, but really its just a high-drain circuit.

Get into the mode

First step is to get your multimeter into the correct mode. Look for the icon

that looks sort of like a 'sound wave'. Here are three examples. Note that

sometimes the mode is "dual" (or possibly more) usage,

Turn the multimeter knob so that it points to this symbol

Touch and go: For a majority of multimeters, you're ready to go, just touch

the tips of the probes together so that they make a beeping sound!

Here are some examples covering a couple of different multimeters

Example 1

This meter is very simple. When the probes are not touching, the display

shows "1"

When you touch the tips together, the display changes to a three digit mode

(it's displaying resistance, which we will cover later) It also emits a beep

Example 2
This meter is dual-mode but still very easy to use. Turn the dial to the

symbol. When the probes are not touching the display shows "OL" which

stands for Open Loop. (Open loop is another way of saying there is no

continuity)

When you touch the probes, the sound wave icon shows up in the display

(upper right) and it also shows a number. The number is not the resistance,

actually...its the voltage (look for the V in the right hand side for Volts). This is

because this mode is also a Diode Test.

Example 3

This meter is triple-mode and requires an extra step to get to the continuity

function. Click on the image to get a closer view of the triple-mode. After you

dial to this mode you must press the Mode button, the wave icon will then

appear in the display.

You can see the wave icon in the top right as expected. This meter also

displays OL (I've noticed that nicer meters do this)

Unlike the other meter, this one displays Ohms (see the symbol on the right of

the display). The resistance is low (4.7Ohms) but not 0 (the ideal value)

because the probes and wires act as resistors. Usually with these sorts of

meters they will beep whenever resistance is under 100 ohms or so.

Probing a PCB

Here is an example of testing a PCB for continuity. The first test shows that

the two points are not connected.

he second test shows that these two points are connected.

ELECTRICAL APPLIANCES

Parts of a Ceiling fan

Electric motor: Single phase capacitor start and run induction motor, rated

at 230 V 10 % at a frequency of 50 Hz, is normally used in ceiling fan. This

motor has two parts namely stator and rotor. The stator, made of laminated

silicon steel, employs two windings named as starting and running windings

placed 90 degree electrical apart. The starting torque depends on sine of

angle between starting winding and running winding current. So Capacitor is

used to produce required phase shift between these current and hence to

produce high starting torque and will be connected in series with starting

winding. Normally in ceiling fan, an electrolytic capacitor of 2.5 mF5% will

be used. The capacitor and starting winding will be in circuit during running

also and hence improve the power factor. So this motor is also called as

permanent capacitor induction motor. Rotor employs 1-phase squirrel cage

winding.

Blades: The blades are made of sheet steel or aluminum sheets. Aluminum

blades are lighter than steel sheet plates and also improve the efficiency of the

fan. The ceiling fans normally have 3 or 4 angular blades. The four blade fan

gives more air circulation as compared to three blade fans. The blades are

120o mechanically apart and may be curved at an angle of 10o.

3. Blade flanges: Alternatively called as blade irons, blade arms or blade

holders. These are metal arms which connect the blades to the motor.

4. Canopy/Switch Cup: There are two canopies top and bottom, made of

metal cylinder, placed along suspension rod. Top canopy is mounted such

that it covers the hook, nut, and bolt. Bottom canopy is mounted below and

in the centre of the fans motor. This is used to conceal and protect various

components, which can include wires, capacitors and switches. On fans that

require oiling, the bottom canopy often conceals the oil reservoir which

lubricates the bearings.

5. Ball bearing: Friction free and noise free movements of rotating parts are

ensured by providing ball bearing between rotating and stationary parts. The
ceiling fan may have single or double ball bearings. The bearings made of high

quality steel are regularly greased with superior quality for its long life and

noise free operation.

6. Suspension rod/Down rod:

It is made of rigid galvanized steel pipe of appropriate length and diameter.

This metal pipe is used to suspend the fan from the ceiling. One end of the

pipe is bolted or screwed at the place specially made on the motor body to

receive the suspension rod. The other end of the suspension rod is attached

to two plates, to from a U shaped joint, with the help of a nut and bolt (with

additional lock nut). The V shaped end of the rod is further attached

with the ceiling hook with the help of bolt and nut with additional lock nut

and split pin to eliminate chances of disconnection at any stage.

