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Chemistry
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

Chemistryisabranchofphysicalsciencethatstudiesthecomposition,structure,propertiesandchangeofmatter.[1][2]
Chemistryincludestopicssuchasthepropertiesofindividualatoms,howatomsformchemicalbondstocreatechemical
compounds,theinteractionsofsubstancesthroughintermolecularforcesthatgivematteritsgeneralproperties,andthe
interactionsbetweensubstancesthroughchemicalreactionstoformdifferentsubstances.

Chemistryissometimescalledthecentralsciencebecauseitbridgesothernaturalsciences,includingphysics,geologyand
biology.[3][4]Forthedifferencesbetweenchemistryandphysicsseecomparisonofchemistryandphysics.[5]

Thehistoryofchemistrycanbetracedtoalchemy,whichhadbeenpracticedforseveralmillenniainvariouspartsofthe
world.

Solutionsofsubstancesinreagent
bottles,includingammonium
Contents hydroxideandnitricacid,illuminated
indifferentcolors
1 Etymology
1.1 Definition
2 History
2.1 Chemistryasscience
2.2 Chemicalstructure
3 Principlesofmodernchemistry
3.1 Matter
3.1.1 Atom
3.1.2 Element
3.1.3 Compound
3.1.4 Molecule
3.1.5 Substanceandmixture
3.1.6 Moleandamountofsubstance
3.2 Phase
3.3 Bonding
3.4 Energy
3.5 Reaction
3.6 Ionsandsalts

3.7 Acidityandbasicity
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3.7 Acidityandbasicity
3.8 Redox
3.9 Equilibrium
3.10 Chemicallaws
4 Practice
4.1 Subdisciplines
4.2 Chemicalindustry
4.3 Professionalsocieties
5 Seealso
6 References
7 Bibliography
8 Furtherreading
9 Externallinks

Etymology
Thewordchemistrycomesfromalchemy,whichreferredtoanearliersetofpracticesthatencompassedelementsofchemistry,metallurgy,philosophy,astrology,
astronomy,mysticismandmedicine.Itisoftenseenaslinkedtothequesttoturnleadoranothercommonstartingmaterialintogold,[6]thoughinancienttimesthe
studyencompassedmanyofthequestionsofmodernchemistrybeingdefinedasthestudyofthecompositionofwaters,movement,growth,embodying,
disembodying,drawingthespiritsfrombodiesandbondingthespiritswithinbodiesbytheearly4thcenturyGreekEgyptianalchemistZosimos.[7]Analchemist
wascalleda'chemist'inpopularspeech,andlaterthesuffix"ry"wasaddedtothistodescribetheartofthechemistas"chemistry".

ThemodernwordalchemyinturnisderivedfromtheArabicwordalkm().Inorigin,thetermisborrowedfromtheGreekor.[8][9]This
mayhaveEgyptianoriginssincealkmisderivedfromtheGreek,whichisinturnderivedfromthewordChemiorKimi,whichistheancientnameof
EgyptinEgyptian.[8]Alternately,alkmmayderivefrom,meaning"casttogether".[10]

Definition

Inretrospect,thedefinitionofchemistryhaschangedovertime,asnewdiscoveriesandtheoriesaddtothefunctionalityofthescience.Theterm"chymistry",in
theviewofnotedscientistRobertBoylein1661,meantthesubjectofthematerialprinciplesofmixedbodies.[11]In1663thechemistChristopherGlaser
described"chymistry"asascientificart,bywhichonelearnstodissolvebodies,anddrawfromthemthedifferentsubstancesontheircomposition,andhowto
unitethemagain,andexaltthemtoahigherperfection.[12]

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The1730definitionoftheword"chemistry",asusedbyGeorgErnstStahl,meanttheartofresolvingmixed,compound,oraggregatebodiesintotheirprinciples
andofcomposingsuchbodiesfromthoseprinciples.[13]In1837,JeanBaptisteDumasconsideredtheword"chemistry"torefertothescienceconcernedwiththe
lawsandeffectsofmolecularforces.[14]Thisdefinitionfurtherevolveduntil,in1947,itcametomeanthescienceofsubstances:theirstructure,theirproperties,
andthereactionsthatchangethemintoothersubstancesacharacterizationacceptedbyLinusPauling.[15]Morerecently,in1998,ProfessorRaymondChang
broadenedthedefinitionof"chemistry"tomeanthestudyofmatterandthechangesitundergoes.[16]

History
Earlycivilizations,suchastheEgyptians[17]Babylonians,Indians[18]amassedpracticalknowledgeconcerningtheartsof
metallurgy,potteryanddyes,butdidn'tdevelopasystematictheory.

AbasicchemicalhypothesisfirstemergedinClassicalGreecewiththetheoryoffourelementsaspropoundeddefinitivelyby
Aristotlestatingthatfire,air,earthandwaterwerethefundamentalelementsfromwhicheverythingisformedasa
combination.Greekatomismdatesbackto440BC,arisinginworksbyphilosopherssuchasDemocritusandEpicurus.In50
BC,theRomanphilosopherLucretiusexpandeduponthetheoryinhisbookDererumnatura(OnTheNatureof
Things).[19][20]Unlikemodernconceptsofscience,Greekatomismwaspurelyphilosophicalinnature,withlittleconcernfor
empiricalobservationsandnoconcernforchemicalexperiments.[21]

IntheHellenisticworldtheartofalchemyfirstproliferated,minglingmagicandoccultismintothestudyofnaturalsubstances
withtheultimategoaloftransmutingelementsintogoldanddiscoveringtheelixirofeternallife.[22]Work,particularlythe
developmentofdistillation,continuedintheearlyByzantineperiodwiththemostfamouspractitionerbeingthe4thcentury
GreekEgyptianZosimosofPanopolis.[23]AlchemycontinuedtobedevelopedandpractisedthroughouttheArabworldafter
theMuslimconquests,[24]andfromthere,andfromtheByzantineremnants,[25]diffusedintomedievalandRenaissance Democritus'atomistphilosophy
EuropethroughLatintranslations.SomeinfluentialMuslimchemists,AbalRayhnalBrn,[26]Avicenna[27]andAlKindi waslateradoptedbyEpicurus
refutedthetheoriesofalchemy,particularlythetheoryofthetransmutationofmetalsandalTusidescribedaversionofthe (341270BCE).
conservationofmass,notingthatabodyofmatterisabletochangebutisnotabletodisappear.[28]

