MODULE-IV: ARCHITECTURAL HERITAGE OF INDIA

Indian Architecture
One of the most enduring achievements of Indian civilization is undoubtedly
its architecture. Indian architecture, which has evolved through centuries, is the
result of socio-economic and geographical conditions. Different types of Indian
architectural styles include a mass of expressions over space and time, transformed
by the forces of history considered unique to India. As a result of vast diversities, a
vast range of architectural specimens have evolved, retaining a certain amount of
continuity across history.
Most of the art and architectural remains that survive from Ancient and
Medieval India are religious in nature. That does not mean that people did not have
art in their homes at those times, but domestic dwellings and the things in them were
mostly made from materials like wood and clay which have perished, or were made
of metal (like iron, bronze, silver and even gold) which was melted down and reused
from time to time. This chapter introduces us to many types of temples from India.
Although we have focussed mostly on Hindu temples, at the end of the chapter you
will find some information on major Buddhist and Jain temples too. However, at all
times, we must keep in mind that religious shrines were also made for many local
cults in villages and forest areas, but again, not being of stone the ancient or
medieval shrines in those areas have also vanished.
Indian architecture, belonging to different periods of history, bears the stamp
of respective periods. Though the cities of Indus Valley provide substantial evidence
of extensive town planning, the beginnings of Indian architecture can be traced back
to the advent of Buddhism in India. It was in this period that a large number of
magnificent buildings came up. Some of the highlights of Buddhist art and
architecture are the Great Stupa at Sanchi and the rock-cut caves at Ajanta.
With the establishment of Hindu kingdoms in South India, the south Indian
school of architecture began to flourish. The most notable achievements of the
Pallava rulers were the rock-cut temples of Mahabalipuram and the temples of
Kanchipuram. The Chola, Hoyasala and Vijayanagar rulers also did remarkable job
in the field of architecture. The temples at Thanjavur, Belur and Halebid bear
testimony to the architectural excellence of the South Indian rulers.
In north India, there developed a new a different style of architecture. This
was called as the Nagara style architecture. In central India, the Chandela rulers
built a magnificent temple complex at Khajuraho. With the coming of the Muslim
rulers, there developed a new architectural style in India- the Indo-Islamic
architecture. The Indo-Islamic style was neither strictly Islamic nor strictly Hindu. The
architecture of the medieval period can be divided into two main categories. They
are the Delhi or the Imperial Style and the Mughal Architecture.
It was followed by a new style of architecture that developed as a result of
colonization of India. This style of architecture came to be called as Indo-Saracenic.
The Indo-Saracenic architecture combined the features of Hindu, Islamic and
western elements. The colonial architecture exhibited itself through institutional, civic
and utilitarian buildings such as post offices, railway stations, rest houses and
government buildings.

Colonial Architecture: Like all other aspects, colonization of Indian also had an
impact on architecture style. With colonization, a new chapter in Indian architecture
began. The Dutch, Portuguese and the French made their presence felt through
their buildings but it was the English who had a lasting impact on architecture.

Indo Islamic Architecture: The medieval period saw great developments in the field
of architecture. With the coming of Muslims to India, many new features came to be
introduced in buildings. The development of Muslim Style of Architecture of this
period can be called the Indo-Islamic Architecture or the Indian Architecture
influenced by Islamic Art. The Indo-Islamic style was neither strictly Islamic nor
strictly Hindu.

Ancient Architecture: Indian architecture is as old as the history of the civilization.

The earliest remains of recognizable building activity in the India dates back to the
Indus Valley cities. Among India's ancient architectural remains, the most
characteristic are the temples, Chaityas, Viharas, Stupas and other religious
structures.

Cave Architecture: The cave architecture in India is believed to have begun in the
third century BC. These caves were used by Buddhist and Jain monks as places of
worship and residence. Initially the caves were excavated in the western India.
Some examples of this type of cave structure are Chaityas and Viharas of
Buddhists.

Rock Cut: The Rock-cut structures present the most spectacular piece of ancient
Indian art specimen. Most of the rock-cut structures were related to various religious
communities. In the beginning, remarkable Buddhist and Jain monuments were
produced in areas such as Bihar in the east and Maharashtra in the west.

Temple Architecture: In ancient India, temple architecture of high standard

developed in almost all regions. The distinct architectural style of temple
construction in different parts was a result of geographical, climatic, ethnic, racial,
historical and linguistic diversities. Ancient Indian temples are classified in three
broad types. This classification is based on different architectural styles, employed in
the construction of the temples.