7. Speed regulator: It is used to control the speed of the fan. The speed of

the fan can be varied by changing the applied voltage. The most common

method to vary the applied voltage is i) by tapped field resistors and ii) by

tapped series inductors. Nowadays thyristor based electronic type regulators

mostly used compared to above mentioned electric types. The electronic fan

regulator is fault-free, has long life and more efficient as compared to

electrical fan regulators.

Working of ceiling fan:

The working of fan is that they do not actually reduce the temperature of the

room but due the circulation and wind motion they result in surface cooling

and give a breezy feeling. Electricity is used to empower the fan motors and

due to the scientific design of fan blades we get the breeze, a man made

phenomenon, similar to wind creation. The fan blades create a draught and

the warmer air goes up. When that air is pushed down with a force, we get

better air circulation. There is set parameters that need to be taken into

consideration before you install the ceiling fan, care should be taken that it is
not too close to the ceiling otherwise the draft will not be proper and should

be at a safer distance from the reach of the people in the house.

ELECTRIC IRON

An Electric Iron box is a heating device in which the electrical energy is

converted into heat energy. This heat energy is concentrated on a smooth, flat

bottom surface which is pressed over the cloth to be ironed. Iron box can be of

non-automatic, automatic and modern steam type. The non-automatic type

will not have temperature control and the user need to switch on / off

manually. Whereas automatic type have temperature control and user can set

at any level. The modern iron boxes are having steam spraying ability to ease

the ironing process.

Parts of the Iron box

Sole Plate: It is made up cast iron and it is generally chromium-plated. The

transfer of heat from the heating element to the material ironed is done

through sole-plate.

Heating element: There are two types of heating elements. One is made of

ribbon shaped Nichrome (resistance) wire wound around a sheet of mica. This

type of element is placed on the top of the sole-plate. Other type is made up of
round resistance wire coiled on a ceramic form and cast directly into the sole

plate. The flat type element is replaceable whereas the cast type heating

element has to be replaced along with the sole-plate only. In this type of irons,

a pressure plate is not necessary.

Terminals and power cord: The ends of the heating elements are connected

at the points called as terminals. The electric supply is given the coil

terminals through 3 core power cord.

Pressure plate: It is made of cast iron and the purpose is to keep the heating

element firmly against the sole-plate. The pressure plate is insulated from

heating element by asbestos sheet of same shape. The asbestos sheet is

placed just above the heating element to prevent the heat developed in the

element traveling upward due to conduction and radiation.

Cover: It comes above the pressure plat. This part covers the heating

elements internal connections of the iron. It also serves as a shield to protect

the users hands from the generated heat and the electric terminals.

Handle: It is made of Bakelite or ebonite because it offers high resistance to

flow current and it can withstand more heat. The indicator lamp and power

socket are fixed in the handle.

Heel plate: The purpose of the heel plate is to enable the iron to stand when

the iron is tilted back on the rear of its handle.

Working of iron box: When electric supply is given to the heating element

using 3-core power cord, the heat produced in the element will be transferred

to the sole-plate which is then pressed over the cloth to be ironed. Thus the

iron converts the electricity into heat at the sole-plate. The heat at the sole-

plate is used to iron the clothes. In Non-automatic type irons, the

temperature is not regulated. As such the user has to switch ON or OFF the

electric supply as per the heat requirement.

Automatic Iron box is same as that of Non-automatic type except that it has

additional device called as thermostatic device to regulate the temperature. A

thermostat is a switch which can be designed to close or open a circuit at

predetermined temperature. One of the simplest and most dependable

components in the modern heating appliances is the BIMETAL

THERMOSTAT. The principle behind a bimetallic strip thermometer relies on

the fact that different metals expand at different rates as they warm up. By

bonding two different metals together, we can make a simple electric

controller that can withstand fairly high temperatures. In the thermostat

there is a bimetal strip made of two strips of metal with different expansion

rates welded together. The metal strip expands when heated and contacts

when cooled. One metal in the bimetal strip has a high rate of expansion

when heated and the other has a low rate. When a bimetal strip is heated

both the metals in the strip expand but the one at the bottom as shown in

Fig., with a high rate of expansion, expands faster and forces the upper half

to curl up or bend away from the contact point. The strip curls or bends

enough to break the contact, i.e. opening the circuit. As the strip cools, it

straightens and restores contact with the stationary point. The bending of the

bimetal strip on heating is towards the side that has smaller expansion rate.