Chemistryasscience

Thedevelopmentofthemodernscientificmethodwasslowandarduous,butanearlyscientificmethodforchemistrybeganemergingamongearlyMuslim
chemists,beginningwiththe9thcenturyPersianorArabianchemistJbiribnHayyn(knownas"Geber"inEurope),whoissometimesreferredtoas"thefather
ofchemistry".[29][30][31][32]Heintroducedasystematicandexperimentalapproachtoscientificresearchbasedinthelaboratory,incontrasttotheancientGreek
andEgyptianalchemistswhoseworkswerelargelyallegoricalandoftenunintelligble.[33]UndertheinfluenceofthenewempiricalmethodspropoundedbySir
FrancisBaconandothers,agroupofchemistsatOxford,RobertBoyle,RobertHookeandJohnMayowbegantoreshapetheoldalchemicaltraditionsintoa
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scientificdiscipline.Boyleinparticularisregardedasthefoundingfatherofchemistryduetohismostimportantwork,the
classicchemistrytextTheScepticalChymistwherethedifferentiationismadebetweentheclaimsofalchemyandthe
empiricalscientificdiscoveriesofthenewchemistry.[34]HeformulatedBoyle'slaw,rejectedtheclassical"fourelements"
andproposedamechanisticalternativeofatomsandchemicalreactionsthatcouldbesubjecttorigorousexperiment.[35]

Thetheoryofphlogiston(asubstanceattherootofallcombustion)waspropoundedbytheGermanGeorgErnstStahlin
theearly18thcenturyandwasonlyoverturnedbytheendofthecenturybytheFrenchchemistAntoineLavoisier,the
chemicalanalogueofNewtoninphysicswhodidmorethananyothertoestablishthenewscienceonpropertheoretical
footing,byelucidatingtheprincipleofconservationofmassanddevelopinganewsystemofchemicalnomenclatureused
tothisday.[37]

Beforehiswork,though,manyimportantdiscoverieshadbeenmade,specificallyrelatingtothenatureof'air'whichwas
discoveredtobecomposedofmanydifferentgases.TheScottishchemistJosephBlack(thefirstexperimentalchemist)and
theDutchmanJ.B.vanHelmontdiscoveredcarbondioxide,orwhatBlackcalled'fixedair'in1754HenryCavendish
discoveredhydrogenandelucidateditspropertiesandJosephPriestleyand,independently,CarlWilhelmScheeleisolated
pureoxygen. JbiribnHayyn(Geber),aPersian
alchemistwhoseexperimental
EnglishscientistJohnDaltonproposedthemoderntheoryofatomsthatallsubstancesarecomposedofindivisible'atoms' researchlaidthefoundationsof
ofmatterandthatdifferentatomshavevaryingatomicweights. chemistry.

Thedevelopmentoftheelectrochemicaltheoryofchemicalcombinationsoccurredintheearly19thcenturyastheresultof
theworkoftwoscientistsinparticular,J.J.BerzeliusandHumphryDavy,madepossiblebythepriorinventionofthevoltaicpilebyAlessandroVolta.Davy
discoveredninenewelementsincludingthealkalimetalsbyextractingthemfromtheiroxideswithelectriccurrent.[40]

BritishWilliamProutfirstproposedorderingalltheelementsbytheiratomicweightasallatomshadaweightthatwasanexactmultipleoftheatomicweightof
hydrogen.J.A.R.Newlandsdevisedanearlytableofelements,whichwasthendevelopedintothemodernperiodictableofelements[41]inthe1860sbyDmitri
MendeleevandindependentlybyseveralotherscientistsincludingJuliusLotharMeyer.[42][43]Theinertgases,latercalledthenoblegaseswerediscoveredby
WilliamRamsayincollaborationwithLordRayleighattheendofthecentury,therebyfillinginthebasicstructureofthetable.

OrganicchemistrywasdevelopedbyJustusvonLiebigandothers,followingFriedrichWhler'ssynthesisofureawhichprovedthatlivingorganismswere,in
theory,reducibletochemistry.[44]Othercrucial19thcenturyadvanceswereanunderstandingofvalencebonding(EdwardFranklandin1852)andtheapplication
ofthermodynamicstochemistry(J.W.GibbsandSvanteArrheniusinthe1870s).

Chemicalstructure

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Attheturnofthetwentiethcenturythetheoreticalunderpinningsofchemistrywere
finallyunderstoodduetoaseriesofremarkablediscoveriesthatsucceededinprobing
anddiscoveringtheverynatureoftheinternalstructureofatoms.In1897,J.J.
ThomsonofCambridgeUniversitydiscoveredtheelectronandsoonaftertheFrench
scientistBecquerelaswellasthecouplePierreandMarieCurieinvestigatedthe
phenomenonofradioactivity.InaseriesofpioneeringscatteringexperimentsErnest
RutherfordattheUniversityofManchesterdiscoveredtheinternalstructureofthe
atomandtheexistenceoftheproton,classifiedandexplainedthedifferenttypesof
radioactivityandsuccessfullytransmutedthefirstelementbybombardingnitrogen
withalphaparticles.
Inhisperiodictable,Dmitri
Hisworkonatomicstructurewasimprovedonbyhisstudents,theDanishphysicist
Mendeleevpredictedtheexistenceof
NielsBohrandHenryMoseley.Theelectronictheoryofchemicalbondsandmolecular
7newelements,[38]andplacedall60 orbitalswasdevelopedbytheAmericanscientistsLinusPaulingandGilbertN.Lewis.
elementsknownatthetimeintheir
correctplaces.[39] Theyear2011wasdeclaredbytheUnitedNationsastheInternationalYearof
Chemistry.[45]ItwasaninitiativeoftheInternationalUnionofPureandApplied
AntoineLaurentdeLavoisieris
Chemistry,andoftheUnitedNationsEducational,Scientific,andCulturalOrganizationandinvolveschemicalsocieties,
consideredthe"FatherofModern
academics,andinstitutionsworldwideandreliedonindividualinitiativestoorganizelocalandregionalactivities.
Chemistry".[36]

Principlesofmodernchemistry
Thecurrentmodelofatomicstructureisthequantummechanicalmodel.[46]Traditionalchemistrystartswiththestudyofelementaryparticles,atoms,
molecules,[47]substances,metals,crystalsandotheraggregatesofmatter.Thismattercanbestudiedinsolid,liquid,orgasstates,inisolationorincombination.
Theinteractions,reactionsandtransformationsthatarestudiedinchemistryareusuallytheresultofinteractionsbetweenatoms,leadingtorearrangementsofthe
chemicalbondswhichholdatomstogether.Suchbehaviorsarestudiedinachemistrylaboratory.