Growth of Hindu Architecture in India

Hindu schools of architecture flourished in different parts of the country. The

distinctive features of the Hindu architecture were narrow pillars of circular section
with base and capital, pilasters, courbal brackets, cornice or chhajja, graceful
tapering arch, lavish decorative designs and attractive well-proportioned figures. The
most outstanding example of Hindu architecture is provided by the temples include
Parasurameswara, Muktewara, Linga Raja temple at Bhubaneswar, Sun temple of
Konark, Jagannath temple at Puri etc. The temple of Parasurameswara, The
Mukteswara temple, The Linga Raja temple, The Sun temple of Konark, The temple
at Jagannath, The temple group at Khajuraho etc.

The Hindu temples commonly known as Mandir in Hindi and derived from the
Sanskrit word Mandira, are identified by several names in different parts of India as
koil or kovil in Tamil, devasthana in Kanada and devalaya, in Telugu etc. In general
Hindu temple structure can either be isolated structure or a part of complex.
The character of Hindu temples reflected local architecture styles and the
material and skills to which they related. The main forms and styles of the Hindu
temple were established during 600-800 AD. The cell or shrine, the garbhagriha
(usually square in plan), housed the image and was approached through a
columniated porch or mandapa. The shrine was roofed with a pyramidal spire or
vertically attenuated dome like structure known as sikhara. The temple as a whole
was raised on a massive plinth and was often surrounded by subsidiary shrines and
by an enclosing wall pierced by one or more gigantic gateway towers or gopurams. It
is the outline and detailing of the sikhara and other roof-forms which determine the
character of monumental Hindu architecture and give a formal as opposed to
historical basis for it classification.
The architecture of temples varies across India, however while the basic
elements of the temple are the same, the form and scale varied. For example as in
the case of the architectural elements like Sikhara (pyramidical roofs) and Gopurams
(the gateways). This following section describes the evolution of the temple and the
development of their architectural styles along their materials of construction.
Elements of Hindu temple
It was the later half of the 7th century that the Hindu temple structures of India
began to acquire a definite form (Fletcher,1952). Similar to terminology used to
distinguish the basic components of a Gothic Church (for example nave, aisles,
chancel, spire, etc), the common elements of a Hindu temple which are known in
their original sanskrit words are as follows: The sanctuary as whole is known as the
Vimana that consists of two parts. The upper part of the Vimana is called as the
Sikhara and the lower portion inside the Vimana is called as the Garbhagriha (cella
or inner chamber).
Sikhara meaning the tower or the spire. It is the pyramidal or tapering portion
of the temple which represents the mythological Meru or the highest
mountain peak. The shape and the size of the tower vary from region to
region.
Garbhagriha meaning the womb chamber. It is nucleus and the innermost
chamber of the temple where the image or idol of the deity is placed. The
chamber is mostly square in plan and is entered by a doorway on its eastern
side. The visitors are not allowed inside the garbhagriha in most of the
temples, only the priests perform the rituals and worship.
Pradakshina patha meaning the ambulatory passageway for
circumambulation. It consists of enclosed corridor carried around the outside
of garbhagriha. The devotees walk around the deity in clockwise direction as
a worship ritual and symbol of respect to the temple god or goddess.
Mandapa, is the pillared hall in front of the garbhagriha, for the assembly of
the devotees. It is used by the devotees to sit, pray, chant, meditate and
watch the priests performing the rituals. It is also known as Natamandira
meaning temple hall of dancing, where in olden days ritual of music and
dance was performed. In some of the earlier temples the mandapa was an
isolated and separate structure from the sanctuary.
Antarala meaning the vestibule or the intermediate chamber. It unites the
main sanctuary and the pillared hall of the temple.
Ardhamandapa meaning the front porch or the main entrance of the temple
leading to the mandapa. Some other essential elements found in the
Hindu temples are
Gopurams meaning the monumental and ornate tower at the entrance of the
temple complex, specially found in south India.
Pitha , the plinth or the platform of the temple.
Toranas, the typical gateway of the temple mostly found in north Indian
temple and Erasmus The Amalaka the fluted disc like stone placed at the
apex of the sikhara
Classification of Indian Temples
Indian temples can be classified into two broad orders as:
Nagara (in North India)
Dravida (in South India)
Vesara style of temples (created through the mixing of Nagara and Dravida)

