Control valves

Control valves play a major role in the everyday effort to increase process plant profitability and
conserve energy. Proper selection of these valves can have a significant financial impact on the
overall cost of a project and how well the process can be controlled. To narrow down the choices,
the engineer must understand how the general characteristics of each type of valve match up with
the design requirements (Table 1). In addition to the types of valves shown in Table 1, many valve
suppliers have their own proprietary valve designs, which are modifications of the five basic
types in this table.

Introduction and definitions:

A control valve is an engineered variable flow restriction. The input signal to the control valve is
the output signal from a controller. The control valve is constructed such that the stem lift (plug
position) is proportional to the input signal. The relationship between steam lift (plug position)
and area open for flow is called the valve characteristic (discussed below). This relationship is
important in determining the suitability of a given valve for a given service, and therefore
receives much attention from control engineers and valve manufacturers.

Controlling the valve:

A control loop consists of a sensing element, a controller and the final control element the
valve and its actuator (Figure 1). The sensing element transmits a signal to a single controller or a
distributed control system (DCS). The controller compares the signal with the set point, and then
makes any needed corrections by sending a signal to the control valve. The correction is
measured and verified by the sensing element, completing the loop. In Figure 1, the I/P transducer
changes an electronic signal into one that is pneumatic. A control valve should react
instantaneously to any change in the signal. To be effective, a valve should: operate over a wide
range of flows (have a wide rangeability); accurately respond to any signal across its operating
range; exhibit little dead time or hysteresis; react to incremental adjustments from the controller
(resolution); and respond with the required speed (stroking speed). A fast response may not be
suitable for all applications
.
For example, a quick or sudden reduction in the bore of a valve in a pipeline may be harmful,
causing a shock wave. A valves ability to control flow depends upon the quality of its actuator. A
positioner may be added to obtain tighter control. Positioners improve performance by amplifying
the controllers signal, thereby achieving a more-precise response. This also helps to overcome
the effects of any valve-stem friction and improve shut-off. The quality of any control device can
be quantified in terms of its gain, time constant and dead-time lag. Of these, the gain is the most
important for a control valve. Gain is the ratio of the percentage change in a process variable to
the percentage change of the valve travel. Gain depends upon the valve characteristics and
process conditions.
 Flow Controller

I/P Transducer

Flow Transmitter

Control Valve

Design parameters

To properly select a control valve, the following fluid and system properties must be known: its
state (vapor, liquid or two-phase), vapor pressure, flow rate, inlet and outlet pressures, inlet
temperature, density, molecular weight, viscosity, specific heat ratio, critical temperature and
critical pressure. The maximum flow rate that is specified should include an appropriate design
margin (typically, 10%). Specification calls for knowing the systems geometry, size and pipe
schedule number, and materials of construction, as well as the valves fail-safe position,
maximum shut-off pressure and the percent flash (for flashing fluids) through the valve. Since a
control valve is power-operated, the engineer must consider its response to loss of signal or power
i.e., the valves fail-safe mode. In about 80% of applications, control valves are specified to
fail closed. However, sometimes, the valve should either fail open, lock (fail-in lock position) or
drift (slowly, to either close or open). A fail-open valve would be needed in a deluge system, for
instance. Springs within the bonnet normally enable the actuator to reach the failure position. In
some cases, such as for a lock position or a fail drift, an auxiliary power source ( e.g., an air
cylinder) may be required. Safety codes and concerns, and process requirements will determine
the failure position.
General features of each type of valves
Types of valves
Gate Plug (Ball) Globe Butterfly Diaphragm

Type of On/off On/off (Rotary) Throttling Throttling Throttling

Service (Sliding)
Virtually no Similar properties to Good sealing Lightweight Almost no
Advantages pressure gate valves characteristics compact design leakage; process
loss across the fluid is isolated
valve face from valve stem.
Lightweight compact Can be used in Minimal pressure Self-cleaning
design frequent open closing loss across valve
service face
Can be used High capacity Quick change of trim Low cost
when the fluid without removing
contains God rangeability valve from line High throughput
suspended capacity
solids Tight shut-off High capacity
Smaller shaft and
Good rangeability actuator

Low noise trim

available

Smooth Control
Dis- Poor sealing Sealability poor with High pressure losses Poor sealing Limited operating
advantages characteristics metal seats used at due to contorted path characteristics pressure
high temperatures through the valve
Good control Limited
Limited temperature Low noise trim limited to 60 deg temperature
range with resilient reduces capacity opening
seats High water and
Tight shut-off tear
Choke flow problems requires special
lining; plus over- Poor control over
Cavitations problems sized shaft and 50% opening
actuators
Requires removal for
maintenance Lining imposes
temperatures
limitations
Sealing Gate face Radial seal, shaped to Disk motion is Throttle blade is Diaphragm
Method slides parallel conform with ball perpendicular to mashed into material is forced
to the seal surface valve seat. Only mated seal onto valve seat.
surface. Gate contact is in fully Only contact is in
and seal in closed position. fully closed
constant shear position.
contact
Recommend Not for Not for service with For flow regulation Low pressure Water-treatment
ations frequent valve highly corrosive applications service
opening / fluids
closing
service