Thechemistrylaboratorystereotypicallyusesvariousformsoflaboratoryglassware.Howeverglasswareisnotcentraltochemistry,andagreatdealof
experimental(aswellasapplied/industrial)chemistryisdonewithoutit.

Achemicalreactionisatransformationofsomesubstancesintooneormoredifferentsubstances.[48]Thebasisofsuchachemicaltransformationisthe
rearrangementofelectronsinthechemicalbondsbetweenatoms.Itcanbesymbolicallydepictedthroughachemicalequation,whichusuallyinvolvesatomsas
subjects.Thenumberofatomsontheleftandtherightintheequationforachemicaltransformationisequal.(Whenthenumberofatomsoneithersideis
unequal,thetransformationisreferredtoasanuclearreactionorradioactivedecay.)Thetypeofchemicalreactionsasubstancemayundergoandtheenergy
changesthatmayaccompanyitareconstrainedbycertainbasicrules,knownaschemicallaws.

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Energyandentropyconsiderationsareinvariablyimportantinalmostallchemicalstudies.Chemicalsubstancesareclassifiedin
termsoftheirstructure,phase,aswellastheirchemicalcompositions.Theycanbeanalyzedusingthetoolsofchemicalanalysis,
e.g.spectroscopyandchromatography.Scientistsengagedinchemicalresearchareknownaschemists.[49]Mostchemists
specializeinoneormoresubdisciplines.Severalconceptsareessentialforthestudyofchemistrysomeofthemare:[50]

Matter

Inchemistry,matterisdefinedasanythingthathasrestmassandvolume(ittakesupspace)andismadeupofparticles.The
particlesthatmakeupmatterhaverestmassaswellnotallparticleshaverestmass,suchasthephoton.Mattercanbeapure
chemicalsubstanceoramixtureofsubstances.[51]

Atom

Theatomisthebasicunitofchemistry.Itconsistsofadensecorecalledtheatomicnucleussurroundedbyaspacecalledthe
Top:Expectedresults:alpha
electroncloud.Thenucleusismadeupofpositivelychargedprotonsandunchargedneutrons(togethercallednucleons),whilethe
particlespassingthroughthe
electroncloudconsistsofnegativelychargedelectronswhichorbitthenucleus.Inaneutralatom,thenegativelychargedelectrons
plumpuddingmodelofthe
balanceoutthepositivechargeoftheprotons.Thenucleusisdensethemassofanucleonis1,836timesthatofanelectron,yetthe
atomundisturbed.
radiusofanatomisabout10,000timesthatofitsnucleus.[52][53] Bottom:Observedresults:a
smallportionoftheparticles
Theatomisalsothesmallestentitythatcanbeenvisagedtoretainthechemicalpropertiesoftheelement,suchaselectronegativity,
weredeflected,indicatinga
ionizationpotential,preferredoxidationstate(s),coordinationnumber,andpreferredtypesofbondstoform(e.g.,metallic,ionic,
small,concentratedcharge.
covalent).

Element

Achemicalelementisapuresubstancewhichiscomposedofasingletypeofatom,
characterizedbyitsparticularnumberofprotonsinthenucleiofitsatoms,knownas
theatomicnumberandrepresentedbythesymbolZ.Themassnumberisthesumof
thenumberofprotonsandneutronsinanucleus.Althoughallthenucleiofallatoms
belongingtooneelementwillhavethesameatomicnumber,theymaynotnecessarily
havethesamemassnumberatomsofanelementwhichhavedifferentmassnumbers
areknownasisotopes.Forexample,allatomswith6protonsintheirnucleiareatoms
Adiagramofanatombased ofthechemicalelementcarbon,butatomsofcarbonmayhavemassnumbersof12or
ontheRutherfordmodel 13.[53] Laboratory,InstituteofBiochemistry,
UniversityofCologneinGermany.

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Thestandardpresentationofthechemicalelementsisintheperiodictable,whichorderselementsbyatomic
number.Theperiodictableisarrangedingroups,orcolumns,andperiods,orrows.Theperiodictableisuseful
inidentifyingperiodictrends.[54]

Compound

Acompoundisapurechemicalsubstancecomposedofmorethanoneelement.The
propertiesofacompoundbearlittlesimilaritytothoseofitselements.[55]The
standardnomenclatureofcompoundsissetbytheInternationalUnionofPureand
AppliedChemistry(IUPAC).Organiccompoundsarenamedaccordingtotheorganic Standardformoftheperiodictableofchemical
nomenclaturesystem.[56]ThenamesforInorganiccompoundsarecreatedaccording elements.Thecolorsrepresentdifferentcategories
totheinorganicnomenclaturesystem.Whenacompoundhasmorethanone ofelements

Carbondioxide component,thentheyaredividedintotwoclasses,theelectropositiveandthe
(CO2),anexampleof electronegativecomponents.[57]InadditiontheChemicalAbstractsServicehasdevisedamethodtoindexchemicalsubstances.Inthis
achemicalcompound schemeeachchemicalsubstanceisidentifiablebyanumberknownasitsCASregistrynumber.

Molecule

Amoleculeisthesmallestindivisibleportionofapurechemicalsubstancethathasitsuniquesetofchemicalproperties,
thatis,itspotentialtoundergoacertainsetofchemicalreactionswithothersubstances.However,thisdefinitiononly
workswellforsubstancesthatarecomposedofmolecules,whichisnottrueofmanysubstances(seebelow).Molecules
aretypicallyasetofatomsboundtogetherbycovalentbonds,suchthatthestructureiselectricallyneutralandallvalence
electronsarepairedwithotherelectronseitherinbondsorinlonepairs.