The Nagara or North Indian Temple Architecture: Nagara is the style of temple
architecture which became popular in Northern India. It is common here to build an
entire temple on a stone platform with steps leading up to it. Unlike in south India, it
doesnt usually have elaborate boundary walls or gateways. Earliest temples had
only one shikhara (tower), but in the later periods multiple shikharas came. The
garbhagriha is always located directly under the tallest tower. Nagara temples can
be subdivided mainly into three based on the shikhara type.
Latina/ Rekha-Prasada: It is the simple and most common type of shikhara.
It is square at the base and the walls curve or slope inwards to a point on top.
Latina types are mainly used for housing the garbhagriha. Later on, the Latina
buildings grew complex, and instead of appearing like a single tower, the
temple began to support many small towers, which were clustered together
like rising mountain type with the tallest one being in the centre, and this was
the one which was always above the garbhagriha.
Phamsana type shikhara: They are broader and shorter than Latina type.
Their roof is composed of several slabs that gently rise to a single point over
the centre of the building, unlike the Latina ones which looks like sharply
rising towers. Phamsana roofs do not curve inwards; instead they slope
upward on a straight incline. In many north Indian temples, the phamsana
type is used for mandapas while the main garbhagriha is housed in a Latina
building.
Valabhi type shikhara: These are rectangular buildings with a roof that rises
into a vaulted chamber. The edge of the vaulted chamber is round, like the
bamboo or wooden wagons that would have been drawn by bullocks in
ancient times. The form of this temple is influenced by ancient building forms
that were already in existence.
The Dravida or South Indian Temple Architecture: Unlike the nagara temple, the
dravida temple is enclosed within a compound wall. The front wall has an entrance
gateway in its centre, which is known as Gopura/ Gopuram. The shape of the main
temple tower is known as Vimana (shikhara in nagara style). The vimana is like a
stepped pyramid that rise up geometrically rather than the curving shikhara of north
India. In south India, the word Shikhara is used only for the crowning element at the
top of the temple which is usually shaped like a small stupika or an octagonal cupola
(this is equivalent to the amalaka or kalasha of north Indian temples). In the Dravida
style of temple architecture, instead of these sculptures, we can see the sculptures
of fierce dvarapalas or door keepers guarding the temple. A large water reservoir or
a temple tank enclosed in the complex is general in south Indian temples. Subsidiary
shrines are either incorporated within the main temple tower, or located as a distinct,
separate small shrine besides the main temple. The north Indian idea of multiple
shikharas rising together as a cluster was not popular in dravida style.
At some of the most sacred temples in south India, the main temple in which
the garbhagriha is situated has, in fact, one of the smallest towers. This is because it
is usually the oldest part of the temple. When the population and the size of the town
associated with the temple increased, it would have become necessary to make a
new boundary wall around the temple (and also associated structures). An example
for this is the Srirangam temple at Thiruchirapally, which has as many as seven
concentric rectangular enclosure walls, each with gopurams. The outermost is the
oldest while the tower right in the centre housing the garbhagriha is the oldest. Just
as the nagara architecture has subdivisions, dravida temples also have subdivisions.
These are basically of five different shapes:
Kuta or caturasra square
Shala or ayatasra rectangular
Gaja-prishta or vrittayata (elephant backed) elliptic
Vritta circular
Ashtasra octagonal
Islamic Architecture

In the 7th and 8th centuries CE, Islam spread towards Spain and India.
Islam came to India particularly with merchants, traders, holy men and
conquerors over a passage of 600 years. Although by the 8 th century Muslims
had begun to construct in Sindh, Gujarat, etc., it was only in the 13 th century
that large-scale building activity was begun by the Turkish state, established
after the Turkish conquest of the North India.

A noteworthy aspect of these migrations and conquests was that

Muslims absorbed many features of local culture and tradition and combined
them with their own architectural features. Thus, in the field of architecture, a
mix of many structural techniques, stylized shapes, and surface decorations
came about through constant interventions of acceptance, rejections or
modifications of architectural elements. These architectural entities or
categories showcasing multiple styles are known as Indo-Saracenic or Indo-
Islamic Architecture.

By the 12th century, India was already familiar with monumental

construction in grandiose settings. Certain techniques and embellishments
were prevalent and popular, such as trabeation (the use of beam rather than
arches or vaulting), brackets, and multiple pillars to support a flat roof or a
small shallow dome. The arches in early constructions were shaped in wood
and stone, and were unable to bear the weight of the domes/top structures.
Such arches needed to be constructed with voussoirs (series of interlocking
blocks) and fitted with keystones.

Categories of Styles: The study of Indo-Islamic architecture is conventionally

categorized as follows:
 The Imperial Style (Delhi sultanate)

The Provincial styles (Mandu, Gujarat, Bengal and Jaunpur)

The Mughal Style (Delhi, Agra and Lahore)

The Deccani style (Bijapur and Golconda)

Amongst provincial styles, the architecture of Bengal and Jaunpur is regarded as

distinct. Gujarat was said to have a markedly regional character for patrons
borrowed elements from the regional temple traditions such as torans, lintels in
mihrabs, carving of bell and chain motifs, and carved panels depicting trees, for
tombs, mosques and dargahs. The 15 th century white marble dargah of Sheikh
Ahmad Khattu of Sarkhej is a good example of provincial style and it heavily
influenced the forms and decoration of Mughal tombs.

