V* /

WATERAID

Technical Handbook

3rd Edition 1993

This handbook assumes tha^the user has a basic

engineering knowledge and should ijQt be used by
persons without such skills.

This document is the property of WaterAid and is for use by WaterAid

personnel. WaterAid reserve all rights, including translation^ and no
part may be reproduced without WaterAid consent. Whilst every care ,
has been taken in its compilation WaterAid cannot accept any liability ,
for loss or damage suffered as a result of its use.

WaterAid is most grateful to l i t h ^ y f t h i n t e e r ^

compile this revision of the
K ^ COMMUNITY WATER SUPPLY
.' ciANiTAlYON (IRC)
Box y3,oo, 2509 AD The Hagu.
lei. (0/0) 8149 11 ext 141/142

0
 Foreword to 3rd Edition

Engineers in the field may not have ready access to technical literature,
and may be faced with unforeseen problems which need a quick solution.

Obviously, when time and circumstance permit, guidance should be

obtained from an engineering adviser, but where this is not possible, a
reference handbook directed to the problems common to WaterAid work
may be of value.

Suggestions as to content were sought in the latter part of 1985. Data and
notes were compiled, and a first edition issued in 1987. Following helpful
comment, some corrections and additions were made for the 2nd edition,
issued in 1988, with a supplement in 1990.

Late in 1991 a comprehensive review was made of experience in use; a

number of constructive suggestions were made, and have been
incorporated in this 3rd Edition. Principal changes include Outline
Designs based on WaterAid experience; an extended note on sanitation;
and comprehensive revision of the E and M Section. There are also a
number of smaller revisions and additions. It is important that outdated
material be destroyed.

There are two Sections, dealing with Civil Engineering and

Electrical/Mechanical aspects respectively. It is intended to prepare a
supplement, or separate publication, on Health Education.

Please bear in mind:

1. This handbook is for the use of WaterAid personnel.

2. Whilst every effort is made to ensure that facts are correct

and advice sound, a cross check is always wise.

3. It is noi intended for use by laymen, or as a substitute

for more detailed and comprehensive books or papers.

C/93
 Section 1 - Civil Engineering

These notes are arranged in 5 groups, separated by coloured dividers.

Divider

1 - General Sheets prefaced G - Blue

2 - Basic Data B Yellow
3 - Formulae " " F Grey
4 - Technical Notes T Red
5 - Outline Designs D Blue

A subject Index appears at the front of each Group.

Section 2 - Electrical and Mechanical

There are three groups, each with a subject index.

Divider

1. Electrical - Sheets prefaced E Yellow

2. Mechanical - Sheets prefaced M Grey

3. Miscellaneous - Sheets prefaced X Red

The format and page numbering is designed to allow updated pages to be

inserted from time to time. On the left is the issue code, month and/or
year (D/93 is Issue D, 1993). On the right is the reference number from
the index (eg G4) followed by the page in that item (eg G4/3)

D/93
 INDEX - GROUP 1

Group 1 - General

Gl * Introduction
G2 - Design Philosophy and Check List
G3 - Reference Books
G4 - Safety
G5 - Setting Out
G6 - Water Related Diseases

D/93
 Introduction

This handbook is issued by Water Aid for the use of its field personnel.

It assumes a basic knowledge of engineering or similar scientific

discipline.

It makes no claims to be comprehensive but the looseleaf format will

enable additions to be made, and suggestions will be welcome.

Whilst every effort has been made to ensure accuracy, the possibility of
error cannot be discounted, and earliest possible notification of any
identified errors would be appreciated.

A short bibliography of useful reference books will be found in G3.

B/3/88 Gl
 Design Philosophy and Check List

The WaterAid Ethos statement is the background to all our work.

Application will vary with circumstances and with government or other
authority requirements and regulations. Within these general constraints
WaterAid design philosophy can be expressed as follows:

(i) Unless there are special circumstances, select a 15 to 20 year

design horizon. Consider a longer life for major structures which
are difficult to extend, such as intake works.

(ii) Schemes should be sized to produce the required quantity of water

for the final population at the end of the design life of the scheme.

(iii) WaterAid funds schemes to improve drinking water supply and

sanitation. It does not normally fund schemes whose primary
purpose is irrigation or the watering of livestock. In areas where
people traditionally own cattle and other livestock, WaterAid does
support the provision of live-stock watering points as part of the
drinking water scheme. WaterAid also encourages small domestic
vegetable gardens.

(iv) Schemes should be designed to give value for money but where
extra capacity can be included without significant extra cost then
this can be done (eg choice of the next larger size of pipe when the
theoretical pipe diameter needed is in between two standard
diameters).

(v) All installations should be "sustainable" and operation and

maintenance should be considered fully at the design stage. The
design must be such that the community is willing and able to pay
for operation and maintenance.

(vi) In most cases the most immediate health benefit will arise from the
use of greater quantities of water. Designers should strive to make
this possible. It may also be desirable that water quality should be
improved. It is acceptable to use a questionable source untreated
provided that no new or existing user receives a lower quality of
water than before (see Feachem, McGarry and Mara "Water,
wastes & health in hot climates" Wiley 1977), but provision should
then be made to upgrade quality as soon as practicable. It is
suggested that the following check-list be applied to each new
scheme:

C/93 G2/1
Have you:

1 Established the reliability of surface water sources by assessing the

flow during the dry-season, over a number of years if possible (see
B7)?

2 Considered the long-term sustainability of ground- water sources

(eg Is ground- water recharged as fast as it is abstracted? Are
surface catchments properly protected)?

3 Assessed the likely quality of the water and if in doubt arranged

for quality tests, and provided for catchment protection and/or
water treatment if necessary?

4 Checked the population estimates before proceeding with the

design?

5 Allowed for growth in population over the life of the project and
taken into account other factors which may affect the final
population figure?

6 Checked whether the "final" population figure is realistic for the

particular community?

7 Consulted the community and considered any religious and

traditional constraints, including legal ownership of land and water
sources?

8 Made provision for overflows and for drainage to prevent standing

surface water, particularly at collection points?

9 Made provision for extension where this can easily be done (eg
deepening of wells or the provision of extra tap-stands)?

10 Made provision for treatment should it be necessary at a later date?

C/93 G2/3
 Reference Books

Water Aid maintain a small specialist Library, and suggestions for

additions are always welcome.

The following is a selection from the reference books held, those marked111
are recommended for consideration in a field library.