By adjusting the size of the gap between the strip and the contact, you control

the temperature.
 EXPERIMENT NO 2

WIRING CIRCUIT FOR A SINGLE LAMP AND A FAN WITH REGULATOR

AIM: To construct a wiring circuit for a single lamp and a fan with regulator.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

Sl.no Apparatus Range Quantity

(if any)

1. Incandescent Lamp 230V, 25W 1

2. Lamp Holder 230V, Level 3

3. Ceiling Fan 230V, 60W 1

4. Switch box 12X4 4

5. Fan Regulator 230V 1

6. 1 way switch 230V, 5A 3

7. PVC casing capping As required

8. Ceiling rose 230V 1

9. Wires 1 sq mm As required
TOOLSREQUIRED

Screw driver, wire stripper, hacksaw, combination plier, drilling machine,

electrician knife.

PRECAUTIONS (IF ANY):

1. Connections are made properly.

2. Tools should be used carefully.
3. Fitting should be tightly fitted.
4. Connection should be tight.
5. Wire should be on the conduit, power gripped properly.

PROCEDURE:

1. Mark switch, fan, regulator and bulb location points and draw lines

for wiring on the wooden board.

2. Place wires along the lines and fix them with the help of clamps.

3. Fix the switches, regulator, fan and bulb holder in the marked

positions on the wooden board.

4. Complete the wiring as per the wiring diagram.

5. Test the working of the bulb and fan by giving electric supply to the

circuit.

Note: that the fan regulator is also a load (mostly resistive) which should be

connected in series with the fan and the switch. By adjusting the regulator

knob we actually resist the flow of current into the fan thereby checking or

varying its speed as desired.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
Pipe Diagram

Wiring Diagram-Switch Board (internal)

VIVA QUESTIONS

1. What are the types of lamp holder?

2. What are the precautions to be observed before doing the experiment?
3. What is the purpose of neutral in the circuit?
4. What kind of supply is given to the circuit?
5. What is the supply for single phase?
6. What is the purpose of Fan regulator in the circuit?
TABULATION:

Condition Expected Conditions Observed Conditions

Number S1 S2 S3 Indi Ext Fan Lamp S1 S2 S3 Indic Ext Fan Lamp

 cator Load ator Load

1. ON OFF OFF ON ON OFF OFF

2. OFF ON OFF ON OFF ON OFF

3. OFF OFF ON ON OFF OFF ON

4. ON ON OFF ON ON ON OFF

5. OFF ON ON ON OFF ON ON

6. ON OFF ON ON ON OFF ON

7. ON ON ON ON ON ON ON

RESULT:

EXPERIMENT NO 3

STAIRCASE WIRING CIRCUIT LAYOUT FOR MULTI-STOREY BUILDINGS

AIM:
To design a staircase light wiring for two storey building.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

1. Lamps - 2

2. Two-way switches - 4

TOOLS REQUIRED:

1. Clamps

2. PVC pipes

PRE LAB QUESTIONS:

1. List the factors while doing stair case wiring

2. What is mean by two way switch?

3. Mention the use of Staircase wiring.

4. What is mean by two way switch?

THEORY:

Description: One lamp is located in between ground and first floor. This lamp

is controlled by ground and first floor. Another lamp is located in between first

and second floor and this can be controlled in these floors.