Decorative Forms: These forms include designing on plasters through incisions or

stucco. The designs were either left plain or covered with colours. Motifs were also
painted on or carved in stones. These motifs include varieties of flowers, both from
sub-continent and places outside, particularly Iran. The lotus bridge fringe was used
to great advantage in the inner curves of the arches. The walls were also decorated
with Cypress, Chinar, and other trees as also with flower vases. Many complex
designs of flower motifs decorating the ceiling were also to be found on textiles and
carpets. In the 14th, 15th and 16th centuries, tiles were also used to surface the walls
and the domes. Popular colours were blue, turquoise, green and yellow.
Subsequently the techniques of tessellation (mosaic designs) and pietra dura (cut
and fit technique) were made use of for surface decoration, particularly in the dodo
panels of the walls.

At times, Lapis Lazuli (a kind of blue stone) was used on the interior walls or
on canopies. Arabesque

(surface decorations based on rhythmic linear patterns of scrolling and interlacing

foliage, tendrils), calligraphy, Jalis (perforated stone or latticed screen), etc. were
other decorative works.

Constructing Materials: The walls in all buildings were extremely thick and were
largely constructed of rubble masonry, which were easily available. These walls were
then cased over with chunam or limestone plaster or dressed stone. An amazing
ranges of stones were utilized for construction such as quartzite, sandstone, buffs,
marbles, etc. Polychrome tiles were used to great advantage to finish the walls.
From the 17th century onwards, bricks were also used for construction and in this
phase there was more reliance on local materials.

Forts: Building monumental forts with embattlement was a regular feature in

medieval times, often symbolizing the seat of power of a king. When such a fort was
captured by an attacking army, the vanquished ruler either lost his complete power
or his sovereignty. This was because he had to accept the suzerainty of the
victorious king. Commanding heights were utilized to great advantage to construct
forts. Another feature was concentric circles of outer walls as in Golconda that the
enemy had to breach these at all stages before getting in. Some of the famous forts
are the Fort of Chittor (Rajasthan), Gwalior (MP), Daulatabad-earlier Devgiri
(Maharashtra), and Golconda (Hyderabad). The Chittorgarh fort is the largest fort in
Asia and was occupied for the longest length of time as the seat of power.

Minars: Another form of sthamba or tower was the minar, a common feature in the
sub-continent. The most striking minars of medieval times are the Qutub Minar in
Delhi and Chand Minar at Daulatabad. The everyday use of the minar was for the
azaan or call to prayer. Its phenomenal height, however, symbolized the might and
power of the ruler.

Such as Qutub Minar was built in the 13th century and the Qutub complex in
which the minar is present is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The construction of
the bottom storey of the minar was started by Qutub-ud-din Aibak (Delhi Sultanate)
and his successor Iltumish completed it by adding three more storeys. However
Firoz Shah Tughlaq replaced the top storey which was damaged in a lightning and
also added one more storey. Hence now it has five storeys and a height of nearly
234 feet (about 73 m) making it the second tallest minar in India (first is Fateh Burj,
Punjab). The Qutub Minar also came to be associated with the much revered saint
of Delhi, Khwaja Qutubuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki. The minar is a mixture of polygonal and
circular shapes. It is largely built on red and buff stone with some use of marble in
the upper storeys. It is characterized by high decorative balconies and bands of
inscriptions intertwined with foliated designs.

Tombs: Monumental structures over graves of rulers and royalty was a popular
feature of medieval India. Some well known examples of such tombs are those of
Ghyasuddin Tughlaq, Humayun, Adur Rahim Khan-i-Khanan, Akbar, and
Itmaduddaula. The idea behind the tomb was eternal paradise as a reward for the
true believer on the Day of Judgment. This leads to the paradisiacal imagery for
tombs. Beginning with the introduction of Quranic verses on the walls, the tomb was
subsequently placed with paradisiacal elements such as garden or near a water
body or both, as in the case of Taj Mahal. They were not only intended to signify
peace and happiness in the next world, but also to showcase the majesty, grandeur
and might of the person buried there.

Such as Taj Mahal was built in Agra by Shah Jahan as a mausoleum (a kind
of large tomb) for his deceased wife Mumtaz Mahal. It was commissioned in the year
of 1632 and is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Taj Mahal was the apogee of the
evolutionary architectural process in medieval India. The Taj complex is entered
through a monumental red sandstone gateway, the opening arch of which beautifully
frames the mausoleum. The tomb is laid out in a Chahar Bagh (garden),
crisscrossed with paths and water courses, interspersed with pools and fountains.

