Teaching in The Secondary School 1-138

Introduction
Susan Capel, Marilyn Leask and Sarah Younie
The book introduces the professional knowledge and skills required by teachers, including general
principles of effective teaching. The book is backed up by subject-specific and practical texts
(Learning to Teach X Subject in the Secondary School and A Practical Guide to Teaching X Subject
in the Secondary School) in the Learning to Teach in the Secondary School series by the same
editors and by Readings for Learning to Teach in the Secondary School: A Companion to M Level
Study. This reader provides extension reading around key areas of professional knowledge
underpinning teaching.
Teaching is a complex activity and is both an art and a science. In this book, we show that there
are certain essential elements of teaching that you can master through practice and that help you
become an effective teacher. An effective teacher is one who can integrate theory with practice,
use evidence to underpin their professional judgement and use structured reflection to improve
practice. An effective teacher is also comfortable in the presence of young people and is interested
in them as individuals as well as learners. An effective teacher motivates and encourages pupils by
planning interesting lessons, and links their teaching to the life experiences of pupils. Part of being
effective is to respect your pupils and in turn earn their respect, not only through the skills mentioned,
but by maintaining firm but fair discipline.
However, there is no one correct way of teaching, no one specific set of skills, techniques and
procedures that you must master and apply mechanically. This is, in part, because your pupils are
all different and each day brings a new context in which they operate. Every teacher is an individual
and brings something of their own unique personality to the job and their interactions with pupils.
We hope that this book helps you to develop skills, techniques and procedures, and provides you
with an entry to ways of understanding what you do and see that you can bring together into an
effective whole, which is appropriate for your individual personality and style and helps you to
develop your personal philosophy of teaching and learning. We also hope that the text provides the
stimulus for you to want to continue to learn and develop throughout your career as a teacher.
Developing your philosophy of teaching and learning

On your initial teacher education (ITE) programme, much of your time is spent in school. You can
expect your ITE not merely to provide training, but also to introduce you to wider educational issues.
2 INTRODUCTION n n n n
What we mean by this is that ITE is not an apprenticeship, but a step on the journey of personal
development in which your teaching skills develop alongside an emerging understanding of the
teaching and learning process and the education system in which it operates. This is a journey of
discovery that begins on the first day of your ITE programme and may stop only when you retire.
Teachers are expected to undertake further professional development throughout their career
(many join their subject association to keep up to date (www.subjectassociation.org.uk/members_
links.aspx)). Thus, we use the term initial teacher education rather than initial teacher training
throughout this book.
The school-based element of your ITE programme provides the opportunity to appreciate first-
hand the complex, exciting and contradictory events of classroom interactions without the immediacy
of having to teach all the time. It should allow you time, both in the classroom and the wider school,
to make sense of experiences that demand explanations. Providing such explanations requires you
to have a theory of teaching and learning.
By means of an organised ITE programme that provides for structured observation, practical
experience and reflective activity suitably interwoven with theoretical inputs and evidence, you begin
to develop your own theory of teaching and learning, which is embedded in your practice. Theoretical
inputs and evidence to underpin practice can come from a range of sources, including tutors and
teachers, lectures and print- and web-based resources. Theory also arises from practice, the better
to inform and develop practice.
Everyone who teaches has a theory of how to teach effectively and of how pupils learn. The
theory may be implicit in what the teacher does and teachers may not be able to tell you what their
theory is. For example, a teacher who is a disciplinarian is likely to have a different theory about
the conditions for learning than a teacher who is liberal in their teaching style. Likewise, some
teachers may feel that they do not have a philosophy of education. What these teachers are really
saying is that they have not examined their views, or cannot articulate them. What is your philosophy?
For example, do you consider that your job is to transfer the knowledge of your subject to pupils?
Or are you there to lead them through its main features? Are you filling empty vessels or are you
the guide on a voyage of discovery? On the other hand, perhaps you are the potter, shaping and
moulding pupils.
There are a number of different theories about teaching and learning. You need to be aware of
what these are, reflect on them and consider how they help you to explain more fully what you are
trying to do and why. Through the process of theorising about what you are doing, reflecting on a
range of other theories as well as your own, and drawing on the evidence base, you understand
your practice better and develop into a reflective practitioner, that is, a teacher who makes conscious
decisions about teaching strategies to employ and who modifies their practice in the light of
experiences. It is recognised that ITE only enables you to start developing your own personal
understanding of the teaching and learning process. Hence, this process must continue throughout
your career.
An articulated, conscious philosophy of teaching emerges only if a particular set of habits is
developed, in particular the habit of reviewing your own teaching systematically. It is these habits
that need to be developed from the start of your ITE programme. This is why we (as well as your
ITE tutors) ask you to evaluate your own teaching, to keep a diary of your evaluations (reflective
practice), a folder of your lesson plans and other material to develop a professional development
portfolio (PDP) to record your development and carry that forward from your ITE programme to
your first post. (This is a file where you record evidence of your practice and reflections on practice.
Your ITE programme provider will advise you about how to keep these records.)
n n n n INTRODUCTION 3
Many higher education institutions now expect student teachers to develop their PDP or equivalent
as an e-portfolio. If you are learning to teach in England, you may be required to compile a self-
evaluation tool, which includes reflection and evidence.
How to use this book
Structure of the book

The book is laid out so that elements of appropriate background information and theory, along with
evidence from research and practice, introduce each topic. These are interwoven with tasks designed
to help you identify key features of the topic.
A number of different enquiry methods are suggested for you to use to generate data; for
example, reflecting on reading and observation or on an activity you are asked to carry out, asking
questions, gathering data, discussing with a tutor or another student teacher. Some of the tasks involve
you in activities that impinge on other people; for example, observing a teacher in the classroom, or
asking for information. If a task requires you to do this, you must first of all seek the permission of
the person concerned. Remember that you are a guest in school(s); you cannot walk into any
teachers classroom to observe. In addition, some information may be personal or sensitive, and you
need to consider issues of confidentiality and professional behaviour in your enquiries and reporting.
This text is written primarily for student teachers, but should also be valuable to teachers in their
early years of teaching. An appendix on writing and reflection is included on the companion website
to help you with the written assignments on your ITE programme. The text also provides advice for
you in undertaking the kind of action research project that could lead to masters-level accreditation.
A glossary of terms is also included at the back of the book to help you interpret the jargon of education.
We call schoolchildren pupils to avoid confusion with students, by which we mean people in further
and higher education. We refer to those learning to teach as student teachers. The important staff
in your life are those in your school and higher education institution; we have called all these people
tutors. Your institution will have its own way of referring to staff.
Meeting the requirements of your ITE

The range and type of requirements (standards) you are expected to meet during your ITE
programme are derived from those for all student teachers in the country in which you are learning
to teach. The units in this book are designed to help you work towards meeting these requirements.
Your tutors in school and in your institution help you meet the requirements for your ITE programme.
At appropriate points in the text, you should relate the work directly to the specific requirements
for your ITE programme.
Many student teachers are on programmes that provide accreditation towards a masters degree,
which can be completed through further research and study focused on the workplace in your early
M years of teaching. The content of this book, some of the tasks, Further reading and the reader, together
with the extra materials on the website, are intended to support masters-level work within your
ITE. In this book, we use the symbol shown on the left to denote tasks that can be designed to meet
the requirements of masters-level work, but it is up to your tutors to design assignment titles that
meet the requirements of the higher education institution with which you are registered. Once you
have qualified as a teacher, masters-level and doctorate in education programmes are designed to
support your further professional development through research, reflection and wider reading.
4 INTRODUCTION n n n n
Reflective practice, evidence-informed practice and your professional

development portfolio (PDP)
As you read through the book, undertake other readings, complete the tasks and undertake other
activities as part of your ITE programme, we suggest you keep a professional development portfolio
(PDP). You may want to keep a diary of reflective practice to record your reactions to, and reflections
on, events, both good and bad, as a way of letting off steam! It enables you to analyse strengths
and areas for development, hopes for the future, and elements of your emerging personal philosophy
of teaching and learning. Developing the ability to critically appraise research about teaching is
integral to many ITE programmes as teaching moves towards being a profession with a publically
accessible knowledge base (see www.meshguides.org for background information).
Your PDP holds a selective record of your development as a teacher, your strengths as well as
areas for further development, and is something that you continue to develop throughout your
teaching career. It is likely that your institution has a set format for a PDP. If not, you should develop
your own. You can use any format and include any evidence you think appropriate. However, to be
truly beneficial, it should contain evidence beyond the minimum required for your ITE programme.
This further evidence could include, for example, work of value to you, a response to significant
events, extracts from your diary of reflective practice, good lesson plans, evaluations of lessons,
teaching reports, observations on you made by teachers, outcomes of tasks undertaken, and assessed
and non-assessed coursework.
At the end of your ITE programme, you can use your PDP to evaluate your learning and achieve-
ments. It is also used as the basis for completing applications for your first post, and to take to
interview. It can form the basis of a personal statement describing aspects of your development as
a teacher during your ITE programme. Your PDP could include teaching reports written by teachers,
tutors and yourself. It can also help provide the basis of your continuing professional development
(CPD) as it enables you to identify aspects of your work in need of development and thus targets
for induction and CPD in your first post, first through your self-evaluation tool if you are learning
to teach in England, then as part of the appraisal process you will be involved with as a teacher.
Ways you might like to use this book

With much (or all) of your ITE programme being delivered in school, you may have limited access
to a library, to other student teachers with whom to discuss problems and issues at the end of the
school day and, in some instances, limited access to a tutor to whom you can refer. There are likely
to be times when you are faced with a problem in school that has not been addressed up to that
point within your ITE programme and you need some help immediately; for example, before facing
a class the next day or next week. This book is designed to help you address some of the issues or
difficulties you are faced with during your ITE programme, by providing supporting knowledge
interspersed with a range of tasks to enable you to link theory with practice.
The book may be useful in a number of ways. You may wish to use it alongside your ITE handbook,
which outlines specific ITE requirements, agreed ways of working, roles and responsibilities. It is
designed more for you to dip in and out of, to look up a specific problem or issue that you want to
consider, rather than for you to read from cover to cover (although you may want to use it in both
ways, of course). You can use it on your own as it provides background information and supporting
theory along with evidence from research and practice about a range of issues you are likely to face
during your ITE programme.
n n n n INTRODUCTION 5
Using the tasks

Reflecting on an issue faced in school with greater understanding of evidence of what others have
written and said about it, alongside undertaking some of the associated tasks, may help you to identify
some potential solutions. The tasks can also be used for collaborative work with other student
teachers or your tutors. Although you can complete many of the tasks individually, most tasks benefit
from wider discussion, which we encourage you to do whenever possible. However, some tasks can
be carried out only with other student teachers and/or with the support of a tutor. You should select
those tasks that are appropriate to your circumstances.
Further reading
This book will not suffice alone; we have attempted to provide you with guidance to further reading
by two methods: first, by references to print- and web-based material in the text, the details of which
appear in the References; second, by Further reading and relevant websites at the end of each unit.
There is much educational material on the Internet. Government, teaching council and subject
association websites are useful. However, there are many others but do look at the evidence
underpinning the advice on offer. Custom and practice in all professions is under scrutiny as
expectations for professional practice to be evidence-based rise. Useful websites are listed in each
unit in the book. The companion website for this text (www.routledge.com.cw.capel) includes further
information and links to useful websites. It also contains several units, including Managing yourself
and your workload and Using research and evidence to inform your teaching, from the text Starting
to Teach in the Secondary School (Capel et al. 2004), which support material in this text and were
written specifically to support newly qualified teachers. We suggest you keep a record of useful
websites in your PDP. Many of the contributors to this book are producing guidance based on
research summaries to support your ongoing professional development (these are published via
www.meshguides.org).
If you see each unit as potentially an open door leading to whole new worlds of thought about
how societies can best educate their children, then you have achieved one of our goals: that is, to
provide you with a guidebook on your journey of discovery about teaching and learning. Remember,
teaching is about the contribution you make to your pupils, to their development and their learning,
and to the well-being of society through the education of our young people.
Finally, we hope that you find the book useful, and of support in school. If you like it, tell others;
if not, tell us.
Susan Capel, Marilyn Leask and Sarah Younie

March 2016
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1 Becoming a teacher
The four units in this chapter explore the complexity and breadth of the teachers role and the
nature of teaching. To become an effective teacher, you need to supplement your subject content
knowledge with pedagogical knowledge (about teaching and learning) and to develop your pro-
fessional knowledge, skills and judgement; for example, about managing situations that arise with
pupils, such as the one below in the poem called Late.
Youre late, said miss

The bell has gone,
dinner numbers done
and work begun.
What have you got to say for yourself?
Well, its like this, miss
me mum was sick,
me dad fell down the stairs,
the wheel fell off my bike
and then we lost our Billys snake
behind the kitchen chairs. Earache
struck down me grampy, me gran
took quite a funny turn.
Then on the way I met this man
whose dog attacked me shin
look, miss you can see the blood
it doesnt look too good,
does it?
Yes, yes sit down
and next time say youre sorry
for disturbing all the class.
Now get on with your story
fast!
Please miss, Ive got nothing to write about.
(Judith Nicholls, Late, cited in Batchford 1992)
8 1 BECOMING A TEACHER n n n n
Ways of developing your professional knowledge, skills and judgement provide themes running
throughout the book. Evidence about effective practice is becoming increasingly easy to access to
support your development. In the UK, you can find a wealth of material on websites, including
government-supported and subject association websites, to support you as a teacher.
Each unit in this chapter examines different facets of the work of student and experienced
teachers. You are posed questions about your values and attitudes because these influence the type
of teacher you become, the ethos of your school and the values and attitudes of pupils in your care.
Unit 1.1 is designed to give you an introduction into what teachers do. We look at teachers as
individuals, before considering your role as a teacher, including wider aspects of the teachers role
academic and pastoral roles and administration, as well as introducing the work in the classroom.
We then consider professional knowledge for teaching generally, followed by specific consideration
of one aspect of general pedagogic knowledge aspects of managing the learning environment, as
well as teacher language. Finally, we introduce classroom rights and responsibilities.
In Unit 1.2, we discuss your roles and responsibilities as student teachers. This is designed to
support you in preparing for school experience and on school experience itself. Your professional
relationships with those with whom you work are very important; hence, we look at working with
staff and pupils on school experience (including your professional and subject tutors, the class teacher
and the pupils themselves). We then consider the expectations that the tutors in school and higher
education institution responsible for your initial teacher education have of you. The meaning of
professionalism is discussed and the idea that you will have your own philosophy of teaching is
introduced. Phases that mark your development as a teacher are identified. We suggest that as your
own confidence and competence in managing the classroom grow, you can expect the focus of your
work to move from your self-image and the mechanics of managing a lesson, to the learning taking
place generally and, as you become more experienced, to the learning for the individual pupil.
Unit 1.3 provides advice for managing your workload and your time, both inside and outside the
classroom. It then looks at potential causes of stress, ways of preventing stress and managing and
coping with stress that you cannot prevent. The unit emphasises that approaches to managing your
workload, time and stress are individual, but being successful in managing competing demands on
your time gives you time to enjoy your work and have time for leisure. It then considers how you
can build your resilience, which is what sustains and enables teachers to thrive rather than just
survive in the profession.
Unit 1.4 focuses on using information and communications technology (ICT)/digital technologies
for professional purposes. It gives a rationale for, and highlights the relevance of, using ICT. It also
provides a framework for auditing your knowledge and understanding of ICT, which is important
self-knowledge for enhancing your competence in using ICT. The unit walks you through an example
of using ICT taking a video as part of a lesson which is designed to show you how everyday
technology (a mobile phone) can be used to enhance your pupils learning. The unit then looks at
pupils bringing their own devices to lessons. Finally, the unit focuses on your planning to teach using
ICT resources.
1.1 What do teachers do?
Andrew Green and Marilyn Leask
Now, what I want is, Facts. Teach these boys and girls nothing but Facts. Facts alone are wanted
in life. Plant nothing else, and root out everything else. You can only form the minds of reasoning
animals upon Facts: nothing else will ever be of any service to them. This is the principle on
which I bring up my own children, and this is the principle on which I bring up these children.
Stick to Facts, sir!
(Thomas Gradgrind Dickens, Hard Times)
Tell me, I will forget. Show me, I may remember. Involve me, and I will understand.
(old Chinese proverb)
Introduction
Your personal values, views of the purposes of education and of the role of the teacher in the
development of the pupils are major influences on your development as a teacher. Education is
probably the most powerful influence on the development of our society. The education that young
people receive through schooling goes beyond knowledge about a body of academic subjects: it is
built upon and shapes the values, rights and responsibilities that make our society distinctive. That
is why the form and content of education are so often the focus of scrutiny and are so keenly
contested, and why you need to be able to articulate and develop your personal philosophy of
education. To develop your understanding, you may wish to join such debates, which are held
through subject association networks, conferences and, to some extent, social media.
Everyone has an opinion of what teachers do. Often, these views are formed by personal
experiences of school, and they are often idealised by the passage of time. The media, television,
cinemas and literature also provide people with many and varied representations of teachers. What
examples spring to your mind? Nobody entering the teaching profession does so as a blank canvas;
everyone has experienced education, and this shapes their sense of what teachers are and do. Not
all of these views are either valid or useful, however, and it is important to understand these in the
context of the current school system, national education policies and the demands they place on
teachers. In Units 5.3 and 7.1, you are invited to consider your personal stance on the aims, purposes
and practices in education.
The two epigraphs at the beginning of the unit illustrate how different views of education and
its functions can be; how differently societies and cultures construct the relationship between
teachers and learners.
Teachers, pupils, parents, carers, politicians, local authorities (LAs)/councils, teachers unions,
professional subject associations and educational researchers may have very divergent views of
what teachers should do and how they should do it. Each of these perspectives needs to be
considered. What a parent may expect from you as a teacher, what their child may expect and what
you as a teacher believe you should provide may differ significantly.
What teachers do, therefore, is complex. How to manage this without compromising either the
needs of the individual pupil, the requirements of parents and carers, or your own professional
integrity is the focus of this unit.
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you should be able to:
n describe your developing vision of yourself as a teacher and the values and ethical code/
code of conduct that will guide your work;
n describe various aspects of a teachers academic, pastoral and administrative roles;
n consider effective use of language as a teacher;
n understand the multifaceted nature of the knowledge required for effective teaching;
n explain how teachers can proactively manage the learning environment;
n explain the rights and responsibilities of teachers and learners within classrooms;
n demonstrate that your digital profile reflects the values and behaviours you aspire to as
a teacher.
Check the requirements of your initial teacher education (ITE) programme to see which relate
to this unit.
Teachers as individuals: your values and ethics

Teaching is a deeply personal activity. Pupils respond strongly to individual teachers. Think back to
your own schooldays and the teachers you had. What do you remember about them? What did they
do? Who are the teachers you most liked, and why? Which teachers did you least like, and why? Almost
certainly the issues you identify are to do with personality (enthusiasm, intelligence, humour,
eccentricity, conformity, efficiency, incompetence). Similarly, some of the first things your pupils will
pick up on are your personality and your qualities. Parents and carers look at you as a person, but
are also interested in a different set of issues: Are you likely to form supportive relationships with
their child? Do you communicate with them regularly and clearly? Do they believe youre competent?
Your head of department and senior staff may apply another set of criteria: What skills and
interests do you have that could be of benefit to the department or wider school curriculum?
n n n n 1.1 WHAT DO TEACHERS DO? 11
What you do as a teacher, therefore, has to meet a complex set of demands, and your ITE
programme should provide you with opportunities both to explore individually the kind of teacher
you wish to be, and also to understand the context in which you are working and the demands this
places upon you as a teacher to be professional and collegial. For further reading about
professionalism, see Kizlik (2015); OECD TALIS (2015); the Brindley (2015) Masterclass texts; and
Wragg (2004).
Your values and your ethical code

What ethical code will guide your practice as a teacher? Teaching Councils are organisations that
deal with teacher professionalism, and adhering to an ethical code of practice is a condition of
registration. See the United Kingdom (UK) Teaching Councils and Teachers Standards websites
(listed on page 595) and review the ethical codes that teachers who are members are required to
adhere to. The General Teaching Council for Scotland (GTCS) also has a code of conduct for student
teachers that touches on these issues: professionalism, responsibilities, competence, collegiality and
working with stakeholders, equality and diversity (www.gtcs.org.uk/web/FILES/teacher-regulation/
student-teacher-code-0412.pdf). Task 1.1.1 asks you to consider several codes of conduct and adopt
or draw up your own ethical code/code of conduct to guide you during your ITE programme and
beyond into your teaching career.
! Task 1.1.1 Your code of professional conduct and ethics
Consider some of the professional codes of conduct on subject association and Teaching
Council websites (see websites listed on page 595). Review the ethical codes that teachers
are required to adhere to in different countries. The GTCS also has a code of conduct for
student teachers, which provides a starting point (www.gtcs.org.uk/web/FILES/teacher-
regulation/student-teacher-code-0412.pdf).
Discuss the outcomes with other student teachers and record your code of conduct in your
professional development portfolio (PDP) or equivalent professional record file.
Your role as a teacher

The teachers job is first and foremost to ensure that pupils learn. To a large extent, what pupils
should learn is determined through a published curriculum. The term hidden curriculum refers to
what is learned outside the formal curriculum (see Unit 7.2). In England, there is a National
Curriculum although many schools, for example free schools, independent schools and academies,
are not subject to this. The companion website for this book (www.routledge.com.cw.capel) has units
about the Welsh, Scottish and Irish curricula. How you teach, however (that is, the methods and
materials used), is left to your professional judgement.
Task 1.1.2 now focuses on what you personally need to do to become a qualified teacher.
! Task 1.1.2 Focusing on the teachers standards
You need to be familiar with the Teachers Standards for the country relevant to your ITE
programme. These should be in your ITE programme handbook and other documentation
provided by your ITE provider. Look at them now. What do they tell you about your role as a
teacher? What do they mean to you at the beginning of your ITE programme? Do you feel
they capture what you want to be as a teacher? Talk to your tutor about what achieving the
standards might look like at the end of your programme.
Which aspects of these Teachers Standards do you feel most prepared to meet? Which
do you believe you need more help to meet? How do you see yourself developing your
capability over your career as a teacher? You may find it useful to discuss these areas with
an experienced teacher, thinking about how you can record evidence of your achievements
and any areas where you may require additional support.
Store the information in your PDP.
You need to spend time observing experienced teachers, and you are unlikely to see two teachers
the same (see Unit 2.1). Some of the teaching styles and strategies you see you will like and relate
to; others may not seem as appropriate and comfortable (see Unit 5.3). These preferences and
responses are important as you think about your own developing practice. Do not dismiss anything
too quickly, however. Just because you do not like a particular approach or because a particular
class does not respond well does not necessarily make the approach inappropriate. There is no single
correct way to teach. Provided effective teaching and learning takes place, a range of approaches,
from didactic (formal, heavy on content) to experiential (learning by doing), is appropriate often
in the same lesson (see Unit 5.3 on teaching styles and Unit 4.1 on ways to group pupils for learning).
Using video to record your practice so you can analyse and improve this is recommended.
You also have responsibility for the pastoral and personal development of your pupils. In
approaching this, you have an important role to play in supporting the school ethos by reinforcing
school values, rules and routines; for example, behaviour, dress, mutual respect, the right to learn,
and in encouraging pupils to develop self-discipline so that the school can function effectively and
pupils can make the most of opportunities the school and their schooling offers.
Finally, you will need to develop efficient ways of dealing with administration (see Unit 1.3).
Developing your information and communications technology (ICT) skills is essential in helping you
prepare teaching materials, in recording and monitoring progress, and in keeping up to date with
daily administrative tasks. Some teachers keep their pupil records electronically using spreadsheets,
and schools normally have management information systems holding data used to monitor pupil
performance and assessment. For advice in your subject area, see the subject-specific and practical
texts in this Learning to Teach in the Secondary School series (see p. ii of this text).
So, your role as a teacher falls into distinct categories. You have responsibility for both the
academic and the pastoral development of your pupils. Table 1.1.1 lists the main activities in each of
these areas that you are expected to undertake.
Table 1.1.1 Some of the activities that teachers undertake in their academic and pastoral roles
The academic role The pastoral role and spiritual and moral welfare
This encompasses a variety of activities, including: These roles vary from school to school. They often
include:
n subject teaching
n lesson preparation n getting to know pupils as individuals
n setting and marking of homework n helping pupils with problems
n monitoring pupil progress over time n being responsible for a form/tutor group
n assessing pupil progress in a variety of ways, n registering the class, following up absences
including marking tests and exams n monitoring sanctions and rewards given to form
n writing reports members
n working as part of a subject team n reinforcing school rules and routines; for
example, on behaviour
n curriculum development and planning
n recording achievement
n undertaking visits, field courses
n writing reports, ensuring records of
n reporting to parents
achievement and/or profiles are up to date
n planning and implementing school policies
n working collegially as part of a pastoral team
n extracurricular activities
n teaching personal, social, health education
n being an examiner for public examination (PSHE) and citizenship
boards; for example, General Certificate of
n house/year group activities (plays/sports)
Secondary Education (GCSE)/General Certificate
of Education (GCE)/Advanced (A) Level boards n liaising with parents and carers
n keeping up to date (often through work with n ensuring school information is conveyed to
your subject association) (see parents via pupils
www.subjectassociation.org.uk/members_links) n giving careers and subject guidance
n undertaking research in research active schools n extracurricular activities; for example,
n supporting the professional development of educational trips
other staff n taking part in a daily act of worship required by
legislation
n liaising with primary schools
Your role in raising attainment and improving life chances

Raising attainment is a collective endeavour involving all in the school working together. The
connection between educational attainment and life chances is significant. Pupils obtaining the best
grades have more choices, are able to access the top-ranking universities and employment, and so
on. It is thus clearly desirable that pupils attain to the very best of their ability through their
schooling. It is incumbent on you as a teacher to ensure that every pupil is given the very best
opportunity to fulfil his or her potential, and great pressure is often applied to teachers. Pupil
attainments are compared internationally and the results are of great interest and concern for
governments (see Unit 7.4). However, where too much attention is paid to raising attainment without
corresponding attention to developing learners inquisitiveness and autonomy, instrumental practice
can easily emerge. Spoon-feeding and teaching to the test may lead to improved attainment in
headline examinations, but do little genuinely to enhance pupils transferrable abilities as lifelong
learners (see, for example, Volante 2004). For the teacher, the drive to ensure that pupils achieve
the best possible results in their assessments must be tempered by the need to provide pupils
with the resources they need to be independently functional members of society. This is where
educational politics comes face-to-face with educational ethics. It is the pupils who emerge with the
most robust independent abilities who are best placed to meet the increasingly challenging and
uncertain demands of employability in the twenty-first-century world. Therefore, you need to think
very carefully about how you respond to the needs of your pupils and the demands of your employers
as you consider issues of raising attainment. Pupils self-belief and motivation to learn are essential
in providing foundations for successful learning, and there is no foundation for commonly held beliefs
that intelligence is fixed (see Unit 5.6). You have responsibility for ensuring pupils themselves realise
that they do have considerable capacity and can set high expectations of themselves. The poem
The Average Child highlights the damaging effect on learners of views that intelligence is fixed
(see Table 1.1.2). Then complete Task 1.1.3.
Table 1.1.2 The Average Child
I dont cause teachers trouble, my grades have been okay.

I listen in my classes and Im in school every day.
My parents think Im average, my teachers think so too.
I wish I didnt know that cause theres lots Id like to do.
Id like to build a space rocket, Ive a book that shows you how.
Or start a stamp collection, well no use trying now.
Cause since Ive found Im average, Im just not smart enough you see,
I know theres nothing special that I should expect of me.
Im part of that majority that hump part of the bell*,
Wholl just spend all his life in an average kind of hell.
* This refers to the bell shape of a normal distribution curve.

Source: Buscemi (date unknown).
! Task 1.1.3 Motivating learners
Reflect on The Average Child (Table 1.1.2). Think about its implications for your own teaching.
In your classroom observations and evaluations, focus on an average child for a number of
sessions. Plan your interactions with a small group of these pupils so that you leave them
feeling positive about learning and their capacities. Discuss your perceptions with other
student teachers and record these in your PDP.
Teacher language
Language is clearly central to the process of teaching and learning. Whether you are communicating
with pupils in the spoken or the written medium, it is essential that you think very carefully about
your use of language. It is important to remember that language is used in the classroom for a
variety of purposes:
n to give instructions;
n to impart information;
n to question;
n to develop relationships;
n to provide direction through the lesson, and so on.
An important issue to consider in relation to teacher language is the use of technical subject
terminology. Every subject has its own vocabulary, and it is the subject teachers responsibility to
think about this. If science teachers wish their pupils to know how to spell and use the word
photosynthesis accurately, it is their job to teach this. Similarly, if you are a business studies teacher
and wish your pupils to write reports, you need to equip them with the language tools to do so.
Think very carefully about the language and the written forms of your subject. Are these in
themselves useful and meaningful, or is it the concepts behind the words and forms that are more
important? Think in detail about how and when to introduce subject-specific terminology and develop
concise and accurate definitions that pupils are able to work with. Also be aware that terms have
different meanings in different subject contexts. Take, for instance, the word depression:
n in geography, a depression is an area of low air pressure;

n in history, the Depression was a specific era of United States history in the late 1920s and the
1930s;
n in medicine, depression is a mental state;
n in English, it may be all of the above, or a hollow in the ground.
As a teacher, it is very important to think about how and when these different language modes
are required, and how pupils will differentiate between them, whether encountered in the written
or the spoken form. It is well worthwhile spending time exploring the range of your voice, so that
you can develop appropriate varieties of tone and register for these different types of talk (see Unit
3.1). Which tone of voice will you adopt so that pupils know when you are giving instructions? How
about when you are disciplining an individual or a class? Your tone of voice reinforces the purposes
of language. Also, spend time thinking carefully about language formulas that might be useful,
recording those used by experienced teachers whom you are observing and practising using them
so as to build your professional toolkit. Such formulas include:
n I am not happy with . . .

n I want you to think carefully about . . .
n Either . . . or . . .
n I want you to make sure that . . .
Thinking through both what you want to say and how you want to say it will increase your
confidence in the use of teacher language. Questions should be planned (see Unit 5.2). Transactional
language (for example, instructions about how to move into groups) can be prepared ahead.
Explanations are usually much clearer if you have thought them through in advance rather than
trying to develop them on the spot in the classroom. Much of the language you will need to use is
firmly within your control, and needs to be thought through in detail.
There are, of course, occasions when language needs to be spontaneous, such as when answering
unexpected questions, or when dealing with behaviour that doesnt meet the standard you require.
When managing such behaviours, it is very important to ensure that your language is clear, controlled
and respectful regardless of the language pupils may be using themselves and regardless of your
own emotions. Behaviour management situations tend to arise unexpectedly but many behaviour
management issues can be prevented by planning ahead and preparing possible responses (see Unit
3.3). The following questions will help you consider use of language in these situations; also, we
suggest recording the techniques used by experienced teachers whom you are observing and
practising using them. Such formulas include:
n Is a verbal response necessary at all? Would silence or some non-verbal form of communication
be more effective? Note stance, facial gestures, and arm and hand movements of experienced
teachers.
n Which tone of voice is best? A raised voice? A quiet voice? A sympathetic voice?
n Should you speak in front of the whole class so all can hear which may inflame a situation?
Would it be more effective to speak to the individual or group of perpetrators quietly saying
perhaps We can discuss this after the lesson?
n Should a response be immediate or would taking a moment to consider before speaking be more
appropriate?
See the Behaviour2Learn website for detailed research-based advice (www.behaviour2learn.

co.uk).
Think through and plan some language formulas that could be used in different situations. This
will help you to behave in a calm, controlled and measured way. How and when, for example, might
you use the following?
n Either . . . or . . .
n If you cannot calm down, then . . .
n You know I do not like it when . . .
n Are you refusing to . . .
n Would it help if . . .
n I think it would be better if . . .
Teacher language in all its forms needs to be very carefully considered, and is further explored
in Unit 3.1, Communicating with pupils, and Unit 5.8, Creating a language-rich classroom.
Finally, as this all makes clear, your voice is very important to you as a teacher, so you need to
look after it. See if your ITE provider puts on sessions on voice projection and voice protection.
Voice projection equipment designed for use in classrooms is also available should you need it.
The work in the classroom: the tip of the iceberg

On the surface, teaching may appear to be a relatively simple process the view that teachers stand
and talk to their classes and that the pupils automatically learn appears to be all too prevalent. (Ask
friends and family what they think a teacher does.) The reality is somewhat different.
Classroom teaching is only the most visible part of teachers work. The contents of this book
introduce you to what we see as the invisible foundation of the teachers work: professional
knowledge (see Table 1.1.3) about teaching and learning and professional judgement about the
routines, skills and strategies that support strong teaching. Effective teachers draw on these elements
in their planning and preparation to ensure that there is continuity and progression in pupils learning.
Each lesson is planned as part of a sequence of learning experiences designed to build pupils
engagement with and understanding of the topics they are studying (see Unit 2.2).
The following analogy may help you understand what underpins your work in the classroom. Think
of a lesson as being like an iceberg. The work in the classroom represents the tip of an iceberg
(2030 per cent). Supporting this tip, but hidden in the base (7080 per cent), are the elements of
teachers professional expertise (see Figure 1.1.1). These elements include:
n planning a sequence of lessons to ensure learning progresses;

n evaluation of previous lessons;
n planning and preparation for individual lessons;
n established routines and procedures that ensure that the work of the class proceeds as planned;
n personality, including the teachers ability to capture and hold the interest of the class, to
establish their authority;
n professional knowledge such as subject content knowledge (SCK); pedagogic knowledge about
effective teaching and learning; knowledge of learners; and knowledge about the educational
context in which you work local and national;
n professional judgement built up over time through reflection on experience.
Throughout your ITE programme, you should expect to develop confidence and new levels of
competence in all the areas in Figure 1.1.1.
Classroom practice
Evaluation
Routine
Preparation
Planning
Personality
Professional judgement
Subject knowledge
Professional knowledge
Figure 1.1.1 The work in the classroom: the tip of the iceberg
Source: With kind permission of Simon Beer
Professional knowledge for teaching