Other useful references will be found in some individual notes.

1. Water Supply

Small Water Supplies - Sandy Cairncross & Richard Feachem

Ross Bulletin 10. 1986
(booklet outlining all aspects of water supply)

Water Supply (3rd edition) - A C Twort, F M Law & F W Crowley

Arnold 1985

Small Community Water Supplies-Technology of Small Water Supply

Systems in Developing Countries - Edited by E H Hofkes - Wiley 1986

Community Water Development - C.Kerr - ITP 1989

Water Supplies for Rural Communities - C & M Ball - ITP 1991

*Hand Drilled Wells, A Manual on Siting, Design, Construction &

Maintenance, Bob Blankwaardt - Rwegarulila Water Resources
Institute, Dar es Salaam 1984

Community Water Supply - The Handpump Option, Saul Avlosorolf & 6

Others - World Bank 1987 (includes Pump Selection Guide and Handpump
Compendium)

Rain Catchment & Water Supply in Rural Africa: A Manual.

Erik Nissen-Petersen - Hodder & Stoughton 1982

"Rainwater Harvesting - The Collection of Rainfall and Run-off in Rural

Areas. - ITP 1986 - Arnold Pacey.

C/93 G3/1
*A Handbook of Gravity Flow Water Systems - Thomas D Jordan Jnr.
ITP1984

"Hand Dug Wells and Their Construction - S B Watt & M E Wood - ITP

*Ferrocement Water Tanks and Their Construction - SB Watt - ITP

"'Maintenance Systems for Rural Water Supplies - T Bastemeyer & J T

Bisscher - IRC

Principles of Laying Water Mains - WAA - 1985

(cartoon illustrated 'man-in-the-trench'
booklet)

Water - pumping devices - a handbook for users and choosers.

P. Fraenkel - ITP 1986

2. Sanitation

Rural Sanitation: Planning and Appraisal. An Oxfam document

A Pacey - IT Publications 1980

Sanitation in Developing Countries, Ed. Arnold Pacey - Wiley - 1978

Handbook for District Sanitation Coordinators - K Basaako & 3 others, *

TAG Tech. Note 9 - World Bank 1983
(prepared for Botswana Rural Sanitation Programme)

Sanitation Without Water - U Winblad and W Kilama

Macmillan Education, 1985

Design of pour-flush latrines - Duncan Mara

TAG Technical Note No. 15 - World Bank - Washington DC, 1985

Design of ventilated improved pit latrines - Duncan Mara

TAG Technical Note No. 13 - World Bank, Washington DC, 1984

Principles of Laying Sewers - WAA 1982

(cartoon illustrated 'man-in-trench booklet')

Sewage Treatment in Hot Climates, Duncan Mara * 1978 - Wiley 1980

*Ferrocement Pour Flush Latrines - A Trinidad of C Rubles

Austriaco - IFIC

C/93 G3/2
3. Water & Sanitation

"Surveillance of Drinking water Quality in Rural Areas

8 Lloyd & R Halmer - R. Longman Science & Technology 1991

Water Treatment & Sanitation. A Handbook of Simple Methods for Rural

Areas in Developing Countries - A T Mann & D Williamson.
ITP 1983

Environmental Health Engineering in the Tropics - An Introductory Text,

S Cairncross & R G Feachem - Wiley 1983
(includes health & pollution, water supply, excreta & refuse, vector-
borne diseases)

"'Rural Water Supplies and Sanitation: A text from Zimbabwe's Blair

Research Laboratory - P Morgan - Macmillan 1990

*The Worth of Water: technical briefs on health, water and sanitation,

with an introduction by John Pickford - ITP 1991

Surface Water Treatment for Communities in Developing Countries

Schulz Okun - Wiley 1984

Handbook of Water Purification (2nd edition), W Lerch (ed.)

Ellis Horwood 1988

Slow Sand Filtration - Recent Developments in Water Treatment

Technology - NJD Graham - Ellis Horwood 1988

Disinfection of Rural and Small Community Water Supplies - A Manual

for Design and Operation - WRC/WHO 1989

"Simple Methods for the Treatment of Drinking Water

Gabrielle Herber - Gate/Vieweg

4. Community Health and Health Education

"Community Health and Sanitation - C Kerr (ed.) - ITP 1990

Education for Health - A Manual on Health Education in Primary Health

Care - WHO Geneva 1988

C/93 G3/3
Where There is No Doctor - A Village Health Care Handbook
David Werner - TALC 1987

Teaching Health-Care Workers: A Practical Guide

F Abbott and R McMahon - Macmillan Education 1985

Community Health Worker's Manual, E Wood - African Medical &

Research Foundation 1982

*Helping Health Workers Learn - D Werner & W Bower

Hesperian Foundation

"The Community Health Worker - WHO

Facts for Life,UNICEF/WHO/UNESCO

Puppets for Better Health - Gill Gordon - Macmillan

*The Copy Book: Copyright Free Illustrated for Development

Bob Linney & Bruce Wilson - ITP

"Making the Links - Guidelines for Hygiene Education in Community

Water supply and Sanitation - Marieke T Boot - IRC

*Just Stir Gently: The Way to Mix Hygiene Education with Water Supply
& Sanitation - M T Boot - IRC

5. Personal Health

Health Handbook for the Tropics - G Hamilton - VSO 1982

Health Manual: A Self Help Guide - Veronica Moss - Lion 1986

HIV/AIDS and Overseas Employment; a guide for employers, including

information for staff and for health workers - UK NGO Aids Consortium
for the 3rd World -1989

6. Building/Construction

Field Engineering * An introduction to development work and construction

in rural areas. - compiled and edited by Peter Stern
and others - ITP 1985

C/93 G3/4
Appropriate Building Materials - a catalogue of potential solutions.
Roland Stutz & Kivan Mukerji - SKAT/ITP/GATE 1988

7. Training

Training for Transformation - A Handbook for Community Workers

5 Timmel et al. - Mambo Press

Tools for Community Participation - A Manual for Training Trainers in

Participatory Techniques - Lyra Srinivasan - Prowess/UNDP

8. Evaluation

Partners in Evaluation - Marie Therese - Macmillan

9. Development General

*Rural Development: Putting The Last First - R Chambers - Longman

Indigenous Peoples: A Field Guide for Development - Beauclerk, Norby

6 Townsend - Oxfam
*Self Help Promotion: A Field Guide For Development
K.C.W. Verhagen - RTI

Social Survey Methods - A Guide for Development Workers

P Oakley - Oxfam

10. Other

WaterAid Technical Manual - WaterAid

People and Water - WaterAid

A Good Start. Effective Employee Introduction, 2nd Edition

Alan Fowler - Institute of Personnel Management

Getting to Yes - Negotiating an Agreement Without Giving In.

