Open Access Library Journal

DNA to DNA Transcription Might Exist in

Eukaryotic Cells
Gao-De Li
Chinese Acupuncture Clinic, Liverpool, UK

Received 19 April 2016; accepted 13 May 2016; published 17 May 2016

Copyright 2016 by author and OALib.

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution International License (CC BY).
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/

Abstract
Till now, in biological sciences, the term, transcription, mainly refers to DNA to RNA transcription.
But our recently published experimental findings obtained from Plasmodium falciparum strongly
suggest the existence of DNA to DNA transcription in the genome of eukaryotic cells, which could
shed some light on the functions of certain noncoding DNA in the human and other eukaryotic ge-
nomes.

Keywords
Plasmodium falciparum, Chloroquine, Genome, CAGFs, Noncoding DNA, Junk DNA, DNA to DNA
Transcription, Single-Stranded DNA (ssDNA), ssDNA Transcript

Subject Areas: Cell Biology, Genetics, Molecular Biology

1. Introduction
Till now, in biological sciences, the term, transcription, mainly refers to DNA to RNA transcription, in which
certain segment of DNA sequence in the genome is copied into either protein-coding RNA (mRNA), or func-
tional non-protein-coding RNA (tRNA, rRNA, microRNA, and catalytic RNA). The DNA to RNA transcription
mainly solves the problem of how a small fraction of protein-coding DNA in the genome works, but cannot
solve the problem of why the large amounts of non-protein-coding DNA in the genome are non-functional.
For many decades, it has been believed that 98% of the human genome is composed of noncoding DNA
which is not functional and thus named as junk DNA [1]. In 2012, a publication from the Encyclopedia of
DNA Elements (ENCODE) project claimed that 80% of the human genome was biochemically functional [2],
which was immediately followed by criticisms because the criteria used by the claim were extremely loose [3].
Recently published research results suggest that 8% - 10% of the human genome is likely functional [3] [4],
which means that the large fraction of the human genome is still thought to be useless. The divergence of opin-
ions about the functions of noncoding DNA in the human genome arises probably due to the fact that the main

How to cite this paper: Li, G.-D. (2016) DNA to DNA Transcription Might Exist in Eukaryotic Cells. Open Access Library Jour-
nal, 3: e2665. http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/oalib.1102665
 G.-D. Li

mechanism by which non-coding DNA exerts its functions has not yet been discovered.
Recently published our new research findings showed that Plasmodium falciparum could produce cell-cycle-
associated amplified genomic-DNA fragments (CAGFs) during its intraerythrocytic cycle. The CAGFs are
thought to be single-stranded DNA molecules which might be synthesized through the process of DNA to DNA
transcription [5]. If the mechanism of DNA to DNA transcription exists in the eukaryotic cells, the problem re-
lated to the functions of noncoding DNA in the human and other eukaryotic genomes could be at least partially
resolved.
Since only few words about DNA to DNA transcription were mentioned in our previous publication [5],
which were not enough to address this important issue, therefore, more thoughts about DNA to DNA transcrip-
tion are given in this paper.

2. DNA to DNA Transcription Is a Hypothesis

Based on our published experimental findings we hypothesize that in addition to DNA to RNA transcription,
there is a mechanism of DNA to DNA transcription in the genome of eukaryotic cells, which involves using
DNA polymerase to copy particular segment of noncoding DNA sequence in the genome into a single-stranded
DNA (ssDNA) molecule that can be named as ssDNA transcript. The ssDNA transcripts are the same molecules
as CAGFs reported in our precious publication, and thus have the same functions as CAGFs, i.e., being involved
in the regulation of gene expression during cell cycle progression, and generating genetic alterations in the eu-
karyotic cells that are exposed to prolonged environmental stress [5] [6].
Since the DNA sequence by which a protein-coding RNA (mRNA) is transcribed is called a protein encoding
gene, and the DNA sequence by which a functional non-protein-coding RNA (tRNA, rRNA, etc.) is transcribed
is called an RNA gene, the DNA sequence by which a functional non-protein-coding ssDNA molecule is tran-
scribed therefore should be called a DNA gene. From both protein encoding genes and RNA genes point of
view, the large amounts of noncoding DNA in the human and other eukaryotic genomes are useless, but from
the DNA genes point of view, these large amounts of noncoding DNA could be very useful as they might har-
bour many unknown DNA genes which might be required for cell cycle regulation and cellular stress responses
[6] [7].