This section gives an overview of the forms of knowledge you need for teaching.
Teaching requires you to transform the knowledge you possess into suitable tasks that lead to
learning (sometimes called pedagogic knowledge). Knowing a lot about your subject does not
automatically make you an effective teacher. Your professional knowledge comprises a number of
different components.
The forms of knowledge teachers need have been described in different ways. Shulman (1986,
1987) identifies seven knowledge bases that form what he regards as the minimum knowledge for
teaching. These are summarised in Table 1.1.3. This is a starting point for thinking about the forms
of professional knowledge you may need to acquire.
Table 1.1.3 Forms of professional knowledge for teaching
1 (Subject) content knowledge (SCK): the content that is to be taught. Schwab (1964) identifies two
components of content knowledge:
n substantive: core concepts and skills in the subject;
n syntactic: the way these concepts and skills are structured and organised within the subject.
2 General pedagogic knowledge (GPK): broad principles and strategies of classroom management and
organisation that apply irrespective of the subject.
3 Pedagogical content knowledge (PCK): knowledge of what makes for effective teaching and deep
learning, providing the basis for teachers selection, organisation and presentation of lesson content;
that is, the integration of subject content and its related pedagogy. Grossman (1990) breaks PCK into
four components:
n knowledge and beliefs about the purposes of teaching a subject at different levels;
n knowledge of pupils understanding, conceptions and misconceptions of subject matter;
n knowledge of curriculum materials available for teaching a subject and knowledge of horizontal and
vertical curricula for the subject;
n knowledge of instructional strategies and representations for teaching particular topics.
4 Curriculum knowledge: materials and programmes that serve as tools of the trade for teachers.
5 Knowledge of learners and their characteristics: this comprises a variety of issues how learners
develop with age (empirical or social knowledge); learners cognitive development; child development;
and knowledge of the needs of particular individuals or groups of learners.
6 Knowledge of educational contexts: political, curricular, sociological, cultural, geographical, historical

and psychological factors may all be important here.
7 Knowledge of educational ends (aims), purposes, values, and philosophical and historical influences:
both short- and long-term goals of education in general and of particular subjects.
Source: Adapted from Shulman (1986, 1987)
Subject content knowledge (SCK)

This is a declared body of knowledge about your subject; the concepts and skills pupils are expected
to acquire. You amass this knowledge from a variety of sources: your education at home, at school
and at university, as well as through personal study and reading. Together, these shape the quantity
and quality of your SCK. Your explicit awareness of and engagement with these different sources
of content knowledge will vary, but as you begin your career as a teacher, this is likely to be the
area in which you are most confident. You should actively seek to extend the range of your SCK.
This process supports your confidence for teaching and engages you with your subject on a personal
level. A word of caution, however: you may see this body of knowledge as the key measure of your
likely effectiveness as a teacher, but it is the way you transform that knowledge into effective
teaching that is most important. Task 1.1.4 asks you to audit your SCK.
! Task 1.1.4 Auditing your subject content knowledge (SCK)
Analyse a copy of the curriculum for your subject, identifying areas where your SCK is good
now, areas in which you require some additional knowledge, and areas in which totally new
learning is required. Set yourself targets for developing your knowledge in the areas for
development you identify. Discuss these areas for development with your tutor. Plan a course
of action for this development. Keep a record of your progress in your PDP.
General pedagogic knowledge (GPK)

This body of knowledge and understanding relates to the effective transformation of your SCK into
meaningful learning for pupils. This knowledge includes the broad principles and strategies that are
designed to guide class instruction, organisation and management (for example, settling a class,
managing the learning environment for effective learning, managing resources and other equipment,
gaining and sustaining the attention and interest of the class, encouraging the disaffected, supporting
the less able and extending the most able). By developing your general pedagogic knowledge, your
classroom becomes a more varied and stimulating place both for yourself and your pupils.
Pedagogical content knowledge (PCK)

This is a combination of SCK and pedagogy that provides the specific knowledge you need for
effective teaching and learning in your subject area(s). For example, the ways in which music teachers
shape teaching and learning will be different in some ways to the shaping of teaching and learning
in design and technology.
Teaching requires you to adapt your SCK to the classroom demands of teaching. It also requires
you to consider the processes of your subject and how you can teach these to your pupils. What,
for example, are the language and writing demands of your subject, and how are you going to teach
them? What research skills and processes should pupils adopt? What forms does assessment (both
formative and summative) take in your subject area(s), and how does this relate to content and
process? PCK is effectively what pedagogy looks like in your subject area(s). Shulman (1986: 9) sums
it up as follows:
[PCK is] the most useful form of representation of . . . [the most regularly taught topics in ones
subject area] . . . the most powerful analogies, illustrations, examples, explanations, and
demonstrations in a word, the ways of representing and formulating the subject that makes
it comprehensible to others.
You should also think about the historical development of your subject, and think about how it
came to be as it is. This dimension enhances your sense of what your subject is about and why it is
studied. For further information, see the subject-specific textbooks in the Routledge Learning to Teach
series.
Curriculum knowledge
This is your knowledge of the requirements and range of programmes for the teaching of your
subject(s) across the age ranges you are preparing to teach. It also encompasses knowledge of the
variety of instructional materials available to support those programmes. It includes knowledge of
the curriculum required in your country and in your school(s), the public examinations they serve
and the requirements of those examinations.
Knowledge of learners and their characteristics

Learners come with different kinds of knowledge. Shulman (1986, 1987) and Grossman (1990) define
this as including empirical and social knowledge; that is, what children of a particular age range are
like, how they behave in classrooms and school, their interests and preoccupations, their social
nature, and how contextual factors such as weather or exciting events can affect their work and
behaviour and the nature of the pupil-teacher relationship, as well as cognitive knowledge.
You will need to think about how children develop and what they know, which consists of two
elements: knowledge of child development which informs practice; and knowledge of a particular
group of learners, the kind of knowledge that grows from regular contact with these learners, of
what they can and cannot know, do or understand.
Knowledge of educational contexts

Shulman (1986, 1987) and Grossman (1990) define an educational context as any setting where
learning takes place. This includes formal settings (schools, nurseries, universities and colleges),
informal settings (home, museums, concert halls, art galleries, and so on) and broader educational
contexts (social, cultural and communal). The context often has a significant effect on teaching and
learning and the work of teachers. It is important to think about issues such as:
n the type and size of schools;

n their catchment areas;
n class size;
n the extent and quality of support for teachers;
n the amount of feedback teachers receive on their performance;
n quality of relationships in schools;
n expectations, philosophies and attitudes of the head teacher;
n schools policies, curriculum, assessment processes, monitoring and reporting, safety, school
rules and expectations;
n the hidden and informal curriculum, which includes the values demonstrated to pupils through
the way the school is run (see also Unit 7.2).
The units in Chapter 7 in this book and on the companion website provide an overview of
educational contexts in other countries (Finland, Northern Ireland, Scotland and Wales). In the
multicultural classrooms of today, you can expect to be teaching pupils from a wide range of different
educational and cultural systems where the expectations of teachers and pupils may be quite
different to those you have personally experienced.
Knowledge of educational ends (aims), purposes, values, and

philosophical and historical influences
This includes the values and priorities that shape the education pupils receive. Teaching is a purpose-
ful activity, both in the short-term (goals for individual lessons or series of lessons) and the long-
term (broader purposes, philosophies and functions of education). Views as to the purposes of
education vary widely. Some would argue that its long-term goal is to produce efficient workers
to serve the needs of society. Others see education as being of intrinsic worth in itself. Aims and
purposes tend to be implicit rather than obvious and openly enacted.
Your personal subject construct

All of the above aspects of professional knowledge for teaching are brought together in your personal
subject construct (Banks et al. 1999), which is the version of the subject that encapsulates your
values and assumptions about your subject. This construct provides the basis of your work as a
teacher your understanding of the nature of your subject and how to teach it. Think, for example,
about how your political, philosophical, theoretical and religious views shape the version of your
subject you wish to teach. Within subject areas, specific questions may arise. What, for instance, is
the role of sport in physical education? Should creationism be taught alongside evolution and the
Big Bang in science lessons? And what about your wider role as a teacher, beyond your subject
boundaries? What is your view of supporting language development or teaching mathematical skills
as the need arises in your lessons? Such questions have a significant impact on the choices you
make as a teacher. You should ensure that the personal beliefs and subject constructs you use in
the classroom do not exclude colleagues and pupils with different views.
Some of the units in this book aim to develop your general pedagogic knowledge your
understanding of classroom management and organisation and what makes for effective teaching
and deep learning; your knowledge of learners and their characteristics; and your knowledge of
educational contexts. Subject-specific pedagogic issues are covered in the subject texts in the
Learning to Teach in the Secondary School series. Task 1.1.5 asks you to consider PCK.
M ! Task 1.1.5 Pedagogical content knowledge (PCK)
Look closely at the forms of PCK in Table 1.1.3. Consider carefully how you could apply your
knowledge in each of the categories identified by Grossman (1990) to your work with pupils
to make them more reflective learners and to personalise their learning experience. Record
your notes in your PDP.
Managing the learning environment: a key part of your

general pedagogic knowledge (GPK)
An important aspect of your job is managing the learning environment of your classrooms. Learning
to manage the classroom is similar in many ways to learning to drive. At the outset, there seems
so much to remember (using the clutch; braking; changing gear; watching other traffic; looking in
the mirror; indicating; obeying the speed limit; and so on), but after a short time such skills become
part of subconscious, internalised patterns of behaviour.
Much of what experienced teachers do to manage their classes has become part of their
unconscious classroom behaviour. So much so that often teachers find it hard to articulate exactly
what it is they are doing or why it is successful. This situation, of course, does not help you as a
student teacher. It also gives weight to the spurious notion that teachers are born rather than made
and that nobody can tell you how to teach.
Some teachers may well begin teaching with certain advantages such as a good voice or
organisational skills. Nevertheless, there are common skills and techniques to be learned that, when
combined with an awareness of and sensitivity to the contexts within which you are teaching, will
enable you to manage your classes effectively. Part of the pleasure of teaching is that teaching is
a continuously creative and problem-solving activity. Learners and groups of learners each have
their own characteristics and group dynamics that experienced teachers take into account in planning
for teaching and learning. For example, if there has been recent controversy over environmental
issues in the local area, teachers could adapt their teaching to incorporate this issue, thus allowing
pupils to draw on their experience. Although lessons with different groups may have similar content,
the same lesson is rarely delivered in the same way twice because of the variety in relationships
between individuals, the whole class and the teacher.
Rogers (2002: 5) comments:
Day-to-day school teaching normally takes place in a rather unusual setting: a small room (for
what is asked of it), often inadequate furniture and space to move, a 50-minute time slot (or
less) to cover set curriculum objectives, and 25 to 30 distinct and unique personalities, some
of whom may not even want to be there. Why should there not be some natural stresses and
strains associated with a teachers day-to-day role?
One of your most important roles is to bring together the various personalities of your classroom
(including your own) to create from these the best possible context for learning. This requires careful
thought, planning and preparation. The key to success is to minimise the element of surprise. Of
course, at some point, issues always arise to which you have to react. The majority of events and
issues that arise in the classroom are, however, foreseeable, and can therefore be planned for. It is
always better to be proactive rather than reactive.
When you plan, you should think not only of what you are going to teach and how you are going
to teach it, but also of the implications of these choices. If, for example, you want your class to
watch (part of) a DVD, have you checked that the equipment works and that you have located the
relevant section of the DVD? If you want the class to move into groups halfway through the lesson,
have you thought about the rationale for your groups, who is going to work with whom and how
you are going to manage their movement? How are you going to manage the distribution of books
or worksheets? Are all pupils working from books with the same page numbering? Such questions
may seem small, but failure to think about such issues can cause significant interruption and
disruption to learning. Effective teachers run efficient classrooms, and efficiency maximises the
potential for learning and cooperation. Some of the important things for you to consider are:
n timing;
n seating plans;
n organisation of desks, materials, texts, and so on;
n how you plan to use teaching assistants (TAs) meeting with them prior to the lesson is always
advisable;
n pitch/differentiation/extension of work;
n range of activity;
n likely trouble spots (for example, using technology, writing on the board, distributing papers,
setting homework, moving pupils into groups, and so on).
In Units 4.3, 5.1 and 5.3, we introduce you to theories underpinning educational practice and ideas
that can provide a foundation for your development as an effective teacher whatever your subject.
But what do we mean by effective teaching?
Effective teaching
Effective teaching occurs where the learning experience structured by the teacher matches the needs
of each learner and when tasks effectively build on pupils knowledge, skills and attitudes. A key fea-
ture of effective teaching is balancing pupils chance of success against the level of difficulty required
to challenge them. The units in Chapter 5 provide further information about pupil learning. Under-
standing the varied ways in which learning takes place and the ways in which pupils learning styles
and preferences can be used is essential.
Classroom rights and responsibilities

It is also important to think about rights and responsibilities in the classroom, including your own.
Everyone should understand clearly that rights are counterbalanced by responsibility in terms of
behaviour and participation, and that in the best interests of everybody, clear and appropriate
sanctions will be applied to those who do not comply.
The following are useful areas to consider in relation to the rights and responsibilities of your
classroom:
n Respect: all pupils and teachers deserve personal respect; everyone should employ respectful
language; it is important to respect the views and beliefs of others.
n Attention: every pupil has the right to receive a fair share of teachers attention; when invited
to address the class, pupils have the right to be heard; everyone must pay full attention to the
requirements of the lesson; when the teacher speaks, all must pay attention.
n Learning/teaching: all pupils have the right to learn; teachers have the right to teach; everyone
has the responsibility of cooperating so that effective teaching and learning can take place.
n Safety: everyone should expect to be safe; everyone must ensure that safety is not compromised.
Remember that teachers are responsible for the well-being and safeguarding of their pupils.
Think carefully about the activities that pupils engage with, consider their risks and take
appropriate steps to ensure safe practice. Some subject areas, such as science, technology or
physical education, carry more inherent risks, but all teachers need to take personal
responsibility for ensuring safety and well-being in their lessons. Pupils should be made aware
of the risks and take responsibility for acting safely.
n Safeguarding of children is an increasingly high-profile issue. Some of the major areas that
all teachers should consider are the following:
n child protection issues;
n physical abuse and neglect (including female genital mutilation);
n mental abuse (including forced marriage);
n sexual abuse and exploitation;
n emotional well-being;
n e-safety;
n accident protection and prevention;
n drug and alcohol misuse;
n mental health.
National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE) Pathways provide useful evidence-
informed information (http://pathways.nice.org.uk) on many of these topics.
Teachers must be familiar with such issues, the common signs of problems, and procedures and
channels for dealing with them. Each school is obliged to develop policies to support practice in
these areas, and charities exist in some specialist areas.
There may well be other rights and responsibilities that you wish to establish for your classroom.
Task 1.1.6 asks you to think now about what these might be and how you are going to establish and
maintain them. See Unit 8.3 on your legal responsibilities.
! Task 1.1.6 Classroom rights and responsibilities
Working with fellow student teachers if possible, consider the rights and responsibilities
operating in classrooms that you have observed. Draw up a list for your classes and store it
in your PDP to refer to and develop as you progress through your ITE programme.
Your professional profile: what image do you want to project?

Lastly, in developing your professional code of conduct and ethical code, we suggest you consider
what your digital footprint says about you. It is essential that you review your digital profile. Check
how you are presented on social media and remove any references, images and connections that
do not portray a professional image. You need to work to earn the respect of your pupils, parents
and carers, your peers and employers, and adopting appropriate ways of representing yourself online
is essential.
SUMMARY AND KEY POINTS

So let us return to the question that is the title of this unit. What do teachers do?
n In some countries, teachers are free to choose what they teach and how they teach.
n In others, the curriculum is set centrally and teachers choices about how to teach may be
more constrained.
n Your own philosophy of teaching affects the way you approach your work and develops
over time as you acquire further professional knowledge and judgement.
n As a student teacher, you will test out and develop a repertoire of teaching styles and
strategies. It may take you considerable time before you can apply the principles of effective
teaching to your classroom practice, but you can monitor your development through
regular evaluation of lessons. In this book, we aim to provide a basic introduction to what
are complex areas, and it is up to you to develop systematically your professional knowledge
and judgement by analysing and reflecting on your experience and wider reading.
n As a teacher, you have responsibilities to your pupils, their parents and carers, your head
of department, your school, your head teacher, and others.
n Being an effective teacher does not mean simply knowing your subject. It also means:
n knowing how to teach lessons that are intellectually robust, challenging and
stimulating;
n managing the classroom effectively and fairly; assessing and monitoring pupils
progress promptly and accurately;
n modelling in your own behaviour and practice what you expect pupils to do; planning
for inclusion and the needs of individual learners;
n managing the rights and responsibilities of the classroom;
n upholding school policies and procedures;
n responding to the pastoral and personal needs of your pupils;
n completing administrative duties;
n contributing to the wider life of the school;
n knowing your legal responsibilities.
As you progress through your ITE programme, you will develop knowledge, understanding
and skills that enable you to fulfil your roles and responsibilities in all of these areas. Through
your experiences in school, you should move from knowing about skills to a position where you
can use them flexibly and appropriately in a range of situations. In other words, you will learn
to do what teachers do the school equivalent of plate-spinning as you balance the many
demands of the wonderful job that is teaching.
Check which requirements for your ITE programme you have addressed through this unit.
Further reading
Barton, G. (2010) Grammar Survival: A Teachers Toolkit, London: Routledge.
Brindley, S. (ed.) (2015) Masterclass series of texts, London: Bloomsbury, available at: www.bloomsbury.com/
uk/education/series/masterclass/
This series of texts provide subject-specific advice.
Eames, K. (2016) Teaching Grammar in the English Language MESHGuide, Bath Spa University, UK, available
at: www.meshguides.org/meshguides-full-list./ (to be published in 2016).
Grossman, P.L., Wilson, S.M. and Shulman, L.S. (1989) Teachers of substance: subject matter knowledge for
teaching, in M.C. Reynolds (ed) Knowledge Base for the Beginning Teacher, Oxford: Pergamon Press,
pp. 2336.
This chapter addresses a wide range of issues relevant to teachers at the beginning of their careers. It
challenges you to think in detail about what precisely you need knowledge of if you are to be an effective
teacher.
Harrison, C., Brookes, G. et al. (2014) Spelling in English MESHGuide, Universities of Nottingham and Sheffield,
UK, available at: www.meshguides.org/meshguides-full-list./
Hayden, S. and Jordan, E. (2012) Language for Learning in the Secondary School: A Practical Guide for
Supporting Students with Speech, Language and Communication Needs, London: Routledge.
This text provides a foundation in thinking about the functions of language for all secondary teacher. As
language underpins work in every subject, this is strongly recommended.
Moore, A. (2004) The Good Teacher: Dominant Discourses in Teaching and Teacher Education, London:
RoutledgeFalmer.
This book offers an insight into the background of a set of key educational issues and provides an overview
of key debates.
Palmer, S. (2011) Speaking Frames: How to Teach Talk for Writing, London: Routledge.
This provides an introduction to teaching talk to support writing.
OECD TALIS (2015) The Teaching and Learning International Survey, Paris: OECD, available at: www.oecd.org/
edu/school/talis.htm
This is an international study of practices in teaching and learning repeated periodically by the OECD.
Tokuhama-Espinosa, T. (2014) Making Classrooms Better: 50 Practical Applications of Mind, Brain and
Education Science, New York: Norton.
Written by a teacher, this book links findings in psychology and neuroscience to education.
Vanes, R. (2012) Tricks of the Writers Trade and How to Teach Them to Children Aged 814, London:
Routledge.
You need to be able to teach the correct use of language, whatever your subject area, and to support
learners in their language acquisition and use. These texts provide a strong foundation in teaching the
effective use of language and grammar.
Volante, L. (2004) Teaching to the test: what every educator and policy-maker should know, Canadian Journal
of Educational Administration and Policy, 35, available at: http://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ848235
White, J. (ed.) (2004) Rethinking the School Curriculum: Values, Aims and Purposes, London: RoutledgeFalmer.
This text contains a series of essays discussing the place of each subject in the curriculum in England and
giving an overview of curriculum developments within each subject.
Wragg, E.C. (ed.) (2004) The RoutledgeFalmer Reader in Teaching and Learning, London: RoutledgeFalmer.
This book offers an insight into the background of a set of key educational issues and provides an overview
of key debates.
" Other resources and websites

Association of American Educators (2015) Code of Conduct for Educators: www.aaeteachers.org/index.php/
about-us/aae-code-of-ethics
This site is for professional educators and has a range of resources, including an ethical code for educators.
Behaviour2Learn: http://behaviour2learn.co.uk/
This site provides evidence-informed advice about behaviour.
GTCS (General Teaching Council for Scotland) (2015) Code of Professionalism and Conduct: www.gtcs.org.uk/
standards/copac.aspx
This site has a range of resources relevant to educators, as well as an ethical code for teachers and student
teachers.
Mercer, N. (2015) Thinking Together Project Materials, University of Cambridge Faculty of Education: http://
thinkingtogether.educ.cam.ac.uk/
These materials support a dialogue-based approach to the development of pupils thinking and learning,
and include spoken language.
MESHGuides: www.meshguides.org
Subject associations (via the Council for Subject Associations) www.subjectassociation.org.uk/
These provide evidence-informed advice about an increasing range of educational topics.
Teacher Support Network: www.teachersupport.info
Teacher Support Network is a 24-hour confidential counselling, support and advice service. It also offers
support lines in England (tel: 08000 562 561), Wales (tel: 08000 855 088) and Scotland (tel: 0800 564
2270).
Teacher Training Resource Bank: www.ttrb3.org.uk/
These provide evidence-informed advice about a range of educational topics (this builds on an earlier version
of the Teaching Training Resource Bank, funded by what was the Training and Development Agency for
schools).
Appendix 2 on pages 591595 provides examples of further websites you may find useful.
Capel, S., Leask, M. and Turner, T. (eds) (2010) Readings for Learning to Teach in the Secondary School: A
Companion to M Level Study, London: Routledge.
This book brings together essential readings to support you in your critical engagement with key issues
raised in this textbook.
The subject-specific books in the Learning to Teach series are also very useful.
Any additional resources and an editable version of any relevant tasks/tables in this unit are available
on the companion website: www.routledge.com.cw.capel
Student teachers roles
1.2 and responsibilities
Michael Allen and Rob Toplis
Introduction
Schools are busy places and teachers are often required to juggle many tasks at once. Unit 1.1 provides
some insight into what it is to be a teacher. In this unit, we look at what it is to be a student teacher
in a secondary school and consider the school experience itself. We look at your relationships with
other people, both staff and pupils, that form part of the busy life of schools, discuss some specific
expectations of student teachers in school and offer some guidance about your roles and
responsibilities. We then link this to an examination of the concept of teacher professionalism. Finally,
we discuss how your development as a professional is likely to pass through significant changes
over your initial teacher education (ITE) programme.
OBJECTIVES
n prepare for school experience;

n work with other staff and pupils on school experience;
n identify expectations, roles and responsibilities of student teachers in school;
n explain what it means to be a professional;
n chart aspects of your development as a teacher over your ITE programme and into your
future learning and development.
Check the requirements of your ITE programme to see which relate to this unit.
Preparing for school experience

Before you start at any school, it is important to find out as much as you can about the school and
its organisation, as well as the specific department you will be working with.
n n n n 1.2 STUDENT TEACHERS ROLES AND RESPONSIBILITIES 29
You can gather further information about schools from inspection reports (see other resources
at the end of the unit for how to access inspection reports and other online information about schools
for England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland). Inspection reports provide you with a wealth
of information about all aspects of the school as it was assessed at the time of the inspection;
alternatively, the school may be able to lend you a copy of the schools last inspection report. This
report provides you with questions to discuss with staff and areas to follow up as you learn more
about the school.
Ideally, you will visit the school at least once before you start. On any visit, it is helpful to have
a list of things you want to find out about the school, department and the activities in which you
are going to be engaged. It is likely that your tutor will have given you a list of information to gather
and questions to ask to help you with this. Task 1.2.1 is an orientation activity that will help you learn
more about your placement school. Table 1.2.1 presents the key players in your ITE programme;
nomenclature may differ from school to school, and the terms given in the first column of the table
are those most used in this chapter.
! Task 1.2.1 Preparing for school experience
As you work through this unit, and as you read other relevant units in the book, make notes
about what you need to do to prepare for school experience and what you might do to make
the most of your school experience. Compare your notes with those of other student teachers.
Store your notes in your professional development portfolio (PDP).
During your first visit(s), you may be introduced to the head teacher. However, you can expect
to talk to the professional tutor and staff with specific areas of responsibility in the school. There
are many policy and procedure documents in every school, covering a wide range of subjects; for
example, school uniform; equal opportunities; behaviour management; marking policy; risk
management; safeguarding and e-safety; and health and safety information such as the fire assembly
points and how to record accidents. Often, these can be found in a staff handbook. You may be
issued with a copy of this, or there may be a copy in the staffroom or school office. Your subject
tutor may discuss the most relevant sections in the handbook, which you can then read in your own
time after the visit. This discussion and reading of the handbook provides you with useful practical
information about how the school operates and what you need to do to comply with its policies and
procedures and routines. The staff handbook may also include a diagram showing the schools
management structure and lines of accountability.
You can also expect to talk to the head of department or faculty, your subject tutor and others
in your subject department about the curriculum, schemes of work and your teaching timetable.
These discussions are likely to include specific aspects of teaching in the department; for example,
safety issues, organisation of equipment and pupils, lesson plans, homework routines, and access
to texts and resources, including informaton and communications technology (ICT). Some of the
information may be in a departmental handbook.
On your visits (and later when you start in school), it is important to be aware of staffroom
protocols. Some staffrooms are like lounges where teachers can relax and chat safely away from
work and pupils during break and lunchtimes. Others have an additional function as a workroom
Table 1.2.1 The key players in your ITE programme
Key player Alternative names Role
Head teacher Headmaster; headmistress; Carries overall responsibility for the care of
head pupils, the quality of teaching and learning,
and many other aspects of school life.
Professional tutor Professional coordinating tutor; Responsible for all student teachers in the
professional coordinating school. Organises regular school-wide training
mentor sessions. Usually a senior member of staff.
Subject tutor School-based mentor; class Your first point of contact within the school.
mentor; school tutor; mentor Organises your day-to-day training in the
department, timetabling, weekly meetings, and
so on.
Class teachers Teachers; teaching staff Members of staff whose classes you are given
responsibility for during your time in school.
Your school mentor may also be one of your
class teachers.
Head of department Head of subject; head of faculty; Responsible for running the subject
subject coordinator; subject lead department where you are placed.
University tutor College tutor; higher education Responsible for your ITE programme both in
institution (HEI) tutor; link tutor; school and the HEI. Delegates to school staff
tutor during the school experience.
Student teacher Student; trainee teacher; Yourself

trainee; beginning teacher
(with or without allocated workspaces) where teachers can do marking and lesson preparation
during their free periods. There are still some schools where the same staff have sat in the same
chairs for 10, 20 or even 30 years! Colleagues may have brought in their own mugs for tea/coffee.
There may or may not be a tea/coffee club. Likewise, if you are planning to drive to school, check
out the parking facilities and conventions; there may be reserved spots for some staff. If you check
these things, you avoid upsetting the permanent members of staff.
Such visits also enable you to familiarise yourself with the geography of the building. This is
particularly important if you are going to teach in a large school, perhaps with several different
blocks or operating on more than one site. Secondary schools vary immensely not just in size, but
also in physical features, ranging from the small rural or special school with under 100 pupils to the
very large school with 1,0002,000 pupils. Some schools are modern, or comparatively modern,
while others are old, dating back to the 1880s, or even earlier. Each type of building has advantages
and disadvantages. Whichever type of school you are in, it is important that you locate important
facilities, such as the office, lavatories and the staffroom, before you start. The last thing you need
to do on your first day is to get lost!
During school experience: work with other staff and pupils

in school
Despite the fact that teaching involves spending large amounts of time away from colleagues and
working autonomously or just with a teaching assistant, you still have to work with other staff and
to be a team player. Taking on the role of a teacher as a student teacher means forging and man-
aging professional relationships with adults (as well as pupils). During the initial days in school, you
will introduce yourself to staff you did not meet on visits prior to school experience, including teaching
and support staff in your department and key personnel outside the department such as the head
teacher, deputies/assistant heads, heads of Key Stage, heads of year and the special educational
needs coordinator (SENCO). In addition, you start to build a working relationship with school staff
who are supporting you and observing your teaching. Try to make a good first impression on all
these people. Figure 1.2.1 suggests some perceived attributes that help convey a positive image of
a professional and well-prepared student teacher.
In this section, advice is presented with regard to developing and managing relationships with
specific members of staff who play significant roles in your school experience. Relationships with pupils
are also considered.
Relationship with the professional tutor

It is worth remembering that the professional tutor is a key element in your ITE programme, with
oversight and management of all student teachers within the school and liaison with your HEI tutor,
if appropriate. You may see the professional tutor in a formal context only once or twice a week,
but they are normally senior members of school staff. They may organise sessions on general school
issues. Likewise, you should be able to seek their advice on general school issues, if needed. They
Knowledgeable
Team player Organised
Switched on
Accommodating
Dresses
appropriately
Professional
during all
interpersonal
exchanges
Listens to and
acts on advice
Good
Punctual communicator
Conscientious
and reliable
Figure 1.2.1 Setting out to create a positive image

expect you to learn school routines, practices and procedures, including rewards/sanctions, and to
follow these. They will also expect you to engage actively with the school-based programme they
have put in place for student teachers.
Relationship with your subject tutor

In the early stages of learning to teach, your subject tutor is an important person. Your tutor supports
your developing practice. As part of this, they observe you teaching and write reports on these
observations. Your tutor is responsible for giving you a pass/fail or quantitative grade for your school
experience, using these observations and the observations of other staff who have observed you
teaching. There are a number of aspects of the relationship that you should consider.
There are likely to be agreed structures for your tutor to give you support, advice and guidance;
for example, written feedback on one or more lessons each week and a weekly tutorial meeting. For
other activities (for example, jointly preparing lessons or approval of lesson plans by your tutor,
seeking advice on planning and preparation for lessons or on aspects of teaching with which
you are less familiar, completing the required paperwork for your ITE programme, and keeping
records of pupil attendance, classwork and homework), you should be clear about what your tutor
expects of you and then do what is expected.
You should arrange regular meetings and clarify the purpose of those meetings, so that you are
fully prepared for them. Your tutor is an experienced teacher from whom you can learn a lot. Do
not think you know it all already and either do not seek advice or ignore your tutors advice. Do not
be afraid to ask for advice if you are not sure about anything, but check when is a convenient time
so that you know when to ask and when is inconvenient.
Also check with your tutor your status with support staff; for example, technical staff and office
staff. In some schools, you approach them yourself; in others, you do so through your tutor. Likewise,
discuss with your tutor your attendance at school and departmental staff meetings.
Your attendance and punctuality at school (and at lessons when in school) is important. Your
school has an agreed procedure if you have an important reason (for example, an interview) to be
off school or you are sick. Let your tutor know of any foreseen absences well in advance. If you find
that one morning you are too ill to attend school, try to contact your tutor directly by phone/text
message; otherwise, speak with the school office staff. If your ITE programme is in conjunction with
an HEI, you are also required to contact them on the day of absence.
The tutor-student teacher relationship is vital to your success and it is worthwhile taking steps
to ensure this remains cordial. However, from time to time, problems do occur, and can often be
associated with the friction generated when the student teacher fails to seek or to act on the tutors
advice. If your relationship with your tutor breaks down, you need to contact your HEI tutor or senior
staff member immediately and seek further advice. It is important to be aware that any breakdown
in the relationship that ends in the student teacher leaving the placement may subsequently result
in failure of the ITE programme.
Relationships with class teachers

You spend the bulk of your time in school in the company of the teachers whose classes you are
teaching and so it is important also to establish good working relations with them. Remember that
they are going to have to teach the class again after you leave, so discuss with them what they
want you to do. Some teachers want you to follow their routines, practices and procedures; others
allow you to experiment with what is best for you. Plan your lessons well in advance of when they
are going to be taught to allow time for any planning meetings with, or checking by, the class teacher
and any further planning or adjustment to take place. Collate resources well in advance, especially
photocopying, and be flexible and be prepared to change lesson plans at short notice in the light of
unexpected events. Avoid the situation where you are chasing the class teacher 10 minutes before
the start of a lesson for an important resource or piece of information. Arrive early before a lesson.
Keep teachers fully informed of any new approaches you are taking in your teaching and events
that take place with their classes, particularly behavioural issues that need following up.
Relationships with pupils