Thus,moleculesexistaselectricallyneutralunits,unlikeions.Whenthisruleisbroken,givingthe"molecule"acharge,
theresultissometimesnamedamolecularionorapolyatomicion.However,thediscreteandseparatenatureofthe
molecularconceptusuallyrequiresthatmolecularionsbepresentonlyinwellseparatedform,suchasadirectedbeamin
avacuuminamassspectrometer.Chargedpolyatomiccollectionsresidinginsolids(forexample,commonsulfateor
nitrateions)aregenerallynotconsidered"molecules"inchemistry.Somemoleculescontainoneormoreunpaired
electrons,creatingradicals.Mostradicalsarecomparativelyreactive,butsome,suchasnitricoxide(NO)canbestable.
Aballandstickrepresentationofthe
The"inert"ornoblegaselements(helium,neon,argon,krypton,xenonandradon)arecomposedofloneatomsastheir caffeinemolecule(C8H10N4O2).
smallestdiscreteunit,buttheotherisolatedchemicalelementsconsistofeithermoleculesornetworksofatomsbondedto
eachotherinsomeway.Identifiablemoleculescomposefamiliarsubstancessuchaswater,air,andmanyorganic
compoundslikealcohol,sugar,gasoline,andthevariouspharmaceuticals.

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However,notallsubstancesorchemicalcompoundsconsistofdiscretemolecules,andindeedmostofthesolidsubstancesthatmake
upthesolidcrust,mantle,andcoreoftheEartharechemicalcompoundswithoutmolecules.Theseothertypesofsubstances,suchas
ioniccompoundsandnetworksolids,areorganizedinsuchawayastolacktheexistenceofidentifiablemoleculesperse.Instead,
thesesubstancesarediscussedintermsofformulaunitsorunitcellsasthesmallestrepeatingstructurewithinthesubstance.Examples
ofsuchsubstancesaremineralsalts(suchastablesalt),solidslikecarbonanddiamond,metals,andfamiliarsilicaandsilicate
mineralssuchasquartzandgranite.

Oneofthemaincharacteristicsofamoleculeisitsgeometryoftencalleditsstructure.Whilethestructureofdiatomic,triatomicor
tetraatomicmoleculesmaybetrivial,(linear,angularpyramidaletc.)thestructureofpolyatomicmolecules,thatareconstitutedof
morethansixatoms(ofseveralelements)canbecrucialforitschemicalnature.
A2Dskeletalmodelof
abenzenemolecule Substanceandmixture
(C6H6)
Achemicalsubstanceisakindofmatterwithadefinitecompositionandsetof
properties.[58]Acollectionofsubstancesiscalledamixture.Examplesofmixtures
areairandalloys.[59]

Moleandamountofsubstance

Themoleisaunitofmeasurementthatdenotesanamountofsubstance(alsocalledchemicalamount).Themole
isdefinedasthenumberofatomsfoundinexactly0.012kilogram(or12grams)ofcarbon12,wherethe
carbon12atomsareunbound,atrestandintheirgroundstate.[60]Thenumberofentitiespermoleisknownas
theAvogadroconstant,andisdeterminedempiricallytobeapproximately6.022 1023mol1.[61]Molar
concentrationistheamountofaparticularsubstancepervolumeofsolution,andiscommonlyreportedin
moldm3.[62]
Examplesofpurechemicalsubstances.Fromleftto
Phase right:theelementstin(Sn)andsulfur(S),diamond
(anallotropeofcarbon),sucrose(puresugar),and
Inadditiontothespecificchemicalpropertiesthatdistinguishdifferentchemicalclassifications,chemicalscan sodiumchloride(salt)andsodiumbicarbonate
existinseveralphases.Forthemostpart,thechemicalclassificationsareindependentofthesebulkphase (bakingsoda),whicharebothioniccompounds.
classificationshowever,somemoreexoticphasesareincompatiblewithcertainchemicalproperties.Aphaseis
asetofstatesofachemicalsystemthathavesimilarbulkstructuralproperties,overarangeofconditions,suchaspressureortemperature.

Physicalproperties,suchasdensityandrefractiveindextendtofallwithinvaluescharacteristicofthephase.Thephaseofmatterisdefinedbythephase
transition,whichiswhenenergyputintoortakenoutofthesystemgoesintorearrangingthestructureofthesystem,insteadofchangingthebulkconditions.

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Sometimesthedistinctionbetweenphasescanbecontinuousinsteadofhavingadiscreteboundary,inthiscase
thematterisconsideredtobeinasupercriticalstate.Whenthreestatesmeetbasedontheconditions,itisknown
asatriplepointandsincethisisinvariant,itisaconvenientwaytodefineasetofconditions.

Themostfamiliarexamplesofphasesaresolids,liquids,andgases.Manysubstancesexhibitmultiplesolid
phases.Forexample,therearethreephasesofsolidiron(alpha,gamma,anddelta)thatvarybasedontemperature
andpressure.Aprincipaldifferencebetweensolidphasesisthecrystalstructure,orarrangement,oftheatoms.
Anotherphasecommonlyencounteredinthestudyofchemistryistheaqueousphase,whichisthestateof
substancesdissolvedinaqueoussolution(thatis,inwater). Exampleofphasechanges
Lessfamiliarphasesincludeplasmas,BoseEinsteincondensatesandfermioniccondensatesandthe
paramagneticandferromagneticphasesofmagneticmaterials.Whilemostfamiliarphasesdealwiththreedimensionalsystems,itisalsopossibletodefine
analogsintwodimensionalsystems,whichhasreceivedattentionforitsrelevancetosystemsinbiology.

Bonding

Atomsstickingtogetherinmoleculesorcrystalsaresaidtobebondedwithoneanother.Achemicalbondmaybe
visualizedasthemultipolebalancebetweenthepositivechargesinthenucleiandthenegativechargesoscillating
aboutthem.[63]Morethansimpleattractionandrepulsion,theenergiesanddistributionscharacterizetheavailabilityof
anelectrontobondtoanotheratom.

