Determinants of Job Satisfaction in Academic Professionals of Pakistan

Volume 1 | October 2014
www.sijmb.iba-suk.edu.pk
Determinants of Job Satisfaction in Academic Professionals of Pakistan

Ali Ahmad Bodla
Antai College of Economic and Management, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Xuhui Campus,
Shanghai, China
Matloub Hussain
College of Business Administration (COBA), Abu Dhabi University, 59911, Abu Dhabi, UAE
Chiyin Chen
Antai College of Economic and Management, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Xuhui Campus,
Shanghai, China
Abstract:
The purpose of this study is to explore and analyze the determinants of job satisfaction in
academic professional of Pakistan. The job satisfaction was considered dependent variable and
human resource management (HRM) practices (training and development, performance
appraisal, career planning, and compensation) were predictor variables. Linear regression model
was used in this study that demonstrated the overall effect of variable and data was collected
from faculty members of four (two public and two private) different universities of Pakistan.
It has been found that performance appraisal and compensation are important determinants of job
satisfaction among faculty members. Therefore, the management of universities in Pakistan
should give considerable emphasis on performance appraisal. Interestingly, the analysis of means
variation and independent t-test did not demonstrate a difference between faculty members of
public and private universities in terms of job satisfaction and HRM practices. Future
investigations should explore the underlying mechanism between the HRM practices and job
satisfaction.
Keywords: Job Determinant, Human Resource Management, Job Satisfaction, Academic

Professionals.
Page: 20 - 39
Email: alibodla22@gmail.com
P - ISSN: 2313-1217 2014 Sukkur Institute of Business Administration All rights reserved
20
Ali et al. / Determinants of Job Satisfaction
1. Introduction
Job satisfaction has been of interest to researchers, because of its relationships with job performance
and/or organizational commitment. The impact of various determinants of job satisfaction on
organizational performance and employee attitudes has been extensively explored in developed
countries (Delaney and Huselid, 1996; Huselid, 1995; Katou and Budhwar, 2007; Petrescu and
Simmons, 2008). Nonetheless, limited research has been carried out in the context of developing
countries. (Budhwar and Debrah, 2001; Sing, 2004; Yeganeh and Su, 2008). Therefore, this study
attempts to explore determinants of job satisfaction in case of Pakistan.
Educational sector of any country has a unique importance particular in knowledge creation.
Competitiveness of this sector mostly depends on the satisfactory involvement and commitment of
its employees, hence perceived organizational practice and financial adequacy are the best predictor
of job satisfaction (Leung et al, 2000). To attract and retain talented, dynamic and competent faculty
and their performance management has become strategic human resource management (HRM) issue
for universities (Chughtai & Zafar, 2006; Van den Brink et al, 2013).
Two types of educational institutions are prevailing in Pakistan; i.e. public and private universities.
Previous research has explored the relationship between HRM practices and job satisfaction among
faculty members either in public or in private universities; e.g. Munaf (2009), Shah et al (2012) and
Halai (2013). However, both institutions vary in terms of quality, environment, faculty satisfaction
and implementation of HRM practices in public and private institution also relatively differ (Munaf,
2009). Thereafter, this research conducts comparative analysis and explores the relationship between
HRM practices and job satisfaction among faculty members of both public and private universities.
Data has been collected from 102 faculty members (Lecturers, Assistant Professors, Associate
Professors, and Processors) of business management department from four different universities
located in capital area of Pakistan. The Survey questionnaire that is used in this study was adapted
from the Singh, K (2004). The job satisfaction was considered dependent variable and HRM
practices (training and development, performance appraisal, career planning, and compensation)
were predictor variables. The correlation and regression analysis has been carried out to test
following four hypotheses related with HRM practices and job satisfaction.
Hypothesis 1: Training and development has positive and significant effect on job
satisfaction of academic professional.
Hypothesis 2: Performance appraisal has positive and significant effect on job satisfaction of
academic professional.
Hypothesis 3: Career planning has positive and significant effect on job satisfaction of
academic professional.
Hypothesis 4: Compensation has positive and significant effect on job satisfaction of

academic professionals.
SIJMB P - ISSN: 2313-1217 2014 Sukkur Institute of Business Administration Vol: 1 | Oct 14
21
2. Literature Review
(Steijn, 4-7 September, 2002) found that job satisfaction of employees in public sector is on the
decline. He analyzes the job satisfaction on the basis of four factors, individual characteristics, job
characteristics, work environment variables and HRM practices. (Singh, 2004) examined positive
relation of HRM practices with firm performance. (Pillay, 2009) identified low pay, workload and
lower chances of promotion for work dissatisfaction among the professional nurses in public and
private sector. Only social context of the work make them satisfied, they received intrinsic
satisfaction from the patient care. In contrast; private sector nurses are only dissatisfied with their
pay.
2.1. HRM practices and Job Satisfaction