Not for when

throttling Most suitable for When tight shut-off is Chemical and
control is handling slurries required abrasive service
required
Flow coefficient

The most important valve parameter for calculating the size of a control valve is the flow
coefficient, Cv, the gal/min of water through a valve for a 1-psi pressure drop at standard
conditions. Calculation of Cv depends upon whether the flow is incompressible, compressible or
mixed-phase. There are equations for determining Cv for incompressible, compressible, two-
phase, and cavitating or flashing fluids

Flow Characteristics:

The flow characteristic of a valve is the relationship between valve plug position and flow
through the valve. The flow characteristic of a non compressible fluid under constant pressure
differential is called inherent flow characteristic, which is usually expressed by plotting the valve
travel (y axis) against flow percentage under constant pressure differential (x axis)

The two most significant types of inherent flow characteristics are termed linear and equal
percentage.

In most all the valves operating in actual conditions, the pressure differential changes in response
to a change in the valve opening, and the relation between valve travel and flow rate deviates
from inherent flow characteristics. Such characteristic is referred to as effective flow
characteristic.

Since effective flow characteristic of a valve is a reflection of process characteristics such as

inherent flow characteristic of the valve, piping resistance and, characteristics of the pressure
vessels and pumps all combined, the same valve, when used for a different process, would
inevitably exhibit a different effective flow characteristic.

Flow characteristic selection

Here are some guidelines that are helpful in deciding which type of flow characteristic is best-
suited for a particular application. These are guidelines only, and should not be taken as absolute
recommendations:

Equal percentage:
When the major portion of the control-system pressure drop is not through the valve
for temperature- and pressure-control loops
Linear:
In liquid-level or flow-control service
where the pressure drop across the valve is expected to remain fairly constant
Where the major portion of the control systems pressure drop is through the valve.
Quick-opening:
For frequent on/off service, such as in batch or semi continuous processes, or where an
instantly large flow is required, i.e., for safety or deluge systems.

Linear Characteristic

In the valves of linear characteristic, the flow is directly proportional to the valve travel.
K: Constant
Cv = KL L : Valve
The graph shows the curve plotted on rectangular coordinate.

Equal Percentage Characteristics

With an equal percentage plug each increment of plug movement produces a change in flow
which is proportional to the amount flowing before the change occurred.

dCv
----- = K . Cv
dL

In the illustration presented here, both equal percentage and linear characteristics are plotted for
comparison on the semi logarithmic coordinate system.

In the valves of equal percentage characteristics, the flow change to the lift is small when the
valve travel is small. As the valve travel becomes larger, however, the flow change
corresponding to the same lift tends to become greater.

Rangeability:

The rangeability of a control valve is defined as the ratio of the maximum controllable flow to the
minimum controllable flow. The inherent rangeability of a valve is the ratio of the maximum and
minimum flow controllable under constant pressure differential. Hence, it is expressed as C v max
divided by Cv min.

When the load changes over a wide range, calculations shall be made to obtain C v max.
Corresponding to the maximum flow and C v min. corresponding to the minimum flow. Then it
will be checked whether the valve selected on the basis of C v max is capable of covering Cv min.

Trim and bonnet

Trim refers to the removable, internal parts of the valve that are in contact with the flowing
fluid. Parts not considered as trim include the packing, bonnet, bottom flange and gaskets. The
trim maintains the relationship between the flow capacity and valve-plug lift, and ensures proper
shut-off of the valve. The seat is primarily responsible for the tightness of shut-off. Correct lift
and tight shut-off are also affected by other parts of the valve, such as body shape, actuator design
and valve-stem packing. The required level of tightness of shut-off depends upon the type of
service. Shut-off is measured by the percentage of total flow that leaks through when the valve is
closed. There are industry standards that define the shut-off requirements for various applications.
A common standard that de-fines leakage classes is Control Valve Seat Leakage, ANSI/FCI 70-
2-1998 (3). The classes range from a weak shut-off (Class II) to nearly zero leakage (Class VI).
Valve trim selection is primarily based on the fluid operating conditions, the manufacturers
inherent flow characteristic for a particular trim, and the effect on the inherent flow characteristic
at different operating conditions. These parameters enable prediction of the installed flow
characteristic for each trim, which is used as a basis for trim selection.

Reduced-capacity trim helps to attain precise control at low flows, while leaving room for higher
flows in the future. Such trim is designed so that flow through the port is lessened, but the
precision of the flow control is increased because of a reduced plug-lift distance. There is no
general rule that states reduced trim should be used below a certain turndown rate. However,
reduced trim may be a solution when precise control is required at 2025% of valve capacity.

Cages are common in trim and serve multiple purposes:

A cage serves as a guide for the plug, ensuring that it is properly positioned and makes the right
contact with the seat.