Concepts: Each floor One light point is to be controlled by two switches

placed at two different places so that the light can be switched ON and OFF

by either switch. This type of control of lamps is often used in staircase

lighting, where it is necessary that the person going up the stairs should be

able to switch ON and after reaching upstairs should be able to switch OFF

the lamp.
 S w itc h 4
7

Lam p2
8
S w itc h 2

3 5

4 6

Lam p1 S w itc h 3

S w itc h 1

XOR Truth Table

Switch 1 Switch 2 Lamp1/

/ Switch / Lamp2

3 Switch 4
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0
 XNOR Truth Table

Switch 1 / Switch 2 / Lamp1/

Switch 3 Switch 4 Lamp2

0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1

PROCEDURE:
Method 1 (XOR)

The staircase light wiring using XOR is shown in the figure (1)

1. The four switches are used for controlling the two lamps located in each

floors. Lamp1 and lamp 2 are located in first and second floor

respectively. The switch 1 is located in ground floor. Whereas switch 2

and switch 3 are in first floor and switch 4 is in second floor.

2. Two numbers of two way switches are used for controlling a lamp in the

staircase light wiring.

3. Two-way Switches have a central terminal which is connected to the

either end of the bulb.

4. The odd points of the switches are connected to the phase wire (red).

The neural wire (black) is connected to the even points of the switches.
5. In the input of the truth table, 0 indicates that the concern switch is

connected to the phase wire and 1 indicates that it is connected to the

neutral wire.
6. The output of the truth table, 0 means the lamp is in OFF mode and 1

means the lamp is ON mode.

7. The bulb will glow when the switches are in alternate states (ON & OFF,

OFF &ON).
8. The bulb will not glow when the switches are in the same state (ON &

ON, OFF & OFF).

Method 2 (XNOR)

The staircase light wiring using XNOR gate is similar to the XOR gate, except

the connection.

1. The first three points are remaining the same.

2. The points 1, 4 of the switches A & B are connected to the phase wire

(red). The neural wire (black) is connected to the points 2, 3 of the

switches A and B.
3. Similarly, the points 5, 8 of the switches C & D are connected to the

phase wire (red). The neural wire (black) is connected to the points 6, 7

of the switches C and D.

 4. In the input of the truth table, 0 indicates that the concern switch is

connected to the phase wire and 1 indicates that it is connected to the

neutral wire.
5. The output of the truth table, 0 means the lamp is in OFF mode and 1

means the lamp is ON mode.

6. The bulb will glow when the switches are in the same state (ON & ON,

OFF & OFF)

7. The bulb will not glow when the switches are in the alternate state (ON

& OFF, OFF & ON)

Inference:

The XOR gate connection works when the switches are in alternate states i.e.

ON & OFF or OFF & ON.

The XNOR gate connection works when the switches are in the same states

i.e. ON & ON, OFF & OFF

Thus, the XOR gate connection is a better design decision because the user

needs to switch it ON from one end of the passage or stairway and then

switch it OFF on reaching the end of the passage or stairway.

Post lab Question:

1. Mention the necessity of stair case wiring.

2. List some of the manufactures of switches.
3. List some of the types of lamps which are suitable for domestic

purposes.
4. Write the ratings of incandescent lamp.
5. What is the acronym of CFL?
6. Write the ratings of CFL lamp.
7. Design the bed room lamp.
8. Suggest the energy efficient lamp for domestic purpose.
RESULT:
 EXPERIMENT NO 4

HOSPITAL WIRING CIRCUIT WITH BUZZER AND LAMPS

AIM:

To implement hospital in-patient's emergency doctor call system in a hospital

having two separate rooms and a duty doctor room.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

1. Single phase 230V AC power supply.

2. 12V DC power supply.

3. 12V DC Double Pole Double Throw (DPDT) relay (2 Nos).

4. 230 V AC buzzer (2 Nos).

5. Normally Closed (NC) and Normally Open (NO) push switch (3 Nos).

6. Connecting wires

Understanding the different components of the experiment

1. 12V DC DPDT relay consists of the relay coil that need to energised using

the 12V DC suppy. Each relay consists of two poles with each pole consisting

of a Common point(C), Normal closed point (NC), Normally open point(NO)

2. Push button has four terminals which enables us to operate the push

switch in normally open condition (NO) as well in Normally closed

condition(NC).

3. Buzzer used in this experiment can be energised using the single phase

230V ac supply.

PROCEDURE
1. CAUTION: Never switch on the 230V AC supply without the supervision of

the Faculty-In charge or Technical Assistant.