Fisher, Vry & Patton - Century Business

C/93 G3/5
 Safety

Safety in design, construction and operation must never be overlooked but

the strict standards of developed countries may not be realistic in many
areas and it will be necessary to adapt responsibly to local practice.

Design

Thoughtful detailing in design can protect water sources, minimise

contamination in storage and distribution, and reduce the incidence of
accidents to operating personnel. Simple measures like providing rope or
handrail protection to open tanks, good access facilities to pump wells, and
protection to electrical equipment can save lives.

Construction

This will be largely a matter of common sense. The main hazard may well
be in excavation. Don't allow local labour to take unnecessary risks, and
don't take any yourself. Unless the ground is exceptionally firm, dry and
free from fissures, some simple shoring should be insisted on, for vertical-
sided excavations more than l.S m deep (see T14). Don't forget hazards
of foul or explosive gases in deep excavations, often arising from methane
or hydrogen sulphide held in the strata and accumulating in unventilated
spaces. Never enter a confined excavation more than 2 m deep on your
own, or allow other people to do so, and always have someone available
with a safety line on the surface. Hard hats, goggles, gloves and safety
harness should be indented for when considered necessary.

D/93 G4
 Setting Out Procedures

CIRIA issued in May 1988 a revised pocket handbook on 'Procedure for

Setting Out Buildings and Civil Engineering Works'. This is
recommended for general use by WaterAid field personnel.

Inter alia the handbook draws attention to the importance of:

(a) physical checks - rough checks of distance by pacing, levels,

angles, falls and verticality (by eye), may highlight gross errors in
setting out;

(b) calculation checks - always have a check, if possible independent,

on calculations, especially if electrical calculators have been used,
so as to minimise the risk of mis-keying;

(c) good records;

(d) "safe" locations for setting out stations, temporary bench marks
and off-set pegs (ie avoid locations where pegs and bench marks
are likely to be disturbed)

D/93 G5
 Water Related Diseases

It is intended to produce a supplement or separate publications on Health

Education. Meantime, reference can be made to 'The Water Engineer's
Guide to Health Education and Sanitation' written by Gretcha Sauer, and
held in the Water Aid Library, which contains additional source
references.

The following four pages are abstracted from this Guide.

B/93 G6/1
 Water Related Diseases

Type Common Name Scientific Name Causative Organism Vector

W Diarrhoea viruses water,food

bacteria unwashed hands,
A flies
Dysentery bacillus
T amoebas

E Cholera bacillus;
vibrio cholera
R

Typhoid bacteria; water.food

B salmonella faeces

0 Polio Poliomyelitis virus faeces

contact with
R sick people

N Bilharzia Schistosomiasis worm water and

snails
E
Guinea worm worm drinking dirty
water
Q
CD Water Related (continued)

Type Common Name Scientific Name Causative Organism Vector

Diarrhoea
Dysentery see above
W
A
T Worms Depends on type nematodes faeces, flies
E of infecting ascaris unwashed hands,
R worm (whipworm, not wearing shoes,
tapeworm) not using latrines

C Impetigo bacteria
L contact with infected
E people, many people
A Scabies parasites living close together
N arthopods
E
D Lice

Conjunctivitis bacteria insufficient washing

dust

Trachoma insufficient washing

*WC Bilharzia see above

Skin infections bacteria bathing in dirty water

* Water contact Continued/

 Water Related Diseases (Continued)

Type Common Name Scientific Name Causative Organism Vector

W Malaria Protozoa; mosquito

A Plasmodium
T
E Sleeping Trypanosomiasis Protozoa Tsetse fly
R sickness Tryanosomes

R Biiharzia Schistosomiasis worm; Schistosome water/snail

E
L River Onchocerciasis worm; Onchocera small black fly
A blindness volvuluv
T
E Yellow Zoonosis mosquito
D

Barriers against foreign organisms entering the body

A. The bacteria already present in intestines (intestinal flora) will fight new bacteria. This is why babies
get diarrhoea often; they do not have a well developed intestinal flora.

B. Diarrhoea is the body's natural response to foreign organisms; 1t is a cleansing mechanism.

Continued/
5
 C. Hydrochloric acid in the stomach has enough strength to fight the
foreign organisms entering our digestive system. Different
3 organisms have different survival capacities against the HC1. The
w
number of germs required to cause the following diseases are:

D. Number of germs necessary to cause disease Transmitted

through
Vibrio cholera Cholera 109 Water
Salmonella typhi Typhoid 10s Water
Shigella sp Dysentery 102 Water and food
E. Different routes of transmission (drawings, demonstrations and
flannel boards are good for explaining these.)

i) From contaminated water,

ii) From dirty collecting and storage containers,
iii) From flies that land on food/water people, after landing on
faeces.

F. Other water-related points:

i) 50% of our body weight is water.

ii) water is necessary for digestion.
iii) water is necessary for us to breathe.
iv) there are more diarrhoeal diseases in the dry season
because there is less water available for washing and for
g drinking.
Di (v) the organisms that cause diarrhoeal diseases come from
other people or animals.
 INDEX-GROUP 2

2- Basic Data

Bl - Constants
B2 - Metric/Imperial/US Conversion
B3 - Strength and Weight of Materials
B4 - Soil Bearing Pressures
B5 - Water Demand
B6 - Water Quality
B7 - Water Resources
B8 - Roughness Factors
B9 - Transport Velocities
BIO - Labour Requirements

C/93
 Constants

(Metric) HP = 76.2 kg m/sec

(Imperial) HP = 550 ft Ib/sec

Mass* = force (wt) i.e. lb or gm

accl. due to gravity 32.2 981

Water weighs 62.4 lbs/ft3 or 1 kg/litre

Viscosity of water is approx:- 0.017 poises at 0C

0.013 " " 10C
0.010 " " 20C
0.008 " " 30C

Gravitational constant (g) = 32.2 ft/sec2

= 981 cm/sec2

P. (fr) ^ 3.14
* 2.72

* Note

In earth's gravity, a mass of 0.102 kg has a weight of 1 Newton (N).