Achemicalbondcanbeacovalentbond,anionicbond,ahydrogenbondorjustbecauseofVanderWaalsforce.Each
ofthesekindsofbondsisascribedtosomepotential.Thesepotentialscreatetheinteractionswhichholdatoms
togetherinmoleculesorcrystals.Inmanysimplecompounds,valencebondtheory,theValenceShellElectronPair Ananimationoftheprocessofionic
Repulsionmodel(VSEPR),andtheconceptofoxidationnumbercanbeusedtoexplainmolecularstructureand bondingbetweensodium(Na)andchlorine
composition. (Cl)toformsodiumchloride,orcommon
tablesalt.Ionicbondinginvolvesoneatom
Anionicbondisformedwhenametallosesoneormoreofitselectrons,becomingapositivelychargedcation,andthe
takingvalenceelectronsfromanother(as
electronsarethengainedbythenonmetalatom,becominganegativelychargedanion.Thetwooppositelycharged
opposedtosharing,whichoccursin
ionsattractoneanother,andtheionicbondistheelectrostaticforceofattractionbetweenthem.Forexample,sodium
covalentbonding)
(Na),ametal,losesoneelectrontobecomeanNa+cationwhilechlorine(Cl),anonmetal,gainsthiselectronto
becomeCl.Theionsareheldtogetherduetoelectrostaticattraction,andthatcompoundsodiumchloride(NaCl),or
commontablesalt,isformed.

Inacovalentbond,oneormorepairsofvalenceelectronsaresharedbytwoatoms:theresultingelectricallyneutralgroupofbondedatomsistermedamolecule.
Atomswillsharevalenceelectronsinsuchawayastocreateanoblegaselectronconfiguration(eightelectronsintheiroutermostshell)foreachatom.Atomsthat
tendtocombineinsuchawaythattheyeachhaveeightelectronsintheirvalenceshellaresaidtofollowtheoctetrule.However,someelementslikehydrogen

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andlithiumneedonlytwoelectronsintheiroutermostshelltoattainthisstableconfigurationtheseatomsaresaidtofollowtheduet
rule,andinthiswaytheyarereachingtheelectronconfigurationofthenoblegashelium,whichhastwoelectronsinitsoutershell.

Similarly,theoriesfromclassicalphysicscanbeusedtopredictmanyionicstructures.Withmorecomplicatedcompounds,suchas
metalcomplexes,valencebondtheoryislessapplicableandalternativeapproaches,suchasthemolecularorbitaltheory,are
generallyused.Seediagramonelectronicorbitals.

Energy

Inthemethanemolecule Inthecontextofchemistry,energyisanattributeofasubstanceasaconsequenceofitsatomic,molecularoraggregatestructure.
(CH4),thecarbonatom Sinceachemicaltransformationisaccompaniedbyachangeinoneormoreofthesekindsofstructures,itisinvariablyaccompanied
byanincreaseordecreaseofenergyofthesubstancesinvolved.Someenergyistransferredbetweenthesurroundingsandthe
sharesapairofvalence
reactantsofthereactionintheformofheatorlightthustheproductsofareactionmayhavemoreorlessenergythanthereactants.
electronswitheachofthe
fourhydrogenatoms. Areactionissaidtobeexergonicifthefinalstateislowerontheenergyscalethantheinitialstateinthecaseofendergonic
Thus,theoctetruleis reactionsthesituationisthereverse.Areactionissaidtobeexothermicifthereactionreleasesheattothesurroundingsinthecase
satisfiedforCatom(ithas ofendothermicreactions,thereactionabsorbsheatfromthesurroundings.
eightelectronsinits
valenceshell)andtheduet Chemicalreactionsareinvariablynotpossibleunlessthereactantssurmountanenergybarrierknownastheactivationenergy.The
ruleissatisfiedfortheH speedofachemicalreaction(atgiventemperatureT)isrelatedtotheactivationenergyE,bytheBoltzmann'spopulationfactor
atoms(theyhavetwo thatistheprobabilityofamoleculetohaveenergygreaterthanorequaltoEatthegiventemperatureT.Thisexponential
electronsintheirvalence dependenceofareactionrateontemperatureisknownastheArrheniusequation.Theactivationenergynecessaryforachemical
shells).
reactiontooccurcanbeintheformofheat,light,electricityormechanicalforceintheformofultrasound.[64]

Arelatedconceptfreeenergy,whichalsoincorporatesentropyconsiderations,isaveryusefulmeansforpredictingthefeasibilityofareactionanddetermining
thestateofequilibriumofachemicalreaction,inchemicalthermodynamics.AreactionisfeasibleonlyifthetotalchangeintheGibbsfreeenergyisnegative,
ifitisequaltozerothechemicalreactionissaidtobeatequilibrium.

Thereexistonlylimitedpossiblestatesofenergyforelectrons,atomsandmolecules.Thesearedeterminedbytherulesofquantummechanics,whichrequire
quantizationofenergyofaboundsystem.Theatoms/moleculesinahigherenergystatearesaidtobeexcited.Themolecules/atomsofsubstanceinanexcited
energystateareoftenmuchmorereactivethatis,moreamenabletochemicalreactions.

Thephaseofasubstanceisinvariablydeterminedbyitsenergyandtheenergyofitssurroundings.Whentheintermolecularforcesofasubstancearesuchthatthe
energyofthesurroundingsisnotsufficienttoovercomethem,itoccursinamoreorderedphaselikeliquidorsolidasisthecasewithwater(H2O)aliquidat
roomtemperaturebecauseitsmoleculesareboundbyhydrogenbonds.[65]Whereashydrogensulfide(H2S)isagasatroomtemperatureandstandardpressure,as
itsmoleculesareboundbyweakerdipoledipoleinteractions.

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Thetransferofenergyfromonechemicalsubstancetoanotherdependsonthesizeofenergyquantaemittedfromonesubstance.However,heatenergyisoften
transferredmoreeasilyfromalmostanysubstancetoanotherbecausethephononsresponsibleforvibrationalandrotationalenergylevelsinasubstancehave
muchlessenergythanphotonsinvokedfortheelectronicenergytransfer.Thus,becausevibrationalandrotationalenergylevelsaremorecloselyspacedthan
electronicenergylevels,heatismoreeasilytransferredbetweensubstancesrelativetolightorotherformsofelectronicenergy.Forexample,ultraviolet
electromagneticradiationisnottransferredwithasmuchefficacyfromonesubstancetoanotherasthermalorelectricalenergy.