Your main task as a student teacher is to ensure the pupils in your classes learn. This is most effective
when you are able to treat each pupil as an individual. Learning pupils names is a good first step,
as is getting to know something about their interests (learning pupils names is covered in Unit 2.3).
It is important to greet pupils at the beginning of the lesson; this is most easily achieved by standing
at the doorway as the pupils enter.
You also need to gain the respect of the pupils you are teaching. This is not usually automatic;
it requires a proactive approach. A general guideline is that if you treat pupils with respect, the
feeling is reciprocated (although some pupils may not necessarily respond in this way). For instance,
you should be polite when dealing with pupils, and ensure they are polite back to you. At the same
time, you should clearly define the boundaries of behaviour. Pupils are sensitive to actions they
perceive as being unfair; for example, if one person has been talking, it is unfair to keep the whole
class in for a detention.
Make sure you understand the material you are teaching and have planned and prepared your
lesson and your resources. Do not be afraid to admit it if you are asked a question to which you do
not know the answer, provided you follow it up in a later lesson.
Planning and preparation are essential for learning and to motivate pupils to learn (see planning
in Unit 2.2 and motivation in Unit 3.2). Encouragement is one effective means of keeping pupils on
task in your lesson. Motivation and encouragement work best when tailored to the needs of
individuals. During the lesson, you need to keep pupils on task. To be effective, your approach needs
to be tailored to each individual. However, this is difficult unless you have some knowledge of
individual pupils.
Well-planned lessons support your approach to behaviour for learning (see Unit 3.3). Despite this,
you may encounter some behavioural issues in the class; therefore, you should also be clear about
how you are going to deal with any poor behaviour, in line with school behaviour policies. Here are
some steps to take to deal with poor behaviour: never be drawn into a public confrontation with a
pupil because you may lose your authority, which is difficult to recoup later. In any case, you do
need to think of the effect on the rest of the class, and also on what the rest of the class are doing
when a confrontation is going on. Simply saying I will see you later allows you to choose the time
and place to follow up. This enables you to maintain a working relationship with the particular pupil
after the event.
Physical contact with pupils should be avoided unless there is an immediate health and safety
concern, or is a requirement in a practical lesson such as physical education; for example, to support
a pupil (see also Unit 8.3). It is unlikely that you will be called on to make decisions in contexts where
physical restraint is necessary, because the supervising class teacher should be available on the
very rare occasion when restraint is the pertinent action. Likewise, any contact with parents/carers
in reaction to classroom events, both positive as well as negative, should be undertaken in conjunction
with the class teacher. Further, more specific advice on encouraging behaviour to maximise learning
is found in Unit 3.3.
A particularly important point to remember is to keep a professional distance in your relationships
with pupils. It is easy with some classes to become over-friendly; this is especially the case during
the first phase of development (see section on student teacher development below). To be the target
of an adolescent crush is not unusual for young student teachers, and if this is the case, maintaining
an appropriate professional distance is imperative while nurturing mutual respect and good working
relationships. In a similar vein, if you are alone in a room with any pupil (or parent), it is good practice
to seek the presence of another member of staff or to leave the door wide open. Similarly, you
should avoid texting or emailing pupils, or communicating with them via social networking websites.
False allegations are uncommon but remain a threat. Task 1.2.2 presents some scenarios you might
have to deal with.
! Task 1.2.2 Relationships with pupils
Consider your responses to the following events:
n There is a struggle between two pupils in the corridor.

n You observe a pupil going through another pupils bag/locker.
Discuss your responses with your tutor or another student teacher and record your
reflections in your PDP. Identify other scenarios to discuss these may be real events that
have taken place in school.
Expectations, roles and responsibilities of school experience

The main expectation of you as a student teacher is that you promote pupils learning. To achieve
this, there is a range of structured teaching activities that you are likely to engage in. These include:
n microteaching: a short teaching episode where you teach peers or small groups of pupils; it
might be videotaped to enable analysis of different aspects of teaching;
n observation of experienced teachers: where you look at specific aspects of teaching in a lesson;
for example, how teachers use questions to promote learning (see Unit 3.1);
n team-teaching: where you share the lesson with others; planning, teaching the lesson and
evaluating together;
n whole-class teaching with the class teacher present;
n whole-class teaching on your own (as a student teacher, you should always have an experienced
teacher nearby).
You should be given feedback on your planning and teaching in each of these situations to enhance
your own learning. The amount of feedback you get from teachers watching your lessons varies.
However, student teachers also have preferences. If you wish to have feedback on every lesson, ask
if this can be done. Some student teachers prefer a small amount of very focused feedback; others
can cope with more a page or more of written comments. Written feedback is essential because
it provides a record of your progress and ideas for your development. In practice, there are likely
to be agreed conventions governing this aspect of your work. These take into account how you are
to achieve the requirements to complete your ITE programme successfully.
Comments on your teaching divide into those relating to tangible technical issues that can be
worked on relatively easily and those relating to less tangible issues relating to pupils learning.
Technical problems, such as the quality and clarity of your voice, how you position yourself in the
classroom, managing transitions from one activity to another, your use of ICT and/or audiovisual
aids, are easy to spot, so you may receive considerable advice on these issues. Problems with these
aspects of your work are usually resolved early in your ITE programme, whereas less tangible issues
that are directly related to the quality of pupil learning require ongoing reflection, attention and
discussion; for example, your approach to the explanation of lesson content, your style of questioning
and your evaluation of pupil learning. You may have access to videos of yourself teaching, in which
case you are advised to spend some time in the detailed analysis of your performance in these
different aspects of teaching. More detailed advice related to the teaching of your specific subject
is given in the subject-specific texts in the Routledge Learning to Teach in the Secondary School
series that accompany this generic text (see list on page ii).
Expectations relating to your social skills in developing relationships with staff and pupils and of
your teaching are summarised in Table 1.2.2.
Thus, your main roles and responsibilities relate to teaching particular classes. Teachers have
other roles and responsibilities such as planning the curriculum and liaising with outside agencies,
but these are not usually undertaken by student teachers. You become involved in the wider roles
and responsibilities of teachers after completing your ITE programme. This is part of your develop-
ment as a professional (see also Unit 8.2).
The roles and responsibilities of teachers, including student teachers, are underpinned by the con-
cept of professionalism. It is therefore appropriate to explore some ideas associated with the concept
of professionalism and how these have changed over time, often as the result of policies and
government initiatives.
Teachers as professionals
Research by Sammons et al. (2007) into teachers lives, work and their effects on pupils identifies
teachers roles and responsibilities, educational policies and government initiatives as key influences
on teacher professionalism.
Teachers work changes constantly as a result of government initiatives and agendas about, for
example, the curriculum, the care of children, the management of schools, teachers professional
standards and teachers learning.
Views about other professions, such as medical doctors and lawyers, can be used as a lens with
which to compare teachers professionalism. The main attributes of professionals that distinguish
them from other groups of workers are: their specialised knowledge (there is a substantial body of
knowledge that a professional needs to acquire); that substantial training is required before an
Table 1.2.2 The schools expectations of student teachers
(i) Social skills
You are expected to:

n Develop a good relationship with staff and pupils.
n Be able to communicate with adults as well as pupils.
n Work well in teams.
n Learn to defuse difficult situations.
n Keep a sense of humour.
(ii) Planning, teaching and evaluating lessons

n Be well organised.
n Know your subject.
n Plan and prepare thoroughly. Be conscientious in finding out what lesson content is appropriate to the
class you are teaching. For some classes, you may be teaching material that is new to you or that you
last thought about many years ago. You must know the subject matter you are teaching and you are
expected to improve your own subject content knowledge. However, you are also expected to ask if
you are unsure about the content for a particular lesson.
n Share your plans with the class teacher, explaining why you want to do things the way you plan.
Discuss any new/different teaching strategies or innovations in your teaching. Evaluate these carefully
afterwards.
n Check before the day on which you are teaching the lesson the availability of books and equipment;
test out equipment new to you; talk to staff about the work and the pupils progress; and clarify any
safety issues.
n Arrive in plenty of time for a lesson in order to arrange the classroom and lay out any equipment or
books needed.
n During the lesson, learn names of pupils, focus on and assess any learning that is taking place, and
ensure that good behaviour is maintained during your teaching.
n Evaluate the lesson.
n Keep good records: keep your file of schemes and units of work, lesson plans, pupil attendance and
homework up to date. Your evaluations of your lessons are best completed on the same day as the
lesson, although sometimes you might want to add to this after you have marked pupils work.
individual can be accepted into the profession; a commitment to meeting the needs of clients; a
collective identity and a level of professional autonomy that controls their own practice; the
profession is self-governing as well as publicly accountable (see, for example, Day 1999 and Unit
8.3). At this point, it is worth you thinking about teacher professionalism in these contexts by
undertaking Task 1.2.3.
! Task 1.2.3 Compare professionals
Using the attributes of a profession, above, list some examples of the ways in which the
practice of teachers is similar and the ways in which it is different to that of other professions
such as medical doctors or solicitors. Discuss your findings with other student teachers and
record in your PDP.
Becoming a member of the teaching profession means that you make the following commitments.
That you will:
n Reach an acceptable level of competence and skill in your teaching by the end of your ITE
programme. This includes acquiring knowledge and skills that enable you to become an effective
teacher and that enable you to understand the body of knowledge about how young people
learn and how teachers can teach most effectively.
n Continuously develop your professional knowledge and professional judgement through
experience, further learning and reflection on your work.
n Be publicly accountable for your work. Various members of the community have the right to
inspect and/or question your work: the head teacher, governors, parents and inspectors. You
have a professional duty to plan and keep records of your work and that of the pupils. This
accountability includes implementation of school policies; for example, on behaviour and on
equal opportunities.
n Set personal standards and conform to external standards for monitoring and improving your
work.
Table 1.2.3 summarises aspects of professionalism.

These aspects of professionalism are included in statements from the General Teaching Councils
for Northern Ireland, Scotland and Wales, and in England are part of the Teachers Standards for
personal and professional conduct (Department of Education (DfE) 2012d). Similar statements are
likely to be included in documents in other countries. The need to reflect, which is one of the
important facets of professionalism, is discussed next (see also Unit 5.4).
Reflection can be defined in different ways. One definition includes reflection both on practice
and in practice (Schn 1983). Reflection on your practice of teaching may involve the familiar lesson
evaluations that follow planned, taught and assessed lessons. These reflections may be written and
discussed with your tutor (this should be done sooner rather than later if all the important points
are to be remembered accurately). An example may be a lesson where some aspect of pupil behaviour
Table 1.2.3 The schools expectations of your professionalism
Professionalism

n Dress appropriately (different schools have different dress codes).
n Act in a professional manner; for example, be punctual and reliable; act with courtesy and tact; and
respect confidentiality of information.
n Take active steps to ensure that your pupils learn.
n Discuss pupil progress with parents.
n Become familiar with and work within school procedures and policies. These include record-keeping,
rewards and sanctions, uniform, and relationships between teachers and pupils.
n Be open to new learning: seek and act on advice.
n Be flexible; for example, if there is a change in the timetable on a particular day.
n Accept a leadership role. You may find imposing your will on pupils uncomfortable, but unless you
establish your right to direct the work of the class, you are not able to teach effectively.
n Recognise and understand the roles and relationships of staff responsible for your development.
n Keep up to date with your subject.
affected learning. What was this? Who was involved? What was the real issue? Why did you respond
in this way? Did it work? Can/should you respond differently in a similar situation in future? How
can you organise your next lesson to reduce or help to eliminate this behaviour? This reflection
involves careful analysis, evaluation and subsequent planning; it involves you being self-critical and
open to advice from experienced teachers. It is an inherent part of learning to teach and should not
be ignored or underestimated. Importantly, it is not necessarily a failure on your part. Reflection in
practice involves your thoughts and the actions you take at the time of your actual teaching.
Experienced teachers appear to do this automatically but its worth remembering that they have
built up a stock of intuitive responses to a number of situations over their years of practice. Your
reflection in action will be limited but you may respond to some everyday examples as you build up
your knowledge of pupils and situations. One example may be the timing of pupil activities, where
you have allowed 10 minutes for the activity, only to find restless pupils after only four minutes;
your reflection in action may lead you to move the lesson on to the next stage or to use another
pupil activity (Unit 5.4 considers reflective practice).
It is important to consider the process you go through to become an experienced teacher. We
do this next.
A model of student teacher development

The aim of your ITE programme is to facilitate your transformation from a student teacher to a
competent professional. Plainly, this change is not instantaneous; instead, it proceeds by increments,
with each little piece of experience contributing to your development. Your perception of yourself
as a teacher alters as different aspects become the focus of concern at different points during your
ITE programme. A major change for you might be assuming the role of the teacher after being a
learner; for example, on a university course. You become one of them (teachers) instead of being
one of us (learners). This role reversal requires significant behaviour modifications. Observing other
teachers to see how they act in and out of the classroom helps you through these phases of
development.
Various models of student teacher development have been identified. For example, Fuller and
Brown (1975) described three phases of development: self concerns, tasks concerns and impact
concerns. The three phases identified by Leask and Moorehouse (2005) are:
Self Class Pupil
Self-image and class Whole-class learning Individual pupils learning

management
How do I come across? Are the pupils learning? What are the different needs of
my pupils?
Will they do what I want? What are the learning outcomes? How effective are my strategies
for ensuring all pupils learn?
Can I plan enough material to Am I achieving my objectives? How can I find out?
last a lesson?
How do I know?
The rest of this section summarises a model of student teacher progression first described by
Furlong and Maynard in 1995, itself being based on a body of previous work. The model (see Table
1.2.4) does not assume that everyone passes through a predetermined, invariable linear process
during their ITE programme, because individual and contextual aspects differ in many respects, such
as the school environment. That said, research (for example, Fuller and Brown 1975; Calderhead and
Shorrock 1997) has suggested that student teachers have common foci for their concerns at different
times during their development. Remember, your primary role as expected by a prospective employer
is to teach the curriculum, with the aspiration being that every pupil in the class achieves the learning
outcomes for each of your lessons, over and above any informal pastoral role that you may envisage
for yourself. Attainment of the final mature stage in Table 1.2.4 is the aim. With its emphasis on
individual pupil learning and the successful achievement of learning outcomes by all pupils, you need
to develop aspects of this third phase right at the start of your first school experience. However, in
this model, your self-perceived role shifts from being the pupils friend, to a crowd controller, then
finally to teacher of subject content knowledge.
Other units in this book for example, classroom management (Unit 1.4), planning (Unit 2.2) and
differentiation (Unit 4.1) cover specific issues described in the model in Table 1.2.4. Timing of the
phases is difficult to predict because some student teachers progress more quickly than others during
their ITE programme, and because of the individual and contextual differences described above. The
three phases may span a single school experience or the whole ITE programme; in some cases,
phase 1 occurs at the start of the first school experience, with phase 2 being experienced after a
couple of weeks, and with some aspects of phase 3 appearing right at the end. At the start of the
second school experience, there may then be a repeat of this process, only the first two phases are
shorter. It is important to note that some student teachers who have had difficult and problematic
school experiences emerge, after a number of years of qualified experience, as among the best
teachers in their schools. Each of these phases is described below.
Phase 1: idealism and insecurity focusing on self-development

You may begin your first school experience holding certain idealistic views about your role as
teacher, partly based on your own memories of school when you were a pupil. Some student teachers
Table 1.2.4 A model of student or student teacher progression
Phase 3: stability and further

Phase 1: idealism and insecurity Phase 2: getting on top
progression
n Desire to portray a caring n Anxiety about failing n Limited success brings a

image n Realisation of personal areas period of stability and
n Disorientation for development satisfaction
n Feelings of being unable to n Drive to impress others n Desire to improve wanes
cope brings steady improvements n External intervention often

in performance required to develop further
n Mature stage involves
ensuring learning outcomes
have been achieved by all
pupils
first adopt an empathetic self-image, wanting to create a caring persona, being there for the pupils
and hence identifying with the pupils more than the class teacher did, and being popular. You may
want to avoid becoming too strict or scary, not wanting pin-drop silence in your classroom, but
instead a good-humoured, industrious buzz, so avoiding an atmosphere that negatively affects pupils
emotions. The most important factor determining success is your relationships with pupils, and you
feel that if this can be arranged satisfactorily, then accomplishment in other areas will naturally
follow without a great deal of further effort.
Once you begin your first school experience, these idealistic views may begin to evaporate in the
face of immediate issues presented to you, and you switch to a more pragmatic stance based on
survival, triggered particularly by an urgent need to establish classroom control. You have not yet
constructed adequate concepts regarding the boundaries of important features of the modern
classroom environment. For instance, when first left alone with a class, you are unclear about
whether a particular pupil behaviour such as chatting during written work needs challenging. On top
of this, because of the directly challenging nature of some pupils behaviour, your self-image suffers
a blow and there may be insecurity about whether, if you were to challenge behaviours, the pupils
would merely ignore you and carry on. Both of these feelings conspire to make you feel reluctant
to assert your authority, and student teachers sometimes attempt to justify a failure to challenge
poor behaviour by saying they would rather not interrupt the flow of the lesson, or insisting they
must keep rigorously to the lesson plan. Pupils actively test your knowledge of these boundaries,
as well as your willingness to act on them, and you begin to realise that to be seen as a caring friend
and equal by the pupils is not appropriate to a working relationship, and unworkable in practice.
Planning issues can also be a cause of anxiety, such as do you have enough work to last the whole
lesson, or what if they ask difficult questions?
Thus, the first couple of weeks of school are likely to be a time of insecurity with respect to self-
image and readjustment of some prior idealistic notions, and you will at times feel out of your depth
and run off your feet. You may have previously felt comfortable handling small groups or one-to-
one situations, but whole-class teaching brings fresh and sometimes seemingly insurmountable
problems; fortunately, for most student teachers, these feelings are transient.
Phase 2: getting on top focusing on whole-class learning

An inability to appreciate the limits of certain classroom elements during the first couple of weeks
starts to give way in light of your experiences to clearly delineated boundaries of what is judged
acceptable. You begin to realise exactly what constitutes, for example, a tolerable level of noise,
pupil movement around the classroom and what level to pitch your lessons at. Having said that,
realising the boundaries does not mean you can yet find strategies that successfully address every
one of these issues. You feel pressure to put on a good show for the significant players in your own
assessment as a student teacher, your class teacher, school subject tutor and professional and HEI
tutors, and work hard on your creative planning, delivery and especially your behaviour management,
in order to foster these relationships. You are concerned about passing your ITE programme, and
so do not wish to upset others by, for instance, having a teacher come into your class and complain
about the noise. In order to appear to be a competent teacher, you may begin to mimic the behaviours
of competent teachers around you or those who taught you in school (for example, their class
management routines, personal mannerisms and stock phrases), sometimes unconsciously, although
you may not necessarily fully understand the reasons behind those behaviours.
As a consequence of your hard work in addressing these issues, you begin to experience some
successes. The pupils behave better (although perhaps not consistently so), which increases your
confidence. Getting to grips with managing behaviour allows you to think more about whether the
pupils are achieving learning outcomes, and you begin to adjust your lesson content in the light of
this knowledge, although you may avoid differentiating work for individuals. For most student
teachers, these successes are inconsistent and largely unpredictable, and some blame may be
displaced onto factors beyond your control, such as room arrangement, a lack of resources or a
need to fit in with the schools established procedures.
This phase is typified by steady improvements in classroom performance as a result of realising
the nature of issues at hand, as well as determining successful strategies to address them. You start
to think more about your autonomy as a teacher, about things you would like to do differently,
although these desires are tempered by the need to fit in with the clear expectations of your school
and tutors.
Phase 3: stability and further progression focusing on individual

pupils learning
During the last weeks of your final school experience, there is usually a period of stability. Tried-
and-tested methods have brought with them hard-won success for you, albeit not consistently, and
so your feeling is why fix what isnt broken? Because of this, there may be a certain relaxation
of attitude or cruising, with less time spent on planning and evaluations, and a feeling you have
got there, and will comfortably pass your ITE programme. You are less anxious about managing
behaviour, and let slide pupil misbehaviours that you previously might have challenged. Teaching
remains largely at a shallow level; in fact, a common idea held by student teachers is that if
pupils have enjoyed a lesson, then this shows it was successful; there is no real effort to ensure
all pupils are achieving the learning outcomes, and there is little differentiation of work for individual
pupils. These learning outcomes reflect an epistemology of the transmission of concrete knowledge,
with an avoidance of the more abstract ideas, because you judge simple facts to be the material
that pupils understand most easily and so can be taught without difficulty. You begin to feel more
like a teacher, and believe you outwardly display attributes of a competent professional, although
some of these behaviours are merely mimicry, with no real understanding of the professional
knowledge that lies behind them.
In order to move on from this phase and progress towards becoming a more effective professional,
concerted efforts are necessary, often requiring the intervention of others such as class teachers
or tutors. First, student teachers at this phase of development may not be aware that further
improvements are indeed necessary or even possible, so the first step would involve bringing to
their attention the specific areas where competence could be further advanced. For some, the
realisation that there is more to learn about teaching comes as a disappointment after gaining a
modicum of proficiency. Critical self-analysis of your own teaching informs these areas for
development, and it is vital that you recognise the need to make the effort to move on.
The greatest challenge lies in ensuring that each and every member of the class has accessed
the learning outcomes; currently, in English state-maintained schools, the view is one of inclusion
of all pupils in the learning process. The purpose of lessons needs to swing towards the needs of
pupils, and away from you as a student teacher, with content focused on learning. The first step is
determination of the extent to which pupils have learned during your lessons, which may be indicated
by an effective plenary, end-of-topic test, or more formative types of assessment, all of which need
to be referenced in your lesson evaluations.
You may in fact already realise that there are certain aspects of your teaching that could obviously
be furthered, but the ability to progress is hampered by classroom management issues; for instance,
you avoid practical activities, or you do not feel confident enough to experiment with innovative
pedagogies. If this is the case, advice from other members of staff will prove invaluable in moving
you on to higher levels of achievement. Task 1.2.4 is designed for you to reflect on the phases of
development as a teacher.
! Task 1.2.4 Phases of student teacher development
Consider the three phases of student teacher development above: self, class and pupil. Reflect
on your strengths and areas for development on each of these. Describe possible strategies
for making progress in each of these three phases in the context of the following three areas:
n classroom management and focusing on individuals;

n assessment;
n subject content knowledge.
Discuss your views with another student teacher. As you progress through your ITE
programme, record in your PDP what strategies you have used and how they have worked.
Beyond your ITE programme

Teaching is an ever-changing process and learning to teach never stops. The comment Ive been teach-
ing this topic like this for the last 20 years is simply unacceptable: continuing professional development
(CPD) is not only a necessity in schools; it is a professional requirement for high-quality teaching and
learning. CPD is covered in Unit 8.2. Now complete Task 1.2.5.
! Task 1.2.5 Your CPD
Fairly early on in your ITE programme, you should be aware of your developing CPD needs.
Record in your PDP two examples of your CPD needs and reasons why you consider these to
be important for your own learning.

This unit has touched on your multiple, changing roles and responsibilities as a student teacher.
We hope that it has given you a better understanding of:
n the preparation you need to do prior to school experience;

n what you need to do during school experience, focusing particularly on developing positive
working relationships with other staff, including your tutors and class teachers, and with
pupils;
n the expectations of you, your roles and responsibilities in school.
The unit has also looked at the concept of teacher professionalism and a model of student
teacher development over your ITE programme and into your future learning and development.
As a result, we hope that this has given you a better understanding both of what it is to be a
professional and your development as a professional.
Further reading
Cohen, L., Manion, L., Morrison, K. and Wyse, D. (2010) A Guide to Teaching Practice, 5th edn, London:
Routledge.
This text covers the important basic skills and issues that you need to consider during your school experience,
such as planning, classroom organisation, behaviour management and assessment.
Furlong, J. and Maynard, T. (1995) Mentoring Student Teachers: The Growth of Professional Knowledge,
London: Routledge.
This book provides valuable insights into the process of learning to become a teacher. It draws on extensive
research to inform the stages of learning from starting to become a student teacher to the later stages of
professional development.
Phillips, D.K. and Carr, K. (2010) Becoming a Teacher through Action Research: Process, Context, and Self-
Study, 2nd edn, New York and London: Routledge.
This guide interweaves the stories of student teaching with the process of action research. The text focuses
specifically on the needs of student teachers by providing assistance for all stages of the research experience,
including guidance on how to select an area of focus, design a culturally proficient study, collect and interpret
data, and communicate findings.
Zwozdiak-Myers, P. (2012) The Teachers Reflective Practice Handbook: Becoming an Extended Professional
through Capturing Evidence-Informed Practice, London: Routledge.
This book is an accessible guide that supports the facilitation of reflective practice through self and peer
assessment, problem-based learning and personal development planning. The multidimensional framework
enables you to build a meaningful, personally relevant portfolio of evidence-informed practice.
The subject-specific texts in this series provide detailed advice about teaching in your subject area see
page ii.

To keep up to date, we recommend you join your subject association. A list can be found on the website of
the Council for Subject Associations: www.subjectassociation.org.uk/index.php?page=44.
In the UK, the main teachers professional associations (unions) include:

Association of Teachers and Lecturers (ATL), England, Wales and Northern Ireland: www.atl.org.uk/
Irish National Teachers Organisation, Northern Ireland: www.into.ie/NI/
National Association of Schoolmasters Union of Women Teachers (NASUWT), England, Wales, Scotland and
Northern Ireland: www.nasuwt.org.uk/
National Union of Teachers (NUT), England and Wales: www.teachers.org.uk/
Scottish Secondary Teachers Association, Scotland: www.ssta.org.uk
The Educational Institute of Scotland (EIS), Scotland: www.eis.org.uk/
Ulster Teachers Union, Northern Ireland: www.utu.edu/
Voice, previously the Professional Association of Teachers, England, Wales and Northern Ireland:
www.voicetheunion.org.uk/
In addition to offering direct advice and support to members on employment-related matters, the
associations produce useful newsletters and publications on a range of topics and offer special concessions
(for example, on car and travel insurance and training courses).
School inspection reports and further information about education can be obtained from:
England: Office for Standards in Education (Ofsted): www.ofsted.gov.uk; and Department for Education:
www.education.gov.uk/
Scotland: Education Scotland: www.educationscotland.gov.uk/scottishschoolsonline/; and The Scottish
Government: www.scotland.gov.uk/Topics/Statistics/Browse/School-Education
Wales: Estyn the office of Her Majestys Inspectorate for Education and Training in Wales: www. estyn.gov.uk/;
and the Welsh Government: http://wales.gov.uk/topics/educationandskills/ ?lang=en
Northern Ireland: The Education and Training Inspectorate Northern Ireland: www.etini.gov.uk/index/
inspection-reports.htm; and the Department of Education Northern Ireland: www.deni.gov.uk/
Starting Out Guide for Newly Qualified and Trainee Teachers, available at: www.teachersupport.info/search/
node/starting%20out%20guide%20for%20newly%20qualified%20teachers
This is published by the Teacher Support Network, which provides a 24-hour information, support and
counselling service (www.teachersupport.info/). Tel: England 08000 562 561; Scotland 0800 564 2270;
Wales 08000 855 088.
Teacher Training Resource Bank: http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20101021152907/www.ttrb.
ac.uk/
The archive contains some material from the Teacher Training Resource Bank.
Appendix 2 on page 591595 provides further examples of websites you may find useful.
on the companion website: www.routledge.com/cw/capel
Managing your time, workload and
1.3 stress, and building your resilience
Susan Capel
Introduction
Although teaching can be rewarding and exciting, it can also be demanding and stressful. The three
main reasons given by teachers as factors that are demotivating and lower morale, and by teachers
who leave the profession within the first few years, are related to time and stress; that is, too heavy
a workload, work is too pressurised and stressful, and too much administration. These reasons are
also causes of concern for student teachers.
You may be surprised by the amount of time and energy you use while on school experience
(and later as a teacher), inside and outside the classroom and outside the school day. There is little
time within a school day in which you can relax. In order to cope with your workload, and prevent
your teaching commitment taking over your whole life, you need to plan to use your time and energy
effectively over a week, a school experience and, later, a term and year. For example, you must
not spend so much time preparing one lesson that you do not have time to prepare others well
(there are, of course, times when you want to take extra time planning one particular lesson; for
example, for a difficult class with whom the last lesson did not go well or if you are less familiar
with the material). Do make sure that you are aware of all of the resources available; for example,
existing lesson plans, homework instructions and resources on the schools intranet or virtual
learning environment. Likewise, you should see yourself as part of a team of professionals and
paraprofessionals and use teaching assistants (TAs) effectively in the classroom.
This unit looks first at how you manage your time, then at causes of, and coping with, stress, and
finally at how you can build your resilience as a teacher.
OBJECTIVES
n identify ways you can use your time effectively in the classroom;
n develop ways to manage your time and workload effectively;
n identify factors that may cause you stress;
46 BECOMING A TEACHER n n n n
n develop methods of coping with stress;

n develop some ways to increase your resilience as a teacher.
to this unit.
Managing your time and workload

As Amos (1998) emphasised, everyone has the same amount of time. It cannot be lost, increased,
saved, delegated, reallocated nor reclaimed by turning the clock back. Time can easily be misused
or wasted.
Pupils spend little time in school each year. Assuming 200 days per year and six hours contact
per day, secondary school pupils spend less than 14 per cent of their time in lessons, while primary
school pupils spend less than 12 per cent of their time in lessons (assuming five hours contact each
day). Over 12 years of compulsory schooling, pupils spend about 92 weeks in total in lessons. Using
this total amount of time in school, calculate how much (or little) time pupils spend in lessons in
your subject over a year. It is therefore very important that you use this time effectively.
Managing your time in the classroom

To use classroom time effectively and economically, you need to plan to maximise the use of time
in the lesson by ensuring you:
n plan and prepare in advance, including setting up your classroom and identifying and setting
out the resources you need before the lesson starts;
n reduce the time it takes for pupils to get to lessons, to settle down and to pack up at the end
and to manage pupils behaviour in the lesson;
n maintain a good balance in the use of time on teaching, supervisory and organisational activities;
n allocate a high proportion of available time for academic work (sometimes called academic
learning time);
n spend a high proportion of time in substantive interaction with pupils (that is, explaining,
questioning, describing, illustrating);
n devise simple, fast procedures for routine events and dealing with recurring problems;
n eliminate unnecessary routines and activities from your own teaching;
n delegate (to a TA or pupils) responsibilities and tasks that are within their capability;
n regularly review the conduct of lessons in terms of effective use of your own and pupils time.
This should enable pupils to:
n spend a high proportion of their time engaged on learning tasks;

n experience a high degree of success during this engaged time.
n n n n 1.3 MANAGING YOUR TIME, WORKLOAD AND STRESS 47
You can apply these time management principles in many ways in the classroom; for example,
you can:
n Spend time at the start of the first lesson with the pupils (and as a teacher at the start of the
academic year) establishing rules and routines. This saves time on organisation and management
as you proceed through the year, scheme or unit of work. Pay special attention here to safety
issues. See Units 1.2 and 2.2 for further information about organisation, rules and routines in
the classroom and Unit 3.3 for further information about behaviour for learning.
n Use TAs or pupils to help give out and collect textbooks, pupils books or equipment, to mark
straightforward homework tests in class, make sure the classroom is left ready for the next
class with the chairs tidy, floor clear, board clean and books tidied away.
n Get pupils to do anything they can do to help you; for example, pupils can stick their own
worksheets into their books rather than you spending time sticking them in or picking them up
from the floor when they fall out.
n Use peer- or self-marking; for example, for class tests or homework; it is both effective as pupils
can be very perceptive when marking work and it saves time; once pupils are used to doing this,
they will get on and do it. However, pupils need to be taught how to do this and provided with
support.
n Teach pupils to seek answers themselves rather than putting their hand up as soon as they get
stuck.
n Carry a marking pen with you as you move around the class checking work. This enables you
to make brief notes on the work at that time. This not only provides formative feedback to
pupils to promote learning; it saves you wasting time by having to go back to the work at a
later stage.
n Collect in books that are open at the page where you should start marking.
n Ensure that work is dated and that homework is clearly identified so that it is easy for you to
check what work has been done and what is missing. Ruling off each lessons work helps you
to check this.
n Keep one page of your mark book for comments about progress (folding the page over ensures
that comments are not seen inadvertently by pupils). As you see pupils work in class or when
you are marking, you can make brief notes that are then immediately at hand for discussions
with parents, head of year, report writing, and so on.
If your school is using technology for some of these tasks or pupils are undertaking work
electronically, or compiling an e-portfolio, as they are in some schools, the same principles apply,
but should be adapted to the technology being used.
There are many other ways of managing time effectively in classrooms, which you develop as
you gain experience. Task 1.3.1 is designed to help you look at how you spend your time in lessons.
Planning outside the classroom

Carefully plan the use of time in each lesson. This planning takes time; indeed, it takes more time
when you start out than it does later in your teaching career. Use a timeline in your lesson plan,
allocating time for each activity, as described in Unit 2.2. Allow time for pupils moving from one
part of the school to another for the lesson (and, in physical education, time for changing), getting
the class settled, particularly at the beginning of the day, after a break or lunch. You may find initially
! Task 1.3.1 How you spend your time in lessons
Observe how several experienced teachers use their time effectively in lessons. For example,
look at how they divide their time between teaching, supervisory, organisational and
management activities; time spent on explaining and questioning; time spent on routine events
such as collecting homework or giving back books and procedures for doing this; what is dele-
gated to TAs or pupils; time spent managing pupils behaviour. Ask another student teacher
or tutor to observe how you use your time in the classroom in one lesson or over a series of
lessons. Discuss with the observer the findings and possible ways of using your or the pupils
lesson time more effectively and economically. Store your findings in your professional
development portfolio (PDP) and try these ideas out systematically in your teaching.
that you under or overestimate the time needed for each activity, including organisation and
management activities. In your reflection and evaluation at the end of each lesson, compare the
time taken for each activity with that allocated. Although this helps you gradually to become realistic
about how long different activities in a lesson take, early in your learning to teach you take longer
to organise and manage your classes. It is therefore important that you do not base your long-term
planning on the time it takes to organise and manage classes initially; rather, you should work hard
to develop routine procedures to reduce time wasted as much as possible so that you maximise the
learning time in the lesson.
Similarly, in planning a series of lessons, allocate time carefully. You have a certain amount of
work to cover over a given period of time. If you do not plan carefully, you may find yourself taking
too long over some of the content and not leaving yourself with enough time to cover all the content.
Pupils knowledge and understanding develop over a period of time; therefore, if they do not complete
the content required, their learning may be incomplete. Unit 2.2 provides more information about
lesson planning and schemes of work.
In order to use your time outside the classroom effectively, you need to plan your use of time
and prioritise your work. Preparing as far in advance as you sensibly can and keeping everything
up to date means that you do not have to chase around and try to complete paperwork at the last
minute, just before it is needed (for example, before a tutor visits). Keeping records of activities can
help with this; for example, keep a file of activities for the week, such as lessons to plan, marking
to do, assignments for your ITE programme, and completing specific records of your work, including
how you have met certain standards. Also plan time for reflection on your teaching overall and your
development as a teacher: what have you learned and how are you going to develop further?
To help you plan how to use lesson time, complete Task 1.3.2.
Managing your own time effectively

However well you use time in the classroom, there are so many things for you to do as a teacher
that your workload is high. Indeed, in a study by Kyriacou et al. (2003), less than 10 per cent of
student teachers were absolutely certain that they would have enough time to do a good job. A high
workload can result in not doing a good job, working very long hours to get the task done and not
having enough time mentally and physically to relax for work the following day or week.
! Task 1.3.2 Planning how to use lesson time
When planning your lessons, deliberately think about how best you can use the time avail-
able. Determine what proportion of time to allocate to each activity and indicate, next to
each activity, the amount of time to be allocated to it. When you evaluate the lesson and each
activity in it, look specifically at how the time was used. Ask yourself how you can organise
pupils and establish routines to make more time available for teaching and learning. Store
these in your PDP and include them in future lesson plans.
Some of this may be alleviated by using the time you put into your work and your own time to
best advantage. Some people always seem to work long hours but achieve little, whereas others
achieve a great deal but still appear to have plenty of time to do things other than work.
One explanation for this could be that the first person wastes time, through, for example, being
unsystematic in managing time, handling paperwork or responding to emails, putting off work rather
than getting on and doing it, trying to do it all rather than delegating appropriately or not being
able to say no to tasks, whereas the second person uses time well by, for example, having clear
objectives for work to be done, prioritising work, completing urgent and important tasks first and
writing lists of tasks to achieve during the day. Which of these descriptions fits you? To check this,
you need to analyse the way you work and, if necessary, try to make changes. Task 1.3.3 is designed
to help with this.
Using your time effectively on teaching-related activities helps you to be more efficient and more
productive, better able to plan long-term, more satisfied with your work and your job, less stressed,
and with more time for yourself and more opportunity to switch off out of work. There are many
different techniques you can use to manage your time effectively. Figure 1.3.1 highlights some of
these. Draw your own clock and insert your own techniques to avoid working around the clock and
achieve a balance between work and leisure time (a work-life balance).
Some specific examples of ways of using your time effectively include:
n Making a list of activities you are going to complete each day. If there are activities left on the
list at the end of the week or the day, ask why this is; for example, are you spending too much
time on each activity? Are you unrealistic in how much you can achieve in a day? Spend five
minutes at the end of a day identifying what you need for the next day to help save time.
n Utilising your free periods effectively (plan what you are going to do in these in advance).
n Planning your time for completing your work at time(s) best for you. For example, some people
stay late at school then do not work at the weekend; other people set aside one day of the weekend
and do all their work on that day. Whichever you decide best suits you be strict with yourself,
otherwise you will be working all the time. Set yourself things to look forward to; for example,
attending a sports event at the weekend. This helps with time management as it prevents you
from working through the weekend. These should also help you to reduce your stress.
n Organising your files and other work so you can easily locate them (it is as important to organise
electronic files and delete those you do not need again as it is to organise paper files and throw
away paper you do not need again).
! Task 1.3.3 Planning your use of time outside the classroom
Record for one week the amount of time you spend on schoolwork outside the classroom,
both at school and at home; for example, planning, preparation, marking, record-keeping,
extracurricular activities, meetings. You might want to use a grid such as the one below.
Day Work undertaken (along with time for each activity) Total time
Monday
Tuesday
Wednesday
Thursday
Friday
Saturday
Sunday
Total time for one week
Then answer the following questions:
n Is the time spent outside the classroom and total hours worked during the week
reasonable?
n Are you using this time effectively; that is, is the balance of time spent on the activities
right (for example, are you spending more time on record-keeping than on planning and
preparation)?
n Do you need to spend more time on some activities?
n Could you reduce time on some activities; for example, can some of the work be delegated
to pupils, such as mounting and displaying work?
Compare the time you spent and how you spent it with other student teachers. If time
spent is excessive, plan what action you are going to take to reduce the time spent on school-
related work each week (according to the European Union working time directive, employers
cant force adults to work more than 48 hours a week on average normally averaged over
17 weeks). Store this in your PDP and recheck the use of time outside the classroom by
repeating the log for one week to see whether this has worked and, in light of the results,
what further action you need to, and can, take.
Say no
Set clear realistic
Prioritise tasks
targets
Set time limits Create uninterrupted

for tasks time
Pace yourself Block time
Plan for use of

your own time Keep desk tidy
Only handle a Work at best time of day

piece of paper once for you
Develop system for dealing with paper/
administrative jobs
Figure 1.3.1 Working round the clock
n Do not do more than one job at a time or move from one thing to another, which can be
disruptive, partly because you may not be concentrating fully on one task, which may result in
inefficient use of time; hence, as one example, we suggest you manage your electronic
communications effectively by, for example, switching off your phone so that you can focus on
the task in hand and setting aside a time each day to respond to emails, rather than trying to
respond as soon as they come into your mail box.
n Some teachers are now using iPads, Facebook and Twitter to keep up with colleagues, share
resources and save time. However, you also need to be careful not to waste a lot of time using
a variety of different technologies.
What other ways can you think of, appropriate to you?