Bonnet Special consideration must also be given to the bonnet, which encases the actuator and
the valve packing. Bonnets are often designed to meet certain temperature ranges. For high (e.g.,
450F) and below freezing temperature service, an extension bonnet is used. This bonnet isolates
the packing from extreme temperatures. In cryogenic service, the extension separates the valve
stem packing from the sub-zero fluid, preventing the packing from becoming brittle. An
externally finned bonnet is sometimes used for high temperatures. The fins promote heat loss to
the ambient air.

Noise
Control valves generate noise due to mechanical vibrations; cavitation or aerodynamic effects.
High velocities, pressure oscillations and unsteady flow create vibrations that are usually under
100 decibel (dB), the intensity of sound at maximum level from the earphones of a portable
Radio. (Normal conversation is about 60 dB, and the eardrums pain threshold is around 130 dB.)
The noise generated by cavitation depends upon its degree. Increasing the pressure drop across a
valve will increase the noise. During full cavitation, a control valve makes a rattling noise.
However, the noise is usually under 100 db. Aerodynamic-generated noise results from the
mixing of turbulent fluids with laminar ones. This is the most common and worst source of noise
levels can reach over 100 db. The noise limitations for the process need to be specified to the
valve supplier.

Selecting the type of valve

Valve manufacturers will provide actual valve flow capacities, expressed in terms of Cv, for their
various valve sizes and types. Once a valve type and flow characteristic are established, a
preliminary size can be determined by computing the valve stroke for each design flow case. The
stroke is the ratio of the calculated Cv to the actual Cv for a particular valve. Choose a valve that
can operate between 1080% of the valve stroke across the expected range of operation, i.e., the
minimum, normal and maximum flow rates.

Rules of thumb for sizing and selection

The following should be used as guidelines, but not as design criteria:

In a pumped circuit, the pressure drop allocated to the control valve should be equal to
33% of the dynamic losses in the system at the rated flow, or 15 psi, whichever is greater.
The pressure drop allocated to a control valve in the suction or discharge line of a
centrifugal compressor should be 5% of the absolute suction pressure, or 50% of the
dynamic losses of the system, whichever is greater.
In a system where static pressure moves liquid from one pressure vessel to another, the
pressure drop allocated to the valve should be 10% of the lower-terminal vessel pressure,
or 50% of the systems dynamic losses, whichever is greater.
Pressure drops in valves in steam lines to turbines, reboilers and process vessels should
be 10% of the design absolute pressure of the steam system, or 5 psi, whichever is
greater.
 The gain on a control valve should never be less than 0.5. Avoid using the lower 10% and
upper 20% of the valve stroke. The valve is much easier to control in the 1080% range.
Generally, control-valve bodies are one size less than the line size. If this causes the valve
body to be significantly less than the line size, which would reduce the valves effective
Cv. then do not apply this generalization.

Materials of construction

Materials selection includes specifying the hard body, trim, soft gasket, seal and packing
materials. As a minimum requirement, the body and trim should match the material of the
interconnecting piping. In addition to customer preferences and cost considerations, the nature of
the fluid also affects material selection. Be careful when handling erosive and corrosive fluids.
Erosion may be slowed by hard-facing the valve internals with nickel or cobalt-chromium alloys.
Considerations must be given for high- and low-temperature services (>800F and below
freezing, respectively). For example, at high temperatures, valves are subject to greater stress and
leakage due to the expansion of their internals. Liquids that flash through a control valve may
cool to subzero temperatures. This is especially so when throttling high pressure hydrocarbon
liquids. A flash calculation must be performed to check for the outlet temperature at the lower
pressure. In other low-temperature service, such as with cryogenic liquids, atmospheric moisture
can cause the moving components of the valve, such as the stem, to freeze, rendering them
inoperable. Thus, these valves require insulation. The valve body and the packing should be
designed to withstand high pressure. In high-pressure application (>1,000 psi), graphite is used to
reinforce soft packings to prevent extrusion through small orifices. Reduced-port valves are used
more often than full-size ports, because the former creates a pressure drop to attain the correct Cv.
Also, a reduced port is less expensive since it fits into a smaller body. Avoid specifying odd sizes
of valves, for example, 1.25, 2.5, 3.5, 5 and 22 in. These less-common sizes are hard to find and
cost more than standard sizes. Valves can be fitted with different end connections. The RF (raised
face) is commonly used; the RTJ (ring-type joint) is found in some of the high-pressure classes.
Valves can be welded into place, providing a leak-free connection.
Details of the Control Valve Types and Applications:

In this section the more common types of control valves are described, their limitations and
capabilities are discussed and their more normal applications are covered. Valve positioners and
their users are described.

Conventional Double Seated and Single-Seated Valves

The most common control valve is the conventional double seated valve, the basic structure of
which is shown under Background and Definitions. The purpose of using the somewhat
complicated double seat construction is to achieve an approximately balanced design. The term
balanced comes from the feature that the forces at one seat caused by the P and the stream
velocity are approximately balanced by similar and opposite forces at the other seat.