Literatures in this perspective reveals that number of researchers have identified different factors of
job satisfaction, such as achievement, advancement, recognition (Marchant, 1999), responsibility,
work itself, relationships, policy and administration, salary, supervision, working conditions (Castillo
& Cano, 2004) were factors for job satisfaction. The finding implies that faculty is mostly satisfied
with job content and least satisfies with job context. The finding of (Berg, 1999) was
contradictory to (Castillo & Cano, 2004). He argued that job satisfaction is not influenced by job
characteristics. Balance between work and family impact job satisfaction.
The impact of Higher Education Commission of Pakistan policies on academic staff and their
satisfaction was found inconsistent (Mapesela & Hay, 2005). They found that most of the policies
have negative correlation with academic staff performance and their job satisfaction. On the other
hand (Katou, 2008) found that HRM policies have a direct positive effect on outcome and
organizational performance. The outcomes of organization are related to competence, cooperation
with management, cooperation among employees, motivation, satisfaction, commitment and
retention. Therefore underlying mechanisms are much important to explore.
2.2. Training and development

Training and development is defined by (Patrick, 2000) as It is systematic development of the
knowledge, skill, and expertise required by a person to effectively perform a given task or job.
Although training and development enhances the skill, knowledge and competencies of the employee
but now this concept has gone beyond the traditional interpretation. Learning opportunities were
found most influential factors in job satisfaction (Schmidt, 2007). (Jones, Jones, Latreille, & Sloane,
2009) argued that job satisfaction increases through workplace training. Training and development
programs minimize the gap between actual and desired performance. (Choo & Bowley, 2007)
described the contributions of training and development initiatives and opportunities to enhance the
skills always increases professionalism, increase employee commitment and job retention.
2.3. Performance Appraisals

Performance appraisal is used to evaluate the individual performance (attitude towards work, quality
of work, personal achievement, and accomplishing organizational objectives). It is further helpful for
compensation policy, career development and keeping the information about relative worth of the
22
employee for the organization (Chand & Katou, 2007). Performance appraisal positively influence
the job satisfaction (Cook & Crossman, 2004) but fairness of the performance appraisal system is
compulsory (Fletcher & Williams, 1996). According to the expectancy theory (Vroom, 1964)
individual attitude and choices based on expected results, motivation act as process governing
choices it emphasized to relate individual performance directly to the rewards and to ensure that
rewards are given to those who deserved. Similarly equity theory (Adams, 1965) demonstrated that
employee satisfaction explain in term of relational perception of fair and equal distribution of input.
Realistic, faire and effective performance appraisal initiatives are the necessary prerequisite of
overall job satisfaction (Saari & Judge, 2004).
2.4. Career Planning

Career planning has immense importance in HMR practice (Baruch, 1996) Similarly (Super, 1980)
argued Career is combination and sequence of roles played by person during the course of a
lifetime. Psychological based theories revealed that if person actively participate in their vocations
and do not bother about opportunities hunting than person is satisfied with his/her employment and
his/her efficiency increases (Brown & Associates, 2002).
Career planning is a tool that aligns strategies with future HRM needs and encourages employee to
strive for his personal development (Singh, 2004). Effectively functioning career planning system
motivates the employees to take responsibility for their personal development and including the
development of the company. The relationship between career planning and job satisfaction
demonstrated by (Chen, Chang, & Yeh, 2004). The results revealed that career need of the
employees varies at various stage of their career. If the gap between their apparent career and the
career they desired is larger than their turnover intention and job dissatisfaction will be high.
2.5. Compensation
Compensation is an amount of monetary and non-monetary pay that employee get from the employer
in return of work performed as required. Compensation influences the work motivation and job
satisfaction (Berg, 1999). Performance based compensation contributes to achieve organizational
goal and objective (Singh, 2004). In order to attract and retain the competent workforce; the
universities offer competitive level of compensation to their faculty and recognize their
achievements. Organizations commitment to faculty enhances the job satisfaction and improves
academic quality (Comm & Mathaisel, 2003). The compensation packages to employees have
different impact in different institutional setting.
(Macklin, Smith, & Dollard, 2007) demonstrated that same compensation package impact differently
because of job characteristic, work stress, supervisor relationship and institutional structure. Comm
& Mathaisel (2003) found that the faculty members were most satisfied with the autonomy of their
jobs and ability to make their own decisions about work. In the light of expectancy and discrepancy
theories, (Igalens & Roussel, 1999) examined the relationship of compensation with work motivation
and job satisfaction. Their results implicated positive relationship among given variables.
23
3. Research Model and Methodology