Now complete Task 1.3.4 on balancing your work and leisure time.
! Task 1.3.4 Balancing your work and leisure time
In Task 1.3.3, you recorded the time spent outside the classroom over the course of a week
on school-related work on school experience. Now do the same for the time spent on, and
use of, leisure time. You may want to use a table similar to the one in Task 1.3.3. Looking at
both tables, why is the balance between school-related work and leisure time as it is? Is this
balance acceptable? If not, is it because of, for example, inefficiency, lack of experience or
overload? How can you improve it? Discuss the balance of work and leisure with other student
teachers and discuss with teachers how they achieve a work-life balance. Store the findings
in your PDP and refer to it at intervals to check your work-life balance.
Preventing, managing and coping with stress
Teacher stress may be defined as the experience by a teacher of unpleasant, negative emotions,
such as anger, anxiety, tension, frustration or depression, resulting from some aspect of their
work as a teacher.
(Kyriacou 2001: 28)
Teaching has consistently been ranked as a high-stress occupation (see, for example, Johnson et al.
2005). According to the Health and Safety Executive (HSE 2013) Labour Force Survey, in 2013, work-
related psychological/emotional ill-health, particularly stress, anxiety and depression that was caused
or made worse by their job, was reported by more people working in the education sector, including
teachers, than people working in other sectors. Compared to other social welfare professions,
teachers experience high levels of stress (for example, Kyriacou 2000). Studies over time have
consistently reported that between one-quarter and one-third of teachers frequently report being
very or extremely stressed as a result of factors intrinsic to their work (for example, Gold and Roth
1993; Mills 1995), with Chaplain (2008) reporting 3337 per cent of teachers. Reasons for teachers
experiencing high levels of stress may be due to a range of factors, including teaching increasing
numbers of pupils who are experiencing unhappy relationships at home that result in them being
anxious and/or troubled, who have behavioural problems or who find it difficult to engage in learning.
Such factors place ongoing demands on teachers on a daily basis, which may be very rewarding but
are also emotionally draining and physically exhausting.
Research on teacher attrition has consistently indicated a high rate of new teacher attrition
worldwide and over a period of time (see, for example, Darling-Hammond 1999; DeWert et al. 2003;
Quartz 2003; Department of Education and Skills (DfES) 2005d; Changying 2007). Kyriacou and Kunc
(2007) reported that about 40 per cent of those who start an ITE programme never become teachers,
while 40 per cent of those who do become teachers are not teaching five years later. Smithers and
Robinson (2011) reported a lower figure; about 17.4 per cent of those who completed an ITE programme
were not recorded as being in teaching six months after completing. This does not mean that they
do not ever become teachers; they may not have wanted to go into teaching (either at all or straight
away) or not been able to get a job they wanted straight away, or they may have taken a gap year,
for example. Likewise, in the United States, 3050 per cent of new teachers have been reported to
leave the field within their first five years (Quality Counts 2000; Ingersoll 2003); 14 per cent by the
end of their first year, 33 per cent within three years and 50 per cent within five years (Alliance for
Excellent Education 2004). At the other end of the teaching profession, Chaplain (2008), referring
to Henry (2007) and Kyriacou and Coulthard (2000), reported the number of secondary teachers
taking early retirement increased by 93 per cent in the period 20002007. One reason for this is the
stress resulting from managing pupil behaviour and successive government initiatives. If student
teachers work with teachers who are stressed, this may impact on their experiences in school.
Although it is preferable to prevent stress, this is not always possible; therefore, it is important
that you identify causes of stress for you and develop strategies to be able to cope with it.
Causes of stress
Causes of stress may be different for different teachers or for the same teacher at different times.
There may be a number of reasons for this; for example, whether a teacher has an internal or external
locus of control. The most frequently reported factors contributing to teacher stress include discip-
line and dealing with pupils disruptive behaviour, coping with a heavy workload, school ethos and
lack of support from colleagues or managers (see, for example, Wilson 2002). However, many
other causes of teacher stress have also been identified over a period of time (see, for example,
Brown and Ralph 2002; Axup and Gersh 2008; Chaplain 2008; Akhlaq et al. 2010; Klaasen 2010;
Klaasen and Chui 2010), including:
n delivering material with which you are not very familiar;

n motivating pupils and maintaining pupils interest;
n coping with the ability range of pupils within a class;
n managing and controlling the class;
n reprimanding a pupil;
n conflict with pupils;
n demanding work conditions.
It would also be unsurprising if the reasons were not similar for student teachers; indeed, studies
have reported the same stress factors. However, in addition to factors that cause stress in all
teachers, there may be additional causes of stress for student teachers; for example:
n practical skills of teaching, techniques of lesson preparation and getting the teaching and/or
planning right;
n having unrealistic expectations of the profession;
n having high expectations of own teaching performance;
n not being regarded as a real teacher;
n disagreement with the tutor;
n observation, evaluation and assessment of teaching by the tutor, particularly receiving the
tutors or class teachers opinion of classroom competence;
n striking a balance between the school experience and personal commitments;
n role ambiguity, role conflict and role overload.
Some of these points are addressed briefly below.

Stokking et al. (2003) identified shock and stress when starting to teach, which they suggested
might be owing to student teachers having unrealistic expectations of the profession (which may
be for a range of reasons) (see, for example, Hong 2010). This might be the result of lack of
preparation or being thrown in at the deep end, and may be alleviated by gradually growing into
more independent roles.
When you are being observed, evaluated and assessed, you are on show. You are vulnerable
because your developing skills are analysed and criticised constructively. This may be exacerbated
where teachers are involved in assessing the teaching competence of student teachers because
student teachers may feel unable to talk freely and openly to teachers about other concerns. Thus,
the role of the teacher-tutor in assessment does not take account of student teachers needs for
friendship, counselling and tutoring. This may cause stress for student teachers.
Often, the role of a student teacher is ambiguous, so you are not quite sure how to perform in
the role. Role conflict can result from doing a number of different activities within your job, each
requiring different responsibilities, demands and skills; for example, teaching, form tutoring, talking
to parents, administration (clerical work and committee duties), other tasks within the department,
continuing professional development (inter-role conflict); or from trying to meet the different
expectations of a number of people with whom you are working; for example, pupils, your tutor,
other teachers, head of department, senior managers, parents (intra-role conflict). Likewise, role
overload can be a factor (see workload above). Role ambiguity, conflict and overload may affect
student teachers more than qualified teachers for a number of reasons. For example, as student
teachers, you may, at any one time, be answering to and trying to please a number of people, who
expect different things. You may also take longer to prepare each lesson than more experienced
teachers. Further, you may be unsure of your role in a lesson, a department or the school as a whole.
In addition, student teachers are likely to have different concerns at different stages in learning
to teach. Fuller and Brown (1975) classified changes in concerns over time in learning to teach as
a three-way process; that is, concerns about self; concerns about tasks/situations; concerns about
impact on pupils (this is covered in more detail in Unit 1.2). Thus, being concerned about specific
aspects of your teaching or your development as a teacher at specific times is a natural part of
learning to teach. As you go through your ITE programme, reflect on your own development as a
teacher, particularly whether your concerns are the same or different at different times of the year.
It may also be that stressors outside work (for example, tensions of home and family or finances)
are brought to, and add to stress at, work and make a person more vulnerable to stressors at work.
Job stress may vary during the year according to the demands of a job, personal circumstances
and/or other factors at any one time. A significant stressor at a particular time could account for
differences in stress experienced by people at different times of a school year.
In Task 1.3.5, you are asked to look at causes of stress for you.
! Task 1.3.5 Causes of stress for student teachers
Write a list of factors that cause stress for you both stressors as a student teacher and
stressors outside your ITE programme. Compare these with causes of stress identified by
another student teacher. Discuss similarities and differences. Store the list in your PDP and
use this list for Task 1.3.6.
How can you cope with your stress?

Long-term stress may result in your teaching being less effective, more issues with pupils behaviour,
taking time off work or you becoming burned out (experiencing emotional exhaustion, depersonalisa-
tion and reduced personal accomplishment) (see, for example, Fernet et al. 2012). Different ways of
coping with stress are appropriate for different people and for the same person at different times.
Ways of coping have been classified differently by different people. For example, Clunies-Ross
et al. (2008) referred to proactive and reactive strategies. Arikewuyo (2004) classified strategies
for coping with stress as:
n active behavioural strategies (confronting the source of stress and attempting to change these
sources by, for example, envisaging that you will get through in any situation whatever the
circumstances, becoming more organised and devoting more time and energy to the job);
n inactive behavioural strategies (behaviours of escape, such as engaging in physical and

recreational activities, and avoidance of the source of stress; for example, those individuals who
might create stressful situations);
n active cognitive strategies (identifying the sources of stress and trying to tackle them by, for
example, restructuring priorities, seeking more clarification, identifying strategies to manage
and reduce stress);
n inactive cognitive strategies (conforming to, and trying to meet, expectations of, for example,
tutors by, for example, meeting all duties and deadlines).
Murray-Harvey et al. (2000) identified personal and professional coping strategies. Five types of
personal strategies were identified: cognitive; physical; behavioural; emotional; and rational/time
organisation strategies. Three professional coping strategies were identified: knowledge of the
curriculum and what a teacher is expected to teach and knowing the structure, organisation and
culture of the school, which helped student teachers feel comfortable in that environment; use of
self-management skills, such as preparation, planning and organisational skills; and professional
qualities.
Some examples of specific coping strategies are identified below (these have been drawn from
a number of sources; for example, Crothers et al. 2010; Leung et al. 2011; Titchmarsh 2012). This list
is by no means exhaustive and you may find other strategies useful.
n Prepare for stressful situations when you are not under pressure; for example, prepare lessons
before the day on which you are teaching them.
n Have a good knowledge of what you are teaching. There is nothing worse than being put on
the spot if you do not have the knowledge. Read around a topic for which you do not have good
knowledge prior to the lesson. If you are asked a question that you cannot answer, you can
always say to pupils they should look it up and find the answer before the next lesson. You
should then do the same.
n Role-play a situation that is causing you anxiety and/or visualise what you can do to overcome
the problem. This helps you to focus on the problem and can be used to rehearse how you are
going to cope.
n Actively prepare for a situation; for example, if you are anxious about a particular lesson,
prepare it more thoroughly than normal. Plan thoroughly how you can reduce the likelihood of
a problem occurring or deal with a particular problem. This strategy can help you to identify
the reasons for a problem and to focus on possible ways of preventing or dealing with it.
n Recognise and try to develop your strengths as well as your weaknesses so that you can rely
on your strengths as you work on improving any weaknesses.
n Use any TA effectively. TAs like to know what they are doing before they walk into the classroom;
otherwise, you are putting them on the spot as well. It is important to communicate with them
and keep them onside so that you work as a team in the classroom. Depending on the TA, and
your relationship with them, they might be happy to team-teach, and so on.
n Teach pupils to take responsibility for their own learning so that you are facilitating their
learning. Provide them with the resources they need to learn so you do not have to orchestrate
everything. This takes the pressure off you.
n Stamp out any behavioural issues as early as possible because this creates stress and puts
pressure on time (see also Unit 3.3).
n It is good to see pupils outside the classroom. It can help to support their learning if you know
something about what pupils do/are like outside the classroom.
n Develop effective self-management techniques; for example, establish routines so that you can
do things automatically, particularly when you are tired.
n Identify where you can get help. You should get regular feedback on your teaching, but also
identify other people who may be able to help.
n Develop social support systems that provide a network of people with whom you could talk
through problems; for example, other student teachers, your tutor, other teachers, a partner
or friend. You may want to talk to different people for help with different problems. You may
form a group with other student teachers to provide mutual support, talk about your anxieties/
concerns, develop a shared understanding of a problem and provide possible alternative
solutions and practical help to address a problem; for example, a lesson being observed then
discussed with another student teacher.
n Do not worry about incidents that have happened in school, and keep problems in proportion.
Try not to take problems home.
n Take account of the amount and variety of work you are doing to reduce both role overload
and conflict. This may mean, for example, that you need to try to take work home less often or
take on fewer extracurricular activities. You may need to work on this over a period of time.
See also the strategies for managing your time and workload above.
However, it is important not only to focus on your concerns and fears, but also to pay attention
to your aspirations and hopes as a teacher. Conway and Clark (2003: 470) suggested that focusing
on resolving immediate concerns can result in an unduly pessimistic understanding of teachers
and teaching. You might find it difficult as a student teacher to focus on your development as a
teacher, on the positive aspects of learning to teach and on your long-term goals and aspirations
as a teacher. However, if you can do this, you are likely to have a more balanced view and be able
to put things into perspective, and therefore reduce your stress (Unit 8.2 is designed to help you
think about your continuing professional development). Task 1.3.6 is designed to help you to cope
with your stress.
! Task 1.3.6 Coping with your stress
In Task 1.3.5, you listed factors that cause stress for you. Now identify ways that you can cope
with this stress. Are the same or different methods appropriate for coping with stress,
irrespective of the cause? Try out these coping methods as soon as you can and reflect on
and evaluate whether these are effective. If they are not totally successful in all or some
situations, what other methods are you going to try? Evaluate the effectiveness of these
methods, store them in your PDP and adapt them or try new methods until you find those
that work for you to cope with different stressful situations.
However, it is also important that you build up your resilience, as more resilient teachers are
better able to manage the pressures of teaching and do not see periods when pressure builds up
as times when they simply have to cope with stress. The next section looks at building your resilience.
Building your resilience

Resilience is what sustains and enables teachers to thrive rather than just survive in the
profession (see, for example, Sumsion 2003; Kitching et al. 2009). It can be evidenced only in times
of adversity and/or when there are challenges as it is activated and nurtured in times of stress
(Tait 2008: 58).
According to Beltman et al. (2011: 8), teacher resilience is a dynamic process or outcome that
is the result of interaction over time between a person and the environment (for example, Bobek
2002; Sumsion 2003; Day 2008; Tait 2008); that is, the interaction of personal attributes with the
contexts and the relationships in which teachers develop as professionals are important in building
resilience. Some individual attributes enable teachers to do more than simply manage difficulties;
rather, they sustain them when difficulties arise. They enable teachers to: adapt successfully despite
obstacles; overcome challenging situations or recurring setbacks; bounce back quickly and efficiently;
persevere and thrive (for example, Malloy and Allen 2007); and maintain their personal well-being
(Howard and Johnson 2004). These individual attributes include altruistic motives, strong intrinsic
motivation for teaching, high self-efficacy, feeling confident and competent, having coping strategies,
and taking credit for and drawing sustenance from accomplishments. Gu and Day (2007: 1311)
found that having an inner motivation to teach was associated with a strong sense of professional
goals and purposes, persistence, professional aspirations, achievement and motivation. On the other
hand, personal risk factors include inability to ask for help (Flores 2006; Fantilli and McDougall 2009;
Jenkins et al. 2009), a perceived conflict between personal beliefs and practices being used in school
(Flores 2006; McCormack and Gore 2008) and personal challenges or difficulties such as negative
self-beliefs or confidence (Fleet et al. 2007; Day 2008; McCormack and Gore 2008; Kitching et al.
2009).
According to Day et al. (2011), among others, some ways to build resilience both in your ITE
programme on school experience and early in a teaching career include:
n a formal mentoring programme and collegial support provided in the workplace;

n establishing a mutually respectful, supportive relationship with your tutor, with open, honest,
yet sensitive communication that challenges you;
n understanding the role and responsibilities and establishing realistic expectations of your tutor;
n working together with your tutor to improve teaching and learning;
n devising challenging targets for development that also recognise success;
n recognising the challenges in learning to teach and the reasons for these, and establishing a
collaborative rather than individualistic approach to seeking solutions;
n developing a reciprocal, mutually supportive, trusting network of peers and colleagues;
n improving self-evaluation of your teaching; for example, through use of video analysis of
teaching;
n critiquing your own beliefs, values and practice;
n developing social skills, assertiveness, self-regulation and empathy can help build resilience (Tait
2008);
n valuing your own well-being.
Now complete Task 1.3.7.

! Task 1.3.7 Building your resilience
Select two or three ways to build up your resilience from the list above. Reflect on: (i) your
own current situation in relation to each; and (ii) how you might improve the situation in this
area. For example, you might select identifying challenging targets for your development.
What are your current targets for development? Are they challenging or are there aspects
of your teaching that would be more challenging for you to develop?
Store your reflections in your PDP, work on them and review your progress in a month.

n We would be very surprised if, as a student teacher on school experience, you are not tired,
do not feel as though you do not have enough time to do everything, are not anxious when
someone comes in to watch your lessons, particularly if that person has a say in whether
you become a qualified teacher, or if you are not worried about other aspects of your
teaching and/or school experience.
n It may help to know that you are not going to be alone in this and many of the causes are
the same for other student teachers.
n Where you are alone is in developing effective techniques that work for you to manage
your time and cope with stress. There are no ready answers. Other people can help and
support you with this, but nobody else can do it for you because what works for someone
else may not work for you. You must work at managing your time and stress; there are no
short-term, one-off solutions to these problems.
n It is also important that you build your resilience to enable you to thrive as a teacher.
Collegial support in the workplace; a mutually respectful, supportive relationship with your
tutor, with open, honest yet sensitive communication that challenges you; and a reciprocal,
mutually supportive, trusting network of peers and colleagues are important in doing this.
It helps also to focus on the positive aspects of teaching, your motivation to become a
teacher, developing your self-efficacy, confidence and competence, which we hope this book
will help you with.
Further reading
Beltman, S., Mansfield, C. and Price, A. (2011) Thriving not just surviving: a review of research on teacher
resilience, Educational Research Review, 6(3): 185207.
This paper reviews recent empirical studies related to the resilience of early career teachers. These show
resilience to be the outcome of a dynamic relationship between individual risk and protective factors and
contextual challenges or risk factors and contextual supports or protective factors an understanding of
which can help to reduce risk factors and enhance protective factors and so enable new teachers to thrive,
not just survive.
Bubb, S. and Earley, P. (2004) Managing Teacher Workload: Work-Life Balance and Wellbeing, London: Paul
Chapman.
This book provides guidance, along with a self-audit tool, on managing your workload, including, for example,
how long you are working, what you are spending your time on and whether you are working efficiently.
Capel, S., Heilbronn, R., Leask, M. and Turner, T. (2004) Starting to Teach in the Secondary School: A
Companion for the Newly Qualified Teacher, 2nd edn, London: RoutledgeFalmer.
Although this book is written for newly qualified teachers, Chapter 2, Managing yourself and your workload,
provides guidance on managing stress and time that is also appropriate for student teachers.
Child, D. (2007) Psychology and the Teacher, 8th edn, London: Continuum.
Chapter 8, Human motivation, includes a section on stress in teachers and pupils.
Day, C., Edwards, A., Griffiths, A. and Gu, Q. (2011) Beyond Survival: Teachers and Resilience, Nottingham:
University of Nottingham.
This booklet reports on findings from a series of research seminars focused on addressing the question
How does resilience in teaching arise and how is it sustained? The findings reported should help you to
understand better how to build your resilience as a teacher.
Galton, M. and MacBeath, J. (2008) Teachers Under Pressure, London: Sage with the National Union of
Teachers (NUT).
This book focuses on a five-year research project focusing on the governments remodelling agenda,
including remodelling the workforce with a view to reducing teacher workloads. This sets factors relating
to time and stress in schools into context.
Hayes, C. (2006) Stress Relief for Teachers: The Coping Triangle, London: Routledge.
This book looks at the nature of stress in the classroom in a clear, practical way. It focuses on how teachers
can help themselves to cope. It focuses on a coping triangle.
Holmes, E. (2009) The Newly Qualified Teachers Handbook, 2nd edn, London: Routledge.
This book covers all aspects of the first few months of teaching. The book is written in light of induction
regulations introduced in 2008 for newly qualified teachers in England. Chapter 7 looks at work-life balance.
Other chapters are likely to be of use in helping you with aspects of your work that may be stressful.
Kyriacou, C. (2000) Stress-Busting for Teachers, Cheltenham: Stanley Thornes.
This book aims to help teachers to develop a range of strategies for coping with stress at work. It looks at
what stress is, sources of stress, how to pre-empt stress, how to cope with stress, and what schools can
do to minimise stress.

The Teacher Support Network: www.teachersupport.info
These provide information, research evidence and a range of services, including conselling, to help.
Appendix 2 on page 591595 provides further examples of websites you may find useful.
Any additional resources and an editable version of any tasks/tables in this unit are available on the
companion website: www.routledge.com.cw.capel
Using information and
1.4 communications technology/
digital technologies for
professional purposes
Antony Stockford
Introduction
Teachers are expected to integrate various forms of information and communications technology
(ICT)/digital technologies into their work in the classroom. The statutory framework of the 2014
national curriculum states: Pupils should be taught to develop their capability, creativity and
knowledge in computer science, digital media and information technology (Department of Education
(DfE) 2013f: 64). The focus for this unit is the use of ICT to facilitate and enhance learning and the
learning experience rather than the subject of information technology and computer science. This
aspect is reinforced across a range of subjects. Good teachers in all subjects are already making
highly successful use of ICT resources and are always looking out for new ways of using ICT to
stimulate pupils and to extend their learning. ICT used innovatively to deliver your subject enhances
learning for your pupils. These teachers understand that ICT is a tool to be applied selectively but
is not the complete solution to meeting their pupils needs. They are also able to learn from pupils.
Talking with your ICT colleagues will also help you identify valuable learning experiences that help
your pupils.
One concern for you if you are a non-ICT specialist may be that the pupils know more about
computers and programs than you do. If this is a concern, or if you are uncertain about the use of
ICT in your subject area or have not fully embedded it into your teaching, you are not alone, as was
noted by the inspectorate in England in their ICT subject report 200811:
Sometimes staff training in the use of basic ICT packages such as word processing or PowerPoint
had brought staff capability up to the level of many of their students, but had not had any
impact on teaching and learning or student achievement because staff had not yet embedded
ICT use effectively into their teaching methodology.
(Ofsted 2011a: 42)
The purpose of this unit is not to turn you into an ICT teacher, but to show how you can become
a teacher who uses ICT creatively in your teaching to enhance pupil learning. One key objective is to
raze some of your fears and present some clear signposts for you to using ICT to support your subject
teaching. After all, in reality, The only thing we have to fear is fear itself (Roosevelt 1933: 1).
n n n n 1.4 USING ICT FOR PROFESSIONAL PURPOSES 61
OBJECTIVES
n understand the relevance of ICT for you and your pupils;

n use frameworks for auditing your subject knowledge and understanding of ICT;
n have ideas and examples for embedding ICT learning in your subject;
n use some core techniques when teaching using ICT in your subject;
n plan to teach using ICT resources to enhance the pupil learning experience.
to this unit.
The relevance of ICT for you and your pupils

You need to be clear about why you might use ICT in your subject lessons. Is it to amuse the pupils,
is it to pique their curiosity for your subject, is it to help them learn? Hopefully it is the last two.
The following examples from the Ofsted Subject Report 2011 on English schools are excellent
illustrations of this.
Examples of some of the particularly good practice observed by school inspectors for England
(Ofsted):
An 11 to 16 secondary school provided two differing examples of how the use of ICT to support
learning raised achievement. In the first example, two girls had produced a 17-minute film in
French. They used the game Sims to modify 3D objects to create avatars of themselves in school
uniform, avatars of their teachers and representations of their classroom and other areas of
the school. The girls scripted a storyline, writing the dialogue in French, and the avatars were
animated to perform the necessary actions. Finally they saved and compiled the animated
scenes into a film and recorded the voiceovers in French to create the finished product. The
use of ICT improved the girls learning of French because the task really engaged them and
they ended up spending longer on writing and speaking in the target language than would
otherwise have been the case. In the process, they also developed their skills in 3D design.
In the second example, during a chemistry lesson the teachers imaginative use of an animated
photograph of a famous scientist talking about his lifes work was inspirational. Students were
hugely engaged by this and the follow-up task, in which they were required to research and
devise questions to ask of the scientist.
For a Key Stage 4 geography coastal study, from Burton Bradstock in Dorset to Porlock Bay
in Somerset, a student used ICT to help with a sequence of investigations to plan and organise
her work. This helped to demonstrate initiative and originality in her work. Her use of ICT
deepened her analysis and understanding.
She looked at long shore drift from a western to an eastern coastline and learnt that the
greater the wind speed the higher the wave frequency. The student used an anemometer to
measure and compare wind speed and to see if there was any correlation between wind speed
and how many waves broke in a minute. She used computerised charts and graphs to help her
analyse her data and draw conclusions as well as to depict and illustrate her findings about the
impact of waves on coastal erosion. This also led to a study of the impact on the shape of
pebbles and their angularity. The student had downloaded maps from the Internet to show
images of the two locations; she also used a digital camera to take photographs of them. The
use of ICT helped to extend the students learning.
(Ofsted 2011a: 345)
The key points these three examples of good practice illustrate are that:
n The best use of ICT as a resource is context-driven.

n If a pupil sees the benefit, they are more likely to use the same techniques again elsewhere.
What is common about the good practice cited is that ICT was applied both in a contextual and
in a practical applied manner. If you are going to develop your skills, resources and techniques to
mirror this good practice, it is very important that you understand some of the theory behind these
examples. The approach to using ICT in the examples above has theoretical support from the work
of two educational theorists, Lev Vygotsky and Jerome Bruner. Both of these theorists took
effectively a social constructivist approach to understanding the process of learning and how this
might be applied to teaching. The underlying principle of social constructivist theory is that by a
teacher modelling and scaffolding, learners are able to gain knowledge in a structured manner that
they are able to retain and apply appropriately in the future; that is, they are learning (scaffolding
is covered in Unit 4.1). Vygotsky (1978) developed a theory about helping pupils to develop problem-
solving skills, which has been called the zone of proximal development (ZPD). This is expressed as
The distance between the actual development level as determined by independent problem solving
and the level of potential problem solving as determined through problem solving under adult
guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers (Vygotsky 1978: 86). In a classroom context,
this means that if you ask pupils to solve a problem type they have experience of successfully solving
in the past, they are able to solve it when you ask them this time. If, on the other hand, you ask
them to solve a problem type they do not have experience of doing, they require teacher input and,
possibly, working together with others to successfully solve the problem.
Bruner (1976) extended aspects of the ZPD with his development of discovery learning. This is
an enquiry-based constructivist approach where the learner solves problems using their own
knowledge and experience to develop new facts and relationships, which in turn form new knowledge.
As a teacher in a classroom context, you give the pupils clues and choices, and then allow them
to construct solutions using these and their prior knowledge and experience.
Learning theories are explored in greater depth in Unit 5.1 of this book, and how they are applied
when using ICT to enhance learning is expanded on the companion website (www.routledge.com.cw.
capel). In Task 1.4.1, you are asked to look at applying these theories.
In order to use ICT effectively to enhance pupils learning, it is important that you are clear about
your own level of knowledge, understanding and competence. The next section of the unit is designed
to help you achieve this.
! Task 1.4.1 A framework to identify knowledge and understanding

to solve new problems
Drawing on the pedagogical theories outlined above (in Unit 5.1 and on the companion website),
develop a simple framework that you could use so that your pupils are able to suggest how
knowledge and experiences they already have could be used to help solve new problems
(transferrable skills). Discuss with another student teacher what skills you expect your pupils
to demonstrate to problem-solve effectively, and use this to develop the framework. What
will gaps in their completed frameworks tell you about their knowledge and the focus of your
teaching?
Store your findings in your professional development portfolio (PDP) for later reference.
Frameworks for auditing your knowledge and understanding

In this section, you are going to undertake four tasks that, together, aim to take you through a self-
audit of your ICT knowledge and skills. By working through these tasks, you plan how to develop
your ICT knowledge and skills base. This forms a sizeable component of your PDP.
In Task 1.4.2, you are asked to identify forms of ICT, and in Task 1.4.3 (p. 65) to identify your
current competences. In Task 1.4.4 (p. 65), you are asked to look at what your subject requires to
be delivered with ICT, and in Task 1.4.5 (p. 66) to create an action plan to develop your skills.
! Task 1.4.2 What forms of ICT are you familiar with?
Using Table 1.4.1, answer three questions in relation to each form of ICT listed (Forms of ICT
means knowing ways in which ICT is used or accessed):
n Have you heard of this form of ICT?