For sizes under one inch, normal machining tolerances are too large to give suitable rangeability,
characteristics and leakage for the double-seat design. The single-seat design is then used.
Because of the small size, the forces at the one seat (unbalanced because of the absence of the
second seat) are sufficiently reduced so that they are no longer of great importance. In these
small sizes, the usual construction is to machine flutes or variable depth V-progress in solid plug.
In the smaller sizes (bellow a nominal inch), with flow coefficients below 1, the area open to
flow is so small that normal dirt and seal can cause troublesome plugging. In these sizes,
consideration should be given to the use of a strainer ahead of the valve.

A double sealed valve, with the seat freshly ground-in and tested at the factory on water at room
temperature, will commonly meet leakage specifications of % of full open flow. In refinery
service at higher (or lower) temperature (giving differential expansion), connected to lines that
can transmit forces to the body (causing distortion) and possibility handling corrosive and erosive
fluids, the leakage is not predictable but can be expected to be several times greater than the %.
Thus, when tight shut-off is important, such as on a furnace fuel cut-off valve, the single-seat
design is the more logical choice.

The unbalance forces in the single seat design, especially in the larger sizes, may require a piston
type actuator. This will be established during the procurement phase of a project, and is therefore
not a primary responsibility of the process designer. However, he should be aware that the
position actuator causes some complication and added cost in achieving the fail-safe action (see
comments under fail-safe position) that is so simple with the standard spring loaded diaphragm.
He should therefore keep the use of single-seated valves in the larger sizes to a minimum.

Cage Valves:

Cage valves were a special purpose item until about 1965, and have increased in use rapidly since
then. To illustrate how far they have come, they are now the standard in some large plants and
major suppliers sell more of them than of the previous standard double-seated valves.

The cage valve has large guiding surfaces and close tolerances, which eliminate the need for
some of the special materials used in the conventional double and single seated designs. The
unbalance problem of the cage valve, inherent in its single seat construction, is overcome by
bringing the downstream pressure above the position. Leakage, rangeability and characteristics
are comparable to those of conventional double sealed valves.

Butterfly Valves:

The original automatic control applications of butterfly valves emphasized their similarity to
dampers. Therefore, they were used in large air or gas lines with a low P, where limited
rangeability was needed and where tight shutoff was not needed. Subsequent developments in
their mechanical design, triggered somewhat by process requirements for higher capacities than
could be obtained with the largest practicable double-seated conventional valves (about 12 in.
size), have made them usable for a wider range of service conditions.

Their flow-lift (rotation) characteristic is between those of linear and equal percentage valves.
Their leakage (not well established) should be considered as somewhat greater than that of a
double-seated valve and their torque requirements limit the service for which the conventional
spring loaded diaphragm actuator can be used. Thus, they are seldom used where a conventional
double-seated valve is practicable. An 8 in butterfly valve, 60 degrees open, has about the
capacity of a 10 inch conventional double seated valve; and it is at about this size that the
butterfly valve begins to be the first choice. The butterfly valve must now also compete with the
recently-developed ball valve.

Services that frequently use butterfly valves include:

Suction lines to centrifugal gas compressor and air blowers.

Outlet lines from water disengaging drums.
As a substitute for a large (or unavailable) 3 way valve (two butterfly valves are needed) in
gas lines through and by-passing heat exchangers. Special needs of this service are covered
under 3 way valves.

When used in a service characterized by (1) large lines, (2) low velocities and (3) a need for
minimum P for the wide open case (maximum throughout and no control except in the down
direction), the manifolding and relative sizes of valves and lines are important inasmuch as the
pressure loss through two reduces will commonly exceed the P of the valve. Note the
discussion of this point under Block and Bypass Valves.

Ball Valves:

The ball valve was originally offered as competitor for the gate valve; i.e. primarily for services
where it would be either open or shut, rather than throttling. Subsequently, control valve
manufacturers developed it further for throttling service, to make it suitable for use as a control
valve, while retaining the characteristics of good shut-off and high capacity. Several variations of
the basic ball valve design are available, the Manson-Neilan Complex being a good example.
The flow-lift(rotation) characteristic of the shaped ball valve approximates that of the equal
percentage valve.

The trend in a control valve services involving high flow rates and large lines sizes is to use ball
valves in place of butterfly valves, because ball valves have less leakage in the closed position
and less unbalanced internal forces, while still offering similar high capacity. For high pressure
drop services, the ball valve is superior to the butterfly valve. The ball valve is also finding use in
place of conventional valves, especially in high flow rate applications, where its smaller size for a
given service makes it economical.

The ball valve design is widely used in industries where flow of slurries must be controlled. In
high P gas services, the ball valve loses some of its capacity advantage, relative to that of globe
valves, as covered under the discussion of the C v Method. The comments under Butterfly
Valves concerning manifolding and relative line and valve sizes also to ball valves.

Three-Way Valves

There are two types of 3 way valves, double seated and single-seated. The basic structures of
these valves are shown Figure 1. The terms double seated and single seated, as applied to the
two types of 3 way valves, are somewhat confusing, since each type of valve has two seats.
However, the body of the 3 way valve labeled Double Seat Diverting (see Figure 1) is adapted
from the body of a conventional double seated valve (called a 2 way valve when the discussion
covers both conventional and 3-way valves). Similarly, the body of the 3 way valve labeled
Single Seat-Mixing is adapted from the body of a conventional single seated valve (also called
a 2 way valve to distinguish it from the 3 way valve in discussions covering both).