Theexistenceofcharacteristicenergylevelsfordifferentchemicalsubstancesisusefulfortheiridentificationbytheanalysisofspectrallines.Differentkindsof
spectraareoftenusedinchemicalspectroscopy,e.g.IR,microwave,NMR,ESR,etc.Spectroscopyisalsousedtoidentifythecompositionofremoteobjectslike
starsanddistantgalaxiesbyanalyzingtheirradiationspectra.

Emissionspectrumofiron

Thetermchemicalenergyisoftenusedtoindicatethepotentialofachemicalsubstancetoundergoatransformationthroughachemicalreactionortotransform
otherchemicalsubstances.

Reaction

Whenachemicalsubstanceistransformedasaresultofitsinteractionwithanothersubstanceorwithenergy,achemicalreactionissaidtohaveoccurred.A
chemicalreactionisthereforeaconceptrelatedtothe"reaction"ofasubstancewhenitcomesinclosecontactwithanother,whetherasamixtureorasolution
exposuretosomeformofenergy,orboth.Itresultsinsomeenergyexchangebetweentheconstituentsofthereactionaswellaswiththesystemenvironment,
whichmaybedesignedvesselsoftenlaboratoryglassware.

Chemicalreactionscanresultintheformationordissociationofmolecules,thatis,moleculesbreakingaparttoformtwoormoresmallermolecules,or
rearrangementofatomswithinoracrossmolecules.Chemicalreactionsusuallyinvolvethemakingorbreakingofchemicalbonds.Oxidation,reduction,
dissociation,acidbaseneutralizationandmolecularrearrangementaresomeofthecommonlyusedkindsofchemicalreactions.

Achemicalreactioncanbesymbolicallydepictedthroughachemicalequation.Whileinanonnuclearchemicalreactionthenumberandkindofatomsonboth
sidesoftheequationareequal,foranuclearreactionthisholdstrueonlyforthenuclearparticlesviz.protonsandneutrons.[66]

Thesequenceofstepsinwhichthereorganizationofchemicalbondsmaybetakingplaceinthecourseofachemicalreactioniscalleditsmechanism.Achemical
reactioncanbeenvisionedtotakeplaceinanumberofsteps,eachofwhichmayhaveadifferentspeed.Manyreactionintermediateswithvariablestabilitycan
thusbeenvisagedduringthecourseofareaction.Reactionmechanismsareproposedtoexplainthekineticsandtherelativeproductmixofareaction.Many
physicalchemistsspecializeinexploringandproposingthemechanismsofvariouschemicalreactions.Severalempiricalrules,liketheWoodwardHoffmann
rulesoftencomeinhandywhileproposingamechanismforachemicalreaction.
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AccordingtotheIUPACgoldbook,achemicalreactionis"aprocessthatresultsintheinterconversionofchemical
species."[67]Accordingly,achemicalreactionmaybeanelementaryreactionorastepwisereaction.Anadditionalcaveatis
made,inthatthisdefinitionincludescaseswheretheinterconversionofconformersisexperimentallyobservable.Such
detectablechemicalreactionsnormallyinvolvesetsofmolecularentitiesasindicatedbythisdefinition,butitisoften
conceptuallyconvenienttousethetermalsoforchangesinvolvingsinglemolecularentities(i.e.'microscopicchemical
events').

Ionsandsalts

Anionisachargedspecies,anatomoramolecule,thathaslostorgainedoneormoreelectrons.Whenanatomlosesan Duringchemicalreactions,bonds
electronandthushasmoreprotonsthanelectrons,theatomisapositivelychargedionorcation.Whenanatomgainsan betweenatomsbreakandform,
electronandthushasmoreelectronsthanprotons,theatomisanegativelychargedionoranion.Cationsandanionscan resultingindifferentsubstanceswith
formacrystallinelatticeofneutralsalts,suchastheNa+andClionsformingsodiumchloride,orNaCl.Examplesof differentproperties.Inablast
polyatomicionsthatdonotsplitupduringacidbasereactionsarehydroxide(OH)andphosphate(PO43). furnace,ironoxide,acompound,
reactswithcarbonmonoxidetoform
Plasmaiscomposedofgaseousmatterthathasbeencompletelyionized,usuallythroughhightemperature. iron,oneofthechemicalelements,
andcarbondioxide.
Acidityandbasicity

Asubstancecanoftenbeclassifiedasanacidorabase.Thereareseveraldifferenttheorieswhichexplainacidbasebehavior.ThesimplestisArrheniustheory,
whichstatesthananacidisasubstancethatproduceshydroniumionswhenitisdissolvedinwater,andabaseisonethatproduceshydroxideionswhendissolved
inwater.AccordingtoBrnstedLowryacidbasetheory,acidsaresubstancesthatdonateapositivehydrogeniontoanothersubstanceinachemicalreactionby
extension,abaseisthesubstancewhichreceivesthathydrogenion.

AthirdcommontheoryisLewisacidbasetheory,whichisbasedontheformationofnewchemicalbonds.Lewistheoryexplainsthatanacidisasubstancewhich
iscapableofacceptingapairofelectronsfromanothersubstanceduringtheprocessofbondformation,whileabaseisasubstancewhichcanprovideapairof
electronstoformanewbond.Accordingtothistheory,thecrucialthingsbeingexchangedarecharges.[68]Thereareseveralotherwaysinwhichasubstancemay
beclassifiedasanacidorabase,asisevidentinthehistoryofthisconcept.[69]

Acidstrengthiscommonlymeasuredbytwomethods.Onemeasurement,basedontheArrheniusdefinitionofacidity,ispH,whichisameasurementofthe
hydroniumionconcentrationinasolution,asexpressedonanegativelogarithmicscale.Thus,solutionsthathavealowpHhaveahighhydroniumion
concentration,andcanbesaidtobemoreacidic.Theothermeasurement,basedontheBrnstedLowrydefinition,istheaciddissociationconstant(Ka),which
measurestherelativeabilityofasubstancetoactasanacidundertheBrnstedLowrydefinitionofanacid.Thatis,substanceswithahigherKaaremorelikelyto
donatehydrogenionsinchemicalreactionsthanthosewithlowerKavalues.