D/93 Bl
 Metric/Imperial/US Conversion

(Metric units are generally used in this handbook, but imperial retained
where they are traditional and familiar)

Length lm = 39.37 inches (3.28 ft.)

1km = 1093.623 yards (approx. 5/8 miles)

Area 1 Hectare (10,000 m2) = 2.4711 Acres

Mass 1 kg = 2.2046 lbs

Weight 1 tonne (1000 kg) = 0.9842 ton (2205 lbs)

Strictly, Force (or weight) = Mass x Acceleration due to gravity, but in

practice mass is often taken as synonymous with weight and the
gravitational constant included in formulae as necessary.

Force 1 Newton (N) - 0.2248 lb.f or 0.102 kg.f.

Volume 1 m3 = 35.3 ft3

Liquid 1 litre = 1.7598 pints (British)

Measure 2.1134 pints (US liquid)
1 gallon (British) = 1.20091 gallons (US liquid)
= 4.546 litres
Energy 1 Joule 1 Nm
1 Joule/sec = 1 Watt

C/93 B2/1
Miscellaneous 1 force-de-cheval (metric horse-power)
= 0.986 HP (British) = 735 Watts

1 calorie (grosse) = 1000 calories (petite)

= 3.97B.Th.U.

1 bar = 0.9869 atmospheres

= 14.504 Ibt7inf (0.1 N/mm2)

1C = 5_(F-32)
9

1 litre/sec = 13.20 g.p.m.

1 m3/sec = 19.005 mgd

= 35.31 cusecs

C/93 B2/2
 Strength and Weight of Materials

Characteristics

The table gives very approximate guideline data. (See also Tl).

The wide variations of material quality do not need stressing. The factor
of safety used to determine the safe tensile and crushing strengths will
depend on the situation, the assessment of load, and the variability of the
material. It is usual to take higher factors (5 or 6) with timber than with
man-made materials of good quality.

Laterite

'Laterite' is a term used to describe a range of materials rich in

sequioxides of iron or alumina which are widely distributed in Africa and
some other tropical countries. The term is derived from the Roman word
'later' meaning 'a brick'. Laterites range from a plastic red clay, which
hardens irreversibly on exposure to air, to rock-like materials which can
only be broken with a sledge-hammer or in a crusher, and usually occur in
large sheets. Lateritic gravels are also found, usually in gently-rolling
terrain in relatively thin soil horizons. The strength and characteristics of
laterite are very variable.

Laterites are useful as fill material and for low cost roads with light traffic.
Crushed laterite and lateritic gravel may be used for low-strength concrete.

C/93 B3/1
 Specific Ultimate Ultimate Modules of
Material Gravity Tensile Strength Crushing Strength Elasticity
o lO'N/m1 T/in1 ltfN/m1 T/in* 10*N T
o
Cast Iron 7 90-150 6 to 10 620-770 40 to 50 80 8000
Steel 7.9 390-540 25 to 35 160 16000
Aluminium 2.7 80-140 5to9 55 5500

Softwood 0.5 to 0.8 80-150 5 to 10 30-60 2to4 6 600

Hardwood 0.8 to 1.2 80-150 StolO 60-90 4 to 6 8 800

Limestone 1.9 to 2.4

Sandstone 1.7 to 2.6
Granite 2.6 to 2.8

Common 1.4 to 2.0

Brick

Concrete 1.8 to 2.0

Sand and 1.6 to 1.9
Gravel
a
 Unit Weights

Item Unit Wt. <kg) Load for 4 Tonne Truck

n
Sand and Gravel 1600 per m3 2.5 m3
Common Brick 2.5 1600
Cement (bags) 51 80
CGI sheets 0.6 m x 2.1 m 8.5 470
CI pipel" i.d. 2.7 kg perm 1500 m
CI pipe 1VI" i.d. 4.4 kg per m 900m
CIpipe2" i.d. 6.7 kg per m 600m
Steel tube to BS6323
21.3mm o.d 3.2 mm thicl 1.43 kg per m
26.9 3.2 1.87
33.7 4.0 2.93
42.4 4.0 3.79
MDPE (12 bar working pressure) Supplied in 25 to 150m coits
20mm i.d. 0.13 kg per m
25 0.16
32 0.27
50 0.66
(6 bar working pressure) Straight pipes
90 mm i.d. 1.38 kg per m
125 2.66
180 5.47
PVC (6 bar working pressure)
3 in i.d. 1.20 kg per m
4 in 1.83
6 in 3.54
 Soil Bearing Pressures

As a very rough guide, permissible loading on typical soils may be

taken as:

Subsoil Working Load

kN/m2 I/ft2
Alluvium, made ground 1 Vi

Soft clay, wet sand 2 1

Dry clay, loam 4Vi 2
Firm dry clay 7 3

Compact coarse sands

and gravel 9 4

Shale and soft rock 20 9

Hard rock 90+ 40+

B/3/88 B4
 Water Demand

Sources - IT Technical Note 7 and internal (ref. 3rd meeting of Eng.

Advisers).

Water demand varies considerably with social habit, ease of access, and
quality of water.

Individual countries may have their own design criteria and local enquiries
should be made.

The current WHO recommendation is 45 litres/head/clay and may be set

by government as a standard. The information below should be used when
it is possible or necessary to consider demand levels in more detail.

Communal Water Points (Wells, Boreholes, Standposts)

The IT Note suggests the following 'average' consumption.

Source distance Approx. water usage

(litres/head/day)

> 2,500 m 5
250-2,500 m 15
<250m 15-35

The WaterAid internal note records that consumption soars if the source is
within 100 m., and falls dramatically if the distance exceeds 1 km (or 30
minutes travel return time), so that health benefits related to quantity will
not be derived by providing new sources 200 m or more distant if the
existing source is within 1 km.

The recommended design criterion for rural situations is to plan for an

improved source for each population grouping of about 200 to 250 people.
Allow 35 litres per person per day (45 litres per person if it is possible to
design for future improvements in standard of living, but reducing to a
minimum of 20 litres per day in difficult situations) if the household is
within 200m of the source; and 15 1/hd/d if the source distance is between
200 m and 1 km.

B/93 B5/1
 Gravity supplies will be used (and wasted) more than those depending
on hand pumps.

It should be noted that approximately half to three-quarters of the daily

demand is likely to be consumed at sunrise and sunset. Ideally the
source should be able to supply the day's requirements in a six to eight
hour period.