2. Obtain the required components and connecting wires from the lab in

charge and make the circuit diagram as per the circuit diagram given.

3. Recheck your connections and ask your faculty (or) Technical assistant to

check your connection. After their permission, switch on the 12V DC and also

the 230V AC supply.

4. Push the switch in Patient 1's room and release it. This operation would

energise the relay in the DPDT relay 1 and both the moving contacts (poles)

moves from the Normally Closed (NC) position to the Normally Open

(position). This operation would keep the DPDT relay 1 energised even after

the push switch is released and also the buzzer in the doctors room energised

by the 230V AC supply.

5. When the doctor recognises the emergency from the buzzer sound, he

pushes the Normally Closed (NC) push switch available in his room which de-

energises the relay and both the poles moves to the initial Normally closed

positions.

6. This operation should also be tested for the patient room 2. This completes

your experiment.

7. Remove the connections and return the components and the connecting

wires.

Calculation

1. The relay coil can be modelled as the series RL circuit. Measure the

resistance and inductance of the relay coil and note it down.

R= ; L= H

2. Write the time domain differential equation governing the relay coil

energised with the DC source of 12V? Obtain the solutions of the differential

equation for i(t) using Laplace transform with zero initial conditions and plot

the graph for i(t) Vs t (x-axis)

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
RESULT:
 EXPERIMENT NO 5

GODOWN WIRING CIRCUIT

AIM:

To provide electrical wiring for a typical warehouse

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

Range / Type
Sl.no Apparatus Quantity
(if any)

1 Miniature circuit breaker(MCB) 5A 1

2 One way switch (SPST) 5A 1

3 Two way switch (SPDT) 5A 2

4 Compact Fluorescent Lamp (CFL) 36 W 3

5 Pipe Fixtures & connecting wires - As required

6 Junction box PVC 3

7 Lamp holders PVC 3

8 Switch boards PVC 3

DESCRIPTION:

The godown wiring method is popular for warehouses where there

is one entrance and the lighting should be on only in the occupied area.

Although this is a method of switch wiring that works quite well it does have

one drawback because the lighting will work for only one occupant in one

area.

If an additional person enters the warehouse and turns on the

switch near them then it will turn off the light where the first person is

located. The traditional godown wiring method is explained here starting with
the layout of a warehouse application. For simplicity, the warehouse has three

lights and three switches with equal spacing in between. This design could be

adjusted and adapted to any size warehouse and adjustments to the size of

the circuit will need to be adjusted for the total load, or watts of the actual

lighting that will be used and the size of the wire will need to be adjusted for

voltage drop in a large warehouse or building.

PRECAUTIONS (IF ANY):

1. Supply must be switched off while connecting the circuit.

2. Do not stand on wet floor.
3. Ensure hands are dry.
4. Keep the breakers and fuse in open condition.

PROCEDURE:

1. Take pipes and joints of sufficient quantity and dimensions.

2. Connect the pipes and other fixtures as in pipe layout diagram.
3. After observing the precautions, start connecting the circuit as per the

circuit diagram.
4. Ensure the connections are correct and firm.
5. Energize the circuit with single phase ac supply.
6. Close the switches and verify the working of all lights and fixtures.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Godown Observation Table

S1 S2 S3 L1 L2 L3

OFF OFF OFF DARK DARK DARK

ON OFF OFF BRIGHT DARK DARK

ON ON OFF DARK BRIGHT DARK

ON ON ON DARK DARK BRIGHT

VIVA QUESTIONS

1. How do you select type of light required for a godown?

2. What are the factors to be considered for fixing the exhaust fan for a

godown?
3. Do we need to fix smoke sensor in a godown.
4. Is fire extinguisher required in a godown?
5. What happens if the breaker in the circuit is removed?
6. What is the need for both fuse and breaker in a circuit?
7. What is the difference between fuse and circuit breaker?
RESULT:

EXPERIMENT NO 6

FLUORESCENT LAMP CONNECTIONS

AIM

To make the connection of the fluorescent lamp and verify the circuit.