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Redox

Redox(reductionoxidation)reactionsincludeallchemicalreactionsinwhichatomshavetheir
oxidationstatechangedbyeithergainingelectrons(reduction)orlosingelectrons(oxidation).
Substancesthathavetheabilitytooxidizeothersubstancesaresaidtobeoxidativeandareknownas
oxidizingagents,oxidantsoroxidizers.Anoxidantremoveselectronsfromanothersubstance.
Similarly,substancesthathavetheabilitytoreduceothersubstancesaresaidtobereductiveandare
knownasreducingagents,reductants,orreducers.
Whenhydrogenbromide Areductanttransferselectronstoanothersubstance,andisthusoxidizeditself.Andbecauseit
(HBr),pictured,is "donates"electronsitisalsocalledanelectrondonor.Oxidationandreductionproperlyrefertoa Thecrystallatticestructure
dissolvedinwater,itforms changeinoxidationnumbertheactualtransferofelectronsmayneveroccur.Thus,oxidationis ofpotassiumchloride
thestrongacid betterdefinedasanincreaseinoxidationnumber,andreductionasadecreaseinoxidationnumber. (KCl),asaltwhichis
hydrobromicacid formedduetothe
Equilibrium attractionofK+cations
andClanions.Notehow
Althoughtheconceptofequilibriumiswidelyusedacrosssciences,inthecontextofchemistry,itariseswheneveranumberof theoverallchargeofthe
differentstatesofthechemicalcompositionarepossible,asforexample,inamixtureofseveralchemicalcompoundsthatcanreact ioniccompoundiszero.
withoneanother,orwhenasubstancecanbepresentinmorethanonekindofphase.

Asystemofchemicalsubstancesatequilibrium,eventhoughhavinganunchangingcomposition,ismostoftennotstaticmoleculesofthesubstancescontinueto
reactwithoneanotherthusgivingrisetoadynamicequilibrium.Thustheconceptdescribesthestateinwhichtheparameterssuchaschemicalcomposition
remainunchangedovertime.

Chemicallaws

Chemicalreactionsaregovernedbycertainlaws,whichhavebecomefundamentalconceptsinchemistry.Someofthemare:

Avogadro'slaw Lawofconservationofenergyleadstotheimportantconceptsof
BeerLambertlaw equilibrium,thermodynamics,andkinetics.
Boyle'slaw(1662,relatingpressureandvolume) Lawofconservationofmasscontinuestobeconservedinisolated
Charles'slaw(1787,relatingvolumeandtemperature) systems,eveninmodernphysics.However,specialrelativityshowsthat
Fick'slawsofdiffusion duetomassenergyequivalence,whenevernonmaterial"energy"(heat,
GayLussac'slaw(1809,relatingpressureandtemperature) light,kineticenergy)isremovedfromanonisolatedsystem,somemass
LeChatelier'sprinciple willbelostwithit.Highenergylossesresultinlossofweighable
Henry'slaw amountsofmass,animportanttopicinnuclearchemistry.
Hess'slaw

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Lawofdefinitecomposition,althoughinmanysystems(notably Lawofmultipleproportions
biomacromoleculesandminerals)theratiostendtorequirelarge Raoult'slaw
numbers,andarefrequentlyrepresentedasafraction.

Practice
Subdisciplines

Chemistryistypicallydividedintoseveralmajorsubdisciplines.Therearealsoseveralmaincrossdisciplinaryandmorespecializedfieldsofchemistry.[70]

Analyticalchemistryistheanalysisofmaterialsamplestogainanunderstandingoftheirchemicalcompositionandstructure.Analyticalchemistry
incorporatesstandardizedexperimentalmethodsinchemistry.Thesemethodsmaybeusedinallsubdisciplinesofchemistry,excludingpurelytheoretical
chemistry.
Biochemistryisthestudyofthechemicals,chemicalreactionsandchemicalinteractionsthattakeplaceinlivingorganisms.Biochemistryandorganic
chemistryarecloselyrelated,asinmedicinalchemistryorneurochemistry.Biochemistryisalsoassociatedwithmolecularbiologyandgenetics.
Inorganicchemistryisthestudyofthepropertiesandreactionsofinorganiccompounds.Thedistinctionbetweenorganicandinorganicdisciplinesisnot
absoluteandthereismuchoverlap,mostimportantlyinthesubdisciplineoforganometallicchemistry.
Materialschemistryisthepreparation,characterization,andunderstandingofsubstanceswithausefulfunction.Thefieldisanewbreadthofstudyin
graduateprograms,anditintegrateselementsfromallclassicalareasofchemistrywithafocusonfundamentalissuesthatareuniquetomaterials.Primary
systemsofstudyincludethechemistryofcondensedphases(solids,liquids,polymers)andinterfacesbetweendifferentphases.
Neurochemistryisthestudyofneurochemicalsincludingtransmitters,peptides,proteins,lipids,sugars,andnucleicacidstheirinteractions,andtheroles
theyplayinforming,maintaining,andmodifyingthenervoussystem.
Nuclearchemistryisthestudyofhowsubatomicparticlescometogetherandmakenuclei.ModernTransmutationisalargecomponentofnuclearchemistry,
andthetableofnuclidesisanimportantresultandtoolforthisfield.
Organicchemistryisthestudyofthestructure,properties,composition,mechanisms,andreactionsoforganiccompounds.Anorganiccompoundisdefined
asanycompoundbasedonacarbonskeleton.
Physicalchemistryisthestudyofthephysicalandfundamentalbasisofchemicalsystemsandprocesses.Inparticular,theenergeticsanddynamicsofsuch
systemsandprocessesareofinteresttophysicalchemists.Importantareasofstudyincludechemicalthermodynamics,chemicalkinetics,electrochemistry,
statisticalmechanics,spectroscopy,andmorerecently,astrochemistry.[71]Physicalchemistryhaslargeoverlapwithmolecularphysics.Physicalchemistry
involvestheuseofinfinitesimalcalculusinderivingequations.Itisusuallyassociatedwithquantumchemistryandtheoreticalchemistry.Physical
chemistryisadistinctdisciplinefromchemicalphysics,butagain,thereisverystrongoverlap.
Theoreticalchemistryisthestudyofchemistryviafundamentaltheoreticalreasoning(usuallywithinmathematicsorphysics).Inparticulartheapplication
ofquantummechanicstochemistryiscalledquantumchemistry.SincetheendoftheSecondWorldWar,thedevelopmentofcomputershasalloweda
systematicdevelopmentofcomputationalchemistry,whichistheartofdevelopingandapplyingcomputerprogramsforsolvingchemicalproblems.
Theoreticalchemistryhaslargeoverlapwith(theoreticalandexperimental)condensedmatterphysicsandmolecularphysics.