3.1. Conceptual Framework
Literature Koustelios (2001); Ott and Dijk (2005) suggests that job satisfaction depends on different
factors. The main objective of this study is to explore the effects of HRM practices on job
satisfaction. This study focused on the relationship of performance appraisal, training, compensation,
and career planning with job satisfaction. Here job satisfaction is dependent variable and explanatory
variables are performance appraisal, training, compensation, and career planning as shown in Figure
1.
Figure 1: Conceptual framework
3.2. Research Methodology

3.2.1. Sample and Data Collection
Four universities (two from private sector and two public sector universities) were selected for this
research. The target respondents were the academic professionals (lecturers, assistant professors,
associate professors, professors) from the business administration department. The academic
professionals with at least 2 year of experience in the same university were considered valid for this
research. Information about faculty members was collected from website of Higher Education
Commission of Pakistan (http://www.hec.gov.pk/Pages/HECMain.aspx). The Survey questionnaire
that is used in this study was adapted from the Singh, K (2004). The questionnaire contained 36
items; in which 7 items were related to job satisfaction and other 29 are related to independent
variables. Details of the questionnaire can be found in Appendix 1.
The total 180 questionnaires were distributed and 102 questionnaires were received therefore the
response rate was 56%. All survey was treated confidentially. Five point liker scales was used. The
respondents were asked to response the extent to which each statement is pertaining to his/her
knowledge regarding HR practices and job satisfaction. Where 1=strongly Agree and 5=strongly
disagree. Cronbach alpha was used to evaluate the reliability of the instrument. The values of
reliability coefficients of all the variables are given below in Table 1.
24
Table 1. Reliability Statistic

Variable Name Cronbachs Alpha N of Items
Training and Development 0.81 7
Performance Appraisal 0.87 8
Career Planning 0.80 6
Compensation 0.85 8
Job Satisfaction 0.86 7
The correlation and regression analysis is used to identify the relationship between HRM practices
and job satisfaction and effect of HRM practices on job satisfaction. To identify the differences and
similarities between public and private universities; t-test, mean and standard derivation has been
applied.
4. Analysis and Discussion

4.1. Frequency Distribution
Table 2 presents results of frequency distributions of the participants.
Table 2 Frequency Distribution

Variables Frequency Percentage
Designation
Lecturer 53 52%
Assistant Professor 35 34%
Associate Professor 9 8.8%
Professor 5 4.8%
Year of Experience
1-2 28 27.5%
2-5 31 30.4%
5-8 27 26.5%
25
8-10 8 7.8%
10-13 4 3.9%
>13 4 3.9%
Qualification
Master 49 48.0%
MS/M Phil 36 35.3%
PhD 15 14.7%
Post Doc 2 2%
Questionnaire filled by University Nature
Public 56 54.9%
Private 46 45.1%
Gender
Male 70 68.6%
Female 32 31.4%
Age
< 25 6 5.9%
25-30 29 28.4%
30-35 24 23.5%
35-40 18 17.6%
40-45 17 16.7%
45-50 4 3.9%
>50 4 3.9%
26
4.2. Mean, Standard Deviation and T-Test