APPARATUS REQUIRED

S. No. Name of the Range / Type Quantity

apparatus
1 Fluorescent Lamp 230 V, 40 W 1 No.
2 Starter Bimetallic 1 No.
3 Choke/Ballast Coil/Electronic 1 No.
4 Tube light holder pin 2 Nos.
5 Tube Light Base 4 ft 1 No.
6 Switch 230V, 5A 1 No.
7 Wires 1 sq. mm As required

Procedure

1. Collect the materials required for this experiment.

2. Fix the tube light frame in the work board using necessary tools.

3. Connect the tube light holders, starter holder on the tube light base.

4. Fix the choke in the tube light and starter in the starter holder.
5. Connections are to be made as per Fluorescent lamp circuit connection

using wires.

6. Also connect the phase and neutral single phase supply through a switch.

7. Fix the fluorescent lamp in the tube light holder.

8. Test the circuit by energizing it.

Precautions

1. Energize the circuit with the presence of Lab instructor / Faculty.

2. No part of a live circuit should be touched by the bare hand.

3. Keep the body, or any part of it, out of the circuit.

4. Keep the work area and workbench clear of items not used in the

experiment.

5. When disassembling a circuit, first remove the source of power.

Fuse Rating Calculations

Power drawn by the circuit = 40 watts

Voltage of the circuit = 230 volts

P = V I COS

P = V x I x 0.7 (Inductive Choke, COS = 0.7 lag)

Current in the circuit (I) = power (P) / (Voltage (V) x COS )

= 40 W / 230 V x o.7 = 0.248 AMP.

Fuse rating of the circuit= rounding off the current to the nearest 5 = 5A

(Normally fuses are available in the ratings of 5A, 10A and etc.)
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

A ---- Fluorescent Lamp

B ---- 220V, Single Phase, AC Power Supply

C ---- Starter
D ---- Bimetallic strips

E ---- Capacitor/condenser

F ---- Electrodes / Filaments

G ---- Choke / Ballast

RESULT

EXPERIMENT NO 7

MEASUREMENT OF POWER AND ENERGY CONSUMED BY A GIVEN AC

LOAD

AIM:

To measure the power and Energy consumed for different loading by a given

AC load.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S.No Apparatus Name Type Range Quantity

1 Voltmeter MI (0-600)V 1
 2 Ammeter MI (0-20)A 1

3 Wattmeter 600V,10A,UPF 2

4 Energy meter

5 Three phase resistive 1

load

6 Connecting wires

7 Stopwatch

8 Three Phase auto 440 V 1

Transformer

FORMULAE

Power Consumed by load = P1 + P2

Where P1 and P2 are the readings of watt meters.

P P
Power factor = cos = cos tan
1
3 1 2
P1 P2

Energy consumed by load using watt meter reading=(P1 + P2 ) * Time

PROCEDURE:

1. Give the connections as per circuit diagram.

2. Switch on the three-phase supply. Also switch on the AC load.

3. Note down the wattmeter reading and voltmeter and ammeter reading

for a particular load.

4. Tabulate the readings and calculate the real power consumed by load.

5. Calculate power factor also find out the energy consumed over a period

of time by multiplying the power consumed with time.

 6.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

REFERENCE TABLE:

S.No Curren Voltage Power(Watts) Total Power Power Period of Energy

t (Volts) Consumed Factor observation Consumed

W1 W2
(Amp) (W1+W2)

(Watts)
RESULT:

EXPERIMENT NO 8

STUDY OF EARTHING AND MEASUREMENT OF EARTH PIT RESISTANCE

AIM
 To study the need of earthing and to measure the soil resistivity and

earth pit resistance

APPARATUS REQUIRED

S. No. Name of the Apparatus Type Quantity

4 Terminal -
1 Megger 1
Digital
2 Spikes M.S. 4
4 Nos (50 feet
3 Connecting wires
each)
4 Hammer 1
5 Plier 1
6 Screwdriver 1

FORMULA

Resistivity = 2LR -m

where,

L- distance between spikes (m)

R meter reading ()

PRECAUTIONS

1. Understand the equipment to be tested and apparatus to be used

2. Select proper type (i.e. AC or DC) and range of meters
3. Do not touch the live terminals
4. Use suitable wires (type and size)
5. All the connection should be tight
6. Do not leave loose wires (i.e. wires not connected)
7. Get the connection checked before switching ON the supply
8. Never exceed the permissible values of current, voltage, and / or speed

of any machine, apparatus, wire, load, etc.