Piped suDDhes
Type of supply Approx. water usage
(litres/head/day)

Yard or single
household tap 75

Schools: Day 25
Boarding 45

Hospitals 300 per head

Government Offices 30
Livestock: Horses 35
Cattle 40
Pigs 15
Sheep 12.5
100 Chickens 15

To put this into perspective, the water needed for agricultural purposes for
irrigation is of the order of 750 litres per kilo of grain grown and 1,500
litres per kilo of rice grown. For small scale manufacturing 100 litres of
water are required per kilo of paper made, 4 litres per kilo of bread baked
and 100 litres per kilo of steel made.

B/93 B5/2
 Water Quality

Source: IT Technical Note No. 7

When considering how to improve a water supply it is necessary to

consider the quantity, proximity and quality of the water. Enabling people
to have more water, closer to home, will give significant health benefits,
but in the long term it is also vital to ensure that the water is of suitable
quality.

Water easily collects all kinds of impurities which give it colour, odour,
taste and turbidity. These may be either of organic origin, derived from
decomposition of plants and animals and wastes, or inorganic origin such
as soils, minerals and metals. In inhabited areas water can also be
contaminated with pathogens and parasitic organisms.

In scarcely populated areas the chemical characteristics of surface or

ground water are not normally harmful, apart from excessive fluoride and
nitrate levels, but some other chemicals can cause people to reject or
improved water sources. For example iron in ground water causes
staining in clothes and it has also been noted that hard water, typical of
ground water sources, can lead to a considerable increase in cooking time.

Drinking water should therefore, as far as possible, be colourless,

odourless and pleasant to taste, and guidelines as to acceptable chemical
quality are given in the tabulation

Groundwater is usually free from disease-causing organisms if taken from

below a depth of about 10 metres, but water from shallow wells or surface
water in populated areas is very likely to have been polluted and the
bacterial quality of the water needs to be checked. WHO recommended a
coliform count less than 10 per 100 ml, although in some areas a relaxed
standard is accepted - (UNDP work to an MPN of 50 per 100 ml in West
African village wells) (see TS for notes on water sampling and analysis)

WHO also advise that for coliform counts per ml of 10 to 300, the water
should be treated before use, and over 300 the source should be regarded
as "unacceptable" (but in practice there may be no option - see Design
Philosophy, G2)

Guidelines for chemical quality, and examples of different types of water

as shown in the table.

C/93 B6/1
 Guidelines for Potable Water Quality

mg/litre Ca Cl F Fe Mg NO3 Na SO, pH

Guideline - 250 1.5 0.3 - 10 200 400 6.5-8.5

values
(WHO 1984)

Maximum 200 600 2.0 1.0 150 100 400 400 6.5-9.2

Examples of Quality from different sources

(There are of course very wide variations in surface and groundwater quality - the examples
quoted should not be regarded as 'typical'.)

Rainwater 2 3 - 0 2 1 - 4 5.6
(SE Asia)
Surface 7.2 10 1 0.6 5.9 0.27 19 0.02 7.42
water (Sudan)
g Ground- 14 5.9 - 0 4.7 - 22 52 -
3 water
 Water Resources

Water Resources is not a problem in places where there is an ample

quantity of water of acceptable quality throughout the year, but these are
not situations in which Water Aid is most needed. In areas where safe
water is scarce, consideration of water resources is implicit in our aim to
design sustainable facilities; and we will have in mind that with improved
water supply more water will be used, village populations may increase
(with improved health or by immigration) and more people will imply
more agriculture with increased irrigation needs in dry areas. This is of
concern not only where wells and boreholes are used, but also with spring
and stream sources, where there are obviously both seasonal and long term
flow fluctuations.

Consequently, in preparing a project proposal, check:

1. That there will be ample and sustainable source of safe water at all
times.

2. If in doubt, look for long term records of rainfall and stream flow
or water table levels.

3. If these are not available, seek reliable local information on which

a judgment can be made.

4. Give consideration to competing uses of water, such as primarily

for irrigation.

It may sometimes be decided to meet pressing needs by improvement to

the water supply even though there is doubt as to long-term sustainability
of the source. In this event, make the position clear both to the local
community and the appropriate government authority.

A/93 B7
 Roughness Factors

In the past, various empirical formulae were used for pipe and channel
flow, each using an arbitrary roughness factor specific to particular
materials and conditions. Thus the popular Hazen Williams formula (see
Fl), used a coefficient ' C and the Manning formula for open channel flow
(see F3), a constant based on the earlier Kutter roughness coefficient 'K'.
Modern flow formulae all use a roughness factor 'k' having a dimension in
millimetres, which can be used for pipes running full , or part full, and for
open channels, and this is used in the Colebrook White formula which
forms the basis of the flowcharts in F l . lake particular care not to
confuse 'k' with 'K' and ' C and coefficients used in other empirical
formulae. The recommended 'k' values are:

C/93 B8/1
 Dirty (Surface)
Material Clean Water'" Water Sewage'2'

Alkathene 0.003
Perspex

uPVC/AC 0.015-0.003 0.15 0.6

GRP, Clayware 0.06 0.3 0.6

Ductile & Galv. 0.03-0.015 0.3 0.6
Iron

CI, Spun 0.3 0.6 0.6

Concrete

Cast concrete - 1.5 1.5

Brick, Masonry

Note: (1) These values are for new pipes or channels with well-made
joints. Mis-aligned joints, rust, tuberculation, slime etc. result
in increased loss at head, and in design it is prudent to use
larger 'k'values that those tabulated to allow for deterioration
in service.

(2) These values apply for velocities sufficient prevent deposition

of sand etc., ie, greater than 1.2 m/sec (see B9). For lower
velocities a 'k' value of 1.5 - 3 should be assumed, if there is
risk of sand or grit in the water.

C/93 B8/2
 Transport Velocities

Rising Mains

For clean water the rate of flow and hence velocity for the available head
or pressure in rising (force) mains can be calculated using Hazen
Williams', or Colebrook-White formula.(see Fl) For dirty water, use
Colebrook-White but choose a high 'k' value (see B8).

It is important that the velocity in the rising main is sufficient to prevent

deposition and accumulation of sand or grit deposits (even with clean or
treated water this is a wise precaution). Recommended self-cleansing or
pick-up velocities are given below:

Settling
Velocity
(m/sec)
Pipe Dia.(mm) 150 300 600
Coarse sand
(up to 2.5 mm) 0.4 Pick up velocity 0.6 0.6 0.6
(m/sec)

Grit
If ft it
(2.5 to 5.0 mm) 1.5 1.2 1.5 1.8

C/93 B9/1
Open Channels

In open channels or streams, lower velocities can be accepted than in rising

mains, as sand, etc. can be transported by bed movement and need not be fu
suspended.