The results of Table 3 compared the means of variables through independent t-test. Insignificant
difference was found of job satisfaction (t = -.083, df = 100, p>0.05) between academic professionals
working under private and public sector universities of Pakistan. This indicates that the job
satisfaction level of public and private sector academic professionals of Pakistan is same.
Table 3. T-Test
Variables Academic Professional N Mean SD t-value df Sig (2-tailed)
JS Public 56 3.30 1.439 -.083 100 .935
Private 46 3.33 1.301
T&D Public 56 3.21 1.358 -.169 100 .866
Private 46 3.26 1.405
PA Public 56 3.41 1.437 -.319 100 .751
Private 46 3.50 1.378
CP Public 56 3.48 1.348 -1.580 100 .124
Private 46 3.87 1.128
C Public 56 3.20 1.445 -1.412 100 .164
Private 46 3.59 1.343
Similarly insignificant differences were found on the variables of Training & development (t = -.169,
df = 100, p>0.05), performance appraisal (t = -.319, df = 100, p>0.05), career planning (t = -1.580, df
= 100, p>0.05), and compensation (t = -1.445, df = 100, p>0.05), between academic professionals
working under private and public sector universities of Pakistan. The results revealed that HRM
practices (training & development, performance appraisal, career planning, and compensation) of
public and private sector universities of Pakistan are not different.
4.3. Correlation
Table 4 shows correlation between dependent and independent variables. It can be seen that the
correlation between training & development and job satisfaction is significant. Pearson value .365*
is significant at .05 level. The correlation between performance appraisal and job satisfaction is
significant (.692**) at .01 level. The correlation between career planning and job satisfaction is
significant (.520*) significant at .05 level. The correlation between compensation and job satisfaction
is significant (.719**) at .01 level.
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Table 4 Correlation Matrix

TD JS PA CP C
TD Pearson Correlation
Significance
N ___
JS Pearson Correlation .365* .
Significance .000
N 102 ___
PA Pearson Correlation .442** 692**
Significance 000 .000
N 102 102 ___
CP Pearson Correlation .630** .520* .607**
Significance .000 .000 .000
N 102 102 102 ___
C Pearson Correlation .493** .719** .736** .580**
Significance .000 .000 .000 .000
N 102 102 102 102 ___
*Correlation is significant at 0.05 levels.
**Correlation is significant at 0.01 levels.
4.4. Regression
Table 5 represents the Regression coefficient R = .763 or 76.3% which means that relationship
between dependent variable (job satisfaction) and independent variables (training & development,
career planning, performance appraisal and compensation) is positive. The coefficient of
determination R2 = 0.581 show that 58.1% of variation in job satisfaction is explained by training
& development, career planning, performance appraisal and compensation.
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Table 5 Regression model summery

Model R R Square Adj. R Square Std. Error of Estimate
1 .763 .581 .560 0.910
Table 6 shows the ANOVA results of the model. The F-test value is 26.677 and is significant. This
also implies that the association between dependent variable and independent variables is statistical
significant and the regression model is valid. The valid regression model reveals that all independent
variables (training & development, career planning, performance appraisal and compensation) are
showing a positive and significant relationship with job satisfaction (dependent variable). The result
is significant therefore alternative hypothesis will be accepted that is: HRM practices have positively
and significantly association with job satisfaction.
Table 6. ANOVA
Model Sum of Squares Df Mean Square F Sig
1 Regression 110.460 5 22.092 26.677 .000
Residual 79.501 96 .828
Total 189.961 101
a. Predictors: training & development, career planning, performance appraisal,

and compensation
b. Dependent variable: job satisfaction
Table 7 shows coefficient results of training & development, career planning, performance appraisal,
and compensation.
Table7. Coefficients
Model Unstandardized Beta Coefficient Std. Error Std. Coefficient Beta T Sig
1 (Constant) 0.512 0.298 1.718 0.089
T&D 0.170 0.181 0.170 0.938 0.351
PA 0.327** 0.102 0.335 3.218 0.002
CP 0.105 0.106 0.096 0.998 0.326
C 0.436** 0.100 0.447 4.360 0.000
a. *Significant level is 0.05