Design Specification Requirements

Assigning Pressure Drop

Conventional or 2-ways valves. There are many instances in process designs where the
pressure drop to be dissipated by a control valve is quite obvious and requires no
decision. An example would be the control valve in the line from the bottom of a tower
operating at 200 psig to a second tower operating at 100 psig, with no other equipment in
between. Except for a small loss from line friction, all of the 100 psi difference in
operating pressure between the two towers must be dissipated by the control valve, and
the P changes very little with the flow rate.

A more common situation, which requires that a decision be made on valve P, is

characterized by a circuit in which a feed pump takes suction from a feed tank and
discharges to a line that goes through several heat exchangers, through a furnace and into
a tower. The control valve in this line (the feed flow control valve) must be assigned a
P. Each PSI of the assigned P must be added into the specified pump head, thus
increasing the pump cost and increasing the power consumption of the driver.
Consequently, there is an economic incentive to minimize the P assigned to such a
control valve.

However, for satisfactory control it is necessary to limit the change, from, maximum to
minimum operating flow rate, in the relationship:

Flow Rate
------------------------------------
Valve Steam Position

Moreover, this change is decreased by taking a large valve P at design flow rate. Thus,
there is an incentive to maximize the valve P. From much experience, checked by
theory, the compromise rule of thumb is:

Valve P for friction = 20% of circuit friction loss (excluding the valve) at maximum
expected operating flow rate (usually the design flow rate)

In addition, some consideration must be given to possible change in the static pressure at
the two ends of the circuit. In the feed circuit example, the level in the feed tank will
range from top to bottom and the pressure in the fractionating tower might be adjusted by
the operator. The rule of thumb is as follows:

Static P in the Circuit, psi Control Valve P for static head difference
Up to 200 10% of Circuit P
200 to 400 20 psi
Over 400 5% of Circuit P
The valve P specified will be the sum of the two components just described: (a) the P
for friction and (b) the P for differences in static pressure. However, these two rules of
thumb must be applied with judgment. Some circuits have so little friction loss and static
P that some additional valve P based on experience is needed. Also, for circuits with
very nearly constant flow rate, where stable control is easy to obtain (some flow control
and pressure control applications, for example) and where P is usually expensive, the
rules can be relaxed-again on the basis of judgment plus experience.

A reflux circuit is an example of the first type; with a small friction loss and hardly any
circuit static P. For such a circuit, a valve P based on possible changes in pump head
due to manufacturing that it is not larger than the line. If it is, then an arbitrary additional
P should be assigned, sufficient to make the valve size equal line size.

Example of the second type of circuit may be found in plants where the static pressure is
very high, such as in hydro treating or hydro cracking. In such applications, it may be
necessary to examine the expected variation in flow rate and the difficulty in obtaining
stable control, because application of the rules of thumb could lead to expensive and
unnecessary pressure dissipation in the control valves.

Three way Valves For 3 way control valves in head exchanger service (which is their
primary use) good control is obtained from use of the rule that P assigned to the port in
the exchanger line is 50% of the P of the fouled exchanger at design flow rate. When
the 3 way valve would be so large that two 2 way valves are used instead (see discussion
at Figure 5), this same rule is used. In some cases, as in vapor heat exchange service,
50% of the exchanger P may be so small that a control valve larger than line size would
result. In such cases the valves P should be increased enough to correspond to a line
sized valve.

Variations in Operating Flow Rate:

To control at the design flow rate, the control valve obviously cannot be wide open at this
point. To insure that the valve will be in a controlling position at design flow rate, the
Basic Practice require that the valve which is supplied be no more than 80% open (area
basis, not lift) at design flow rate and design P. Thus, no greater than design flow rate is
specified in the process design, unless it is expected that there will be specific operations
at higher flow rate. In which case these become the design conditions for the control
valve.

Note in Figure 3 that with an equal percentage valve the 80% area open position
corresponds to 95% lift. In practice, very few valves actually operate at such a position;
thus the % area open at design flow rate must really be well below 80%. This results
from:

1. The required valve size usually being intermediate between two commercially
available sizes the larger one is purchased.
2. The system friction losses estimated conservatively (on the high side), control
valve actually has more P that give in the design specification.
These considerations raise a question whether or not the 80% open figure at design
conditions may be too large whenever (1) the calculated size matches a commercially
available size, (2) the valve P is clearly established or (3) the design flow rate is subject
to some extra wandering. A refrigerant control valve could be an example of all there
items. The P is set by the process; refrigeration loads can be subject to random
fluctuations; and such possible variables as refrigerant purity can increase the required
flow rate. For such situations, it may be necessary to use the next larger size valve. This
is equivalent to reducing the factor below 60%.

In the other direction, at flow rate below design, it is usually not necessary to give a
minimum rate unless expected operations vary so widely as to raise question about the
capability of a valve to cover the needed rangeability. Such special situations must be
pointed out in the design specification. An example would be compressor anti-surge
valve, which is closed most of the time and this really has two design operations
(closed and partly open), each of which will influence the type or size of valve.