As a rough guide, the following transport velocities are appropriate in these

situations:

Fine sand (0.4 mm) 0.15 m/s

Medium sand (1.1 mm) 0.22
Coarse sand (2.5 mm) 0.30
Gravel (2.5-25mm) 0.75
Shingle (25-75 mm) 1.20

(These are 'mean' velocities, i.e. Quantity/Cross Section of flow.)

C/93 B9/2
 Labour Requirements for Common Tasks

The following are very approximate and must be adapted for use in each
location.

Description Unit Output per

man/day
A, TeniDerate Zones

Clearing bush or scrub m2 180

Clearing undergrowth and
small trees m2 60
Digging loose soils to
depth less than 1 m and
load into barrow m3 0.8-1.8
Spreading soil in ISO mm
layers m3 8-16
Levelling and trimming
soil slopes m2 48

B. Nepal
Excavation (shallow) m3 1.4
Excavation in rock m33 0.3-0.4
Back filling m 3
Plain concrete m3 0.14
Cement plastering (lcm) m2 2
Ferrocement (5cm) m2 0.3
Barbed wire fence m 6
Jointing HDPE pipes Item 10
Jointing GI pipes Item 7

C/93 B/10
 INDEX - Group 3

Group 3 - Formulae

Fl - Clean Water Flow in Pipelines

F2 - Secondary Losses in Pipes
F3 - Open Channel Flow
F4 - Weirs and Orifices
F5 - Bending Moments, Shear and Deflections

B/3/88
 Clean Water Flow in Pipelines

General
The most accurate formula for general application over a wide range of
conditions is Colebrook-White. This is not however convenient for simple
calculations, and is usually presented in chart form. Three simplified
charts are attached, for values of the roughness coefficient 'k'
corresponding to very smooth; fairly smooth; and average, and are for
clean water only. (See B8.) If extensive pipeline design is undertaken, the
full series of charts should be obtained from QAG.

A simple formula suitable for clean water in pipes flowing full which gives
sufficiently accurate results for most applications is Hazen Williams.

Metric Imperial

V = 0.3555 C d M i0M = 0.115 C d 06 i 034

where V = Velocity in m/sec V = ft/sec
d = Diameter (internal) in m. d = ins
i = Hydraulic gradient = Head/Length
C = Roughness Coefficient (see over)

Continued/

C/93 Fl/1
 Values for 'C for use in the Hazen Williams formula (this varies with material and size)
n
3 Pipe Material Nominal Diameter
100 mm (4"! or less 300 mm (\2n ) 600 mm (24*1

C.I. - New 125 130 135

- Ordinary 95 105 115
-Old 70 80 90
- Very rough 55 65 75
Ductile Iron As CI + 5
Steel As CI - 5
Lined with concrete Ail 120 - 140
Lined with bitumen "sizes 140 - 150
uPVC/GRP/MDPE/HDPE 140
Asbestos cement 140
Clay 110
Spun concrete 120
Cast concrete 100

The formula is most accurate for pipes larger than 100 mm, for velocities
over 1 m/sec, and for values of C over 100.

Note Remember to use the actual internal diameter of the pipe in a calculation
- it may differ significantly from the notional size.

Continued/
 Q (I/sec) flowing full

Dia (mm)
k = 0003 mm

w i p e Flow Chart Fig F1/1

 a (I/sec) flowing full

1A O
CM rf\

Oia (mm)
k = 0.015 mm

Pipe Flow Chart Fig F1/2

 (l/sec) flowing full

1
IS

Flow Chart Fig F1/3

Service Pipes

The flow chart in Fig. Fl/2 may be used for galvanised pipe and Fig. Fl/1
for new plastic pipe. Alternatively, the chart in Fig. F1/4 can be used for
MDPE pipes Class B to BS: 1972.

Pressure losses in tapping the service pipe to the main, in stopcocks, ball
valves and bibcocks may be much more significant. Average values of
head loss (m.) at fittings are:

Head Loss (m)

Dia Fitting
Flow (litres/min)

7.5 15 25

13 mm Ferrule 0.3 0.7 2.4

Tap (open) 0.7 1.7 4.9
Ball valve (open) 1.7 4.7

19 mm Ferrule 0.15 0.4 1.1

Tap (open) 0.3 0.7 2.4
Ball valve (open) 0.7 1.8 4.0

C/93 Fl/3
 Nominal size (mm)-Approx.O.D
20 25 32 50 63

E
= :(

S " ': s;
7
7

s.
_^ *
=

L[ s^
0.01 02 0.4 1 2 5 10 50
Q0SQ1
ail/sec) flowing ful

Flow Chart for MDPE

Pipe to Water Industry
s "pecification 4-32-02 Fig F1/4

 Secondary Losses in Pipes

These may be important on short runs of pipe. They may be stated in

terms of the kinetic head,(V2/2g); or an equivalent pipe length (which will
vary accordingly to the pipe material or roughness). Fig. F2/1 shows
some commonly used values.

For gate valves 1/4 closed is approx. 1

1/2 " " - 6
3/4 " " " 24

Venturi meters normally have an of about 0.3 depending on the

throat/pipe diameter ratio.

C/93 F2
 SUDDEN CONTRACTION SUDDEN ENLARGEMENT

MITRED JOINTS
a = 115 a = 0.45 a = 0.25 a = 0.07
P=63 P=22 P=13
=71 =ZA ^ \ =E^\
90 | I 60 \ \ 45 \ \ 30 \
BENDS (90) T-JUNCTIONS FOOT VALVES, STRAINERS
a = 2.5
_|L\a=1
3 = 125
I I pipe rad) (Da =0.35 p = 18
a=0.3p=15 (2)a = 1 p=50
Expressed as Ah or Equivalent pipe length 1= $ diameters, for
pipes of average roughness (i.e roughness
coefficient Vc C - O ? )

inergy Losses
in Pipe Fittings Fig F2/1
 Open Channel Flow

For uniform turbulent flow, Manning's formula gives an approximate

value V = cm0-67 i 0 5

where m = hydraulic mean depth

(water cross-section divided by wetted
perimeter)

i = hydraulic gradient x
c = J_ (metric units)
K

= 1.486 (imp. unit)

K

K = Kutter's roughness coefficient*

= 0.01 smooth cement
= 0.12 concrete, wood
- 0.015 brickwork
= 0.02 - 0.03 earth

The velocity distribution depends on channel configuration but for a typical

stream the actual velocity at 0.6 depth is usually very close to the mean
velocity. The surface velocity is about 1.15 the mean, and the velocity
near the bed about 0.7 the mean.

x This is the slope of the free water surface and has no relevance to the
pipe gradient in pressure systems.