9. Strictly observe the instructions given by the faculty/Lab Instructor
THEORY

Earth resistance is the resistance of soil to the passage of electric current.

Actually, the earth is a relatively poor conductor of electricity compared to

normal conductors like copper wire. But, if the area of a path for current is

large enough, resistance can be quite low and the earth can be a good

conductor. The grounding system is an essential element for the electrical

system security and it is required to:

(i) Allow for protective devices activation when there is an insulation

fault.
(ii) Equalize the potential of conductive parts that can be accessed

simultaneously, with the potential in the surrounding soil in order to

prevent people from being exposed to hazardous voltages.

(iii) Allow the lightning strike energy to be safely dissipated.
(iv) To Reduce electromagnetic interferences
(v) To maintain system voltages on healthy lines within reasonable

limits under fault conditions there by preventing insulation

breakdown.

The 3 point method fall of potential ground resistance test requires complete

isolation from the power utility. Not just power isolation, but also removal of

any neutral or other such ground connections extending outside the

grounding system. This test is the most suitable test for large grounding

systems and is also suitable for small electrodes.

PROCEDURE

MEASUREMENT OF EARTH RESISTANCE

1. Put the two spikes acting as current & potential electrode in to the

ground at a distance of 50 to 70 feet each from earth electrode under

test as shown in Fig. 1.

2. Connect the two spikes to E2 & P2 terminals respectively.
 3. Short the E1 & P1 terminals & connect it to the earth electrode under

test.
4. Place the megger on horizontal firm stud.
5. Note down the reading by pressing the test switch
6. Take down the 3 to 4 readings by keeping the distance same and

placing the electrodes at the other positions.

7. Take the average of these readings which is equal to earth pit

resistance.

MEASUREMENT OF EARTH RESISTIVITY

1. Put the four spikes acting as current & potential electrode in to the

ground at a distance of 50 to 70 feet each from earth electrode under

test as shown in Fig. 2.

2. Connect the four spikes to E1, P1, E2 & P2 terminals respectively.
3. Place the megger on horizontal firm stud.
4. Note down the reading by pressing the test switch
5. Take down the 3 to 4 readings by keeping the distance same and

placing the electrodes at the other positions.

6. Take the average of these readings and is in ohm. Using the formula,

determine the soil resistivity.

TABULAR COLUMN:

MEASUREMENT OF EARTH RESISTANCE

 S. Position of the spikes with Reading of the Mean of the

No. respect to earth pit under test earth tester readings (ohm)

(feet or m) (ohm)

MEASUREMENT OF EARTH RESISTIVITY

S. No. Distance between spikes Resistance Resistivity

(m) (ohm) (ohm-m)

 Fig. 1 Schematic diagram for earth pit resistance

Fig. 2 Schematic diagram for earth resistivity

RESULT
 EXPERIMENT NO 9

PCB FABRICATION, SOLERING AND TESTING OF A RECTIFIER CIRCUIT

AIM:

To fabricate and test a PCB for a rectifier circuit.

SOFTWARE REQUIRED:

Any software used for PCB design. Example: Cadence OrCad, ExpressPCB.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Procedure:

At first, the diagram given below is drawn using ExpressPCB software.

A. Procedure to draw the PCB layout in ExpressPCB:

1. Open a new file in ExpressPCB.

2. Go to view and then options to fix the measurement system either inches

or mm. For this project all the measurements are in mm.

3. Then go to Layout and then Board Properties to select the no of layers.

For this case, 2 layers option is selected.

4. Then fix the board size by selecting the locus of right hand bottom corner

point. Here the size is 85mmX50mm. That means x = 85mm, y= 50mm.

5. Then select the option place a trace, which is available in the left corner of

the window. The width of the selected trace is 3.05mm. The drop and down

button is available on the top to select the width of the trace. The current

carrying capacity of the board is proportional to the width of the trace. To

know the current carrying capacity of the traces go to

http://www.expresspcb.com/tips-for-designing-pcbs/
6. Place the traces as per the diagram.