3. Discovery of CAGFs Is a Strong Support for the DNA to DNA Transcription

Hypothesis
Our recently published experimental findings showed that P. falciparum could produce CAGFs at different
points of its intraerythrocytic cycle, and that chloroquine (CQ) was found to induce the production of CAGFs in
the malaria parasite [5]. As for the nature of CAGFs, we speculate that CAGFs are ssDNA molecules, which is
based on the following reasons.
Since CAGFs are amplified (multiple copies are produced) and degraded during cell cycle progression, they
are certainly not incorporated into the genome, but released from the genome into the nucleoplasm. Furthermore,
CAGFs are amplified before cell cycle progression into DNA synthesis phase (S phase) of P. falciparum, which
indicates that an unknown DNA synthesis mechanism might exist outside S phase of the cell cycle. What is this
unknown DNA synthesis mechanism? Is it the same as the semiconservative mode of DNA replication in S
phase? The answer is certainly no because DNA replication in S phase refers to the whole genome duplication,
even if the DNA replication mechanism also works outside of S phase to duplicate DNA at certain regions of the
genome, it is impossible to release these duplicated DNA regions as double-stranded DNA fragments from the
genome without affecting the genome integrity.
Therefore, it is reasonable to postulate that CAGFs are ssDNA molecules which might be synthesized in the
way similar to RNA, but using DNA polymerase instead of RNA polymerase during the process of transcription.
The process could be named as DNA to DNA transcription, and CAGFs could be thought as ssDNA transcripts.
If CAGFs are ssDNA molecules transcribed from some noncoding DNA in the genome, nearly all the features
of CAGFs, such as genome-released, multicopy-produced, drug-inducible and easily degraded during the cell
cycle progression could be reasonably explained. Besides, if CAGFs are ssDNA molecules transcribed from
noncoding DNA in the genome, their role in the regulation of gene expression during cell cycle progression, and
generating genetic alterations in the eukaryotic cells will be easily understandable as they can bind to comple-
mentary ssDNA regions at transcription sites. In a word, discovery of CAGFs is a solid evidence to support the

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 G.-D. Li

DNA to DNA transcription hypothesis.