Sarais: Sarais were largely built on a simple square or a rectangular plan and were
meant to provide temporary accommodation for Indian and foreign travelers,
pilgrims, merchants, traders, etc. They were public domains which thronged with
people of varied cultural backgrounds. This lead to cross cultural interaction,
influence and syncretic tendencies in the cultural mores of the times and at the level
of people.
Mosques: Large mosques spanning huge spaces also dotted the landscapes of the
Indian sub-continent in medieval times. Congregational prayers were held here every
Friday afternoon, which required the presence of minimum of forty Muslim male adults.
At the time of prayers, a khutba was read out in the name of the ruler and his laws for
the realm were also read out. In medieval times, a city had one Jama Masjid which,
along with its immediate surroundings, became the focus of the lives of the people, both
Muslim and Non-Muslim. This happened because a lot of commercial and cultural
exchanges were concentrated here besides religious and indirect political activity.
Generally, such a mosque was large with an open courtyard, surrounded on three sides
by cloisters and the Qibla Liwan in the west. It was here that the mihrab and mimbar for
the Imam were located. People faced the mihrab while offering prayers as it indicated
the direction of the Kaaba in Mecca.

Such as Jama Masjid was built on a large scale to accommodate many worshippers
for Friday prayers. The building is faced with red sandstone. The Mimbar (where Imam
stands to deliver sermons) in the Quibla liwan (a long narrowed hall) is supported on
carved brackets and the Mihrab has a lotus bud fringe.

Buddhist Architecture

Buddhist religious architecture developed in the Indian Subcontinent in the 3rd

century BCE. Buddhist architecture emerged slowly in the period following the
Buddhas life, along with the Hindu temple architecture. The period of 5 th to
14th centuries were not only the period of the development of Hindu temples, but also
were equally vibrant period for the Buddhist architectures. Some features of Buddhist
Architecture are as under:

Bodhgaya became a pilgrimage site since Siddhartha achieved enlightenment

here and became Gautama Buddha. The Mahabodhi Temple at Bodhgaya is an
important reminder of the brickwork of that time. The first shrine here, located at the
base of the Bodhi Tree, is said to have been constructed by the King Ashoka. The
monastic University of Nalanda is a Mahavihara as it is a complex of several
monasteries of various sizes. Only a small portion of this ancient learning centre has
been excavated till date, as most of it lies buried under contemporary civilization,
making further excavations almost impossible. Most of the information about Nalanda is
based on the records of Xuan Zang/Hsuan Tsang (Chinese traveller). Monks came to
here from the different regions of the world such as China, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Burma,
etc.

Buddhist Architecture have made substantial contribution to Indian Culture.

These are in the form of :

Stupas
Viharas
Chaityas
Paintings and
Pillars

STUPAS: Stupas were built of stones or bricks to commemorate important events or

mark important places associated with Buddhism or to house important relics of
Buddha. Ashok Maurya who laid the foundation of this group of monuments is said to
have built 84,000 stupas, most of which have perished.
The best examples of stupas are those constructed at Amaravati, Sanchi, Barhut
and Gaya. "One of the most striking architectural remains of ancient India" and the
earliest and largest of the three stupas found in Sanchi was built by Ashoka (273-236
B.C.)
The Great stupa has a large hemispherical dome which is flat at the top, and
crowned by a triple umbrella or Chattra on a pedestal surrounded by a square railing or
Karmika. Buddha's relics were placed in a casket chamber in the centre of the Dome. At
the base of the dome is a high circular terrace probably meant for parikrama or
circumambulation and an encircling balustrade. At the ground level is a stone-paved
procession path and another stone Balustrade and two flights of steps leading to the
circular terrace. Access to it is through four exquisitely carved gateways or Toranas in
the North, South, East and West. The diameter of the stupa is 36.60 metres and its
height is 16.46 metres. It is built of large burnt bricks and mud mortar. It is presumed
that the elaborately carved Toranas were built by ivory or metal workers in the 1st.
Century BC during the reign of King Satakarni of the Satavahana Dynasty. The last
addition to the stupa was made during the early 4th Century AD in the Gupta period
when four images of Buddha sitting in the dhyana mudra or meditation were installed at
the four entrances.