n Do you know the various uses for ICT?
n Which are you able to use?
This is not an exhaustive list; however, it does aim to identify most common and current
forms of ICT that you could use to enhance the learning experience (both yours and that of
your pupils). Store the list in your PDP, revisit it and update your knowledge levels at regular
intervals during your ITE programme.
Table 1.4.1 Forms of ICT
Heard of Know what it is/does Know how to use
Form of ICT Yes No Yes No Yes No
All-in-one PC
Blog
Bluetooth
Camcorder
Car computer
CD player/recorder
Cell phone
Data logger
Desktop PC
Digital camera
Digital radio
DVD player/recorder
e-Reader
Home appliances
(microwave/dishwasher)
Interactive whiteboard (IWB)
Laptop
MP3/MP4 player
Netbook
PDA (Personal Digital Assistant)
Satnav (GPS)
Smartphone
Tablet
Television
Twitter
Visualiser
Watch/clock
Wi-Fi
! Task 1.4.3 Checking your basic ICT skills
In this task, you are auditing not just your knowledge about the ways ICT is used, but also
how confident you feel about using ICT. You must be honest with yourself. It is better to be
pleasantly surprised than claim what you cannot do.
Using Table 1.4.2 (p. 67), put a tick beside each skill indicating your level of competence/
confidence (0 = no confidence, 3 = very confident).
Store the table in your PDP, revisit it and update your knowledge levels at regular intervals
during your ITE programme, as well as when undertaking Task 1.4.5.
! Task 1.4.4 How ICT is used in your subject
This task focuses you on your specialist subject. Look at one of the relevant examination
specifications for your subject that you are going to teach and identify where ICT can be used
to enhance both the learning and the assessment. (Unit 6.2 examines assessment in greater
depth.) You can also complete this task using schemes and units of work (see Unit 2.2).
Examination specifications usually follow a common format. They are made up of units and
each unit is made up of topics. Within each topic, there is specific subject content to be covered.
Many specifications also identify wider skills that the examination programme addresses, one
of which is usually ICT. Look at the topics in each unit and identify where you might use ICT
opportunities to enhance teaching and learning within your subject. Remember, not all topics
lend themselves to the use of ICT.
Using Table 1.4.3 (p. 70), map the units and the topics within the units. For each topic,
identify where the use of ICT may enhance the pupils understanding, interest and motivation
for achieving their potential in your subject.
Some ideas for how you might use ICT for learning in your subject teaching are provided
in Table 1.4.4 (p. 71), Elements of ICT in various subject areas. Identify where you may need
to enhance your skills and competences in using ICT to deliver and to enthuse your pupils to
use appropriate ICT as an embedded part of their learning processes. Figure 1.4.1 provides
guidance on completing Table 1.4.4, and Figure 1.4.2 demonstrates how the completed task
might look.
This task requires honesty. You need to know where you are currently if you are going to
make the most of your knowledge and skills and develop them. It is exactly what you do with
your pupils in the classroom in assessing prior learning. Store the table in your PDP to use
when undertaking Task 1.4.5.
Figure 1.4.1 Guidance for completing Table 1.4.3
Figure 1.4.2 Example of completed Table 1.4.3
! Task 1.4.5 ICT action planning
This final task in this section is to enable you to develop your personal action plan. By looking
at your responses in Tasks 1.4.2, 1.4.3 and 1.4.4, you are able to identify those areas you should
develop to enhance your teaching and pupils learning in your subject. Using the proforma in
Table 1.4.5 (p. 75), identify the areas you want to develop and then the elements within those
areas that you want to focus on. This encourages you to think about where you might be able
to get support and the time frame for doing so. This enables you to prioritise your own
development. Store the task in your PDP and refer back to it regularly during the year to
record your progress and to identify the next aspects of developing your ICT competence.
Table 1.4.2 Basic ICT skills
General skills 0 1 2 3
Choosing appropriate software to help solve a problem
Dragging and dropping
Having more than one application open at a time
Highlighting
Making selections by clicking
Moving information between software (for example, using the clipboard)
Navigating around the desktop environment
Opening items by double-clicking with the mouse
Printing
Using menus
How to change the name of files
Word-processing skills 0 1 2 3
Altering fonts: font, size, style (bold, italic, underline)
Text justification: left, right, centre
Using a spellchecker
Moving text within a document with cut, copy and paste
Adding or inserting pictures to a document
Counting the number of words in a document
Adding a page break to a document
Altering page orientation (landscape, portrait)
Using characters/symbols
Using find and replace to edit a document
Using styles to organise a document
Using styles to alter the presentation of a document efficiently
Adding page numbers to the footer of a document
Adding the date to the header of a document
Changing the margins of a document
Email skills 0 1 2 3
Recognising an email address
Sending an email to an individual

Table 1.4.2 continued
Sending an email to more than one person
Replying to an email
Copying an email to another person
Forwarding an incoming email to another person
Adding an address to an electronic address book
Filing incoming and outgoing emails
Adding an attachment to an email
Receiving and saving an attachment in an email
Database skills (not now required but useful) 0 1 2 3
Searching a database for specific information
Using Boolean operators (and/or/not) to narrow down searches
Sorting database records in ascending or descending order
Adding a record to a database
Adding fields to a database
Querying information in a database (for example, locating all values greater

than 10)
Filtering information in a database (for example, sorting on all values greater

than 10)
Categorising data into different types (numbers, text and yes/no Boolean types)
Web browser skills 0 1 2 3
Recognising a Web address (for example, www. or .co.uk, and so on)
Using hyperlinks on websites to connect to other websites
Using the back button
Using the forward button
Using the history
Understanding how to search websites
Using Boolean operators (and/or/not) to narrow down searches
Creating bookmarks
Organising bookmarks into folders
Downloading files from a website

Spreadsheet skills 0 1 2 3
Identifying grid squares in a spreadsheet (for example, B5)
Inserting columns into a spreadsheet
Inserting rows into a spreadsheet
Sorting spreadsheet or database columns in ascending or descending order
Converting a spreadsheet into a chart
Labelling a chart
Adding simple formulae/functions to cells
Applying formatting to different types of data, including numbers and dates
Presentation skills 0 1 2 3
Inserting text and images on a slide
Inserting a slide in a presentation
Adding buttons to a presentation
Using timers in a presentation
Ideas and examples for embedding ICT learning in your subject

Think about the ICT you use yourself: your mobile phone; your television remote control; your
microwave. You might have a wider range of ICT that you use, such as Twitter, Facebook, a tablet,
a Kindle or e-book reader. Notice, we are not talking about your personal computer (PC) or laptop
here as we are trying to use forms of ICT not normally associated with the classroom. In many cases,
such forms of technology are not allowed in the classroom; however, with changes and development
in digital media, the opportunities that are offered by much of the new technology cannot be ignored.
The most important of these developments involves mobile media (see below).
If you use some of these devices and applications, or indeed others, consider ways in which using
them could enhance, expand, illustrate and innovate in your subject teaching.
In English, for example, the use of e-book readers can, at times, be more effective than paper-
based resources. Using a phone camera to take a photo and using the image as a stimulus for
descriptive writing or poetry may be an effective way of engaging learners.
Thinking about home economics/food technology, there is a wide range of ICT/digital technology
used both in the home and in the food industry that could be used in lessons.
Using mobile media devices to enhance pupil learning

As teaching and learning develops to meet the ever-changing global needs, teachers become aware
of a greater range of media devices that their learners use. Industry has already recognised this
and developed strategies where these can used to enhance employee efficiency and engagement.
Table 1.4.3 Using ICT in your subject
Exam Board
Subject Specification Level
Unit Title Topic Focus
ICT
Activity ICT Application
Skill Level
Unit Title Topic Focus
ICT
Skill Level
ICT
Skill Level
ICT
Skill Level
ICT
Skill Level
Table 1.4.4 Elements of ICT in various subject areas
Art and design Maths
Finding things out Surveys (for example, Finding things out Databases, surveys,
consumer preferences), statistics, graphing,
Web galleries, online calculators, graphical
artist/movement calculators, dynamic
profiles geometry, data
logging/measurement
(for example, timing),
Web-based information
(for example, statistics/
history of maths)
Developing ideas Spreadsheets to model Developing ideas Number patterns,

design specs modelling algebraic
problems/probability
Making things happen Embroidery, CAD Making things happen Programming (for
(computer-aided example, LOGO turtle
design)/CAM (computer- graphics)
aided manufacturing)
Exchanging and sharing Digital imagery/CAD/ Exchanging and sharing Formulae/symbols,

information multimedia for information presenting investigation
students design findings, multimedia
portfolios
Reviewing, modifying Real-world applications Reviewing, modifying Comparing solutions to

and evaluating (for example, and evaluating those online, online
commercial art) modelling and
information sources
Business and commercial studies Technology
Finding things out Pay packages, Finding things out Product surveys,
databases, online consumer preferences,
profiling environmental data
Developing ideas Business/financial Developing ideas CAD, spreadsheet

modelling modelling
Making things happen Business simulation Making things happen CAM, simulations (for
example, environmental
modelling), textiles,
embroidery, control
Exchanging and sharing Business letters, Web Exchanging and sharing Advertising, product
information authoring, multimedia information design and realisation,
CVs, email multimedia/Web
presentation
Reviewing, modifying Commercial packages, Reviewing, modifying Industrial production,

and evaluating dot-com, admin systems and evaluating engineering/electronics
Performing arts Physical education
Finding things out Online information Finding things out Recording/analysing

sources, surveys performance, Internet
sources (for example,
records)
Developing ideas Planning performance/ Developing ideas Planning sequences/tactics

choreographing sequences
Making things Lighting sequences, Making things Modelling

happen computer animation, MIDI, happen sequences/tactics, sporting
multimedia presentations simulations
Exchanging and Video, audio, digital video, Exchanging and Reporting events, posters,
sharing information Web authoring, sharing information flyers, Web/
multimedia, animation, multimedia authoring,
DTP (desktop publishing) video, digital video
posters/flyers/pro- Reviewing, modifying and
grammes, email
evaluating Ticket booking, lighting Reviewing, Website evaluation,

control, recording/TV modifying and presentation of
studios, theatre/film evaluating performance statistics,
industry event diaries, performance
portfolios
English Modern foreign languages
Finding things out Surveys, efficient Finding things out Class surveys, topic
searching/keywords, databases, Web
information texts, online searching/browsing
author profiles, readability
analysis
Developing ideas Authorship, desktop Developing ideas Concordancing software,

publishing (balancing text interactive video packages,
and images) DTP and word processing
Making things Interactive texts/ Making things Online translation tools,

happen multimedia/Web authoring happen interactive multimedia
Exchanging and Exploring genres (for Exchanging and Word processing, DTP,
sharing information example, writing frames), sharing information Web/multimedia authoring,
authoring tools, text/ email projects, video/audio
images, scripting, recording, digital video
presenting, interviewing editing
(audio/video)
Reviewing, modifying Website evaluation, online Reviewing, Internet communication,

and evaluating publishing, email projects modifying and website/CD-ROM language
evaluating teaching evaluation,
translation software
Humanities Science
Finding things out Surveys, databases, Finding things out Data recording and
Internet searching, analysis, spreadsheets
monitoring environment and graphing packages,
(for example, weather), Internet searching (for
census data, and so on example, genetics info)
Developing ideas Multimedia, DTP, Developing ideas Modelling experiments/

modelling simulations
(spreadsheets/
simulations)
Making things happen Simulations, interactive Making things happen Data logging, modelling
multimedia/Web experiments,
authoring simulations (what
if . . .?)
Exchanging and sharing Web authoring, email Exchanging and sharing Communicating
information projects information investigation findings
(DTP, Web/multimedia
authoring, DV (digital
video))
Reviewing, modifying Weather stations, Reviewing, modifying Accessing information

and evaluating satellite information, and evaluating (evaluating for bias on
website/CD-ROM issues; for example,
evaluation, archive nuclear power)
information
Such an approach is called Bring Your Own Device (BYOD) or Bring Your Own Technology (BYOT)
and utilises mobile devices and technology in the work environment.
This currently is the exact opposite of that in many schools, who prohibit the use of and even
confiscate pupils mobile phones on the principle that they will misuse them. However, adopting an
industry approach to the use of pupils mobile technology offers outstanding opportunities for
enhancing pupils learning.
The potential has been identified by the DfE (2013h) in the National Curriculum 2014, which clearly
indicates across all Key Stages and subject areas that pupils must become digitally literate, being
able to use, safely express themselves and develop their ideas for those subjects through information
and communication technology, at a level suitable for the future workplace and as active participants
in a digital world. Additionally, Ofsted requires that schools not only have e-safety policies, but also
teach their pupils good and safe practice, which has been specifically updated by Ofsted (2014a).
Statutory guidance from the government and Ofsted requires teachers and schools to ensure
that pupils know how to use digital media and the Internet effectively and safely. Again, because
the National Curriculum requires this to happen across subjects, then it means that you, as a teacher,
must be able to model good practice.
Of course, one of the best ways of doing this is to use the digital media, smartphones, tablets,
laptops, and so forth that the pupils are familiar with and use them to enhance pupil learning.
If, as has been identified elsewhere in this unit, you as a teacher set an activity that requires pupils
to take a series of themed photographs on their mobile phone and bring them in for a particular
activity, then the engagement of the pupils is likely to be considerably higher than if you ask them
to look something up, write about it and then bring that in.
As a teacher, the use of BYOD with your pupils also enables you to apply the flipped classroom,
where the pupils learn away from the classroom and then evaluate their learning back in the
classroom (Shea and Stockford 2014). Using the Internet and mobile technology forms a core part
of this, and in particular the opportunity for pupils to access their learning areas via, for example,
the school intranet and downloading their field or homework from their own devices to their personal
school learning area.
Developing such initiatives, which engage pupils, depends upon good practice. Underpinning this
is an effective school and pupil BYOD policy. It is very possible that your school has not, as yet,
developed such policies. However, Shea and Stockford (2014), using international exemplars, offer
standardised policies that are freely adaptable for schools just for this purpose.
This should be starting to make you think, so let us extend the process to create a constructed
learning activity. Try to be innovative and look at different ways in which you can deliver a lesson
and enhance pupils learning. The key to being innovative is to start with something familiar and in
which you are interested. This should give you more confidence in being able to develop something
new. We take the focus from Confucius (551479 BC), I hear and I forget. I see and I remember. I
do and I understand, and build on that theme via theories such as the ZPD (Vygotsky 1978) and
Kolbs (1984a) theory of spiral exponential learning, where learning takes an active form (see also
Unit 5.1).
Most of you, at some time, use or want to use the video feature on your mobile phone, digital
camera or even your camcorder. You take the shots, but how many of you actually do anything with
them? Task 1.4.6 (p. 76) is designed to show you how to use a mobile phone, as an example of
everyday ICT, to enhance your teaching and pupils learning.
Some core techniques when teaching using ICT in

your subject
The fundamental thing to remember about using ICT is that it is applied and there are common
techniques that underpin effective applied teaching; they are valuable as techniques in using ICT to
support learning in the teaching of any subject.
Applied as a term means doing. If the pupils are going to do an activity, it is important that they
understand what they are doing, why they are doing it and how they are doing it. What is crucial
is that you know that they understand these elements.
It is likely that when you use a form of ICT to enhance an aspect of your subject teaching, you
bring the pupils together in an ICT suite/classroom where you have an environment, and sufficient
computers, to draw their work together in a structured manner. So you need to know specific
techniques needed for when you take your pupils into an ICT suite. There are options for how pupils
enter the suite. Now complete Task 1.4.7 (p. 77).
The pupils have entered the suite and are seated. Now you need their attention, so to strategies
two and three. There are two main types of teacher-pupil attention in an ICT suite: instruction and
briefing, which, wherever possible, require a particular technique.
n Instruction covers taking the register and giving some additional guidance to the whole class,
usually as a result of feedback from pupil activity.
The strategy to adopt here is to turn off all the computer monitors and/or turn each monitor so
that it is not facing the pupil. The rationale for this is that if you just ask for their attention, pupils
will continue with what they are doing or will be distracted and look at the screen, play with the
mouse or keyboard rather than pay attention to you.
n Briefing covers modelling, activity/task briefing, formative assessment.
A briefing is key as it is where you are engaging the pupils in the learning process by introducing
the topic, task or activity and modelling as appropriate. At the same time, you are using the briefing
to formatively assess prior knowledge, as well as the pupils understanding of the context and the
task activities.
Table 1.4.5 Information technology action plan
Areas for development Methods of gaining knowledge Target date and sign-off
The strategy to adopt here is to bring pupils away from the computers to the front of the suite
or in front of the projector screen of the interactive whiteboard (IWB), if you are using one. The
rationale for this is that you must not only have their full attention and concentration for briefing
them, but you must establish that they know what they are doing, why they are doing it and how
they are doing it. You are not able to assess progress and learning without this. Incidentally, you
might notice the appearance of the virtuous three again: what, why and how.
Apart from the entry into an ICT suite, you do not just use these techniques once in a lesson.
You may use each on a number of occasions. Most will be in your lesson plan, but some may be as
a result of your formative assessment as you move round a class and you identify a common area
of difficulty or the demonstration of an excellent piece of application or process that you would like
to share with the rest of the class.
! Task 1.4.6 Using everyday ICT
A key purpose of Task 1.4.4, How ICT is used in your subject, was for you to think about
different ways in which you might use aspects of ICT to enhance your teaching and pupil
learning in your subject. As an example of activities, Task 1.4.6 uses the video feature on a
mobile phone in the classroom environment.
Take a video and then use that to create a subject-specific project that enhances pupils
learning, and engages and develops their learning skills. The processes are used to enhance
teaching and learning within your subject and the topic provides the focus for the activity.
Making a video as a task provides a hook for the topic as well as an activity that the pupils
will not necessarily perceive as being taught, but an engaging way to learn with you and
your subject.
You havent taken any videos? Not a problem; now is the time to do so. To help, there is
practical guidance on the on the companion website (www.routledge.com.cw.capel), which
walks you through the task. A PowerPoint called Making a video, which can be used as a
briefing tool for steps one to five, is also available for download at www.routledge.com.cw.
capel. There are also some Internet links to give you access to more guidance should you
need it.
By completing the task yourself (making a video), you are able to construct a lesson plan,
brief the pupils and know how to answer the questions they are likely to ask, as you will have
asked yourself exactly the same questions while you worked through the task. You can identify
the points at which you have to stop and assess understanding before progressing to the next
stage. This enables you to help your pupils understand elements of an activity and not
disengage because you have not formatively assessed their understanding.
Remember that the purpose of this task is to provide you with both the experience of
making a video and the resources to develop this as an activity for delivering a topic within
your subject, so make notes for each step as you complete it so that you create your lesson
activity as you go. Store these notes in your PDP.
As mentioned above, by doing Task 1.4.6, you can identify the difficult bits, which are
where your pupils will ask questions. You will be able to either address these elements as you
brief pupils on the task, or be able to answer questions that arise as the lesson activity
progresses. You will have broken the task down into achievable elements that make up the
parts of the lesson plan, which in turn indicate timing. You will also be able to assess your
pupils formatively by understanding the topic and the activity as you move through the task.
Your notes also act as a prompt while you are briefing or modelling the stages of the task.
Once you have completed this activity, in addition to the finished film, you will have the
footage that you filmed on location. You will be able to use this as a resource for modelling
the editing part of the task, an accompanying set of notes that you have written as you worked
through the task. You can use these to develop two one-hour lessons, although the actual
filming is best set as an out-of-school assignment or homework task. With two lessons, pupils
will want to do another topic in the same way. Longer than this and they are likely to stop
finding it fun.
By setting the context in terms of your subject, you are then using the making of a video
as an innovative and practical strategy for teaching and learning. Using this task as a resource,
you should be able to identify a suitable subject topic that lends itself to this type of task.
The outcomes of Task 1.4.4, How ICT is used in your subject, should help you here to set
focused learning outcomes for the lesson. The steps in making the video form the framework
for the objectives. Both formative and summative assessment will have more relevance for
the pupils as they will have ownership of the topic that they are using to address the subject
context.
! Task 1.4.7 Entry strategies
Discuss with another student teacher why an orderly and structured entry to an ICT suite is
important, and identify one strategy that you believe would be effective for you to implement
and one strategy that you should never use. Write these down in your PDP. You may want to
use Table 1.4.9, Entry to an ICT classroom: strategies, in the appendix to this unit (p. 85) for
this task.
(Note: You can check your strategies against those in Table 1.4.9 (in the Appendix, p. 85),
which provides a range of strategies for entry to an ICT suite.)
Planning to teach using ICT resources

When using ICT in subject teaching, planning has to reflect the many practical applications of ICT.
Because pupils are interacting with varying forms of ICT, if they disengage, they tend to occupy
themselves with other ICT-based activities, such as playing games or surfing the Internet, which
makes it very difficult to re-engage and focus them; so the lesson plan must take this into account.
When using ICT to enhance your subject and your pupils learning, your subject is the focus of
the lesson. However, if ICT is to be a tool and not a barrier to learning, there are some things that
must be addressed in any lesson plan involving the use of ICT.
Use the lesson plan your subject tutor has, by experience, developed as the most effective for
your subject, and for the construction and delivery of the ICT element of your lesson, whether in
an ICT suite, a subject classroom or even on location. View the ICT element as a mini-lesson within
a lesson, because it makes the components of the ICT activity more coherent. These are best viewed
as a do and do not table (see Table 1.4.6), which forms the reference resource for the lesson-
planning task in this element of the unit.
There is a temptation to be prescriptive because it is easier, but it is important to separate instruc-
tion from innovation. The previous section showed what is meant by instruction. Innovation comes
from the application of appropriate constructivist approaches such as discovery learning (Bruner
1976), which is enquiry-based and takes place in problem-solving situations (see also Unit 5.1).
What may surprise you when you develop your lesson plan is how short each activity is. Practical
experience of teaching ICT has shown that 12 minutes, including briefing and debriefing for each
activity, results in the pupils being engaged in and understanding the purpose of what you are trying
to achieve. What this means is that you are taking them through the stages of what you want them
to be able to do, so that when you brief them on the full task, they have the tools and practice with
which to tackle and complete it. It makes assessing what they have learned more effective and
prevents pupils drifting and disengaging.
Having completed Task 1.4.6, Using everyday ICT, you have a good idea of what is involved, how
long it took you to do each part, the difficulties you experienced and what kind of questions you
asked yourself. These are going to inform your planning and delivery. The initial briefing is an
opportunity to determine prior knowledge; who has it and the level of competency. Using questioning
techniques based on what, why and how enables you to identify the level of prior knowledge
your pupils have, which in turn means you are able to use pupils as a resource that can support you
and other pupils (Units 1.2, 3.1 and 5.2 include more on questioning techniques). You must plan for
this and what to do with prior knowledge.
Using an IWB, the virtual learning environment (VLE) and a visualiser can really benefit pupil
confidence and learning when assessing knowledge and understanding at points in a lesson. The
IWB allows you to both model the tasks and involve the pupils. The VLE, which is likely to be part
of the school intranet, is where you can place the lesson and the resources for that lesson. The
visualiser allows you to project hard copy resources and zoom in to be able to focus on particular
parts of them. See if the school system allows the pupils to save their work to the school intranet
as you can assess their progress outside of the lesson.
A task is made up of smaller elements, and it is particularly important that you break the task
into the smaller elements. These elements may be covered by using a mix of resources and practical
activity, according to your lesson outcomes and the type of task.
The key part (Task 1.4.8. p. 81) is writing the lesson plan for the task and activities within it using
a framework that tells you where you want to get to, how you are going to do it, and how you are
going to determine the effectiveness in achieving your aims, and hence intended learning outcomes
for pupils learning. The development of your planning and classroom must be based on feedback
and your own critical reflection of the effectiveness of your practising the activity (see Unit 2.2 for
more on lesson planning).
Some guidance for completing the proforma is given in Table 1.4.7 on page 80.
Table 1.4.6 Do and do not aide-memoire when planning an ICT media lesson or activity
Make sure that you do Make sure that you do not
Use All, Most, Some in your planning. Just write: ask questions you must be specific
Not all pupils will achieve everything you have about the formative assessment that you are
planned, but you must have core aims for the doing; and they must link to your activity/lesson
lesson. aims and outcomes.
Use what, why and how in your class, group and Ask rhetorical questions such as Everyone
individual assessment. What is knowledge recall; understand? You must know that they know what
why is understanding; and how is application. they are meant to be doing. The pupils must know
that you know as well. This is key to minimising
disengagement.
Ten per cent teacher talk only in an ICT lesson. You know what to do, so everyone get on. You do
They will disengage. If you need to talk more than not know; you are making assumptions that they
that, then what you are attempting is too complex. know what they are meant to be doing. You have
The term in ICT is decompose it, which means to check before they start.
break it into small components.
Tell them the aims and outcomes and how you Do not assume that despite the briefing and
propose that the pupils will achieve them. questioning, everyone will stay on task. There are
many distractions when using ICT media.
Check and get feedback as you brief and as the Do not allow friendship groups. They will talk
pupils undertake the task. It is too late to do it at rather than achieve. If you are using grouping or
the end, even if it is only a two-minute activity. pairs, do it by ability. Ability in this term refers to
ability to use the ICT media as well as educational
ability. They appreciate peer support.
Tell them how long the activity will take and count Do not assume that everyone will remember what
it down. they are doing, even though you have spent time
specifically doing so (or thinking that you did so).
You will need to have a one-to-one support
strategy that is pupil-led.
Each activity has an entry, execute and exit to Do not let the pupils just sit in front of the
it. The entry is the briefing for that activity, and computer or ICT media all lesson. Making them get
you must check using what, why and how before up, come to the front and then return to their
releasing them to that execute part. Execute is seats refreshes their concentration and focus. It is
the pupil doing the activity, and exit is the much better for learning to be effective for eight
debriefing for that activity that they have just minutes in each of three slots of 10 minutes than it
completed. The complete activity should be no is to be ineffective for a 30-minute unbroken
more than 12 minutes, including briefing and tranche of time.
debriefing. This minimises the opportunity for
disengagement or incompletion.
Table 1.4.7 Planning proforma guidelines
The learning This is the task and the planned outcome. Pupil support will identify, based upon the
aim SEN register and your experience of individuals, the type of resources and how those
resources should be utilised to maximise learning. These are the intended learning
outcomes that link to the task but address all learners by using All, Most, Some.
All This identifies an aspect that everyone must be able to demonstrate by the end of the
task. It could be pure knowledge or an outcome; for example: All will be able to
centre a title, change the font size and embolden it in a text document.
Most This identifies an aspect that most of the pupils will be able to demonstrate by the end
of the task. This is likely to show understanding by explanation; for example: Most will
be able to describe why it is important to be able to centre, change the font size and
embolden a title in a text document.
Some This is the discriminator element of the outcome process, and indicates those who will
be able to demonstrate higher-order skills that may enhance the task outcome; for
example: Some will be able to selectively show how their outcome might be improved
by the use of additional or different resources, such as media or software.
Assessment At this point, you are only indicating the mix of assessment and whether it is formative
or summative. So this might have markers such as: Peer to Peer Q&A, Presentation,
Display.
Activity This is the point at which you are breaking the task down into the individual activities
that will equip the pupils to complete the task outlined in the aims. You will describe
the activity, its purpose and duration.
Entry Required how you are going to model the activity that the pupils are going to do, the
formative assessment to ensure understanding. Just putting Questioning is not
appropriate. You will need to be specific about what, why and how. You must know
that they all understand what they are doing, why and how before they start the
activity.
Execute The activity that the pupils are going to do. Remember to allow transit time between
the briefing and them starting. You may need to question the pupils to check they
remember, as they may have forgotten. Give them the time duration, the start of the
time and regular countdowns through the activity
Exit The debriefing. Checking what they have learned, why it has relevance to the overall
task, and how it could be used in another context.
Lesson What you need to be able to deliver and assess the elements of the session; for
resources example, digital camera, IWB, flip chart, sticky notes, and so forth.
! Task 1.4.8 Planning to teach using ICT resources
Using the planning proforma in Table 1.4.8 as a framework and the outcome of Task 1.4.7,
plan an activity using relevant methods of ICT for your subject that addresses each of the
elements in the proforma.
Discuss and critique your proposed plan with another student teacher. What amendments
did you agree should be made? Why? Make notes on your proposed plan, as it is easier to
amend the plan if you know where and why you have marked the areas for amendments.
Record your discussions in your PDP.
Table 1.4.8 Planning proforma
The task/activity
The learning aim
Pupil support
Learning outcomes
Assessment
The activity
Entry
Execute
Exit
Resources

In this unit, we have taken you through:
n using ICT to enhance teaching and learning in your subject area;
n showing you that using ICT does not mean sitting in front of a computer all lesson just
using a word-processing package;
n how ICT refers to many of the things that you see and use every day, without thinking
about it, and ideas about how to use them;
n using ICT enables you to develop an enquiry-oriented lesson format to further enhance the
learning experience for you and your pupils;
n your audits, which should encourage you, as they probably showed you knew more, not
less, than you thought;
n a progressive series of knowledge and resource banks taken from your knowledge audit;
n a task that shows you how to use something you and the pupils use every day but enhances
your subject teaching and pupils learning;
n ways in which you are able to control the direction, pace and learning that will keep pupils
engaged;
n how you can bring these elements together to produce the elements of a lesson plan for
teaching using ICT as resources.
You may want to undertake the masters-level questions for reflection in Task 1.4.9.
M ! Task 1.4.9 Masters-level questions for reflection
Reading this unit and completing the tasks will help prepare you for using different types of
ICT to enhance your teaching and your pupils learning. The following is offered for you to be
able to reflect on this unit and the use of ICT/digital technology in your subject, to critically
analyse the potential benefits of doing so.
n Discuss the proposition that using ICT to encourage pupils to develop transferable skills
is only effective if an application of ICT is used in different contexts and differing learning
environments.
n Critically analyse the statement Understanding what you can do with ICT to enhance
teaching and learning is more important than knowing how ICT works, and justify how
you would support your conclusions.
n Using relevant sources to support your answer, evaluate how the use of different types
of ICT can be used to enrich the learning experience for pupils with English as an additional
language (EAL).
n Pupils who have been diagnosed with autistic disorders typically have limited social
interaction, communication or interests, and can exhibit repetitive behaviour. Examine,
supported by relevant sources, a strategy using forms of ICT that you believe will benefit
such a pupils learning experience. Evaluate how you would determine the effectiveness
of your strategy.
Store your findings in your PDP.
Further reading
The suggested sources for further reading have been selected to encourage you to think about opportunities
for using all types of ICT in an innovative and effective manner to enhance teaching and learning. They also
seek to demonstrate that inspiration can come from an unexpected range of sources, and so pose the question,
That looks interesting; could I adopt that to enhance my subject?
Beauchamp, G. and Kennewell, S. (2010) Interactivity in the classroom and its impact on learning, Computers
& Education, 54(3): 75966.
This paper explores the literature on interactivity in group and individual work with ICT, and characterises
categories of interactivity for these types of work. A framework is presented for ways in which teachers
and learners orchestrate the features of their classroom environment and interact with ICT to support
action towards learning goals.
Burden, K. and Younie, S. (2014) Using iPads Effectively to Enhance Learning in Schools MESHGuide, University
of Hull and De Montfort University, UK.
This MESHGuide gives a research-informed introduction to the use of iPads for learning.
Hennessy, S., Ruthven, K. and Brindley, S. (2005) Teacher perspectives on integrating ICT into subject
teaching: commitment, constraints, caution and change, Journal of Curriculum Studies, 37(2): 15592,
available at: www.educ.cam.ac.uk/research/projects/istl/WP042.pdf (accessed 16 October 2015).
This paper examines how secondary teachers of the core subjects of English, mathematics and science are
integrating ICT into mainstream classroom practice in English schools. The analysis culminates in a thematic
model of professional thinking about how the integrated use of ICT can support subject teaching and learning.
Kennewell, S., Parkinson, S. and Tanner, H. (2002) Learning to Teach ICT in the Secondary School: A
Companion to School Experience, London: Routledge.
Leask, M. and Pachler, N. (2014) Learning to Teach Using ICT in the Classroom: A Companion to School
Experience, London: Routledge.
These texts provide an introduction to a wide range of ways of working with ICT/digital technologies in
classrooms and for supporting your professional development.
Shea, J. and Stockford, A. (2014) Inspiring the Secondary Curriculum with Technology: Let the Students Do
the Work! London: Routledge.
This book explores ways of using everyday technology to enhance pupil learning. The authors illustrate,
with examples, a range of activities that pupils become involved in and those environments that might be
used. The flipped classroom, interactive whiteboards, using mobile devices and social networking are
explained in the context of using them in the learning environment to further enhance pupil learning
experiences.
Younie, S. and Leask, M. (2013) Teaching with Technologies: The Essential Guide, Maidenhead: Open University
Press.
This book brings together research findings to provide an evidence-based approach to using digital
technologies in the classroom and highlights effective practice.
Younie, S., Leask, M. and Burden, K. (2015) Learning to Teach Using ICT in the Primary School, London:
Routledge.
Although targeted at primary school, this book also covers areas highly relevant to secondary school, such
as mobile learning, e-safety and games-based learning.
! Other resources and websites