* This is not synonymous with the roughness coefficient used in the

Colebrook-White formula - see B8.

C/93 F3
 Weirs and Orifices

Kinetic (velocity) head

The kinetic head in a stream or channel is v2

2g
where v is the mean velocity in the stream.

Orifice Discharge

Q =CdaV

Cd = Discharge coefficient
a Area of orifice
V - Velocity =u/5gh where h is the head
over the orifice centre.

For water, approximate values of Cd are

0.6 for sharp-edged circular orifices

0.95 for bell-mouthed circular orifices

Triangular (sharp edged) Weir Discharge (free discharge)

Q = 0.315 Tan a T ^ g l P
2

0 is notch angle

h = head over apex

For 90 notch, Q (1/sec) = 0.014h 25
where h is in cms.

or Q (cusecs) = 2.53h2 5
when h is in ft.

B/3/88 F4/1
Rectangular (sharp-edged) Weir Discharge (free discharge)

Q = 0.67 Cd b JTglP
b = width

h = head over sill

Cd = 0.623 (b - 0.2rri

(If only sill is sharp-edged, Cd = 0.623)

Rectangular (broad-crested) Weir Discharge (free discharge)

Q - 0.385 Cd b J2gh1-5

and Crf is close to unity.

Submerged Weirs

The above formulae are not significantly affected if

the submergence is less than 60% of the upstream head.

(NB When measuring h do not forget to allow for the kinetic head of
the approach velocity. Remember to use consistent units within
each formula.)

B/3/88 F4/2
Bending Moments, Shear and Deflections

As a reminder, basic formulae for common situations are tabulated

overleaf.

In all cases :

w = Uniform load per unit length (total distributed load is wL)

W - Point load
L = Length of beam
a = Greater distance from support
b = Lesser distance from support
E Modulus of Elasticity
I = Moment of Inertia

= The sum at the mass of each element of cross section x the

square of the distance of that element from the centre of gravity

= 0.084 bd3 for solid rectangular sections

= 0.063 D 3 for circular sections of D diameter

( Values of I for standard steel sections are given in manufacturers

catalogues)

The moment, shear or deflection due to the self-weight of the beam must
be added to that due to the imposed load.

C/93 F5/1
 Condition Max.BM End Reaction Max .Deflection

p Simply Uniform wL2 wL 5wL 4

supported 8 2 384 El

Point Wab Wa WabfL+bliAafL+W

L L 27EIL
2 4
f*
Cantilever Uniform wL wL wL
2 El
w
Point Wa W Wa2GL-at jU -
6EI

Fixed Uniform wL2 wL wL3

ends 12 2 384 El
?h *
Point Wa b 2 2
Wa <L+2M 2Wa3b2
L2 L3 3EI(L+2a 2 )
 INDEX - GROUP 4

Group 4 - Technical Notes

Tl - Pipe Materials
T2 - Pipe Laying and Jointing
T3 - Pipe Supports
T4 - Stream Gauging
T5 - Water Sampling and Analysis
T6 - Water Treatment
T7 - Piling
T8 - Timber Struts and Columns
T9 - Concrete
T10 - Corrosion of Concrete
Til - Water Pipelines - Design
T12 - Site Roads
T13 - Groundwater Development
A. General
B. Well-siting
C. Boreholes and Tube Wells
D. Screens and Gravel Packs
E. Hand^dug Wells
T14 - Shallow Excavations
T15 - Thrust Blocks
T16 - Shuttering (Formwork)
T17 - Sanitation
T18 - Handpumps
T19 - The Eductor Set (for Dewatering)

D/93
 Pipe Materials

General
Apart from size and strength, the choice of pipe material depends on cost,
suitability for intended use, durability and availability.
Tables 2 and 3 set out some limitations of commonly available pipes.
Asbestos Cement pipes are included, as they may still be met in some
areas, but following recognition of the danger in handling this material it
should be avoided if possible, and is not advisable for potable water
supply.

Plastic Pipes
As Tables 2 and 3 show, there is a very wide, and increasing, variety of
plastic pipes designed for different purposes - plumbing, rainwater goods,
building drainage, service ducts, water supply, sewerage etc. Advantages
are light weight and resistance to corrosion. All are usually classed as
'flexible', although small pipes in some plastic materials are semi-rigid.
The availability in size of the more common types is shown on Table 3.
Composite pipes such as GRP and reinforced plastic mortar are available
in size up to 2m dia.

In general terms, uPVC pipes are cheap, more rigid than most others,
more temperature sensitive, and more easily damaged. MDPE balances
strength and toughness and is preferred for distribution and service pipes.
MDPE pipes below 63mm O.D. are usually designed for a 12 bar test
pressure; larger diameters for 10 or 6 bar. MDPE pipes up to 90mm O.D.
are available in 50, 100 or 150m coils, larger pipes in 4 or 6m lengths -
consider transport problems.

Table 1 - Commonly Available Plastic Pipes

Usual Max. Dia.(mm)

uPVC (BS:3505 or 3506) 600

Low Density Polyethylene (LDPE) 300
Medium Density Polyethylene (MDPE) 500
High Density Polyethylene (HDPE) 1200
Polypropylene 450
ABS 300
Nylon 25
C/93 Tl/1
Relevant characteristics of plastic pipes are:

Hydraulics All plastic pipes have good friction characteristics when

clean, as compared with iron, steel, concrete or A.C.; when scaled or
silted, the friction coefficient is largely independent of pipe material.

Temperatures All plastics are temperature sensitive to varying degree.

(See Table 3.) uPVC tensile strength falls with increasing temperature, the
decline accelerating at about 60C, and rigidity falls sharply over 70C.
(Conversely, these pipes are very brittle at low temperatures.)

Expansion Most plastic pipes have high coefficients of expansion which

need care in design. (See Table 3.) For example, typically, PVC pipe
expands 1.6 mm per 3 m length for each 10C rise in temperature.