Sizing control valves:

In general any valve sizing method ultimately depends upon the manufactures capacity
tests and his resulting values for Cv and other coefficients. Note that differences of +/-
20% is normal between quite similar designs (body and plug), between equivalent
designs of different manufactures, between various ball types and between identical
valves in different manifold sizes and arrangements.

Thus the capacity of any given valve installation cannot be known accurately until the
manufacturer, type and installation detains are known.

Several sizing formulas are in use for gas services, several for flashing service and also
for mixed phase service.

For simplicity one formula for each service, which is best suitable, is given below. They
may require coefficients not available from manufacture of valves for a specific project.
In this case the selected manufactures formula may have to be used for e.g.
Instrumentation Limited is manufacturing the valves, so the formula given by then can be
used.

Therefore, from the above discussion it is apparent that at the time process specification
is being prepared a valve capacity calculation is an estimate.

The flow coefficient method:

The flow coefficient of a control valve, known as its Cv, is defined as the gallons per
minute of water which will flow through it when fully open, under a pressure drop of 1
psi. The Cv is determined by test.

Similarly, we can speak of the flow coefficient of a process control valve application
known as the process Cv, by relating the design process flow rate, density and P to a
water equivalent, using the relationships given in Equations (1), (2) and (3).
For liquids : Cv = QL GL / P

For steam : Cv = Qs / 82 T / P * P2

For gases : Cv = Qg / 1360 Gg T / P (( P1 + P2 )/ 2)

Where; Cv = Process Cv
QL = liquid flow rate at line conditions, gal/min
Qs = Steam flow rate lb/hr
Qg = Gas flow rate, SCFH (at 600F and 14.7 psia)
Gl = Gas specific gravity (relative to air)
Gg = Gas specific gravity (relative to air) at 600F and 14.7 psia
P1 = Upstream pressure, psia
P2 = Downstream pressure, psia
P = Valve differential pressure, psi = P1 P2
T = Temperature, 0R

For equation (3), when the compressibility factor (at downstream conditions) is
sufficiently different from 1.00 to be important its actual valve should be inserted in the
numerator under the square root sign.

The process Cv computed from the design service conditions is compared with the value
Cvs of commercially available valves (published tables or special slide rules) to indicate
the valve size required. The Basic Practices require the process Cv to be divided by 0.8
to arrive at the minimum acceptable value Cv in order to make sure that the valve will be
in a workable position (rather than wide open) at design conditions. As covered above
under variations in operating flow rate, one must sometimes increase the required Cv
somewhat more yet, in selecting a valve.

An exception to the use of the 0.8 divisor is the use of a 3 way valve in heat exchange
service or the equivalent use of two conventional 2 way control valve For these
applications, the valve Cv can be equal to the process Cv, since having the exchanger port
fully open and the by pass port closed represents the limit of control, and making the
ports any larger would contribute nothing.

Limitation of the Flow Coefficient Method: Experience with ball, butterfly and angle
valves has shown them to be consistently undersized in gas and steam service whenever
the P was greater than about 25% of the upstream pressure P1. Test work found the
cause to be a phenomenon similar to be vena contract of an orifice plate in a pipe line, in
which the pressure increases downstream of the vena contracta as the velocity head of the
reduced area jet of the vena contracta changes back to pressure head. Likewise, as with
orifice phenomena, once the pressure at the vena contracta is reduced to the critical
(about 50% of P1, further reduction of P2 does not reduce the pressure in the vena
contracta and thus does not increase the flow rate.

In these valves it was found that the efficiency of changing the vena contracta velocity
head back to pressure head is quite high, some recoveries being as much as 80% of the P1
minus vena contracta pressure. Accordingly, these valves are now known as high
recovery valves. Because of these phenomena, the limiting or critical flow rate is
reached at a relatively low value of (P1-P2), an extreme example being a P of 0.1 P1
rather than the well-known 0.5 P1 of fluid flow text books.

This pressure buildup phenomenon exists only to a limited extent in globe-type valves.

Despite this limitation of the Cv method, it is applicable to the majority of process

services, being suitable for the services listed below and summarized in Table 2.

1. Non-flashing liquid service: All types of valves.

2. All gas and steam service: Globe type valves; single and double seat and 3 way.
3. Gas and steam service when P is less than 10% of P1: Ball and butterfly valves.
4. Gas and steam service when P is less than 5% of P1: Angle valves (flow
direction tending to close the valve).

Sizing Methods for Gas and Steam when Cv method not applicable A well known
method to use when the Cv method does not apply involves another coefficient Cg, which
is derived from air flow tests at critical pressure drop.

Cg = Qg / P1 520 / T

Where

Cg = Gas flow coefficient

Qg = Gas flow rate through the valve, SCFH
P1 = Upstream pressure, psia
T = Temperature, OR

The formulas to use for both gas and steam or other vapour are given in Table 2.