E-twinning: www.etwinning.net/en/pub/index.htm
This an EU initiative supporting collaboration between schools through projects across Europe.
European Schoolnet (EUN): www.eun.org
EUN is a network of 30 Ministries of Education in Europe and beyond. EUN was created 15 years ago to
bring innovation in teaching and learning to its key stakeholders: Ministries of Education, schools, teachers
and researchers. A number of projects relevant to particular subject areas are run through the EUN as set
out on the home page. It also supports teachers and pupils working on collaborative projects across Europe
(for the latter, also see the e-twinning site: www.etwinning.net/en/pub/index.htm).
NAACE: www.naace.co.uk/
This is the professional association for educators interested in school-based applications of ICT.
WebQuests UK: www.webquestuk.org.uk/
WebQuests were the original conception of Bernie Dodge from San Diego State University.
Appendix 2 on pages 591595 provides further examples of websites you may find useful.
Appendix
Table 1.4.9 Entry to an ICT classroom: strategies
Strategies to implement before Rationale

entering an ICT classroom
Settling the class It is easier to quieten and direct a class before entering an ICT suite
as it is a familiar practice.
Providing initial instruction It is important with a classroom with electronic equipment that they
enter in an orderly manner and know what the first requirements
are; for example, that they take their coats off and put their bags
under the computer desk.
Provide expectations That they will take a chair and sit at the front of the classroom, or
in front of the whiteboard/IWB/projector screen quietly.
Do not touch the computer They do not switch computers on, and sit in front of them. You lose
attention almost immediately. You must create a purposeful
environment from the moment they enter the classroom.
Log on, and switch the monitor off Provided that it is accompanied by ensuring that they sit at the
front. The advantage is that they will be ready to start work after
the briefing rather than waiting for a computer to start, which
provides an opportunity for disengagement. This also means that
any issues with logging on are localised to the particular pupil, and
are hence addressed more easily.
Folders and so on to be handed Again, this ensures a purposeful environment, stops friendship
out by a designated person and groups chattering and scrimmages. With the pupils sat at the front
not taken; you may use the same of the class, there is an expectation for work.
strategy in reverse before you
dismiss the class, as it allows for
an orderly departure
2 Beginning to teach
The previous chapter was concerned with the role and responsibilities of the teacher and how you
might manage those requirements. In this chapter, we look at how you might learn from observing
experienced teachers and then move on to consider aspects of planning and preparing lessons.
For most student teachers, there is a period during which you observe other teachers working,
take part in team-teaching and take part of a lesson before taking on a whole lesson. During this
period, you use observation and critical reflection to build up your professional knowledge about
teaching and learning and your professional judgement about managing learning. Unit 2.1 is therefore
designed to focus your attention on how to observe the detail of what is happening in classrooms.
It is difficult for a student teacher to become fully aware of the planning that underpins each
lesson, as planning schemes of work (long-term programmes of work) is usually done by a team of
staff over a period of time. The scheme of work then usually stays in place for some time. The extent
of the actual planning for each lesson may also be hidden experienced teachers often internalise
their planning so their notes for a lesson are brief in comparison with those that a student teacher
needs. Unit 2.2 explains planning processes. Unit 2.3 combines this advice in an analysis of the issues
you need to consider before taking responsibility for whole lessons.
The quality of lesson planning is crucial to the success of a student teacher in enabling the pupils
to learn. Defining clear and specific learning objectives and learning outcomes for pupils learning
in a particular lesson is one aspect of planning that many student teachers initially find difficult. The
following story (from Mager 2005: v) reinforces this need to have clear objectives and outcomes
for lessons:
Once upon a time a Sea Horse gathered up his seven pieces of eight and cantered out to find
his fortune. Before he had travelled very far he met an Eel, who said, Psst. Hey, bud. Where
ya goin?
Im going out to find my fortune, replied the Sea Horse, proudly.
Youre in luck, said the Eel. For four pieces of eight you can have this speedy flipper and then
youll be able to get there a lot faster.
Gee, thats swell, said the Sea Horse and paid the money and put on the flipper and slithered
off at twice the speed. Soon he came upon a Sponge, who said, Psst. Hey, bud. Where ya goin?
88 2 BEGINNING TO TEACH n n n n
Im going out to find my fortune, replied the Sea Horse.
Youre in luck, said the Sponge. For a small fee, I will let you have this jet-propelled scooter
so that you will be able to travel a lot faster.
So the Sea Horse bought the scooter with his remaining money and went zooming thru the sea
five times as fast. Soon he came upon a Shark, who said, Psst. Hey, bud. Where ya goin?
Im going to find my fortune, replied the Sea Horse.
Youre in luck. If you take this short cut, said the Shark, pointing to his open mouth, youll
save yourself a lot of time.
Gee, thanks, said the Sea Horse and zoomed off into the interior of the Shark and was never
heard from again.
The moral of this fable is that if youre not sure where youre going, youre liable to end up
somewhere else. We hope that by the end of this chapter, you are able to plan lessons in which both
you and the pupils know exactly what they are meant to be learning. Explicitly sharing your learning
objectives with pupils provides them with clear goals and potentially a sense of satisfaction from
your lesson as they achieve the goals set.
2.1 Reading classrooms
How to maximise learning
from classroom observation
Ana Redondo
Introduction
How do you actively read a classroom rather than simply watch a teacher at work?
During your school placements, you can expect to observe experienced teachers as well as fellow
student teachers. You should have the opportunity to observe lessons within and outside of your
subject specialism.
What is important when observing in classrooms is to bear in mind that learners are not passive
recipients or are not aware of who is in the classroom. They acknowledge the presence of all adults
involved in a lesson, whatever their role, which means that they are in a certain way making a
contribution to your learning through observation.
The more observations you carry out, the more comparative information you can gather between
learners, classes, groups, teachers and pedagogical approaches. Asking questions about factors in
the local context that have an impact on learning is an important part of the exercise. At the same
time, you need to avoid being judgemental about what you observe while remaining a critical
observer. As a professional, you are expected to behave ethically. As examples, the General Teaching
Council for Scotland (2012) and the Teaching Council (in Ireland) (2012) ethical codes for teachers
provide a framework for you to consider. (Web links are provided in the further reading at the end
of this unit.)
It is important to develop a notion of learning as a transformative process and to identify key
points in the lesson where learning happens in order to get the most out of the experience of lesson
observation. Identifying what learning takes place, when and how by individuals and by the class as
a whole is crucial to your understanding of what constitutes evidence of learning.
Teachers and pupils set up a working relationship in which both parties know the rules, the codes
of behaviour and boundaries. In most classes, boundaries are kept and teachers work smoothly with
the class, apparently without great effort. Beneath that order, there is a history of carefully nurtured
practice by the teacher in establishing an appropriate atmosphere, usually in the first weeks of the
new school year.
Sometimes, these boundaries are transgressed by pupils, and you may have observed ways in
which the teacher restores a working atmosphere. Each teacher has his or her own way of dealing
with this challenge. Watching the way other teachers deal with such issues helps you widen your
own repertoire of skills.
OBJECTIVES
n define the focus of your observations to achieve specific learning goals;

n use different strategies for recording your observations in forms that lend themselves
to subsequent analysis;
n use observation to analyse teaching strategies and pupil learning behaviours to enhance
your ability to plan and teach your own lessons;
n begin to understand the teaching and learning process and gain insights into how you
wish to teach.
to this unit.
Preparing to observe: some general points

Qualified teachers expect to be observed in the context of continuing professional development
(CPD), appraisal, inspections and preparation for inspections. Good practice includes peer observation
between colleagues in order to support their learners more effectively. See Dudleys (2014) website
on Lesson Study. You should look for opportunities to observe fellow student teachers and
experienced teachers.
Teachers may be less used to being observed by people who are concerned about analysing what
is happening in the lesson rather than measuring it against predetermined criteria such as teachers
standards. As an observer, it is advisable to engage in a dialogue with the teachers you observe at
work, both prior to the lesson and afterwards. Before the lesson, you should agree areas for
observation and what you plan to do with the data. After the lesson, you may wish to clarify aspects
of the lesson you have observed, discussing the rationale for some of the actions taken that lead
to a deeper understanding of the nature of learning. Equally, ascertaining their perception of the
lesson, which you can then compare to yours, enables you to contextualise events and actions you
observed, which at times are not necessarily obvious. Remember that observation is fundamentally
about enquiry: seeking to know what is happening, why it is happening and what its impact is likely
to be. It is not passive. It should focus on perception; that is, making sense of what you see, rather
than judgement. Take an open, positive approach to observation but also be well prepared by reading
and discussing key elements of a lesson with other student teachers and your tutor. Developing a
kind of literacy by which to read and recognise what takes place in a lesson is a skill you develop
gradually, becoming more perceptive as you go along.
The form in which you record your observations varies according to the selected focus. Many
schools use their own observation proformas or you may be given a different one by your tutors.
When using either, you should adapt it to your own needs or alternatively create a new one,
particularly for collecting and recording specific data in a targeted manner, which, in the flow of the
lesson, you might otherwise forget. Lesson observation in pairs has great advantages for sharing
an observation activity with another student teacher to compare notes and engage in a discussion
n n n n 2.1 READING CLASSROOMS 91
about the significance of what you have both observed. Having a specific structure to collect
information in turn can allow for a more focused dialogue, exchange and suggestions to feed into
your own teaching. Among other sources, unions such as the National Union of Teachers (NUT),
National Association of School Masters and Union of Women Teachers (NASUWT) provide guidance
on lesson observation.
Who should you be observing and why?

Initially in observing lessons, you are naturally concerned with familiarising yourself with the
dynamics of the classes with regard to how the pupils interact with each other and with the teacher,
and how they respond to learning. These observations will be of particular value in preparing you
for teaching these specific classes. However, you should not be observing the teacher with a view
to imitating his or her teaching style, but with the idea of analysing what he or she is doing that is
effective, and from that to make your own decisions as to what you wish to adopt in your own
practice (see Unit 2.3 on taking responsibility for whole lessons). Building a rapport with pupils is
something you will develop as time goes by and you gain more experience; also, as you spend more
and more time with the same classes.
Through observation, you will find ways of developing your own professional practices with which
you feel comfortable and which will enable you to be effective in what you teach, what methods and
approaches you employ and which teaching strategies you prefer in order to impact positively on
learners experiences. It will also assist you in determining the best way of fostering attitudes in
pupils and in creating a learning environment for pupils that are conducive to academic progress.
See Unit 4.2 on adolescent well-being and Unit 5.1 on how pupils learn.
Having observed experienced teachers, and continuing to do so throughout your school
placements, exposes you to a range of styles, a variety of strategies for teaching, learning and
assessment from which to choose so that you can further develop your practice. See Unit 5.5 on
personalising learning.
There are many aspects of a lesson that can form the focus for observation. Teachers modelling
a respectful attitude towards pupils to enable them to achieve will be an important part of your
observation of professional practice, as this is an important prerequisite for enjoying the respect of
pupils. The learning environment and the ethos that the teacher wishes to create are central.
Teachers establish rules and routines that then are often reinforced by just a single gesture or
signal; for example, a raised eyebrow if a pupil speaks out of turn. As a student teacher, you should
be observing the routines and teaching strategies of the teacher. This analysis enables you to select
those aspects that you wish to adapt and adopt in developing your own teaching style. When you
start teaching, existing classroom routines should be adhered to at the beginning until learners are
able to adapt to your own routines.
Additionally, you should also observe what and how pupils learn. Use the guidance in Unit 4.1 on
differentiation, Unit 5.2 on active learning and Unit 5.5 on personalising learning to construct
observation schedules. You will have the opportunity to observe small groups of pupils working with
support teachers who are specialist in working with pupils with learning difficulties outside the
mainstream classroom or teaching assistants supporting individuals within the classroom. See Unit
4.6 on creating an inclusive classroom and Blamires (2014). Here, you have the opportunity to
understand the learning needs of individual pupils in greater depth. Also, it is valuable to follow a
class or pupil across the curriculum and observe teachers working in subject disciplines other than
your own. All opportunities to observe teachers working with pupils are learning opportunities, and
you may be able to note similar strategies across disciplines and teaching styles. Teachers in
assembly, on duty at break or working with pupils in an extracurricular activity are all professionally
engaged in their work, and how they work in these contexts directly relates to their work in the
classroom. It is therefore a good idea to carry a small notepad with you at all times to record
significant observations and any questions that occur to you at the time. These can be followed up
later with the teacher or your tutor. Effective observation is a matter of intellectual curiosity, and
to that end being alert, able to ask relevant questions and being supported by appropriate reading
and discussion is a professionally rewarding experience as a student teacher.
Table 2.1.1 gives examples of questions to address through observation, perhaps prior to teaching
a class. Add questions of your own.
What do classrooms look like?

As part of lesson observation, it is useful to read the impact of the appearance and layout of the
room on pupil and teacher learning and their experiences. The classroom or teaching space is more
than a room with chairs, desks, boards and screens. It is a learning environment. It should both
promote and support effective teaching and effective learning. See Unit 5.7 on critically appraising
learning environments and Unit 5.8 on the language-rich classroom.
Classrooms often express the values and ethos of the school, and can reflect and promote specific
subjects. You may find the planned approach in Task 2.1.1 useful.
How lessons begin and end

Lessons are structured into different parts carefully considering the time dedicated to each to
maximise learning opportunities. As with all relationships and activities, how a lesson begins is
significant to its success or otherwise. It is usual to begin with a starter task to engage learners
from the very moment they enter into the classroom, taking them through activities that end with
a plenary in which to summarise key points of the lesson and providing learners with a chance to
rationalise for themselves what it is they have learned and how they have learned (see Unit 2.2 for
further detail). This can be an opportunity for a teachers skilful use of questioning in what is a very
short period of time, between five and 10 minutes of a plenary, highlighting key points and enabling
learners to understand the links between prior and future learning. Questioning (see also Unit 5.2)
also provides the teacher with useful information about how learners have understood what they
are asked to do and made sense of the work they are engaged in. Skilful teachers demonstrate good
skills in managing learners and learning, have good subject knowledge and, at times, give the
impression that it is all easy. When you first observe lessons, focusing on each of these parts of a
lesson is a useful approach to analyse how timings for tasks, teaching materials and organisation
of learning are managed. You might be asked to make an active contribution to one episode within
a lesson as a way of beginning to teach the group that has been allocated to your teaching timetable.
Routines
Routines are important in ensuring smooth transition between tasks in lessons and to provide a
backdrop of familiarity to learners (see Unit 5.2). They are particularly important when taking up
Table 2.1.1 Examples of research questions that can assist you in focusing your lesson observations
Briefing and preparing for observation

n Note the date, time and place of the lesson.
n Are you briefed on the topic being taught in the lesson and the composition of the class?
n With respect to professional ethics, have you agreed your role: a participant or non-participant?
n Have you agreed how and what you will observe?
n Have you agreed how you are going to feed back to the teacher and any future use you may make of
your notes?
Teaching and learning questions

n What was the plan/structure/shape of the lesson?
n How was the lesson introduced? How did the pupils know the intended learning outcomes planned for
the lesson?
n What were the different learning activities that the pupils undertook?
n Was there group or pair work?
n Did any pupils receive different work, degrees of help or resources?
n What were the different ways that pupils recorded or presented their learning?
n How did the teacher direct the pace of the lesson?
n What form of question-and-answer sessions did the teacher initiate?
n How were pupils encouraged to ask and answer questions?
n What resources were used to assist in learning and how were they used?
n How did the teacher provide a range of teaching strategies to ensure all learners can access what has
been taught?
n Were digital technologies used during the lesson? How?
n Was the teacher handling the technology used?
n Did the pupils have a hands-on experience to complete tasks?
n What learning was supported through the use of technologies? (See Unit 5.3 on teaching strategies.)
Pupil and class management dimensions

n What were the teachers expectations about pupils responses to what has been taught?
n How did the teacher promote behaviour for learning?
n Were there established routines or codes of conduct? What were they?
n Were issues of health and safety referred to during the lesson? How? When?
n Did the teacher use any assertive behaviour management techniques? (Teaching College of New
Jersey 2015) Sanctions? What was the intention and what were the outcomes?
n How did the teacher use seating plans? Why?
n How did the teacher use voice and gesture in the lesson to manage pupil responses?
n How did the teacher assess pupils work during the lesson and how was this fed back to the pupils?
Other professional issues

n Was a teaching assistant or special educational needs teacher also in the room? What was their role
and how did they work with the pupils and the teacher?
n Have you identified any gaps in your subject knowledge through observing this lesson? How are you
going to address them?
n How has this observation made you consider your future professional practice as a teacher? What
professional issues has it raised for you? Discuss these with other student teachers, tutors and peers
in relation to the importance of becoming a reflective teacher.
! Task 2.1.1 The learning environment
Consider a classroom or teaching space you are going to be teaching in at your placement
school and how you can use this effectively. Is this space a specialist room or a general
classroom? Is the space used mainly by one teacher and for one discipline?
n Sketch the layout of the space and the seating arrangements. Identify the light source and
how this affects visibility of the board, screen and other display boards that you will make
use of to support your teaching; also, note other features, resources and the teachers
desk. Check how much space there is for you to move among pupils in order to evaluate
what they are doing and support them when needed. Space will also be required by pupils
when moving about. Obstacles that can cause concerns from a health and safety point of
view (for example, tripping over chairs, bags, and so on) need to be avoided.
n Note your perceptions of the advantages and limitations of the room layout to pupil and
teacher learning and teaching. Does the layout support collaborative group working or
not?
n Describe any displays. Note the different proportions of pupil work and teacher/published
material displayed. Are the displays colourful and well looked after? Do the displays
prompt pupils to value their own work and the work of other pupils more highly?
n What values does display material portray? What potential use can pupils make of them?
Do displays portray positive images and information pupils can use to help with their
work? Are they, in that sense, interactive and kept up to date? Are they relevant to the
learning experiences of pupils?
n Are any technological tools available in the room? If so, what are they? What can be said
about their intended use?
n Comment on whether you would like to be taught in this room and whether the
environment promotes the subject and pupil learning. Give reasons for your response.
Unit 5.7 provides further guidance about critically appraising learning environments. Record
your observations in your professional development portfolio (PDP).
new classes. Have a close look at how it is done. While you should follow existing school routines in
the same way at the early stages of taking on a class, you can from then on develop your own ways
of organising the lesson, following structures and policies set down by the school and subject
departments. You can expect to introduce some of your own ideas as you become more confident
and your tutors encourage you to become more assertive, independent and to begin to take some
risks, albeit agreed beforehand with your tutor. Experienced teachers are very familiar with their
learners, and vice versa, and that creates a specific dynamic that you cannot immediately reproduce.
Be observant, discuss and ascertain the views of your tutors so as to develop confidence to adopt,
to adapt and to align with your own style after a period of practice.
At the end of lessons, after summing up (sometimes called a plenary), it is important to allow
enough time for pupils to be dismissed in an orderly manner, ensuring a well-organised exit.
Therefore, observe techniques for dismissing pupils.
Timing
When planning lessons, careful attention needs to be paid to how long individual episodes should
last. When observing lessons, you are advised to pay attention to the amount of time allocated to
individual activities.
Task 2.1.2 is designed to help you to analyse the beginning, middle and end of a lesson.
! Task 2.1.2 Analysing the beginning, middle and end of a lesson
You may hear a lesson being described as being in three parts: starter, main body of the
lesson and plenary. However, with experienced teachers, the lesson may appear to be a
smooth flow of activities and the different features are noticeable in terms of content but not
so much in format; for example, at times, some mini-plenaries take place after a task to
ensure understanding before moving on so that the end-of-lesson evaluative time becomes
less formal.
There are three stages to the beginning of a lesson:
1 Starting: possibly lining up outside the classroom, particularly with younger pupils, to ensure
an orderly entrance and settling them to a prompt start to learning. Starter tasks (or
hooks) (see Unit 5.2) are quick exercises that provide a good opportunity to link to previous
learning (for example, revising work); also to get pupils to focus on work immediately rather
than getting distracted with each other into chatter. Starters need only be between five
and seven minutes.
2 The body of the lesson: presenting lesson outcomes, followed by presenting the work
through chosen materials (either digital or print) and providing instructions to the work.
3 The plenary: invite learners to provide a summary, highlight key aspects of the lesson
and link them to future learning, including homework tasks, where appropriate.
Useful prompt questions for observations are:
Outside the classroom
n What procedures were used for pupils gathering outside the classroom? And their
rationale?
(a) Were pupils free to enter as they arrived or did they have to line up?
(b) Did the teacher wait for the class at the classroom door were they welcomed on
arrival outside the classroom or did the teacher stay inside the classroom until the
class was directed to enter?
Settling into place
n Did the pupils sit where they pleased or did they have assigned places? Did they wait to
greet the teacher standing before they were asked to sit down?
n Was a register taken and in what manner?
n What signals did the teacher use to indicate that the lesson had begun?
The beginning of the lesson
n How did the teacher explain the intended learning outcomes (see Units 2.2 and 7.4) of
the lesson?
n How long was it before the lesson proper began?
n What problems or issues did the teacher have to deal with before the lesson began? How
did they do this?
n In settling the class, what praise or conduct reminders did the teacher use and how did
pupils respond?
The body of the lesson
n How effective was the teacher in providing explanations and instructions to pupils to tell
them what to do and how?
n Were pupils encouraged to ask questions?
n Were pupils expected to work independently from the teacher? Possibly sharing ideas
with each other? Or to work quietly? In any other way?
n Were pupils sufficiently challenged and engaged given their prior skills, knowledge and
understanding?
n Did pupils understand what they were being asked to do in every stage of the lesson?
n Did pupils have opportunities and means to indicate their understanding (or lack) of the
concepts being introduced?
n Did pupils improve their understanding as a result of detailed and accurate feedback on
their learning?
n Were pupils who were having difficulty supported to help them understand?
n How well was pupils subject knowledge developed in terms of concepts, knowledge, skills
and understanding?
n Was the management of the pupils behaviour effective to ensure that they make progress
in a safe and secure environment?
The end of the lesson
n Were pupils able to respond to questions satisfactorily during the plenary, demonstrating
they: (a) could recall what they had learned; and (b) understood what they had learned?
n How did the teacher find out what most pupils could recall and understand?
n Were the intended learning outcomes achieved, and how did the teacher know that?
n Were pupils dismissed quietly and as a class or in small groups?
If possible, discuss this list of questions with another student teacher and add to them.
Then undertake the observation. In carrying out this task, you should arrive at least five
minutes before the beginning of the lesson.
Using a similar checklist to that drafted below, record your observations.
Observers name
Date and time
Class name and subject: Number and composition

of class:
. . . male
. . . female
Real time Place Pupil Teacher Pupil talk Teacher Other

actions talk notes
After the lesson, discuss with the teacher what you have noted to check for any
misunderstandings and to discuss further the strategies you have observed. Record your
observations in your PDP.
The structure of a lesson and transitions

The structure of a lesson is very important to its effectiveness (see Units 2.2 and 2.3). When an
experienced teacher teaches a lesson, they work to a plan but equally they deviate from the plan
when a new learning need becomes apparent. Good teaching is flexible and responsive. Experienced
teachers use transitions in a lesson to summarise the learning at key points before moving on to
the next learning activity. Figure 2.1.1 is a flow diagram of a lesson about communication where the
transitions are highlighted in bold.
Teacher talk and oral feedback

It is useful to focus on teacher talk and feedback to pupils during a lesson to enable you to estimate
its impact on learning and behaviour (see Units 3.1 and 5.8; and also Alexander 2015; Education
Endowment Foundation 2015; University of Cambridge 2015b). There are various ways of doing this,
including audio or video recordings of a lesson. However, on most occasions, written notes are
sufficient. Task 2.1.3 is designed to help you analyse the way teachers talk to pupils. Unit 5.8 provides
detail on the use of language in classrooms.
Task 2.1.4 asks you to focus specifically on questioning. Units 5.1, 5.2 and 5.8 provide more detailed
background to the role of questioning in learning.
Learning objectives and

outcomes: short and
long term (slide1)
Definition and overview of communications:

Brainstorm/Chinese whispers
The communication loop (slide 2)
How people communicate in business (slide 3)
Transition: Brainstorm why businesses need effective communication
Exercise 1: Ways to communicate (paired work)

Exercise 2: Internal and external communication
(individual work)
Exercise 3: In groups write
memo/notice/minutes/agenda/letter
Transition: Instruction to prepare to present their work one

example from each group key points listed on the board
Plenary and transition to lesson 2:

What have we learnt today?
What are we going on to in the next lesson?
Homework as preparation for lesson 2 (slide 4)
Figure 2.1.1 Flow diagram of a Year 10 business studies lesson, which is the first lesson of a
double lesson on communication for business
Pupil talk and interaction

It is equally interesting and highly relevant to analyse pupil talk and interaction, which, if you follow
a class or group to lessons in different subjects or with different teachers, can change in significant
ways.
You could simply use a class list and place a tick in red next to each pupils name as they ask for
information and a tick in black against each pupils name as they answer a question or offer infor-
mation, to gauge pupil involvement in lessons.
M ! Task 2.1.3 Analysis of teacher talk
Complete the following checklist for a section of the lesson.
Oral feedback Examples observed in the Learning impact on pupils

lesson
Giving information
Correcting errors or
misapprehensions
Praising
Questioning to check
understanding
Questioning to deepen
understanding
Asking pupils to focus on

specific aspects
Summarising learning
Encouraging pupil reflection
Coaching in skills
Answering pupil questions
Correcting poor behaviour
Guiding pupils back on task
Outlining next learning tasks
Discuss your observations with the teacher after the lesson and record both the checklist
and discussion in your PDP.
A more detailed observation with a small group of pupils, one pupil or the entire class can be
undertaken using the checklist in Task 2.1.5 over a 20-minute period, recording minute by minute.
A three-minute record is shown in the example.
Observing pupil management and encouraging pupil

behaviours that maximise learning
Before beginning lesson observations, you should familiarise yourself with the schools and
departments policies about managing learning and learners to maximise learning. These are used
! Task 2.1.4 Teachers questions and the development of

questioning skills
Questions are often classified into closed and open. Closed questions are those about facts,
with a single correct answer. Open questions may not a have a right answer or there may be
several ways of responding. They require the pupil to speculate about events or anticipate
new ideas or explanations (see Unit 3.1 for further information about questioning).
What types of question do teachers ask? Are they simple questions with one-word answers
or are they more complex, involving explanation? Investigate the frequency of different types
of questions. The following questions may help to focus your observation. Does the teacher:
n ask mainly closed questions?

n ask both open and closed questions according to purpose and circumstance? Are only
right answers accepted?
n dismiss wrong answers?
n give enough time for pupils to give an answer?
n encourage pupils to frame a reply?
n provide scaffolding to encourage responses?
How does the teacher respond to right and wrong answers given by pupils?
Discuss your responses and your interpretation of them with the class teacher or your
tutor.
Record your observations in your PDP.
to achieve a common approach to fostering appropriate behaviours for learning. It is essential that
you work within these policies. (See also Unit 3.3. Task 3.3.4 asks you to record observations of
unacceptable behaviours.) Discuss with teachers and tutors your own ideas about managing learners
to maximise learning possibly drawn from literature or discussions at seminars so that you can
implement and develop your own ways of interacting with pupils and manage learning effectively.
Focus upon pupil learning

Often, the instinct of student teachers in the classroom is to focus upon the teacher teaching rather
than upon how and what the pupils are learning. This is not surprising. When we first go back to
school, our memories are those of a pupil who watched and listened to the teacher (see Unit 5.7
for a framework for critically analysing the school environment). How individual pupils respond to
the work set is something that needs to be closely observed and then related to their different
abilities, interests and experiences in that subject. This information provides clues about their
learning journey and how the teacher makes decisions about how to cater for the diverse needs of
all pupils. Hence, you need to shift your focus and observe what and how the pupils are learning.
Task 2.1.6 provides some examples of how to do this.
The teacher position is also critical in supporting learning. The position of the teacher in the room
influences interactions, and you should make deliberate decisions about where you will stand and
! Task 2.1.5 Analysis of pupil talk
Complete the following checklist to analyse individual, group or whole-class pupil talk over a
20-minute period.
Real time Pupil(s) Pupil(s) Off-task(s) On-task(s) Other notes

minute initiated answering discussion discussion about the
intervals questions of teacher with peers with peers class activity
teacher questions or other
events
9.10 Said B SB not

Safia Y paying
attention
Safia Y
confused
9.11
9.12 Seth S Safia B Good recall

by Seth
9.13 Seth S
Safia Y
Discuss your observations with the teacher after the lesson and store both the checklist
and the record of your discussion in your PDP.
how you move around during lessons. Task 2.1.7 asks you to consider this aspect of classroom
management.
Observing assessment for learning

A common weakness identified in school inspections in England (Office for Standards in Education
(Ofsted) 2008) is a lack of focus upon assessment for learning (see also Unit 6.1; Ofsted 2014b).
Ensure that you know your schools assessment policies in relation to both teaching and learning,
as well as national assessments and those of the subject department. Task 2.1.8 asks you to focus
on assessment for learning (see Procter 2013 for an introduction).
How does the teacher use learning resources and aids during
the lesson?
Teachers use resources and aids during lessons to help pupils learn most effectively by both
employing a wide range of teaching strategies and to differentiate by matching the lesson activi-
ties to differing abilities, interests and school experience of pupils. All pupils learn best when exposed
to a variety of activities at different levels and through many formats and approaches, be they
M ! Task 2.1.6 Analysis of pupil learning
Before beginning your analysis, write down the intended learning outcomes for the lesson
(see Units 2.3 and 7.4) and identify the task/activities on which you are going to focus.
If you are a participant observer, you are able to take notes of key information as the
lesson unfolds, look over the work of pupils, and be actively engaged with coaching and guiding
their learning activities. This enables you to begin to appreciate what strategies and resources
are working effectively for their learning and why.
As a non-participant observer, your task becomes more subtle. If you are free to move
around once pupils are involved in an activity, you can oversee their task completion. If it is
appropriate, you can ask them brief questions but you must not disengage them from their
task. Equally, do not be tempted to do the work for them. Always lead them to think through
the task with your help.
In highly active lessons, there may be considerable chat and activity but there may equally
be considerable learning taking place. Quiet lessons in which the pupils seem attentive to the
teacher are not necessarily lessons where most learning occurs. Different teachers, depending
on the subject and specific tasks pupils are engaged in, have different expectations of the
degree of talk they allow pupils to have. Observe closely to what extent pupil talk is about
the tasks in hand or not and how the teacher responds to that.
The most flexible way to record pupil learning is to make bullet points as you notice things;
a proforma may not be appropriate because pupil learning is so complex. Once the lesson is
over, ask the teacher if you may review the work the pupils have completed.
Discuss your observations with the teacher after the lesson and record both your analysis
and discussion in your PDP.
practical, open-ended tasks that require exploring possible solutions or accessing and using audio-
visual tools (see Keuchel and Beaudry on Visual Learning in the list of websites at the end of this
unit). The important point here is that all pupils are learning. Providing a range of tasks and formats
allows the teacher to be creative and embed variety and differentiation (see Units 4.1 and 5.5) in
his or her approach to setting work for all pupils.
Task 2.1.9 provides an example of a proforma to use in analysing how learning resources help
pupils learn.
Subject content focused observation

All teachers during the early stages of their career have to work hard to fill gaps in subject content
knowledge and, as schemes of work and the curriculum change, experienced teachers also need to
learn new content. You may want to focus an observation on the content of a lesson on a topic you
are going to teach in which there is a gap in your own subject content knowledge (see also Unit 1.1).
Using video to support lesson observation

Lesson observation and the subsequent analysis is a very challenging activity. In five minutes of a
lesson, so much can happen that is of significance and worthy of discussion. Recording part of a lesson
! Task 2.1.7 Where is the teacher during a lesson?
The movement of teachers in the classroom may say a lot about their relationship with pupils,
about how they keep an eye on activity and behaviour, and about their interest in the pupils.
Draw an A4 map of the classroom in which you are observing. Mark on key points: teachers
desk, pupil desks, whiteboard, projector, and so on. Have several copies of the map available.
At regular intervals throughout the lesson (for example, every minute or so), mark on your
map where the teacher stands and where they have moved from, to build up a picture of
position and movement. At the same time, record the time and what is going on in the lesson.
This enables you to relate teacher movement to lesson activity. Analyse your map and discuss
the following:
n Where is the teacher most often positioned during the lesson? What possible reasons are
there for this: writing on the board; explaining with a projector; helping pupils with written
work?
n Does the teacher keep an eye on all events in the room and, if so, how? Is it done by eye
contact from the front or does the teacher move around the room?
n What does the teacher do to find out whether pupils were on task?
n Were some pupils given more attention than others? What evidence do you have for this?
What explanations are there for this?
n Was teacher movement related to pupil behaviour in any way? Examine this idea and
look for the evidence.
n Did the nature of the subject matter dictate teacher movement? How do movements
change in different subject lessons? Give an example.
n Some teachers use their desk and board and equipment as a barrier between them and
pupils; others move in among pupils and desks. Are there no-go areas that the teacher
does not visit? Are there similar spaces for teachers that the pupils do not visit?
Summarise your findings for your own records and reflect on what information your map
gives you about teacher territory and pupil territory. Share your information with other
student teachers. Record your observations in your PDP.
for detailed analysis with the teacher is an ideal way of learning. By the same token, taking still images
can be a very useful stimulus for post-lesson discussions about aspects of teaching and learning.
However, this needs to be discussed and approved by the teacher you are observing and ethical issues
need to be addressed.
Video recording your own lessons enables you to analyse your teaching and to identify ways to
improve your practice. You may notice aspects of the lesson that otherwise you may have missed.
This process is an effective way to reflect on your practice and set goals for improvement.
Established ethical procedures and guidelines about taking photographs or videos of children
need to be adhered to and you need to gain formal consent from the school to video. Videos of
pupils at school need to be kept confidential and within school premises. The use of photographs
or video recordings of pupils normally requires parental consent. You need to familiarise yourself,
! Task 2.1.8 Assessment for learning
Undertake some research about assessment for learning choosing reputable sources. Make
notes about this approach. Observe a class and, during the lesson, write detailed notes about
any activities the teacher uses to assess pupils understanding of the work. This may include:
1 How does the teacher find out:

(a) whether the pupils know what they are supposed to be doing?
(b) whether the pupils understand what they are doing?
(c) whether the pupils know the possible learning outcomes?
2 Does the teacher:
(a) talk to individual pupils as they work?
(b) talk to small groups?
(c) intervene with questions or suggestions when progress is slow or confused?
(d) ask challenging questions to individuals or groups to move learning on?
(e) address the whole class when a common problem emerges?
3 How does the teacher survey the whole class when working with small groups or
individuals?
The teacher may use many strategies, but the most common include:
n direct questions;
n discussion;
n asking pupils to present their work to their partner, the whole class or a group;
n reviewing work on an iPad/tablet, computer, whiteboard or in exercise books;
n role-play or display activities;
n setting another task to test understanding;
n posing a problem for pupils to solve in order to evaluate and deepen understanding.
Also note down what the teacher does to correct misconceptions and misunderstandings
or to deal with a lack of understanding and to advance learning. How does the teacher reassure
and motivate? (See Unit 3.2 on motivation.) How does the teacher consolidate learning?
Discuss your observations with the teacher.
therefore, with school policy and ensure that parental consent has been sought by the school and
allows for recordings to be made for the intended purpose. Many schools use video recording of
lessons as part of their programme of CPD for all teachers, and in these circumstances pupils learn
to ignore the cameras. Software can be used to annotate videos in real time so that key aspects of
the lesson (for example, questions asked and explanations given) can be easily grouped for playback
and analysis. IRIS Connect and Dart Fish are two commonly used platforms.
! Task 2.1.9 Learning resources and pupil learning
Identify the teaching/learning resources and aids used in activities in a lesson you observe
and describe the benefits for pupil learning. Read Units 5.2, 5.3 and 5.5 for ways of observing
learning.
The resource Learning activity Learning benefit
Printed texts
Prepared study guide or

worksheet
Pictures, mind maps, graphics
Internet and audiovisual

material
Computer programs, including

games
Experiments
Games, puzzles, models and

activity cards
Digital tools; for example,

interactive whiteboard,
iPads/tablets
Whiteboard
Other types of equipment
Discuss the lesson with the teacher and selected pupils. File the data in your PDP.
Collaborative teaching as a form of observation

Team-teaching or collaborative teaching is an interesting approach that can provide you with many
interesting ideas about how the teacher and other adults in the classroom, be they another teacher
or a classroom assistant, can approach lessons where they have planned them together. In that way,
pupils can gain greater access to adults, thereby decreasing the pupil-teacher ratio. Individual pupils
can be more effectively supported too. Collaborative or team-teaching is an ideal approach by which
to organise learners in small groups to attempt practical work that otherwise is difficult to organise.
For example, carousel tasks, discussions in small groups and engaging with work that involves finding
solutions are activities that can be far more effectively conducted by more than one teacher.
You should seek every opportunity at your placement school to be involved in collaborative
teaching because it is an active and powerful training experience where two-way observation and
evaluative feedback can be very constructive; for example, by co-teaching with another student
teacher. Mutual observation can facilitate joint planning, joint lesson evaluation and provide a
reassurance that can be helpful when making decisions to inform new planning and teaching. You
do need to agree success criteria for your lesson beforehand so as to help the observer focus on
those aspects of your practice.
n Lesson observation is something you can expect to take part in throughout your career.
You may observe others in order to learn yourself or you may be observed as part of
performance management in your school or the inspection process or when you are a
supporting student and new teachers.
n Observation is an important CPD activity for all teachers. It is also a key tool for reflective
practice and practitioner research (see Unit 5.4).
n Your observation skills will develop with practice and focused effort using some of the
methods suggested here over your whole career.
n The tasks in this unit were designed to help you develop your understanding and get the
most out of observation; more importantly, they should enable you to inquire as you seek
solutions to challenges arising in your own teaching.
Further reading
Altrichter, H., Feldman, A., Posch, P. and Somekh, B. (2008) Teachers Investigate Their Work: An Introduction
to Action Research across the Professions, 2nd edn, London: Routledge.
This comprehensive text provides detailed advice about observations, as will most research methods
textbooks.
Dudley, P. (2014) Lesson Study: Professional Learning for Our Time, London: Routledge; see also:
http://lessonstudy.co.uk/about-us-pete-dudley/
General Teaching Council for Scotland (2012) Code of Professionalism and Conduct, available at: www.gtcs.
org.uk/web/FILES/teacher-regulation/copac-0412.pdf
Lesson study is widely practised in schools as an improvement strategy.
Marsden, E. (2009) Observing in the classroom, in S. Younie, S. Capel and M. Leask (eds) Supporting Teaching
and Learning in Schools: A Handbook for Higher Level Teaching Assistants, London: Routledge, pp.
13346.
This resource provides further information about observation.
Ofsted (Office for Standards in Education) (2008) Assessment for Learning: The Impact of National Strategy
Support, available at: http://dera.ioe.ac.uk/9309/1/Assessment%20for%20learning%20-%20the%
20impact%20of%20National%20Strategy%20support.pdf
This resource provides an overview of assessment for learning from an Ofsted perspective.
Ofsted (Office for Standards in Education) (2014b) Note for Inspectors: Use of Assessment Information during
Inspections in 2014/15, available at: www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/
file/379630/Note_20for_20inspectors_20-_20use_20of_20assessment_20information_20during_
20inspections_20in_202014-15.doc
This site provides information about inspection and assessment.
OLeary, M. (2014) Classroom Observation: A Guide to the Effective Observation of Teaching and Learning,
London: Routledge.
This text has ideas and information that extend that in this unit.
Teaching College New Jersey (2015) Anti-Violence Measures, available at: http://oavi.tcnj.edu/tools-for-
everyone/assertiveness/assertive-nonassertive-and-aggressive-behaviors/
This site provides examples of classroom issues from an American perspective.
The Teaching Council (for Ireland) (2012) Code of Professional Conduct for Educators, available at:
www.teachingcouncil.ie/_fileupload/Professional%20Standards/code_of_conduct_2012_web%2019June
2012.pdf.
See the code of conduct and other resources available for teachers.