4. Ideas for Further Experimental Test of the Hypothesis

Theoretically, if DNA to DNA transcription exists in eukaryotic cells, it is possible to isolate the ssDNA tran-
scripts from the cells. But since we don't know the specific sequence feature related to the ssDNA transcripts, it
is therefore impossible to develop a protocol to specifically isolate them from the cells. Besides, other ssDNA in
nuclear DNA samples might interfere with isolation of the ssDNA transcripts. It was reported that ssDNA ac-
counts for about 1% - 2% of total nuclear DNA isolated from various eukaryotic cells [8]-[10], which was hy-
pothesized to be generated by selective endogenous nuclease attacks at an early stage of the DNA purification
procedure[10].
At present, a simple and practical approach to proving existence of ssDNA transcripts during the eukaryotic
cell cycle is to repeat our arbitrarily-primed PCR results with the PCR using the two specific primers (SP1:
5-AATAAGATGTGCTGTTTAACT-3 and SP2: 5-GTTGTGCTCACACTTATCT-3), the origin of which
was reported in our previous publication [5]. The PCR band produced by these two primers was called UB1-re-
lated band in our previous publication [5], representing the DNA fragment of one of CAGFs. The process of this
PCR-based approach is outlined below.
To repeat our previous experiments, only 25-nM dose of chloroquine (CQ) is needed to treat P. falciparum
K1 and HB3 isolates as the dose is proved by our previous study to be the best one for inducing CAGFs. The
genomic DNA from both K1 and HB3 isolates is isolated at same time points (2 h, 6 h, 12 h and 24 h) following
CQ treatment, and then subject to the PCR using SP1 and SP2. The expected results will be consistent with
those of UB1 reported in our previous publication [5], i.e., only one clear PCR band (UB1-related band) will be
found in all samples, but a very bigger PCR band which indicates amplified templates for UB1 will be found in
the 12 h-isolated sample from the control groups of both K1 and HB3 isolates; in CQ-treated groups, the very
bigger PCR band will be found in 2 h, 6 h and 24 h isolated samples of K1 isolates and in 2 h, 6 h 12 h and 24 h
isolated samples of HB3 isolates. For relative quantification of the PCR bands, measurement of the band density
can be carried out with a densitometer.
In order to check if UB1- related one of CAGFs is a ssDNA molecule, S1 nuclease can be used to treat ge-
nomic DNA samples before performing above PCR experiments. If the very bigger PCR band as described
above becomes smaller in the S1 nuclease-treated groups and looks nearly the same as that in the control groups,
it means that the amplified ssDNA templates for UB1 have been degraded by S1 nuclease, and thus the single-
strandedness of UB1-related one of CAGFs will be confirmed. Taken together, if UB1-related one of CAGFs is
proven to be single-stranded, extragenomic, CQ-inducible, and amplified (i.e., many copies are produced) at
different points of the cell cycle, it is definitely the ssDNA molecule produced by DNA to DNA transcription,
and therefore the hypothesis is experimentally validated.
In this study, other techniques could also be used. Northern blotting analysis could be applied using PCR
product generated by SP1 and SP2 as template for preparing radioactive probe [11] [12]. This method is very
useful as it could not only detect if UB1-related one of CAGFs is amplified or not, but could also show the size
of UB1-related one of CAGFs. For subcellular localization of UB1-related one of CAGFs, electron microscopy
in situ hybridization could be used [13].
Since the P. falciparum Genome Sequencing Project has been completed [14], it is possible to obtain the
whole sequence of UB1-related ssDNA transcript by checking related DNA sequences within the database. If
special sequence features in the whole ssDNA transcript could be found through computer analysis, more can-
didate ssDNA transcripts could be picked up from the genome database of P. falciparum. Experimental test of
these candidate ssDNA transcripts can be performed by PCR using primers that are designed according to the
DNA sequences of candidate ssDNA transcripts picked up from the database.

5. Implications of the Hypothesis

The importance of the hypothesis is that DNA to DNA transcription is a fundamental mechanism of eukaryotic
cells, which is involved in a wide-range of cellular functions. To date, the functions of noncoding DNA in the
human and other eukaryotic genomes remain largely unknown, which has hampered progress in genome re-
search. If the hypothesis is proven to be true, it could at least partially resolve this most perplexing problem, and
will hugely facilitate the development of biological and life sciences.

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 G.-D. Li

6. Conclusion
DNA to DNA transcription might exist in eukaryotic cells, which is a promising hypothesis proposed based on
the discovery of cell-cycle-associated amplified genomic-DNA fragments (CAGFs) in P. falciparum. There are
many reasons to think that CAGFs are ssDNA molecules which might be produced exclusively though DNA to
DNA transcription. Once the existence of DNA to DNA transcription in eukaryotic cells is confirmed, the func-
tions of large amounts of noncoding DNA in the human and other eukaryotic genomes could be at least partially
resolved. Therefore, further experimental validation of this mechanism is urgently needed.

Conflict of Interest
The author declares that there is no conflict of interest regarding the publication of this paper.

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