Note that it is necessary to have figures available from the manufacturer for Cg, as well
as for Cv, for the specific types and sizes of valves involved. Tables of Cv valves are
widely available, Tables of Cg values are not as readily available. However, for each of
the major common types of valves, a reasonably constant ratio exists between Cg and Cv,
which will allow a size to be estimated, from Fisher tables, the following rations are
found.
 Table 1
Cg/Cv ratios for common control valves

Valves Type Cg/Cv

Globe type valves 34-38
Single and double seat
3 way can also use this figure
V-ball 20-23
Butterfly, 60 open 23-29
Butterfly, 90 open 16-20
Angle, (flow tends to close) 17-20
Full port, Venturi throat

Table 2
Sizing the most common types of control valves (1)

Calculation method vs Service

Types of valve Non- Gas Steam or other vapour

Flashing P<0.5 P1 0.05P1<P<0.1P1 P>0.1P1
Liquids(2)
Globe (single seat,
Cv method Cv method Cv method Cv method
double seat, 3-way
Combined Cg
Ball Cv method Cv method Cv method
and Cv method
Combined Cg
Butterfly Cv method Cv method Cv method
and Cv method
Angle (Flow
Combined Cg and Combined Cg
direction tending to Cv method Cv method
Cv method and Cv method
close valve)

Equation for Cv method:

For non flashing liquids QL = Cv P / GL

Qg = 1360 Cv (P/GgT ) ( (P1+P2)/2)

For steam or other vapor: Qs = 63.4 Cv P/V2

or, if V2 is not known: Qs = 82 Cv P P2/T

Nomenclature

Cg = Gas flow coefficient (established by air test critical pressure drop) and defined as
 = Qg / P1 520 / T

Cv = Liquid flow coefficient (established by cold water test) and defined as

= QL G L / P

d1 = Vapour density at upstream conditions, lb/cu ft

Gg = Specific gravity of gas at 600F and 14.7 psia relative to air
GL = Specific gravity of liquid at line conditions, relative to water at 600F
P1 = Upstream pressure, psia
P2 = Upstream pressure, psia
P2 = Down stream pressure, psia
P = Pressure drop through the valve (P1-P2), psi
Qg = Gas flow rate, SCFH
QL = Liquid flow rate at line conditions, gal/min.
Qs = Steam or vapour flow rate, lb/hr
T = Absolute temperature downstream of valve, OR
V2 = Specific volume of steam or vapour at downstream conditions, cu ft/lb.

(1) See the foregoing discussion under sizing control valves: The flow coefficient method, limitations
of the flow coefficient method and sizing methods for gas and steam. This table is based largely on
information contained in fisher government CO papers and bulletins.
(2) For flashing liquids, see the discussions under valves in flashing service.
(3) Note that the expression inside the brackets is an angle, in degrees. This factor weights the
relative importance of Cv and Cg and has no relationship to shaft rotation of valves. If the angle is
greater, than 90 deg C, use 90 deg for which the sine is 1.

Sample Problems

Problem-1 LICV Sizing

T-2
T-1

Vertical head 15 psi 210

10 psig
psig

LIC

LICV

Given Control Valve (LICV) in tower application shown above. Conditions are as
follows:

T2 tower pressure = 210 psig

T1 tower pressure = 10 psig
Exchanger friction loss, fouled, = 40 psi at design flow rate
Line friction loss (excluding control value) = 10 psi at design flow rate
Design flow rate QL=125 gpm
Minimum expected flow rate = 75 gpm
Vertical head = 15 psi
Liquid specific gravity GL=0.85
Find: Assign control valve P; check rangeability and valve size.

Solution:

1. Assign Control Valve P

As explained earlier, at design flow rate, up to 200 psi static delta P in the circuit,
Control valve P for static head difference = 10% of circuit P
Control valve P for friction = 20% of circuit friction loss
(excluding the valve)

Therefore, Control valve Del P = 10% of static P through the circuit plus 20% of
the friction loss through the system (excluding the valve)
Assigned P = 0.1 (210 10) + 0.2 (40 + 10) = 30 psi

2. Check Rangeability

The design (maximum) and minimum flow rates and the valve P at design flow
rate are known. We need to find the valve P at minimum flow rate. First, find
the system friction loss and pump head buildup at the minimum flow rate:

P friction = (40 + 10) (75/125)1.84 = 19.5 psi (from fluid flow DP)

Pump head at125 gpm = Static pressure diff + vertical head + total friction loss +
assigned pressure drop

= (210 10) + 15 + 50 + 30
= 295 psi
Minimum flow rate of 75 gpm is 60% of design flow rate of 125 gpm.
From Figure 1 of Section X-E, covering centrifugal pumps, the head building up
from 100% to 60% of design flow rate is 13% (on the average)

Pump head build up = 0.13 (295)

= 38 psi
Valve P at minimum flow rate is then:
P = 30 + (50 - 19.5) + 38 = 98.5 psi

Rangeability = (125/75) 98.5/30 = 3.0 This is well within the limit of 10

3. Valve Size

The minimum acceptable flow coefficient for non flashing liquid is

Cv =QL/0.8 GL/P = 125/0.8 0.85/30

 =26.3

From Table 5, for a conventional double-seated equal percentage valve, the

smallest valve with a Cv of 31 is 1 inch. This is very close to the calculated C v
of 26.3. Therefore, the valve size of 1 inch should be selected.