b. ** Significant level is .01
c. Dependent Variable is Job Satisfaction
29
In the above table, the regression coefficient for training and development of the academic
professionals is (1) = .170. This implies that one percent increase in training and development
results in 17% increase in job satisfaction level if other variables are kept controlled. The T-test
value is 0.938 which is insignificant at .351. This demonstrates that the relationship between training
and development of academic professionals and job satisfaction is positive and insignificant but
overall regression model is valid. So the hypothesis 1st (Training and development has positive and
significant effect on job satisfaction of academic professionals) is rejected because training and
development has insignificant effect of job satisfaction.
The regression coefficient for performance appraisal of the academic professionals (2) =.335**
which reveals that one percent increase in performance appraisal will result in 33.5% increase in job
satisfaction level if other variables are kept controlled. The T-test value is 3.218 which significant at
.002. This shows that the relationship between performance appraisal of academic professionals and
job satisfaction is positive and significant and overall regression model is valid. So the hypothesis 2nd
(performance appraisal has positive and significant effect on job satisfaction of academic
professionals) is accepted because performance appraisal has positive and significant effect on job
satisfaction of academic professional.
The regression coefficient for career planning of the academic professionals is (3) =.105. This
means that one percent increase in career planning will result in 10.5% increase in job satisfaction
level if other variables are kept controlled. The T-test value is 0.998 which insignificant at .326
because significance level is less than .05. It implies that the relationship between career planning of
academic professionals and job satisfaction is positive and insignificant and overall regression model
is valid. So the hypothesis 3rd (career planning has positive and significant effect on job satisfaction
of academic professional) is rejected because career planning has insignificant effect on job
satisfaction.
The regression coefficient for compensation of the academic professionals is (4) =.436. This reveals
that one percent increase in compensation will increase job satisfaction level by 43.6%. The T-test
value is 4.360 which is significant at .000. That shows that the relationship between compensation of
academic professionals and job satisfaction is positive and significant and overall regression model is
valid. So hypothesis 4th (compensation has positive and significant effect on job satisfaction of
academic professionals) is accepted because compensation has positive and significant effect on job
satisfaction.
5. Conclusion
This study has explored the relationship between HRM practices and job satisfaction of academic
professional in public and private universities of Pakistan. Linear regression model was used in this
study that demonstrated the overall effect of variable and data was collected from faculty members
of four (two public and two private) different universities of Pakistan.
It has been found that HRM practices are much important for job satisfaction of academic
professional. Although motivational factors, institutional structure and job description impact on job
satisfaction but HRM practices have clear importance in recent context. The investigation was found
inconsistent with assertion that HRM practice and job satisfaction do differ in public and private
30
universities. The potential reason for insignificant difference in public and private universities is the
operational execution of HRM practices. Although the institutional environment seems different but
the HRM practices, their execution, implementation and resulting outcomes are same.
The two HRM practices, performance appraisal and compensation, are significantly related with job
satisfaction. Hence performance appraisal and compensation are important determinant of job
satisfaction of academic professional in public and private universities of Pakistan. The management
of universities in Pakistan should give considerable emphasis on performance appraisal and
periodically performance appraisal should be conducted. Promotion, incentives, recognition and
appreciation should be performance based. Second, compensations have significant and prominent
determinant of academic professionals job satisfaction. Competitive salary packages, periodic
increment, and additional benefits (medical insurance, house allowance, child education support)
leveraged academic professionals job satisfaction. Future work should increase the sample size by
collecting data from different universities. Cross-cultural and longitudinal research can also provide
us a unique insight between different culture and over time changes.
31
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Appendix 1: Questionnaire
HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT (HRM) PRACTICES
Note: A number of statements dealing about various aspects of Human Resource Management
practices in your university are given below. Please indicate the extent to which each statement
describes your university using the following:
SA Strongly Agree
A Agree
N Neutral
D Disagree
SD Strongly Disagree
1. Job Satisfaction
Management trust in me, satisfy me on my job
Useful and important work satisfy me on my job
The work I do on this job is very meaningful to me
I feel a very high degree of personal responsibility for the work I do on this job
I feel a great sense of personal satisfaction when I do my job well
By doing work here; I feel a sense of achievement in my career
I feel satisfied and happy when I discover that I have performed well on this job
36
2. Training and Development
Our university conducts extensive training programs for its faculty in all aspects of
quality
Faculty in each job normally go through training programs every year
Training needs are identified through a formal performance appraisal mechanism
There are formal training programs to teach new faculty member, the skills they need to
perform their jobs
New knowledge and skills are provided to faculty periodically to done their work in
university
Training needs identified are realistic, useful and based on the business strategy of the
university
3. Performance Appraisal
Performance of the faculty is measured on the basis of objective quantifiable results
Appraisal system in our university is growth and development oriented
Faculty are provided performance based feedback and counseling
Faculty have faith in the performance appraisal system
Appraisal system has a strong influence on individual behavior
The appraisal data is used for making decisions like job rotation, training and
compensation
The objectives of the appraisal system are clear to all faculty
37
4. Career Planning
Individuals in this university have clear career paths
Employees career aspirations within the university are known by his/ her immediate
superior
Faculty in our university have more than one potential position for promotion
Individual and university growth needs are matched in this university
Our university plans for the career and development of faculty
Our university prefers an internal employee whenever a vacancy exists
Each employee is aware of his/her career path in the university
5. Compensation
Job performance is an important factor in determining the incentive compensation of