Keuchel, T. and Beaudry, J. (2015) Visual Literacy MESHGuide, Senior Mirandanet Fellow, NAACE Fellow, UK;
University of Southern Maine, USA: www.meshguides.org/meshguides-full-list/
A MESHGuide outlining issues related to visual literacy.
Procter, R. (2013) Assessment for Learning MESHGuide: www.meshguides.org/meshguides-full-list/
A MESHGuide giving an introduction to assessment for learning.
The Education School Teachers Qualifications, England, Regulations 2003: www.legislation.gov.uk/uksi/
2003/1662/schedule/2/made
This sets out the requirements for teachers in England.
2.2 Schemes of work, units of
work and lesson planning
Sophy Bassett, Mark Bowler and Angela Newton
Introduction
Good-quality teaching depends on effectively planned lessons.

(Ofsted 2011b: 51)
In order to achieve an effectively planned lesson, a number of factors must be considered. These
include pupil prior learning, the ways that pupils learn (see Unit 5.1), the requirements of the
curriculum (Chapter 7), appropriate methods of teaching to suit the needs of all pupils and resources
available (see Unit 4.1 on differentiation). In addition to these points, lesson evaluation informs the
planning process (see Figure 2.2.1). This unit considers each of these factors in developing medium-
and short-term plans.
Three levels of planning are particularly relevant to your work in the classroom the scheme of
work, which outlines lessons for a term or a year or so, the unit of work, which outlines a group
of lessons around a particular topic, and the lesson plan for each individual lesson. You quickly gain
experience of planning as you prepare lessons and units of work at your placement school. Evaluation
is integrally linked to planning and teaching, and lesson evaluations form the basis of any changes
or developments to your plans, both within and between lessons. For this reason, a flexible approach
must be adopted.
OBJECTIVES
n explain what is meant by the terms: aims, learning objectives, learning outcomes,
progression and differentiation;
n understand what is meant by a scheme of work, unit of work and lesson plan;
n construct units of work;
n construct effective lesson plans.
Check the requirements for your initial teacher education (ITE) programme to see which relate
to this unit.
n n n n 2.2 SCHEMES OF WORK, UNITS OF WORK AND LESSON PLANNING 109
PLAN
EVALUATE TEACH
Figure 2.2.1 Plan-teach-evaluate cycle
Planning what to teach and how to teach it

The factors influencing what should be taught (content of lessons) are discussed in Unit 1.1 and
Chapter 7, but how much you teach in each lesson and how you teach it (see Unit 5.3) are the
teachers own decisions.
Content of lessons
The knowledge, skills, understanding and attitudes appropriate for a young person entering the world
of work in the twenty-first century are vastly different to those that were considered appropriate
even 15 years ago. Ideas about what teachers should teach change regularly and the curriculum is
under constant scrutiny by those responsible for education.
Before you plan individual lessons, you require an overall picture of what learning is planned for
the pupils over a period of time. As a student teacher, you are usually given clear guidelines about
what to teach and the goals for pupils learning within your subject. These goals are often set out
in nationally produced documents; for example, the Scottish Curriculum for Excellence, the English
National Curriculum, the Welsh School Curriculum, the Northern Ireland Curriculum, school docu-
ments and specifications for accredited courses as issued by examination boards. You should become
familiar with the curriculum requirements and the terminology relevant to your subject.
Teaching strategies
To repeat the earlier point, although the learning content may be prescribed, the decision about
which teaching strategies to use is usually yours (see Unit 5.3). As you become more experienced
as a teacher, you acquire your own personal teaching style. People learn in different ways and differ-
ent teaching strategies are suitable for different learning objectives and different types of material.
You should become familiar with a range of ways of structuring learning experiences in the classroom.
For example, you might choose to use discussion, discovery learning or role play to achieve particular
learning objectives. Unit 5.3 gives detailed advice on teaching styles and strategies that help you
achieve different learning objectives. Task 2.2.1 asks you to reflect on your preferred approaches
to learning.
! Task 2.2.1 How do you learn?
Spend a few minutes identifying the methods that help you learn and the teaching strategies
used by teachers in situations where you felt you learned effectively (see Unit 5.1). Add notes
identifying situations in which you did not learn. Compare these notes with those of other
student teachers. People learn in different ways and different learning intentions require
different strategies. You should take account of such differences in planning your lessons and
demonstrate that you can use a range of teaching methods. This helps you to personalise
learning (see Unit 2.1 on observations and Unit 4.1 on differentiation). Record your observations
in your professional development portfolio (PDP).
Schemes of work, units of work and lesson plans

There are three main stages to planning for pupil learning:
1 a long-term plan the scheme of work;

2 a medium-term plan the unit of work;
3 a short-term plan the lesson plan.
A number of formats for schemes of work, units of work and lesson plans are in use. We suggest
you read the advice given for the teaching of your subject in the subject-specific texts in this
Learning to Teach series and gather examples from the teachers and student teachers you are in
contact with. However, while the level of detail may vary between different approaches, the purpose
is the same to identify learning objectives and learning outcomes in the long-term (scheme of
work), in the medium-term (unit of work) or in the lesson (lesson plan) and the learning content to
achieve these. Your initial teacher education provider may require you to use a specific proforma.
However, it would be beneficial to try different approaches to planning in order to find those most
appropriate to your situation. The best plans are ones that support you in your teaching so that
your pupils learn what you intend them to learn. The illustrations in this unit are intended to provide
examples with which you can work and later modify.
The scheme of work

This might also be called the programme of study and is usually designed at department level.
Different terms may be used in your school or in your subject, but the purpose is the same to
devise a long-term plan for the pupils learning, usually across a term, a year or period of years.
The purpose of a scheme of work is to ensure the continuity of pupil learning and build on the
learning that has gone before. In some departments, schemes of work are very detailed and include
a framework for teaching, learning and assessment, as well as safety issues.
Units of work
As with the scheme of work, different terms may be used for medium-term planning. A unit will
normally provide a plan for pupils learning from a few weeks to an entire term. Units of work are
often informed by a departments scheme but will generally be written by an individual teacher.
Both schemes and units of work will plan for the development of pupils knowledge, skills,
capabilities, understanding and attitudes in order to ensure effective progression in learning. The
term progression means the planned development of knowledge, skills, understanding or attitudes
over time.
Using a scheme of work to plan units of work

Often at your placement school you are given a scheme of work to inform your unit planning. The
following questions should be considered when designing units of work:
1 What has been taught before?

2 What do you want the pupils to know, understand and be able to do?
3 How much time is available to do this work?
4 What resources are available?
5 How is the work to be assessed?
6 How does this work fit in with the work pupils are doing in other subjects?
7 What is to be taught later?
The unit itself may be quite brief (Figure 2.2.2 shows a proforma used by student teachers on
one programme) but it will be based on the above information. An editable version of Figure 2.2.2
is available on the companion website (www.routledge.com/cw/capel).
Each question is now discussed in turn.
1 What has been taught before? This information should be available from school documentation
(for example, the schemes of work) and from staff. In the case of pupils in their first year of
secondary education, there is usually a member of staff responsible for liaising with primary
schools who may have this information.
2 What do you want pupils to know, understand and be able to do? The aims of a unit of work
are general statements about the learning that should take place over a period. Learning
objectives are specific statements that set out what pupils are expected to learn across a unit.
Learning outcomes are assessable learning objectives. They describe the action or behaviour
of pupils that will provide evidence they have met the learning objectives. (Learning objectives
are also prepared for each lesson, and further detail is provided later under lesson planning.)
In devising each unit of work, a small aspect of the whole curriculum is selected and a route
planned through it to provide the best opportunities for pupils to learn. Progression in pupil
learning should be considered and built into units of work.
3 How much time is available to do this work? The number and length of lessons devoted to a
topic are decided by the department or school in which you are working. Dont forget that
homework has a valuable role to play in enhancing learning, and some time may be taken up
by such things as assessments, revision, special events, bank holidays and school training days.
4 What resources are available? Resources include material resources as well as human resources,
and what is available depends on the school where you are working. You need to find out the
procedures for using resources in the school and what is available. You may find there are
resources outside the school to draw upon; for example, parents, governors, charities and
subject associations. Many organisations provide schools with speakers on current topics. There
may be field study centres or sports facilities nearby. Before planning to use any resources,
you should check whether there are any safety issues to consider.
5 How is the work to be assessed? Teaching, learning and assessment are interlinked. Most of
the work you are doing with pupils is teacher-assessed, although some is externally assessed.
A good deal of teacher assessment is formative, often referred to as assessment for learning
to check and guide pupils progress; for example, in relation to learning objectives (see Procters
(2013) and Newton and Bowlers (2016) MESHGuides on Assessment for Learning and Bhatti
(2015) on the alignment of curriculum, teaching and assessment). The key purpose of teacher
assessment during a lesson is to check knowledge and understanding of the material and to
guide the next steps of teaching.
Teacher assessment may also be summative undertaken at the end of a piece of work to assess
the progress achieved. In any case, you should keep good records of the pupils progress (homework,
class work, assessment results) in your own record book, as well as providing these in the form
required by the school or department. Unit 6.1 focuses on assessment issues.
Task 2.2.2 asks you to consider how you might record the outcomes of your assessment of
pupils.
! Task 2.2.2 Record-keeping and assessment
Ask staff in your department how they expect pupil assessment records to be kept and what
forms of assessment you should use for the work you are doing. Make notes and compare
practice in your school with other schools where your fellow student teachers are working.
6 How does this work fit in with the work pupils are doing in other subjects? There are many
areas of overlap where it is useful to discuss pupils work with other departments. For instance,
if pupils are having difficulty with measurement in technology, it is worth checking whether and
when the mathematics department teaches these skills and how they teach them (see examples
on De Geests 2014 MESHGuide on aspects of learning of Mathematics; Eames (2016) on grammar
and Harrison and Brookes et al. (2013) on spelling may also be of interest). Cross-curricular
dimensions to the curriculum (see Unit 7.2) are usually considered by the school and responsi-
bilities for different aspects shared out among departments. Ask staff in your department what
responsibilities the department has in this area.
7 What is to be taught later? Progression in pupil learning has to be planned, and schemes and
units of work are drawn up for this purpose. From these documents, you know what work is to
come and the contribution to pupil learning that each lesson is to make.
Unit of work
Topic:
Related prior learning:
Class: No in class: Age:
No of lessons: Duration: Dates:

Unit aims: (from the NC or accredited course specification)
Unit objectives: (In relation to what pupils will know/understand/be able to do)
Cross curricular links:
Framework of lessons: Ref. (NC/Spec.)
Resources:
Assessment strategies:
Other notes:
Figure 2.2.2 Unit of work proforma

Task 2.2.3 asks you to draw up a unit of work.
! Task 2.2.3 Drawing up a unit of work
In consultation with your tutor, draw up a unit of work to last about six to eight lessons. Focus
on one particular class that you are teaching. Use the format provided for your ITE programme
(or the one we provide in Figure 2.2.2). Ensure you consider questions 17 above in designing
the unit of work. Record your planning in your PDP.
The lesson plan

The lesson plan provides an outline of one lesson within a unit of work. In planning a lesson, you are
working out the detail required to teach one aspect of the unit of work. To plan the lesson, you
use a framework, an example of which is provided in Figure 2.2.3.
The following questions should be considered when planning lessons:
1 What is the range of ability of the pupils?

2 What do the pupils know about the topic?
3 What are the aims, learning objectives and outcomes for this lesson?
4 What time is available for the lesson?
5 What resources are available?
6 What approaches to classroom management should I use?
7 What teaching strategies should I adopt?
8 How do I assess pupil learning?
9 What risks are associated with the work?
Each question is now discussed in turn.
1 What is the range of ability of the pupils? As you develop as a teacher, you are expected to
incorporate differentiation into your planning. This refers to the need to consider pupils
individual abilities when work is planned so that all pupils, regardless of ability, are challenged
and extended by the work. Differentiation can be achieved in different ways depending on the
material to be taught. Differentiation may, for example, be achieved by outcome (that is, different
types or qualities of work may be produced) or by task (that is, different tasks may be set for
pupils of differing abilities) or by teacher input (Unit 4.1 provides further information). You
provide continuity of learning for the pupils by taking account of and building on their existing
knowledge, skills and understanding.
2 What do the pupils know about the topic? As your experience of the curriculum and of pupils
learning develops, it becomes easier to answer this question. You need to consider what has
been taught before, as well as the experience outside school that pupils might have had. It may
be appropriate to do some form of testing, or analysis of knowledge, skills, attitudes and
understanding, or to have a discussion with pupils to discover their prior experience and attitudes
to the work in question. As a student teacher, you should seek advice from the staff who normally
teach your classes, as well as consulting national guidance materials.
3 What are the aims, learning objectives and outcomes for this lesson? Learning objectives and
outcomes are informed by the aims of the unit. Learning objectives describe the learning
intention for the lesson and are recorded in terms of what the pupils are expected to know,
understand and be able to do. Objectives describe how pupils behaviour is expected to change.
Learning outcomes are assessable objectives. Drawing up effective objectives and specifying
and planning for learning outcomes require considerable thought. Learning objectives are not
the same for all pupils, and more often than not your objectives can be differentiated. One way
of achieving this is to write objectives detailing what all, most or some pupils should be able
to do.
An effective method of presenting learning objectives and outcomes is to begin each
statement with By the end of this lesson, (all/most/some) pupils should . . . When writing
learning outcomes, you should include a verb (and in some subjects a quality) that ensures your
outcome is measurable.
Verbs that help you be precise are those such as state, describe, list, identify, prioritise,
solve, explain, create and demonstrate. These verbs force you to write outcomes that can be
observed or measured. If you think your learning outcomes are vague, ask yourself whether
they make it clear what the pupils have to do to demonstrate their learning. Task 2.2.4 supports
your writing of measurable objectives.
To help pupils understand what is expected of them, you might use the acronym WALT
(what am I learning today?) and WILF (what am I looking for?). These link with the use of
objectives (WALT) and outcomes (WILF).
Task 2.2.5 challenges you to set learning objectives, specify learning outcomes and then
analyse the learning that may result.
4 What time is available for the lesson? On the example lesson plan provided, a timeline is drawn
down the left-hand side. You should plan for short learning episodes in order to maintain the
engagement of the pupils. At the planning stage, think practically about how long it is likely to
take to set up, complete and review each task. During the lesson, the timeline enables you to
see easily if it is necessary to adapt the original plan to fit the time available.
5 What resources are available for the lesson? It is important to select and make available the
most appropriate resources to achieve the learning objectives. Check how resources are reserved
in your department and book them early because other staff may need them at the same time.
6 What approaches to classroom management should I use? You should plan for how you group
pupils, integrate resources and manage transitions between activities and stages of the lesson
(see Units 2.3 and 4.1).
7 What teaching strategies should I adopt? Teaching strategies should be selected as the best
method to achieve your learning objectives (see Unit 5.3). Where possible, active learning
strategies should be planned to engage all pupils (see Unit 5.2). Relevant questions should be
planned for every lesson to assess pupils knowledge and understanding during the lesson and
to develop their higher-order thinking skills. Phrasing appropriate questions is a key skill for a
teacher (see Unit 3.1).
8 How do I assess pupil learning? The assessment methods selected should enable the learning
outcomes, and thus some learning objectives, to be accurately assessed. It is therefore important
to choose reliable assessment methods, and you should seek advice from the teacher of the
class. Ensure that you allocate sufficient time to carry out your chosen assessment methods
effectively (see Unit 6.1).
! Task 2.2.4 Writing measurable objectives
Using the Table 2.2.1 based on research into learning domains, collate a list of useful subject-
specific verbs that will help to ensure your outcomes are measurable and progressive. Some
generic verbs are provided to help you.
Table 2.2.1 Setting objectives based on learning domains to ensure measurable outcomes
Cognitive domain (based on Anderson and Krathwohl 2001)

Progressive levels Example verbs Subject-specific verbs
Creating Design, plan, invent
Judge, assess, identify
Evaluating
strengths/weaknesses
Analysing Analyse, compare, contrast
Applying Apply, use, select
Understanding Explain, discuss, identify
Remembering Define, list, label
Affective domain (based on Krathwohl Bloom and Masia 1973)

Characterising by value Influence, defend, support
Organising Modify, relate, integrate
Valuing Accept, initiate, endorse
Responding Agree to, reply, react
Receiving Listen, acknowledge, watch
Psychomotor domain (based on Dave 1970)

Naturalisation Manage, create, design
Articulation Adapt, reorganise, combine
Precision Master, refine, control
Manipulation Complete, improve, make
Imitation Copy, repeat, follow
9 What risks are associated with the work? Safety is an important issue in schools. In some
subjects, the assessment of risk to the pupils and incorporation of strategies to minimise this
risk are a necessary part of the teachers planning. Departmental and national guidelines are
provided and should be followed to ensure the safety of pupils. As a student teacher, you should
consult your head of department, class teacher or tutor for guidance on safety issues. Never
undertake an activity until risk assessment has been considered. For examples of risk
assessments, see HSE (2015), Eaton Vale Schools Activity Centre (2015) and CLEAPSS (2005).
Your subject association will also be able to give you advice.
! Task 2.2.5 Writing learning objectives and learning outcomes
Learning objectives link to the observable outcomes of the lesson; that is, to what pupils are
expected to be able to do. Specifying the expected learning outcomes for the lesson will help
you clarify your learning objectives. Discuss the writing of learning objectives with other
student teachers in your subject area and your tutor. Choose a particular lesson and, as a
group, devise appropriate learning objectives for all/most/some pupils that relate to changes
in pupils learning or behaviour. Pay particular attention to the quality and type of objectives
you are setting are they focused on the pupils learning? Then identify the learning outcomes
related to the learning objectives. How might learning be demonstrated by the pupil? Record
your observations in your PDP.
Lessons have a structure and a rhythm to them. As you read this next section, think about the
overall pattern to a lesson and the skills you use at each stage.
An editable version of Figure 2.2.3 is available on the companion website (www.routledge.com/
cw/capel).
Planning parts of a lesson

Planning is an important part of the teaching process. Figure 2.2.1 illustrates the planning, teaching
and evaluation cycle that should occur for every lesson that you deliver.
Lessons can be divided into three parts. Each of these must be planned carefully in order that
your lesson meets its learning objectives. These parts are called the starter, the main section and
the plenary. Although there are three parts to a lesson, the main section usually includes several
different activities, often referred to as episodes, that lead towards the achievement of the planned
objectives. Starters and plenaries can also be referred to as episodes.
Starter
In order to actively engage pupils from the outset of the lesson, an interesting and relevant starter
activity must be planned. Think of this as the hook to draw pupils in to the lesson. This activity
may draw upon and/or assess previous understanding or might present a challenge to pupils. Having
such an activity displayed at the start of the lesson will give you time to organise your main activities
as the class arrive.
Main section
Before you begin the main activities/episodes of the lesson, you need to clarify your learning
objectives for the pupils. Sometimes you may elect to do this before the starter activity, whereas
at other times you may complete the starter before explaining the learning objectives. It is considered
good practice to display these objectives visually to your pupils. Pupils need to be aware of the
purposes of the learning activities/episodes and how they will contribute to their learning journey
within the lesson. Activities/episodes need to be chunked as you must bear in mind that pupil
concentration span is 1015 minutes. You must also plan for the transitions between each
activity/episode, and it may be necessary to conduct mini plenaries at the end of each episode to
consolidate learning to ensure a smooth and well-paced lesson. Each episode should build upon the
previous one.
Date: Class: Topic:
Lesson:
(e.g. 2/8) No. pupils: Focus:
Duration: Resources:
Overall aim:
Learning objectives: (all/most/some)
Learning outcomes: (all/most/some)
Learning support requirements:
Assessment for learning strategies:
Time Teacher activity/strategy Pupil activity (all/most/some) Episode evaluation

Starter
Main section
Plenary
Lesson evaluation:
Were objectives/outcomes achieved by all/most/some? What evidence do you have to answer
this question with certainty?
What went well? What didnt go well?
What needs to be addressed next time?
What are your priorities for pupil learning in the next lesson?
What are your priorities for improving planning, organisation and transitions?
What are your teacher performance targets?
Figure 2.2.3 Planning a lesson: one possible approach

Plenary
This is a very important part of the lesson, during which learning should be summarised. This involves
referring back to the main learning objectives for the lesson. It is an important time for the teacher
to check pupil learning, and this requires skilful questioning (see Unit 3.1). At this point, it may be
appropriate to give a brief outline of the next lesson. Enough time should be set aside to record
homework tasks and clear away any equipment.
General points to consider

Previous sections of this unit outline the key issues in effective planning. The following section
highlights some general points that enhance the likelihood of overall success.
n Resources: Make sure your plan identifies the exact number of any resources that are required
for the lesson. Ensure that you familiarise yourself with the equipment and know how to use it.
If possible, set it up prior to the lesson.
n Activities: It is better to plan too many activities than too few. If one of your planned activities
does not work or pupils complete the tasks more quickly than you anticipated, additional
activities can be used.
n Homework and forward planning: Ensure you plan enough time to set homework and/or remind
pupils of any materials they might require for the next lesson. This can then be recorded in
their planner.
n Group management: Learn pupils names as quickly as possible (see Buzan 2008; TeacherVision
2015). Consider whether there is a need to design a seating or workspace plan for your class.
This can have both logistical and learning benefits.
n Routines: Classroom routines are important to ensure effective organisation of pupils and
resources. These might include distribution and collection of resources, arrival and exit of pupils,
and movement around the classroom. Ensure that you are at your teaching area before the
lesson to greet the pupils on arrival. At the end of the lesson, pupils departure should be
supervised to ensure that they leave your teaching area in a safe and orderly manner. In subjects
where there is a level of risk (for example, science or physical education), planning a safe routine
is of paramount importance. Where effective routines are already in place, adhere to these:
pupils will expect you to use the routines that their teacher will have worked hard to establish.
When required, you may need to implement new routines after consultation with your tutor.
Evaluation and planning future lessons

As soon as you can after the lesson, evaluate its success. Were the learning outcomes, and therefore
learning objectives, achieved by all/most/some? What went well? What didnt go well? What evidence
do you have that allows you to answer these questions with some degree of certainty? Sometimes
it is useful to wait until you have reviewed puplis work before evaluating the lesson (see Unit 5.4).
What are your priorities for pupil learning in the next lesson and how do they fit in with the unit of
work? What are your priorities for improving planning for organisation and transitions? What are
your priorities for your performance as a teacher? If you develop the practice of reflecting on your
work as a matter of course, then modifying future practice on the basis of this reflection becomes
second nature.
Task 2.2.6 challenges you to plan, teach and evaluate a series of lessons to support pupil
progression.
M ! Task 2.2.6 Planning for pupil progression
Plan a unit of work to last between three and eight lessons. Plan, teach and evaluate lesson
1 in conjunction with your tutor. Identify the key points that should be considered when
planning lesson 2. Repeat this plan, teach, evaluate cycle for the unit of work. Consider any
adaptations you will need to make to your planned unit.
Review the quality of your planning and teaching using Brookfields (1995) four critical
reflection lenses of self-review, student review, peer review and theoretical literature. Identify
your areas of strength and development in relation to promoting pupil progression through
effective planning. Record this task in your PDP as an example of masters-level work.

You should now be able to:
n explain the following terms: aims, learning objectives, learning outcomes, progression and
differentiation;
n construct units of work and lesson plans that are comprehensive and useful.
Further reading
Butt, G. (2006) Lesson Planning, 3rd edn, London: Continuum.
This is a comprehensive book supporting student and qualified teachers to improve their planning in the
short, medium and long term. Sections include planning for pupil differences and making plans work within
the classroom.
Jerome, L. and Bhargava, M. (2015) Effective Medium-Term Planning for Teachers, London: Sage.
This text provides advice and suggestions for effective medium-term planning. It includes examples of
planning and justifications for the importance of medium-term plans, and explores links between pupil
attainment and effective medium-term planning.
Kyriacou, C. (2014) Essential Teaching Skills, 4th edn, Cheltenham: Nelson Thornes.
This provides an excellent and readable overview of the key skills that underpin effective teaching.
Mager, R. (2005) Preparing Instructional Objectives, 3rd edn, Atlanta, GA: Center for Effective Performance.
Making the desired learning objectives and learning outcomes clear to pupils helps ensure effective learning.
This text provides useful information about objective setting.

Lesson plans are widely available on the Web but the quality will vary. See examples on the Times Educational
Supplement (www.tes.co.uk/) or the Guardian Teacher Network (www.theguardian.com/teacher-network).
Always check the strength of evidence of any advice you find.
MESHGuides (www.meshguides.org). The following have been cited in the text:
Bhatti, A.J. (2015) Curriculum Alignment MESHGuide, International Islamic University, Islamabad.
De Geest, E. (2013) Mathematics: Reading and Writing Mathematics MESHGuide, Open University, UK.
Eames, K. (2016) Teaching Grammar in the English Language MESHGuide, Bath Spa University, UK.
Harrison, C. and Brookes, G. et al. (2014) Spelling in English MESHGuide, Universities of Nottingham and
Sheffield, UK.
Newton, A. and Bowler, M. (2016) Assessment in Physical Education MESHGuide, University of Bedfordshire,
UK.
Procter, R. (2013) Assessment for Learning MESHGuide, University of Bedfordshire, UK.
Open University resources: The Open Universitys Open Learn website (www.open.edu/openlearn/education/
educational-technology-and-practice/educational-practice) has a wide range of material that you may
find helpful.
Remembering names: these websites will provide ideas
Buzan, T. (2008) How to Remember Names and Faces: www.open.edu/openlearn/body-mind/psychology/
buzan-on-how-remember-names-and-faces.
TeacherVision (2015) Learning Students Names Quickly: www.teachervision.com/teachingmethods/
classroom-management/6708.html.
Risk assessments: see the CLEAPSS, Eaton Vale and HSE sites below
CLEAPSS (2005) Managing Risk Assessment in Science Classrooms: www.cleapss.org.uk/attachments/
article/0/L196.pdf?Secondary/Science/Guides/.
Eaton Vale Schools Activity Centre (2015) Risk Assessments: www.eatonvale.co.uk/schools/riskassessments.
aspx.
HSE (Health and Safety Executive) (2015) Health and Safety Checklist for Classrooms: www.hse.gov.uk/risk/
classroom-checklist.htm.
Appendix 2 on pages 591595 provides examples of further websites you may find useful.
The subject-specific books in the Routledge Learning to Teach series are also very useful.
Acknowledgements
The authors are currently undertaking research into different models for lesson planning and their
impact and rationale, and acknowledge with thanks the contributions to their research from teachers
and student teachers.
2.3 Taking responsibility for the
whole lesson
Michelle Lowe and Clyde Redfern
Introduction
This unit draws your attention to issues that have particular relevance to you when you are just
starting to take responsibility for whole lessons. It focuses on particular aspects of planning and
teaching to which you should pay particular attention. Recall the iceberg image of a teachers work
from Unit 1.1. The delivery of the lesson in the classroom represents the tip of the iceberg, while the
bulk of the teachers work for a lesson routines, preparation, subject knowledge, professional
knowledge and judgement, previous lesson evaluations is hidden. Sometimes it can be helpful to
remember the key elements of complex ideas using an acronym. We want to introduce you to the
acronym of PROPS in the first part of this unit. The PROPs we ask you to think about are the following:
n P personal attributes being the teacher

n R routines in the classroom
n O outcomes
n P planning
n S subject.
In the first section of the unit we explore the importance of personal attributes and how you
personify the role of the teacher. We also look at how you can use verbal and non-verbal
communication strategies to develop your confidence to deliver lessons. In the next section, we
explore further the importance of understanding routines. We then move on to look at the importance
of routines for pupils, other adults and for you as a teacher. A key element is to understand what
you are trying to achieve in a lesson and the learning outcomes you intend for pupils. In this unit,
we explore effective planning to ensure learning takes place and introduce you to the concept of
the LOOP for planning purposes. We also ask you to think about the importance of subject knowledge
in relation to your planning. Finally, we explore the impact your first lesson might have on you
personally.
n n n n 2.3 TAKING RESPONSIBILITY FOR THE WHOLE LESSON 123
OBJECTIVES
n have a greater awareness of your own persona as a teacher and understand the impact
this can have on others;
n have an understanding of the power of routines to support the delivery of effective
lessons;
n recognise and apply the core principles in your future planning that ensure pupils can
make progress;
n have understood some of the barriers and enablers to your own confidence and identified
strategies to use these to enhance your professional practice.
to this unit.
Persona: being the teacher

As a student teacher, you may find it hard to imagine yourself as a teacher. You may be asking
yourself:
n How do I dress?
n How loudly do I have to talk?
n Will the pupils listen to me?
n Where should I stand?
n How much should I talk?
n What do I do with my hands?
n Will they understand my accent?
This is very common and nothing to worry about. In the section below, we provide advice and ask
you to explore your perceptions of what it is to be a teacher and how this relates to your assessment
of your own communication skills. You are asked to identify your strengths and areas for develop-
ment. You will also understand how you can get the best out of your relationships with pupils and
colleagues.
Personal attributes
First, complete Task 2.3.1.
When we talk about personal attributes, we are referring to the mannerisms, values and
behaviours that all human beings have. Some people are generous, humorous, animated, smiley,
kind, and so on. In your description of the teacher, you probably had lots of positive words such
as these. It may be that some people who enter teaching have a set of personal attributes that
predispose them to behaving in certain ways. For most people, the attributes needed for teaching
! Task 2.3.1 What makes a great teacher?
You will already have observed teachers in the classroom. Reflect on this and imagine that
you have to describe the key attributes of a great teacher to someone from outer space.
Think carefully about the attributes that impact upon pupils learning.
Record the outcomes of your reflections and discussions in your professional development
portfolio (PDP).
(for example, ability to explain, to give clear instructions, to appear even handed in settling disputes,
your physical stance, your use of gesture) need to be developed or enhanced. This may take time
and you shouldnt expect to have all of the desirable attributes perfected for your first lesson. You
do, however, need a plan to enhance your existing personal attributes and to develop others. To do
this, you first need to analyse your own personal starting point in a realistic and honest way. A tool
used in management to assess personal attributes is the 360 self-evaluation. To complete your
own self-evaluation, ask four trusted people to provide you with a list of your top five personal
attributes as a teacher. Also ask them to identify three areas for development. Preferably, this would
be colleagues in school, but you might also ask your friends or tutors. This will give you a balanced
view of how others perceive you. Now complete Task 2.3.2.
! Task 2.3.2 Personal strengths and areas for development
Think back to the description of a great teacher you developed for Task 2.3.1. Use the
feedback from the 360 to assess how close you are to this. What do you need to do to close
the gap and how will you do this? Store this information in your PDP.
Confidence
When you take responsibility for a class for the first time, this can feel daunting, as all eyes and
expectations are upon you. You are no longer assisting someone else in the learning process, but
are the person responsible for leading it. The most important of the personal attributes you need
for this is confidence. To help you feel confident before you stand in front of the class, you need to
feel that you understand the following:
n the routines and expectations of the classroom and the wider school particularly the format
and requirements of the lesson plan used in the school;
n the pupils ability levels and any additional needs they may have;
n what has been covered in previous lessons and the focus for future lessons;
n what you will be teaching in terms of subject content;
n how both you and the pupils you teach will know that they have made progress;
n the resources needed and available to you.
n which other adults are available to support your lesson and how you will utilise them.
You will already have begun to collect information about your school and the pupils, which should
help you with this (see forms of professional knowledge for teaching in Table 1.1.3). When you plan
your first solo lesson, it will take a long time and you should be prepared for your tutor to offer
advice and guidance. Although this may seem like criticism, remember they have a lot of experience
that may be beneficial. This is an investment for the rest of your teaching career. This planning
process will probably take longer than you anticipate, so allow plenty of quality time for discussion
and modifications. Following this advice also means you develop and display other personal attributes
that are valuable as a teacher. You will develop your patience, perseverance, resilience, ability to
listen and take advice, and understand the value of reciprocity in professional life. Confidence is a
state of mind that is fed by experience. It is not a fixed position and will be affected by how each
individual lesson goes. A thorough plan is the key to confident delivery (see Unit 2.2 for the detail
of lesson planning) and effective planning and evaluation of lessons can have an impact on your
confidence. This is an area that you can develop and control.
Communication
Despite having a good lesson plan, you may still feel a little uncertain about your abilities as a teacher
and it should be remembered that confidence can be affected by factors beyond the classroom. You
need to be able to recognise if this happens and seek help and advice as appropriate. There are a
number of other strategies you can employ to develop your confidence. Many of these are linked
to verbal and non-verbal communication. In this section, we identify some simple ways in which you
can project an image of confidence to your class. Recall the questions at the start of this unit.
How do I dress?
In most schools, you will need to conform to a dress code. Make sure you know what this is. Clothing
should always be comfortable and practical. This is particularly important in relation to footwear.
Similarly, you should also think about jewellery. Functional and in line with school norms is the most
appropriate.
You may be a fashionista and tempted to wow pupils with your dress sense. You might argue
that your clothing gives you confidence. However, this may not meet the schools dress code or
be the best way to start a relationship with a group of pupils. You want them to remember you for
the quality of your teaching, not the size of your heels or the pattern on your tie! If you really want
to wear distinctive clothing that is in line with the schools dress code, leave this until you are
able to deliver high-quality lessons on a regular basis.
Where should I stand?