Alternate method by Instrumentation India Ltd:

For non flashing liquid the flow coefficient (Cv)

Cv = V G/(P1-P2)

V = Maximum flow in gpm

G = Specific Gravity
P1 = Inlet pressure at maximum flow conditions
P2 = Out let pressure at maximum flow conditions

Cv = 125 0.85 / 30

= 21.04

If valve travel is considered at 80% for the design flow rate, the corrected Cv is

Corrected Cv = Cv/0.8
= 21.04/0.8
= 26.3

From the table of I/L, for double seated equal percentage valve and C v of 24, the
control valve size is 1 inch and the for the next higher Cv of 44, the size is 2
inch. As the calculated Cv is very close to the table Cv of 24, the appropriate size is
1 inch.

Conclusion: DP method and the I/L methods are same for the Cv calculations.

Recommendations: As the CV value of control valves differs with the

manufacturer, it is recommended to use the uniform method of calculation i.e DP
method as explained above.

Problem 2 Three Way Valve

Given : Three way valve in heat exchanger temperature control service as shown
above. Design conditions are as follows:

1. At exchanger outlet:
Liquid flow rate = 1,045,000 lb/hr
Liquid density = 5.45 lb/gal at line temperature
= 0.654 specific gravity,
Temperature = 375 0F
Exchanger P = 16 psi
Line size = 10 inch

2. By pass line :
Liquid flow rate = 522,000 lb/hr
Liquid density = 5.35 lb/gal at line temperature
= 0.642 specific gravity
Temperature = 421 0F

Find: Assign control valve P; check the valve size and type.

Solution:

Since the flow rate from the exchanger exceeds the flow rate through the bypass
line, the exchanger port of the 3 way valve will set valve size: First, find the
required Cv of this, setting P equal to 8 psi, half the exchanger P :

Cv = (QL gpm) GL/P = (1,045,000/5.45 x 60) 0.654/8 = 914

Note that for 3 way valve applications the divisor of 0.8 is not used, as it was in
Sample problem no.1

From Table 5, Cv values of the largest 3 way valves listed are given as 320 for the
mixing location (1 seat) or 630 is changed to the diverting location (2 seat).
Neither is large enough. Thus two separate conventional valves (2 way, to
differentiate them from the 3 way type) are indicated. Table 5, Cv values of 1100
for a 10 inch conventional double seated valve (equal percentage listed, but the
linear characteristic required for this service is available at the same C v) and 1200
for the 8 inch butterfly (600 open) indicated a choice between these two. Since
both types are suitable for the service and conditions the butterfly is chosen on the
basis of cost.

For the bypass line, although the design flow rate is listed as less than that of the
exchanger line, the rule is to use the larger value; However, the bypass valve P
will be 24 psi (16 from the exchanger and 8 from the valve), which reduces its
needed Cv to :

914 / 24/8 = 528

A 6 inch butterfly valve (60 open) meets these requirements; and since it is
allowable to use a bypass valve one size smaller than that of the exchanger line
 valve, the 6 inch butterfly valve is the choice. The linearizing cams needed on the
valve operator positioners are called for in the Basic Practices.

Note that the ball valve is not yet used for this service. Problems of
characteristics, operators, and characterizing positioners, if and when worked out,
way make them candidates.

Table 5
Typical Values of Flow Coefficient Cv

Value Size 2-Seat 1-Seat 2-Seat 1-Seat V-Ball Equal 600 900 Convent Convent
Equal Equal Fluted Mixing Percentage Opne Opne ional ional
Percentage Percentage Gate(3) Globe(3)
.1 flute (2) - - 0.31 - - - - - -
.2 flute (2) - - 0.63 - - - - - -
.3 flute (2) - - 0.91 - - - - - -
3/8 (2) - - 1.8 - - - - - -
(2) - - 3.2 - - - - - -
- - 5.0 - - - - - -
1 13 10 9.8 - - - - - -
1- 31 14 21 - 69 - - - -
2 52 43 - - 99 - - 220 32
3 120 99 - - 250 - - 610 88
4 200 150 - 95 540 - - 1100 160
6 450 350 - 280 1000 640 1400 2700 390
8 780 590 - 440 1700 1200 2400 4600 660
10 1100 - - 630 2700 1800 3900 7600 1070
12 1700 - - - 3900 2700 5800 11300 1600
16 2800 - - - 6000 4400 9800 - -

Note :
(1) These are rounded-off values from selected Fisher Governor Co. tables, covering
a limited number of the available body and plug designs. Note that differences of
+ 20% are not unusual between values and those for quite similar body and plug
designs, between the values for equivalent body and plug designs of different
manufacturers, between the values for various ball types and various butterfly
vane types, and between the values for identical valves in different manifold sizes
and arrangements.
(2) In inch or inch valve body.
(3) Calculated from table of equivalent lengths of straight pipe for P calculations, See
Section XIV B