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Otherdisciplineswithinchemistryaretraditionallygroupedbythetypeofmatterbeingstudiedorthekindofstudy.Theseincludeinorganicchemistry,thestudy
ofinorganicmatterorganicchemistry,thestudyoforganic(carbonbased)matterbiochemistry,thestudyofsubstancesfoundinbiologicalorganismsphysical
chemistry,thestudyofchemicalprocessesusingphysicalconceptssuchasthermodynamicsandquantummechanicsandanalyticalchemistry,theanalysisof
materialsamplestogainanunderstandingoftheirchemicalcompositionandstructure.Manymorespecializeddisciplineshaveemergedinrecentyears,e.g.
neurochemistrythechemicalstudyofthenervoussystem(seesubdisciplines).

Otherfieldsincludeagrochemistry,astrochemistry(andcosmochemistry),atmosphericchemistry,chemicalengineering,chemicalbiology,chemoinformatics,
electrochemistry,environmentalchemistry,femtochemistry,flavorchemistry,flowchemistry,geochemistry,greenchemistry,histochemistry,historyof
chemistry,hydrogenationchemistry,immunochemistry,marinechemistry,materialsscience,mathematicalchemistry,mechanochemistry,medicinalchemistry,
molecularbiology,molecularmechanics,nanotechnology,naturalproductchemistry,oenology,organometallicchemistry,petrochemistry,pharmacology,
photochemistry,physicalorganicchemistry,phytochemistry,polymerchemistry,radiochemistry,solidstatechemistry,sonochemistry,supramolecularchemistry,
surfacechemistry,syntheticchemistry,thermochemistry,andmanyothers.

Chemicalindustry

Thechemicalindustryrepresentsanimportanteconomicactivityworldwide.Theglobaltop50chemicalproducersin2013hadsalesofUS$980.5billionwitha
profitmarginof10.3%.[72]

Professionalsocieties

AmericanChemicalSociety RoyalNetherlandsChemicalSociety
AmericanSocietyforNeurochemistry RoyalSocietyofChemistry
ChemicalInstituteofCanada SocietyofChemicalIndustry
ChemicalSocietyofPeru WorldAssociationofTheoreticalandComputationalChemists
InternationalUnionofPureandAppliedChemistry Listofchemistrysocieties
RoyalAustralianChemicalInstitute
RoyalNetherlandsChemicalSociety
Seealso
Outlineofchemistry
Glossaryofchemistryterms
Commonchemicals
InternationalYearofChemistry
Listofchemists
Listofcompounds
Listofimportantpublicationsinchemistry
Comparisonofsoftwareformolecularmechanicsmodeling

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Listofunsolvedproblemsinchemistry
Periodicsystemsofsmallmolecules
Philosophyofchemistry

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Furtherreading
Popularreading

Atkins,P.W.Galileo'sFinger(OxfordUniversityPress)ISBN0198609418
Atkins,P.W.Atkins'Molecules(CambridgeUniversityPress)ISBN0521823978
Kean,Sam.TheDisappearingSpoonandothertruetalesfromthePeriodicTable(BlackSwan)London,2010ISBN9780552777506
Levi,PrimoThePeriodicTable(PenguinBooks)[1975]translatedfromtheItalianbyRaymondRosenthal(1984)ISBN9780141399447
Stwertka,A.AGuidetotheElements(OxfordUniversityPress)ISBN0195150279
"DictionaryoftheHistoryofIdeas".ArchivedfromtheoriginalonMarch10,2008.
"Chemistry".EncyclopdiaBritannica.6(11thed.).1911.pp.3376.

Introductoryundergraduatetextbooks

Atkins,P.W.,Overton,T.,Rourke,J.,Weller,M.andArmstrong,F.ShriverandAtkinsinorganicchemistry(4thedition)2006(OxfordUniversityPress)
ISBN0199264635
Chang,Raymond.Chemistry6thed.Boston:JamesM.Smith,1998.ISBN0071152210.
Clayden,JonathanGreeves,NickWarren,StuartWothers,Peter(2001).OrganicChemistry(1sted.).OxfordUniversityPress.ISBN9780198503460.
VoetandVoetBiochemistry(Wiley)ISBN047158651X

Advancedundergraduatelevelorgraduatetextbooks

Atkins,P.W.PhysicalChemistry(OxfordUniversityPress)ISBN0198792859
Atkins,P.W.etal.MolecularQuantumMechanics(OxfordUniversityPress)
McWeeny,R.Coulson'sValence(OxfordSciencePublications)ISBN0198551444
Pauling,L.TheNatureofthechemicalbond(CornellUniversityPress)ISBN0801403332
Pauling,L.,andWilson,E.B.IntroductiontoQuantumMechanicswithApplicationstoChemistry(DoverPublications)ISBN0486648710
SmartandMooreSolidStateChemistry:AnIntroduction(ChapmanandHall)ISBN0412400405
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemistry 19/20
5/14/2017 Chemistry - Wikipedia

Stephenson,G.MathematicalMethodsforScienceStudents(Longman)ISBN0582444160

Externallinks
GeneralChemistryprinciples,patternsandapplications(http://www.saylor.org/site/textbooks/General%20Chemistr
Wikiversityhaslearning
y%20Principles,%20Patterns,%20and%20Applications.pdf). resourcesaboutchemistry
at
TheSchoolofChemistry
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Categories: Chemistry

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