VIHARAS: Viharas or monasteries constructed with brick or excavated from rocks are
found in different parts of India. Usually built to a set plan, they have a hall meant for
congregational prayer with a running verandah on three sides or an open courtyard
surrounded by a row of cells and a pillared verandah in front. These cells served as
dwelling places for the monks. These monastic buildings built of bricks were self-
contained units and had a Chaitya hall or Chaitya mandir attached to a stupa - the chief
object of worship. Some of the important Buddhist viharas are those at Ajanta, Ellora.
Nasik, Karle, Kanheri, Bagh and Badami. The Hinayana viharas found in these places
have many interesting features which differentiate them from the Mahayana type in the
same regions. Though plain from the point of view of architecture, they are large ha1ls
with cells excavated in the walls on three sides. The hall has one or more entrances.
The small cells, each with a door have one or two stone platforms to serve as beds.
Twenty-five of the rock-cut caves of Ajanta are viharas and are the finest of
monasteries. Four of the viharas belong to the 2nd century BC. Later, other caves were
excavated during the reign of the Vakataka rulers who were the contemporaries of the
Gupta Rulers. Some of the most beautiful viharas belong to this period. The finest of
them. Cave 1, of the Mahayana type consists of a verandah, a hall, groups of cells and
a sanctuary. It has a decorated facade. The portico is supported by exquisitely carved
pillars. The columns have a square base with figures of dwarfs and elaborately carved
brackets and capitals. Below the capital is a square abacus with finely carved makara
motifs. The walls and the ceilings of the cave contain the most exquisite paintings. The
viharas of Ellora dated 400 AD to 7th century AD are of one, two, and three storeys and
are the largest of the type. They contain sculptured figures and belong to both Hinayana
and Mahayana Buddhism.
CHAITYAS: Chaitya grihas or halls of worship were built all over the country either of
brick or excavated from rocks. Ruins of a large number of structural Buddhist chaity
grihas are found in the eastern districts of Andhra Pradesh, in valleys, near rivers and
lakes. The ruins located in the districts of Srikakulam at Salihundam, of Visahkapatnam
at Kotturu, of West Godavari at Guntapalli, of Krishna at Vijayawada, of Guntur at
Nagajunakonda and Amaravati belong to the 3rd century BC and later. The largest brick
chaitya hall was excavated at Guntapalli.
Some of the most beautiful rock-cut caves are those at Ajanta, ElIora, Bhaja,
Karle, Bagh, Nasik and Kanheri. Some of the chunar sand-stone rock-cut chaityas of
Bhaja. Kondane. Karle and Ajanta, all in Maharashtra state are earlier excavations and
belong to the first phase or Hinayana creed of Buddhism and are similar to the brick and
wooden structures of Ashokan times. Some of the chaityas show that wood had been
used in the roofing and entrance arches. The chaitya at Bhaja is a long hall 16.75
metres long and 8 metres broad with an apse at the end. The hall is divided into a
central nave and an aisle on either side flanked by two rows of pillars. The roof is
vaulted. The rock-cut stupa in the apse is crowned by a wooden harmika. The chaitya
has a large arched torana or entrance with an arched portico.

PAINTINGS: Paintings which has been an accepted art since early times attained
heights of excellence in Gupta period. These exquisite paintings or frescos are to be
seen in the caves of Ajanta. The entire surface of the caves is exquisitely painted and
shows the high standard reached in mural painting. The theme of the painting on the
walls is mostly the life of Buddha and Bodhisattvas and the Jataka stories. These topics
cover a continuous narration of events on all aspects of human- life from birth to death.
Every kind of human emotion is depicted. The paintings reflect the contemporary life of
the times, dress, ornaments, culture, weapons used, even their beliefs are portrayed
with life-like reality. The paintings include gods, yakshas, kinneras, gandharvas, apsaras
and human beings.
 The paintings show their intense feeling for nature and an understanding of the
various aspects of all living beings. The ceilings are covered with intricate designs,
flowers, plants, birds, animals, fruit and people. The ground for painting was prepared
by paving it with a rough layer of earth and sand mixed with vegetable fibres, husk and
grass. A second coat of mud mixed with fine sand and fibrous vegetable material was
applied. A final finish was given with a thin coat of lime-wash, glue was used as a
binder. On this prepared surface, the outlines were drawn and the spaces were filled
with the required colours; with much attention given to shades and tones. Red, yellow,
black, ochre, blue and gypsum were mostly used. Some of the renowned paintings are
that of the Bodhisattva holding a lily (cave 1), the painting of Padmapani, the Apsaras
with a turban headgear (cave 17) the painting on the ceiling (cave 2) and the toilet
scheme (cave 17) considered to be a masterpiece of the painter.

STHAMBAS: Sthambas or Pillars with religious emblems were put up by pious

Buddhists in honour of Buddha or other great Buddhists. Fragments of sthambas
belonging to Mauryan times and later were found at Sanchi, Sarnath, Amaravati and
Nagarjunkonda.
A portion of the Ashoka Pillar, 15.25 metres high, surmounted by the famous lion-
capital and a dharma chakra above the heads of the four lions stands embedded near
the Dharmarajika stupa at Sarnath. The pillar bears the edict of Ashoka warning the
monks and nuns against creating a schism in the monastic order. The broken fragments
of the Pillar are now in the Museum at Sarnath. The lion-capital - the most magnificient
piece of Mauryan sculpture is 2.31 metres high. It consists of four parts - (i) a bell-
shaped vase covered with inverted lotus petals, (ii) a round abacus, (iii) four seated
lions and (iv) a crowning dharmachakra with thirty two spokes. The four lions are
beautifully sculptured. On the abacus are four running animals - an elephant, a bull, a
horse and a. lion with a small dharmachakra between them. The dharmachakra
symbolises the dharma or law; the four lions facing the four directions are the form of
Buddha or Sakyasimha, the four galloping animals are the four quarters accord ing to
Buddhist books and the four smaller dharmachakras stand for the intermediate regions
and the lotus is the symbol of creative activity. The surface of these pillars has a mirror
like finish.