faculty
In our university, salary and other benefits are comparable to the market
In our university, compensation is decided on the basis of competence or ability of the

employee
The compensation for all faculty is directly linked to his/her performance
In our university, recognition is used as a mechanism to appreciate higher performance
38
Any Other Opinion Related to this Topic:
______________________________________________________________________________
Demographics
Name (Optional) ___________________________
Designation:
Year of Experience in this University: 0-2, 2-5, 5-8, 8-10, 10-13, 13>
Qualification: Master, MS/ M Phil, PhD, Post Doc
University Nature: (please tick one) Public Private
Gender: Male Female
Age: <25, 25-30, 30-35, 35-40, 40-45, 45-50, 50>
Thank you for your time
Best Regard,
Ali Ahmad
39

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Determinants of Job Satisfaction in Academic Professionals of Pakistan

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Volume 1 | October 2014

Determinants of Job Satisfaction in Academic Professionals of Pakistan

Keywords: Job Determinant, Human Resource Management, Job Satisfaction, Academic

Hypothesis 4: Compensation has positive and significant effect on job satisfaction of

2.1. HRM practices and Job Satisfaction

2.2. Training and development

2.3. Performance Appraisals

2.4. Career Planning

3. Research Model and Methodology

Figure 1: Conceptual framework

3.2. Research Methodology

Table 1. Reliability Statistic

Training and Development 0.81 7

Performance Appraisal 0.87 8

Career Planning 0.80 6

Job Satisfaction 0.86 7

4. Analysis and Discussion

Table 2 presents results of frequency distributions of the participants.

Table 2 Frequency Distribution

Assistant Professor 35 34%

Associate Professor 9 8.8%

MS/M Phil 36 35.3%

Questionnaire filled by University Nature

4.2. Mean, Standard Deviation and T-Test

JS Public 56 3.30 1.439 -.083 100 .935

Private 46 3.33 1.301

T&D Public 56 3.21 1.358 -.169 100 .866

Private 46 3.26 1.405

PA Public 56 3.41 1.437 -.319 100 .751

Private 46 3.50 1.378

CP Public 56 3.48 1.348 -1.580 100 .124

Private 46 3.87 1.128

C Public 56 3.20 1.445 -1.412 100 .164

Private 46 3.59 1.343

Table 4 Correlation Matrix

JS Pearson Correlation .365* .

PA Pearson Correlation .442** 692**

Significance 000 .000

N 102 102 ___

CP Pearson Correlation .630** .520* .607**

Significance .000 .000 .000

N 102 102 102 ___

C Pearson Correlation .493** .719** .736** .580**

Significance .000 .000 .000 .000

N 102 102 102 102 ___

*Correlation is significant at 0.05 levels.

**Correlation is significant at 0.01 levels.

Table 5 Regression model summery

1 .763 .581 .560 0.910

1 Regression 110.460 5 22.092 26.677 .000

Residual 79.501 96 .828

Total 189.961 101

a. Predictors: training & development, career planning, performance appraisal,

b. Dependent variable: job satisfaction

1 (Constant) 0.512 0.298 1.718 0.089

T&D 0.170 0.181 0.170 0.938 0.351

PA 0.327** 0.102 0.335 3.218 0.002

CP 0.105 0.106 0.096 0.998 0.326

C 0.436** 0.100 0.447 4.360 0.000

PA Pearson Correlation .442 692

C Pearson Correlation .493 .719 .736 .580