Choosing where and how to stand in the classroom is important. Many student teachers position
themselves almost exclusively at the front of the class as if attached to the teachers desk. This is
not helped in some modern classrooms where technology is controlled from a central location.
Remember, you can control the computer from anywhere in the classroom using a relatively cheap
remote pointer, which is a good investment. You may also be limited by the layout of the classroom.
Although it may not be easy to change classroom layout immediately, this might be something you
consider as you reflect on how the classroom layout impacts on learning. The most important thing
is to position yourself where the pupils can see you and you can see them. You should also consider
whether you need to move pupils to facilitate this; for example, bringing pupils closer to you at the
start of a lesson and requiring their full attention on you. If you can plan to keep whole-class activities
short and sharp, this will help pupils to maintain their focus on you.
Think of your classroom as a stage. You have the right to work in any part of it that you choose.
Do not have the mindset that the teacher and pupil operate in separate zones. There are no teacher
zones or pupil zones. Continuing with the analogy of a stage, if you were producing a play, you would
control carefully as many elements as possible to ensure the audience get a rich experience. The
same applies in a classroom. There are some basics. If the room is hot or stuffy, you should open
a window. Think carefully about lighting do not stand in front of a bright light or have bright lights
shining at your pupils. Acoustics matter in the classroom (see Underwood et al.s 2015 Acoustic
Accessibility MESHGuide). Make sure your pupils can hear you and you can hear them. It is worth
observing how good teachers use the space. Notice how they move and look for the key locations
so that they can scan pupil activity on-task (Unit 2.1 gives guidance on observing classrooms).
How loudly do I have to talk?/Will the pupils listen to me?/Will they

understand my accent?
Verbal communication is important (see also unit 3.1). Many student teachers focus on what they
say and can spend a long time perfecting their teacher input, often learning a script like the lines
of a play. Over time, you will move away from a script and towards a more natural performance.
Through your communication style, you are aiming to be authoritative, not authoritarian. Teachers
need to have clear speech. You need to develop an awareness and control of pace (how fast you
talk), volume (how loudly) and tone (the ways in which your voice goes up and down). Some regional
accents have particular tonal sounds. For example, some accents can be characterised with a rising
inflection towards the end of sentences. This can leave the listener wondering if you have asked a
question! You should be particularly aware of your own voice try recording and listening to yourself
and see how this is affected when you feel nervous or under pressure. Pay particular attention to
vocalisations. Some people end every sentence with OK, erm, umm, and so on. We are not
suggesting that you can change the way you speak overnight, but you need to be aware that you
are moving from conversational language to presentational language. Just like an actor, you need
to change into the character/persona of the teacher.
How much should I talk?

Remember that the aim of every lesson is to enable pupils to make progress in their learning. You
have to make an assessment of whether they have done this and if you dominate the talk in the
classroom it can be difficult to work out what a single pupil or groups of pupils have learned. A good
lesson will have a balance of teacher talk and pupil talk and plenty of time for pupil activity. It is
often the case in early lessons that the teacher will talk in the belief that this is a safe course of
action. You may be scared to allow your pupils some freedoms and worry that they will not do what
you ask them to do. A good lesson with engaging activities will keep pupils on-task. Unit 5.2 covers
active learning. Over time, your role will change from the deliverer to the facilitator of learning.
What do I do with my hands?

Our voice is not the only way in which we communicate. Think about when you observe a play. The
actions you see are as powerful as the words you hear. It is not just what you say but how you say
it. Our hands are powerful communication tools. For example, if you cross your hands or arms in
front of your body, this can be perceived as a sign that you are feeling vulnerable with the cross as
a protection. Similarly pointing gestures can be perceived as aggressive and confrontational. You
should also think about the eye contact you make with pupils. When you are nervous, you might not
even look at the pupils, which may be perceived by them as you not being interested in them. Keep
eye contact with pupils and link this to facial expression. It is very easy to appear pleased,
disappointed, surprised or sad just by changing the position of your mouth or eyebrows. Your aim
is not to make pupils your enemies or your best friends. Using a small nod of the head and a smile
can be powerful tools in managing a classroom, which helps you to maintain your teacher persona.
There are many books written about non-verbal communication and we signpost you to one of these
in the Further reading. See also Unit 3.1 on communicating with pupils.
Interpersonal relationships
Student teachers often focus on their relationships with pupils, and this is very important to enable
you to plan and deliver an effective lesson. You need to know what their abilities are, what
personalities they have, what additional needs they may have, and so on, and you will be developing
your communication strategies with pupils continually. However, during your first lessons, you may
feel nervous about how to use other adults. You are now the leader of learning, which means you
need to lead everyone. This can appear daunting. Now complete Task 2.3.3.
! Task 2.3.3 The role of the teaching assistant (TA)
Observe an experienced TA working with a teacher. What do they do? Why is this effective
in supporting learning? How does the teacher include them in the lesson?
Record the outcomes of your reflections and discussions in your PDP.
First of all, establish which adults are available to help you and what their role is. You may have
a general teaching assistant (TA) or a TA to support pupils with additional needs. You may have a
technician if you teach a science or an information technology (IT) related subject. These are highly
skilled people who, like your tutor, will be willing to help you plan and deliver your lesson. When you
make your lesson plan, you must plan for what they are going to be doing either before, during or
after the lesson. Other adults in your classroom will be working with the same school routines and
policies that you are, so you can expect them to support decisions that you make in relation to
managing behaviour and learning in the classroom (see www.behaviour2learn.co.uk). Remember, if
you plan for and carefully manage the pupils learning, you will have a better chance of managing
behaviour. A useful strategy in your early lessons is for you to ask your tutor to act as a TA. They
can give you valuable feedback on how effectively you utilised them and included them in your
lesson if they act in this role. It will also be helpful as they will be able to provide you with small
interventions to keep your lesson on track; for example, they might spot the pupil who finishes the
last page in their book and can intervene you might not even know yet where to get new books!
This strategy can also give your tutor a valuable and defined role in what is their class.
In this section, you have reflected upon your personal attributes and ways in which these can
be developed or enhanced. You have also begun to think about how you can ensure that you have
the confidence to deliver lessons as the lead teacher. In the next section, we explore further the
importance of understanding routines.
Routines
Routines for class and lesson management provide a structure where the rules are understood by
all so that learning can take place. In time, these routines become instinctive for you. Routines are
not established in a vacuum. The pupils you teach have been in schools for at least seven years and
they expect the teacher to establish norms for classroom work, talk and movement. You are taking
the lead for a class in a department and school that already has norms so it would not be appropriate
for you to introduce completely new ways of working. School and department routines are normally
non-negotiable and can be a support for you. The area in which you can focus and make your own
impact over time is the teacher-controlled routines (see Unit 2.1 on observation of routines). There
are routines for:
n classroom management the operational management of the physical space;

n relationships in the classroom the ways in which all people in the classroom interact and relate
to each other;
n expectations of and for learning
Classroom management
You need to think about how the classroom is managed. Completing Task 2.3.4 will help you to
identify what current practice is in your school, and it can provide a helpful checklist for you to refer
to when you take the lead as the teacher.
! Task 2.3.4 Classroom routines
Make a list of the routines in the classroom for the following:
n entering the room/leaving the lesson;

n getting the teachers attention/the teacher getting attention;
n pupils moving around the classroom;
n getting equipment out and tidying away;
n leaving the classroom (toilet/illness);
n routine administration taking registers/keeping records;
n the use of time in the lesson.

For your early lessons, one of your main goals is to get the pupils down to work promptly. To do
this, you need to be confident in the operational routines of the classroom. Your concern is to
establish yourself as an organised teacher, and earlier in the unit we discussed the idea of the
classroom as a stage that you control. Your early lessons will go more easily if you fit in with
established routines. You are borrowing this classroom so always remember to leave it as you
would expect to find it.
Relationships in the classroom

Other adults: There may be other adults in the room, and your job is to ensure that they are well
utilised in supporting pupil learning. You will need to use or establish a routine for communicating
the lesson plan in a timely and appropriate fashion and for gaining feedback from the other adults.
Do not expect a TA to be able to do their own preparation if you only give them the lesson plan as
the lesson starts!
Pupils: Pupils need to know what the routines are in your classroom. Adopting a firm, fair, friendly
approach helps you develop good relationships with pupils. Pupils have certain expectations of you.
You need to be explicit about your expectations of them and the routines you will use. Above all,
they will expect continuity in their experiences at school. It is not helpful for pupils to be given
conflicting routines as they move from class to class, subject to subject, teacher to teacher. You do
need to know your class, and there will be influences on classroom relationships that come from
the community. Information about the range of group norms of behaviour for teenagers in the
local area and background information about other social relationships (for example, which pupils
are cousins, stepsisters or brothers) may help you understand more easily your pupils and their
expectations.
Pupils may ask you inappropriate personal questions. Do not allow yourself to be distracted from
the work in the lesson. You can choose whether or not to answer personal questions, but do set
boundaries beyond which you will not go. Do not be personal, and do not take things personally. If
you decide to share personal information with the pupils, then choose the time and place.
Routines for behaviour management: In terms of behaviour, pupils expect a teacher to be fair
and consistent in applying the school rules. They expect those who comply to be rewarded and those
who do not to be sanctioned (reprimanded). You need to think about how you will do this. Schools
already have established routines to reward and sanction pupils. You should use this and ensure
that you match the reward or sanction to the pupil action. One of your routines should be to reward
rather than sanction to try to create a positive environment for learning in your classroom. Ask
your tutor to observe your ratio of rewards to sanctions in your lessons. Behaviour management is
cited as an area of concern by student teachers more often than any other area, and Units 3.2 and
3.3 provide more detailed guidance (see also www.behaviour2learn.co.uk/).
One of the more challenging areas is how to manage low-level disruptive behaviour. This is where
a thorough understanding of the school policy on behaviour is vital. A key strategy is for you to be
able to identify and defuse emerging situations. Confrontation in front of the whole class is generally
to be avoided. You could use the following ladder of interventions:
n First, try to use non-verbal gestures to remind a pupil to keep working.

n Next, a quiet, individual conversation with the pupil. Use your voice sparingly to manage
behaviour.
n If this doesnt work, try proximity praise, where you reward a pupil nearby who is on-task.
n At the next stage, try positioning yourself or another adult near a pupil who needs more
encouragement to stay on-task.
n Before you use the school policy on sanctions, try a more detailed conversation where you
highlight the issue and give a pupil clear options about how to correct the behaviour and what
the consequences of continuing their behaviour will be.
! Task 2.3.5 Dealing with swearing
Discuss the following two scenarios with your tutor and identify an appropriate response:
n You overhear a pupil use swear words in conversation with another pupil.
n A pupil swears at you.
You should always try to remain positive and try to hide any frustrations or anger that you might
feel. This can be difficult; after all, you have planned a lesson in great detail and you want it to go
right. You might be very worried about how a tutor perceives off-task behaviour. Remember, they
will want to see that you have a routine for managing behaviour and that you are consistent. Now
complete Task 2.3.6.
! Task 2.3.6 School policies: rewards and sanctions
Find out about the policies on rewards and sanctions at your placement school. Make notes
of the key issues that affect your work. Check your understanding of the application of these
policies with your tutor. Write down the approach you are going to take with respect to rewards
and sanctions and discuss this with fellow student teachers and/or your tutor.
Routines for gaining attention: Earlier in the unit, we discussed the non-verbal communication
skills you can use to keep pupils attention. Getting pupils attention at the start of a lesson and
getting the attention of the whole class at points during the lesson is a skill that experienced teachers
do effortlessly. You must decide how you are going to get attention in both situations and then act
confidently. You could try a verbal call for attention (Stop what youre doing and just look here for
a minute). You might have a non-verbal signal (such as raising your hand in the air). You could use
an auditory signal (a computer sound). A teacher may then follow this with a focus on an individual
(Guy, that means you too), which acts as a reminder to all pupils that if they do not want to be the
focus of the teachers attention, they need to stop what they are doing. Think about what you want
to call the class to attention for. You do not want to stop pupils when they are working well, but it
can be helpful when, for example, pupils come to a difficult point or if you wish to draw their attention
to a point on safety.
One of the fundamental rules of the classroom is that pupils should not speak when the teacher
is speaking. Spending a few minutes in a lesson waiting for silence until you speak saves a lot of
time later, as pupils know what you expect. Pupils may need reminding of your expectations and
you probably need to reinforce the idea that this is one of your basic rules. You must be able to get
the classs attention when you require it. When observing classes, the following questions may help
you see some of the strategies used by teachers to establish this aspect of their authority:
n What verbal cues does the teacher use to establish quiet? Key phrases such as Right then and
Put your pens down now establish that the teacher requires the class to listen. Some student
teachers make the mistake of thinking the words quiet or shush repeated over and over will
gain the required effect. Units 3.2 and 3.3 provide further advice.
n What non-verbal cues does the teacher use to gain attention? Look at the way teachers use
gestures eyes, face, arms, hands to establish that they require the class to listen. They may
stand still and just wait. Unit 3.1 contains more ideas.
There are also routines related to the way pupils gain the teachers attention. The usual routine
is that pupils put up their hands and do not call out. Again, we suggest you find out what the current
practice is for the classes you are teaching and make sure you implement this consistently.
Expectations of and for learning

A good teacher has high expectations of and for learning. They plan for learning to take place. You
need to establish a routine in your classroom whereby pupils are challenged through you clearly
setting out the intended learning objectives for the lesson (see Table 2.2.1), sharing them with the
pupils, planning activities that allow the pupils to engage with the learning objectives and assessing
the extent to which the objectives have been met by individuals. Individual outcomes and tasks
should all be directly related to the objectives and intended learning outcomes for the lesson.
This should be reflected in your lesson planning (see Table 2.3.1). Part of the classroom routine is
to help the pupils understand these steps for themselves. Checking and marking pupils work during
the lesson helps improve their work. It also helps if pupils are regularly involved in helping to assess
their own work. It is a useful exercise, sometimes, to have pupils swap books so that they can check
each others work. Marking their work routinely helps you to set specific, well-matched and
challenging targets for all. Your comments and discussions with them help pupils become aware of
where and how to improve their work.
In this section, we have explored the importance of routines for pupils, other adults and you as
a teacher. Do not underestimate the power of strong and clear routines, and strive to achieve these
as soon as you can in your practice. You should expect some resistance from tutors and pupils to
any change you wish to make as this can create unnecessary disruption.
Outcomes
Now you have begun to establish your identity as a teacher and have an understanding of the key
routines that underpin your performance in the classroom, you can focus on the driver that underpins
all lessons pupil progress. It might seem an obvious statement that in your lessons pupils should
make progress; however, achieving this requires a high level of skilful planning and delivery. Pupil
progress is evidenced through the outcomes of a lesson. Put simply, outcomes are what pupils
achieve in the lesson. There are obvious outcomes; for example, the amount of correct completed
problems in a mathematics lesson. Outcomes can be planned for, and this is known as differentiation
(see Unit 4.1). Sometimes there are unanticipated outcomes. When this happens, you need to
understand why and adapt future lessons to accommodate this. We can keep the outcomes of a
lesson in pupil record files. However, outcomes are often seen as the end product. This is not the
case. We would want you to focus more on intended learning outcomes. If a pupil has learned in
your lesson, if they have met the intended learning outcomes, they will be able to recall this at a
later stage and use it in a variety of other contexts. In the next section, we explore the difference
between actual outcomes and intended learning outcomes in more detail. You also need to think
about outcomes for you. As a student teacher, you have to show how you have met the learning
outcomes for your ITE programme. The outcomes of your ITE programme may become part of your
evidence file against the professional standards. You are likely to feel that your outcomes are under
constant scrutiny from many quarters, and this is right and proper to ensure that the best teachers
enter the profession. Never lose sight of the fact that if you can establish an environment where
pupil outcomes and the extent to which pupils achieve the learning objectives set for them are the
main focus, you will be on the right lines to becoming a great teacher and most other things will
fall into place.
Planning
Planning to ensure learning takes place means understanding this LOOP:
n L learning starting point what pupils already know;

n O objectives the new learning for the lesson;
n O outcomes how you will see the learning happen;
n P progress how you will know what learning has taken place.
The lesson plan is the obvious way in which your tutor can see what you intend to do and may
be designed by you for two audiences your tutor to check your planning and for you to deliver
the lesson so that pupils learn (see also Unit 2.2 on lesson planning). It should contain enough
information to satisfy both requirements and no more. It should not be a script, but the level of
detail will vary with time and experience. The lesson plan is the culmination of the research and
thinking that you undertake for the lesson and your evaluation of previous lessons. If a lesson is to
be effective, you really need to be clear about what you are trying to do with your class and what
you will be expecting of them. It is easy to fall into the trap of planning lessons that are relatively
superficial but look busy with a series of activities that are not really having an impact on pupils
learning. You can use the checklist in Table 2.3.1 to support you in the planning process.
Table 2.3.1 Planning lessons
n Plan the lesson and ask for advice about your plan. Be clear about what you want to achieve. Have
your plan to hand at all times. You need to work with the classroom teacher to understand what next
steps pupils need in order to achieve.
n Think about your resource needs are you using worksheets, pictures, cue cards, video, textbooks,
PowerPoint, the interactive whiteboard? Some resources are easier and safer to use than others. You
may find that equipment you had planned to use stops working or the specialist in your subject is not
available to supervise you.
n Check that you have adequate extension and alternative work. Anticipate that additional work may be
needed.
n Link tasks to earlier work (this is known as scaffolding) and set authentic tasks ones that are relevant
to the learners lives and locality.
n Make the content challenging. Ensure the challenge is realistic and pupils are productive; do not make
the work so difficult that the pupils give up.
n Know the class if possible through your observations and have a strategy for using and learning
names. Try to learn names quickly making notes beside the names in the register may help you
remember. Drawing up a seating plan can help; pupils may always, or at least usually, sit in the same
places. In any case, you can ask them to sit in the same seats until you know their names.
n Think about how you are going to assess pupils work during the lesson. You will need to give them
comments and feedback on what they are doing.
n Check which other adults will be in the room, and the need for any materials to help them with
particular pupils. It might help, for example, to give them a copy of your lesson plan so that they are
aware of what you are trying to do.
n Keep track (in your head, at least) of which activities worked with the class and why.
! Task 2.3.7 Comparing lesson plans
Exchange a lesson plan with another student teacher. Discuss some of the questions below
together. You can also use Table 2.3.1 to help structure the questions you ask for this task.
n Are the learning objectives and intended learning outcomes clearly specified and
differentiated?
n Can you identify the types of outcomes expected?
n Are the pupils likely to be actively and appropriately engaged at every opportunity?
n Are the tasks authentic tasks?
n Have you planned appropriate time sequences into your lesson?
n Is there scope for pupils to demonstrate to you what pupils have learned this lesson?
Never start your planning just from an activity. You should always ask yourself if the activity that
the pupils are doing or your actions as a teacher are directly related to the learning objectives and
intended learning outcomes. If they are not, then you are diluting the impact your lesson will have.
This is very common, and you may do this in the early stages of your planning. You may plan well-
meaning activities that deflect pupils from focusing on the learning you want to take place in your
classroom. If you can focus on planning for pupils learning in your early lessons, you will have
a focused impact on your pupils right from the beginning. This inevitably means you must spend a
good deal of time thinking about the learning you want to take place and carefully crafting your
learning objectives and intended learning outcomes. Unavoidable incidents occur to interrupt the
flow of your carefully prepared lesson. We discuss below some of the more common incidents and
possible solutions so that you are not taken by surprise.
Judging the timing during a lesson is one of the most difficult problems initially, and following a
timeline on your lesson plan can help you see at a glance how the lesson is progressing in relation
to the time allowed. Always keep an eye on the clock and keep your lesson plan to hand. If you spot
that you are running ahead or lagging behind, you can intervene sooner to get your lesson back
on track, but you need to consider also how the pupils are progressing. Monitoring the timing is
useful for you and the pupils, and it may be that you use a displayed class timer for activities. It
may be that you have too much or too little material. Pupils have to get to their next lesson on time
and to have their break on time. So you must let them go on time! Five minutes or so before
the end of a lesson (more if they have to change or put equipment away), draw the lesson together,
reminding them of whats been achieved against the learning objectives and intended learning
outcomes, what is expected in the way of homework and perhaps what they will be learning in the
next lesson. Table 2.3.2 provides some examples of what you can do if pupils finish work early.
With experience, you acquire the skill of fitting work to the time available so the problem ceases
to cause you anxiety.
Managing behaviour generally has been covered in an earlier section of this unit (it is also covered
in Unit 3.3 in more detail). Inevitably, some pupils try to deflect you from your lesson goals. This
needs to be addressed. Ignoring deliberately provocative remarks such as This is boring can help
you avoid confrontation. Try to motivate uninterested pupils by linking the work with their interests
if possible and ensure the learning is relevant if you cannot explain to pupils the relevance of the
lesson to their current and future lives, then you cannot expect them to be motivated to learn. Ask
your experienced colleagues for advice if particular pupils constantly cause you trouble. It is likely
that they are also causing some other staff difficulties.
You may be worried that you will be asked a question and you do not know the answer. This is
bound to happen. You can admit you do not know What an interesting point, Ive not thought of
it that way Kate; I just cannot remember at the moment. It is possible to celebrate the moment:
Table 2.3.2 Backup plans in case pupils finish work quickly
n Have questions prepared relating to the learning objectives/have a class test ready.
n Let the pupils peer-assess each others work and feed back against the learning objectives.
n Go round and look at pupils work, give a constructive comment and share this with the class if
appropriate.
n Use your lesson objectives and intended learning outcomes to devise questions about the work or get
pupils to devise them. For example, devise a quiz related to the lesson; develop a spider diagram for
summarising the key points in a topic; produce a mnemonic to aid the recall of key issues.
n Homework (either past or just set) can be discussed in more detail. You may allow the pupils to discuss
this together.
n Pupils existing knowledge on the next topics could be discussed through question and answer.
(Learning is more certain where you, as the teacher, build on pupils existing knowledge and
experience.)
Paul, that is a really good question. Where might we go for an answer to that? Make arrangements
for the answer to be found. The pupil can follow it up for homework, use the library to look for the
answer or write to those who might know. You may also be able to find out from other teachers,
student teachers or your subject association.
You will always have pupils who are not able to engage with the lesson because they do not have
the appropriate equipment. You should aim to get most of the class working so that you can then
direct your attention to those who require individual attention. Many schools have systems in place
for dealing with pupils lack of kit and equipment. You need to know what this is so that you follow
the school system. It can be less disruptive to your lesson for you simply to supply the missing item
for the lesson. But make sure you retrieve what you have loaned and indicate firmly that you expect
pupils to provide their own.
You must check equipment in your teaching room beforehand and, in any case, have a backup
planned if your lesson is dependent on equipment working, such as information and communications
technology software. The more sophisticated your use of technology, the more likely you will
encounter technical difficulties. Remember, your backup plan should still allow you to deliver the
lessons intended learning outcomes. Schools have different approaches to dealing with loss and
breakage of equipment by pupils. The simple strategy of managing your lesson so that there is
sufficient time at the end to check that equipment and books are returned saves you time in the
long run. See also Unit 8.3 on health and safety.
Subject content knowledge and pedagogy

To use LOOP, you need to be aware of the importance of subject knowledge and specific pedagogic
practices linked to your subject. This means that you must ensure your own personal knowledge of
the subject is at a suitable level to teach the learning objectives and intended learning outcomes.
You should audit your own subject knowledge and fill in any gaps you may have. It is also important
for you to think about how you will remain at the forefront of current thinking in your discipline.
You also need to be aware of the current pedagogic practices in your subject and endeavour to
model best practice in your classroom.
Overview
In becoming a teacher, you are more vulnerable than when being educated for many other
professions as you are exposed to a discerning audience (the class) early on. So much of your
performance in the classroom depends on your own personal qualities and your ability to form good
relationships with pupils from a wide range of backgrounds (see Unit 1.2). Your performance is
analysed and commented on by those who observe your teaching. You are forced to face your own
strengths and weaknesses as a result of this scrutiny. This can be stressful, particularly when you
may be given apparently conflicting advice from different observers. As you become more
experienced and you develop more analytical skills for use in appraising your performance, you
should build your self-belief and confidence.
Despite following all of the advice given, it may be that you may have a poor lesson with a class.
This does not mean that all lessons with that class will be like that. What it does mean, however, is
that you must analyse the situation and put into place strategies for ensuring that the next lesson
is better. Incidents will occur that leave you feeling deflated, unsure or angry. Try to adopt a problem-
solving reflective approach to your work so that you maintain some objectivity and can learn from
any difficult experiences you have. You will have seen from this unit that taking responsibility for
the class is challenging and delivering your first lesson can call for all of your resilience. Time and
stress management and developing resilience are important issues, and Unit 1.3 is devoted to them.
n Your first encounters with the pupils are important in setting the tone for your relationships
with them.
n It is worth carefully considering the image you wish to project in these early lessons.
n Aim to give an impression that you have created an organised learning environment.
n Your professional persona as the teacher is something you should create deliberately and
not just allow to happen.
n You should not underestimate the importance of planning your lessons to help reinforce
this image.
n Time invested in understanding and developing the LOOP will help you to develop as a
skilled practitioner.
n Most student teachers have to work on controlling their nerves and developing their self-
confidence.
n Covering the points in Table 2.3.3 in your preparation should prevent some of the difficulties
you would otherwise encounter.
Table 2.3.3 Lesson preparations checklist
n Set clear, simple and measurable learning objectives and intended learning outcomes for the
lesson that are likely to be achieved.
n Plan the lesson carefully and have extension work ready.
n Obtain pupil lists and know pupils names.
n Check the room layout. Are things where you want them? What about safety issues?
n Know the school, class and lesson routines.
n Be on time.
n Prepare resources beforehand.
n Act as though you are in charge although you probably wont feel that you are.
n Know the subject you are teaching.
n Plan the lesson to give a balance between teacher talk and pupil activity.
n Include a timeline in your lesson plan so that you can check during the lesson how the plan is
working. Try not to talk too quickly.
n Be prepared to manage behaviour and remember that learning should drive behaviour not
behaviour drive learning.
n Visualise yourself being successful.
n Have a backup plan for the lesson (see Table 2.3.1).
One of the problems you may have will be believing you are indeed a teacher. This is a mental
and emotional transition that you need to make. The pupils, parents and staff see you as a
teacher, albeit a new one, and expect you to behave as such.
Further reading
Millar, R., Leach, J., Osborne, J. and Ratcliffe, M. (2006) Improving Subject Teaching, London: RoutledgeFalmer.
This text is part of an Improving Learning series, and while this one is specifically around science teaching,
more texts in the series have been published. They report findings from a major national research initiative
into teaching and learning the Economic and Social Research Council (ESRC)/TLRP programme.
Pease, A. and Pease, B. (2011) Body Language in the Workplace, London: Orion.
This book will give you insights into verbal and non-verbal communication strategies. Further information
is on their website and their YouTube videos, available at: www.peaseinternational.com/index.php?
route=news/headlines (accessed 18 July 2015).
Westwood, P. (2007) Commonsense Methods for Children with Special Educational Needs, 5th edn, London:
RoutledgeFalmer.
Many of the approaches used with pupils with SEN work well with all pupils. This text outlines approaches
to effective teaching and provides research to back up different strategies.

Behaviour2Learn: www.behaviour2learn.org.uk
Review information on this resource to support your work in establishing clear routine and boundaries.
Blamires, M. (ed.) (2014) Special Educational Needs and Disability: Enabling Pupil Participation MESHGuide,
RIDDLE consultancy, previously Canterbury Christ Church University: www.meshguides.org/category/
special-needs-2/enabling-pupil-participation-special-needs-2/
Review information on this resource to support your work with pupils with different needs.
Burden, K. and Younie, S. (2014) Using iPads Effectively to Enhance Learning in Schools MESHGuide, University
of Hull and De Montfort University, UK: www.meshguides.org/category/icttechnology/tabletsipad-
pedagogy/
Queensland Government (2015) Attributes of a Good Teacher: http://education.qld.gov.au/hr/recruitment/
teaching/qualities-good-teacher.html
Ofsted (Office for Standards in Education) (2014d) Inspection Framework: www.ofsted.gov.uk/resources/
framework-for-school-inspection
This will provide information about expectations in England.
Taylor, C. (2011) Getting the Simple Things Right: Charlie Taylors Behaviour Checklists: www.gov.uk/
government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/283997/charlie_taylor_checklist.pdf
Underwood, A., Turner, R., Whyte, S. and Rosenberg, J. (2015) Acoustic Accessibility MESHGuide, BATOD
Foundation, available at: www.meshguides.org/category/general-pedagogy/acoustics-listening-and-
learning/
YouTube Teachers (www.youtube.com/user/teachers) and the Khan Academy (www.khanacademy.org/)
Both have short videos explaining core concepts for many subjects.
The subject-specific books in the Learning to Teach series extend the information in this unit.

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What are the main components of an effective teacher according to the text?

What are the main components of an effective teacher according to the text?

What is the difference between initial teacher education and initial teacher training?

What is the difference between initial teacher education and initial teacher training?

Introduction

Susan Capel, Marilyn Leask and Sarah Younie

Developing your philosophy of teaching and learning

How to use this book

Structure of the book

Meeting the requirements of your ITE

Reflective practice, evidence-informed practice and your professional

Ways you might like to use this book

Using the tasks

Susan Capel, Marilyn Leask and Sarah Younie

Youre late, said miss

Teachers as individuals: your values and ethics

Your values and your ethical code

! Task 1.1.1 Your code of professional conduct and ethics

Your role as a teacher

! Task 1.1.2 Focusing on the teachers standards

n setting and marking of homework n helping pupils with problems

Your role in raising attainment and improving life chances

Table 1.1.2 The Average Child

I dont cause teachers trouble, my grades have been okay.

* This refers to the bell shape of a normal distribution curve.

! Task 1.1.3 Motivating learners

n in geography, a depression is an area of low air pressure;

n I am not happy with . . .

See the Behaviour2Learn website for detailed research-based advice (www.behaviour2learn.

The work in the classroom: the tip of the iceberg

n planning a sequence of lessons to ensure learning progresses;

Professional knowledge for teaching

Table 1.1.3 Forms of professional knowledge for teaching

6 Knowledge of educational contexts: political, curricular, sociological, cultural, geographical, historical

Source: Adapted from Shulman (1986, 1987)

Subject content knowledge (SCK)

! Task 1.1.4 Auditing your subject content knowledge (SCK)

General pedagogic knowledge (GPK)

Pedagogical content knowledge (PCK)

Knowledge of learners and their characteristics

Knowledge of educational contexts

n the type and size of schools;

Knowledge of educational ends (aims), purposes, values, and

Your personal subject construct

M ! Task 1.1.5 Pedagogical content knowledge (PCK)

Managing the learning environment: a key part of your

Classroom rights and responsibilities

! Task 1.1.6 Classroom rights and responsibilities

Your professional profile: what image do you want to project?

SUMMARY AND KEY POINTS

" Other resources and websites

n prepare for school experience;

Preparing for school experience

! Task 1.2.1 Preparing for school experience

Table 1.2.1 The key players in your ITE programme

Key player Alternative names Role

Student teacher Student; trainee teacher; Yourself

During school experience: work with other staff and pupils