Palaces: It was from the Maurya period that we have references to cities and visible
relics of art and architecture. More or less a clear idea of the architecture of the Maurya
period may be had from the description of the Maurya capital city of Pataliputra. Dr.
Spooner has unearthed fragments of huge wooden palisade of the city. The Greek
writers describe the grandeur of Chandraguptas capital city of Pataliputra as one which
neither the palaces of Susa nor Ecbatana could vie with. The Chinese traveler Fa-hien
visiting Pataliputra several centuries afterwards was struck by its grandeur although it
was then in a dilapidated condition. Excavation at Kumarahar has unearthed the
remains of the Maurya palace which give us an impression that the palace was an
aggregate of buildings the most noteworthy part of which was the large pillared-hall.
Fragments of stone pillars have also been discovered and these, from their very smooth
polish raise presumption that Asoka was responsible for the construction of the pillared-
hall.

UNESCO World Heritage Sites in India

The United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO)
lists and maintains the international World Heritage Programme. A UNESCO World
Heritage Site can be any place such as a forest, lake, building, island, mountain,
monument, desert, complex or a city; which has a special physical or cultural
significance. It was in the year 1972 that a resolution was adopted by the General
Conference of the UNESCO with a 'Convention concerning the protection of the World
Cultural and Natural Heritage'. The main objective of this resolution was to define the
cultural and natural aspects of these sites. Out of the total sites in the world, 32 are
present in India. Of these, 25 sites have cultural importance while seven other are
known for their natural splendour.
UNESCO World Heritage Site

A UNESCO World Heritage Site is a place that is listed by the United Nations
Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization as of special cultural or physical
significance. The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
(UNESCO) seeks to encourage the identification, protection and preservation of cultural
and natural heritage around the world considered to be of outstanding value to
humanity. This is embodied in an international treaty called the Convention concerning
the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage, adopted by UNESCO in 1972.
World Heritage is the designation for places on Earth that are of outstanding universal
value to humanity and as such, have been inscribed on the World Heritage List to be
protected for future generations to appreciate and enjoy. Places as diverse and unique
as the Pyramids of Egypt, the Great Barrier Reef in Australia, Galpagos Islands in
Ecuador, the Taj Mahal in India, the Grand Canyon in the USA, or the Acropolis in
Greece are examples of the 1007 natural and cultural places inscribed on the World
Heritage List to date.

List of Natural World Heritage Sites. Name of UNESCO World Heritage Site,
location, year of notification, and total area is as follows
Name of Natural World Year of
Sl. No. State Area (In Km2)
Heritage Site Notification
1 Kaziranga National Park Assam 1985 429.96
Keoladeo Ghana
2 Rajasthan 1985 28.73
National Park
Manas Wildlife
3 Assam 1985 391.00
Sanctuary
Nanda Devi National
1982 630.00
4 Park and Valley of Uttarakhand
2005 87.50
Flowers
Sunderbans National
5 West Bengal 1984 1,330.10
Park
6 Western Ghats Maharashtra, 2012 1,60,000.00
 Goa,
Karnataka,
Tamil Nadu
and
Kerala
Great Himalayan Himachal
7 2014 905.4
National Park Pradesh

List of Cultural World Heritage Sites. Name of UNESCO World Heritage Site,
location, and year of notification is as follows

Name of Cultural World Year of

Sl. No. State
Heritage Site Notification
1 Agra Fort Uttar Pradesh 1983
2 Ajanta Caves Maharashtra 1983
3 Buddhist Monuments at Sanchi Madhya Pradesh 1989
Champaner-Pavagadh
4 Gujarat 2004
Archaeological Park
Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus
5 Maharashtra 2004
(Formerly Victoria Terminus)
6 Churches and Convents of Goa Goa 1986
7 Elephanta Caves Maharashtra 1987
8 Ellora Caves Maharashtra 1983
9 Fatehpur Sikri Uttar Pradesh 1986
10 Great Living Chola Temples Tamil Nadu 1987
11 Group of Monuments at Hampi Karnataka 1986
Group of Monuments at
12 Tamil Nadu 1984
Mahabalipuram
Group of Monuments at
13 Karnataka 1987
Pattadakal
14 Hill Forts of Rajasthan Rajasthan 2013
(Chittorgarh,
Kumbhalgarh,
 Ranthambhore,
Amber Sub-Cluster,
Jaisalmer, Gagron)
15 Humayuns Tomb, Delhi Delhi 1993
Khajuraho Group of
16 Madhya Pradesh 1986
Monuments
Mahabodhi Temple Complex at
17 Bihar 2002
Bodh Gaya
18 Mountain Railways of India Tamil Nadu 1999
Qutb Minar and its Monuments,
19 Delhi 1993
Delhi
Rani-Ki-Van (the Queens
20 Gujarat 2014
Stepwell) at Patan, Gujarat
21 Red Fort Complex Delhi 2007
22 Rock Shelters of Bhimbetka Madhya Pradesh 2003
23 Sun Temple, Konarak Orissa 1984
24 Taj Mahal Uttar Pradesh 1983
25 The Jantar Mantar, Jaipur Rajasthan 2010