7. Go to the component option, then component manager and then

Connector - Wire connection (0.052 inch hole) to select the wire

connectors for placing 4 nos. of diodes. For this layout, 8 nos. of connectors

are required which is marked as W in the above diagram.

8. Go to the option Place a pad (through hole or surface mount) to place

holes for input and output banana connectors. After selecting this option one

drop and down button will appear on the top of the window. From that button

select 7.62mm round pad with 4.24mm hole.

10. Go to Place a circle or arc option to place arcs at the corners of the

circuit in order to ensure the connectivity at corners. However this step is

optional.

9. Then save the file with an extension of .pcb.

Link for free download of ExpressPCB: http://www.expresspcb.com/

B. Procedure to prepare Printed Circuit Board using wet process:

I. Coating of liquid photo resist on PCB using Photo Resist Dip Coating

Machine (PRDC)

A. Take a board of specific size from the laboratory store.

B. Ensure the work area is a yellow room and the tank of PRDC machine has

been filled with liquid photoresist.

C. Clamp PCB firmly on hanger provided.

D. Ensure machine is plugged in. Switch on DOWN movement switch. The

motor will come on and the PCB will be lowered into the uncovered Resist

tank.
E. When the board reaches to the bottom, the limit switch will stop downward

movement. Switch on the UP movement switch after few minute and bring the

PCB back up to the starting mark.

F. After excess photoresist drips off, unclamp board for further processing.

Caution

Clamp the PCB firmly on the hanger.

II. Curing wet Photoresist on PCB using PCB curing (Oven) Machine

A. Clamp the PCB to the oven lid firmly, lower in to protocure chamber, so

that it sits firmly.

B. Switch ON the protocure mains and see that the mains indicating lamp

(Red colour) glows and air circulating fan starts.

C. Switch ON the temperature switch (Yellow) for the heater to switch ON.

D. The thermostat is preset (normally 200-2500C).

E. Depending on the time required (4-5 min) in the chamber set the timer

rotary switch to ON position.

F. On completion of the time, the timer will switch off and remove the PCB

carefully.

III. Exposure of PCB in to Double sided U.V Exposure

A. Unclamp and lift lids unlatch and lift the top glass slowly and lock at rest

position.

B. Put the stainless steel C type stand in side. Ensure glass is clean, before

setting the PCB and phototool (Film negative for transfer) aligned and as

much to the centre of the glass as possible. Place film firmly and aligned with

the PCB. Bring down the top glass over the PCB and lock.
C. Start power switch ON to start the unit.

D. Select the change over switch for top or both (preferably both) to start the

top tube or both U.V. tubes.

E. Set the process timer knob from 0 to 10 min (generally set 3-5 min).

F. The timer will automatically count down to 0. After time has lapsed the U.V.

lights will automatically switched off.

G. Unclamp the lid and remove PCB for further processing. Keep film in a

clean paper for further processing.

Caution

Keep the glass clean for clear image transfer.

IV. Washing of PCB with LPR developer

A. Keep the developer liquid in a pot and keep the PCB inside the liquid for 3-

5min.

B. Then wash the PCB in water for 2-3 min.

C. Apply LPR dry blue on to the PCB and keep for 2-3 min.

D. Wash the PCB again using water.

Caution

LPR developer solution is evaporating in nature, so keep the jar closed always.

Dont touch the dry blue with bare hands.

V. Etching Process

A. Clam the PCB onto the jig connected to the lid of the machine. Once it is

securely clamped, lower the tank, so that lid fits properly.

VI. Drilling in to PCB

A. Select proper drill bit to make hole on the PCB.

B. Switch on the drill machine and adjust the knob position to desired r.p.m.

C. Fabrication of the components on to the PCB

I. Fabricate the components on the PCB using soldering rod and wire.

D. Testing of PCB

I. Connect the input with a 230/12 volts transformer.

II. Check the output voltage in oscilloscope.

III. Store the graphs with the average and rms values of input and output

voltage waveform.

Results and Analysis:

Compare the experimental results with the theoretical results.