Archaeological Site of Nalanda

26 Mahavihara (Nalanda Bihar 2016
University) at Nalanda
The Architectural Work of Le
Corbusier, an Outstanding
27 Chandigarh 2016
Contribution to the Modern
Movement

List of Mixed World Heritage Sites in India

Name of Mixed World Year of
Sl. No. State
Heritage Site Notification
Khangchendzonga National
1 Sikkim 2016
Park
Source UNESCO World Heritage Convention
Top 10 World Heritage Sites in India

The cultural heritage of a country is a spectacular memorandum of its glorious past. It is

that precious inheritance which should be preserved to be passed on from generations
to generations. There might be a number of architectural prodigies in a country but only
a few of them hold universal importance. These are the cultural heritages which are so
exceptional that the protection of these sites becomes the concern of the entire
mankind. Such manifestations of history have been categorized as the World Heritage
Sites by UNESCO and their preservation is of utmost importance to these international
bodies. At present, 137 nations are a part of this resolution and India is one of them.
There are 32 such properties in the country which have been touted as the World
Heritage Sites by the UNESCO. Out of them 25 are cultural heritages while 7 are the
natural ones.

The fact that these places have been chosen as World Heritage Sites justifies their
universal importance. Yet there are some of them which, on the basis of their popularity
and historical importance, can be considered to be the top ten. So today, I am going to
write about ten such places, which I think, deserve to be the best ones from the lot! And
the count begins here:

List of Top 10 World Heritage Sites in India

1. Taj Mahal

Location: Agra

One of the Seven Wonders of the World, Taj Mahal is indeed, the most important world
heritage site in India. The spellbinding magnificence of this monument needs no
explanation.

2. Qutub Minar

Location: New Delhi

Located in the capital city, Qutub Minar is the tall architectural beauty that adorns Delhi
with its magnificence. It is the second tallest Minar in the country.

3. Sun Temple

Location: Odisha

Also known as the Black Pagoda, Sun temple is not only a notable architecture but is
also one of the most important temples of the South. It belongs to the 13th century and
its unique shape of a gigantic chariot accentuates its importance as a heritage site.

4. Monuments of Khajuraho

Location: Madhya Pradesh

These monuments in the state of Madhya Pradesh are fine denotations of the Chandela
Dynasty that existed before the invasion of the Mughals. The sculptural beauty which
boldly speaks of the relevance of sensuality makes these monuments a notable piece of
the history of India.

5. Mahabodhi Temple

Location: Bihar

Spread over an area of 12 acres, the Mahabodhi Temple complex is a pilgrimage site of
the Buddhists. Lord Buddha attained enlightenment at this very place and thus, it is
exceptionally important for the Buddhist religion.

6. Kaziranga National Park

Location: Assam

Located in the eastern state of Assam, the Kaziranga National Park was deemed as a
world heritage site for its exceptional natural environment. It houses around two-thirds
of the worlds Great One-horned Rhinoceroses.
7. Chola Temple

Location: Tamil Nadu

Built during the Chola rule, the great living Chola temples of Thanjavur inspired the
entire South-east Asia with their grandeur and spectacular designs. These temples have
been regarded as the pioneer of building art in south India.

8. Ajanta Caves

Location: Maharashtra

As the unique representations of the Buddhist religion, 31 rock-cut caves have been
deemed as the world heritage site in the state of Maharashtra. These magnificent
Buddhist caves belong to the 2nd century BC.

9. Mountain Railways of India

Location: West Bengal, Himachal Pradesh, Tamil Nadu

The Mountain Railways of India include the Darjeeling-Himalayan Railway (West

Bengal), the Nilgiri Mountain Railways (Tamil Nadu) and the Kalka Shimla Railway
(Himachal Pradesh). These railways are an outstanding example of prodigal
engineering skills used to combat the problem establishing a rail link in the hills.

10. Fatehpur Sikri

Location: Agra

The city of victory, Fatehpur Sikri was built during the glorious reign of the Mughals. It
was the luxurious capital of the iconic Mughal Empire.

The architectural heritage of India is so captivating that it is impossible to choose a few.

Everyone might have their own favorites! If you find some other site to be more worthy
of being included in the list, please leave your suggestions below.