Handling Semi-rigid pipes like uPVC are easily damaged in handling,

especially at low temperatures, and quite light scratches may lead to
subsequent stress failures.

Storage In storage, plastic pipes should be supported at frequent intervals

(e.g. 10 cm wide supports at not more than 1 m spacing), and not stacked
so high (say 4 or 5 layers) as to engender permanent distortion. They
should be protected from sunlight.

Installation See T2 (Pipe Laying)

Colour Coding Pigments are used for identification and to protect against
U.V. degradation. In UK, blue is used for clean water, yellow for gas,
but black pipes are better for pipes above ground and exposed to sunlight.

C/93 Tl/2
 Table 2 - Recommended Uses

Material Use
Sewage Potable Water Pressure Rigid Flexible

Clay Yes Occasionally Yes

Concrete (1) Occasionally - Yes
Asbestos Cement (1) No Yes Yes
Ductile Iron Yes Yes Yes Yes
Steel (2) (3) Yes Yes
uPVC Yes Yes Yes (4) Yes
Polypropylene Yes Yes Yes Yes
Glass Fibre (GRP) Yes Yes . Yes
Polyethylene Yes Yes Yes - Yes
Polyurethane Yes Yes Yes Yes
Nylon Yes Yes Yes Yes

1) Not suitable for septic sewage.

2) Short life unless protected by suitable lining and coating.
3) Requires protecting externally (e.g. galvanising). Usually internal lining not required if under pressure and air
. excluded, but this is difficult to ensure and internal protection is highly desirable except for very temporary work.
^ 4) Can be classed as semi-rigid in the smaller diameters.
 Table 3 - Properties of Pipe Materials

Density Coefficient Softening Elongation Tensile

o Material (gm/cc) of lin.exp. Temp. at break Strength
(xlO*) CC) (%) (MN/m3)

Clay 2.3 5 - -
Concrete 2.3 It - - -
Asbestos Cement 2.0 10 - - 25
Ductile Iron 7.2 12 7 400
Steel 7.9 12.5 - 20 500
uPVC 1.4 up to 60 70 70 50
Polypropylene 0.9 " " 120 110 300 6
GRP 2.0 " " 40 - - 250
Polyethylene:
LDPE 0.91 " "280 80 500 5
MDPE 0.93 " " 150 110 500 9
HDPE 0.94 " "200 90 500 9
Nylon 1.1 " " 150 130 - 50
Pitch Fibre 1.2 25
Notes (1) These properties are generally the values at 20C.
(2) There are wide ranges for each material; the figures quoted are
indicative, to give a comparison between materials. For accurate values refer where
possible to the manufacturer.
 Pipe Laying and Jointing

Most pipework for Water Aid projects will be small diameter, flexible,
pipes, which are best laid in shallow trench. The depth will rarely be*
greater than that needed to avoid exposure by erosion or damage by
cultivation or grass fires, and in these circumstances the strength of
commercially available pipes will usually be adequate if laid with a
suitable surround (see Installation below), but see note T15 on thrust
blocks for pressure pipes. See also Tl 1 (pipeline design)

Handling and Storage

Failure of rigid and semi-rigid pipes can originate from rough handling to
and on site as well as over-loading, and care in transit, in store and
laying is rewarding. Slings should be used in handling and pipes stored on
even surfaces. Flexible and semi-rigid pipes need support to the whole
length of the barrel - see more detailed notes under 'Pipe Materials'.

Installation

It is vital to ensure that large stones, rock or timber do not cause local
stress to pipes under load, and all except small plastic pipes in trench are
best laid with a granular or selected soil surround (sandy gravel passing
30mm sieve is ideal). Above ground supports must be adequate to avoid
sag, provision made for expansion, and protection given from direct
sunlight. (See also separate technical note on Pipe Supports T3.) Some
plastics - particularly polypropylene - have been subject to vermin attack,
but uPVC and HDPE appear free from this problem.

Pipes under Roads

Additional loads will be imposed where pipes cross vehicle tracks, and in
this and similar situations, thought needs to be given to the structural
strength at the pipe. For most situations, provide not less than 0.75 m
cover over the pipe and surround the pipe with selected material (sandy
gravel is ideal) containing no material larger than 30 mm. This is
particularly important with plastic pipes, which can be damaged by large,
sharp stones. Careful consolidation and reinstatement is necessary to
avoid 'wheel thump'.

C/93 T2/1
Pipe Failures

The most common types of failure after laying are:

- poor jointing (test before putting pipes into service)

- beam fractures due to uneven support
- bearing fractures due to hard spots on pipe bed
longitudinal fractures due to excessive vertical load
shear fractures due to settlement where pipe enters a fixed structure
- socket failures due to unsuitable joint material (a resilient material is
preferred)
- stress fractures of flexible pipes due to large, sharp stones in backfill
- unbalanced force at changes of direction etc of pressure pipes.

Joints

For small pipes, push fit or compression joints or solvent welding are
suitable. Solvent welding of larger pipes (over 50mm diameter) requires
careful technique in accordance with manufacturers' instructions, and
should be avoided if possible.

Jointing MDPE Pipes

The following reflects WaterAid experience in the field: The preferred

options are butt or fusion welding if large quantities are used, and push fit
or mechanised joints for smaller quantities.

Butt Welding

Butt weld properly executed is as strong as the original pipe. There are
two ways of executing these joints namely:-

(i) The hand held heating plate where a disc of approx 125mm
diameter and 15mm thick on the end of a handle is heated in a
naked flame to 205 degrees centigrade. This is achieved by
marking the plate with a thermal crayon which changes colour at
the right temperature. A teflon bag is then placed over the plate to
prevent the pipe sticking and the pipe ends are pressed onto the

C/93 T2/2
 plate until melt occurs when they are removed and pushed together
to form the joint. This method is suitable for jointing coils of
small diameter pipe in the bush.

(ii) A butt welding machine which is designed to clamp the pipe. A ^ ^

cutting plate shaves the ends of the pipes to give a good fit, then an
electrically heated teflon coated heating plate is used to heat the
pipe ends to the correct temperature, and the pipe ends are forced
together by hydraulic pressure to form the joint. For pipe sizes of
50mm diameter and above and especially where the use of 5.8m
lengths is concerned this is the preferred method.

These machines are not complex, are easy to use, and if properly
maintained will give a long and satisfactory service.

The major disadvantage is that in order to weld in situ it might be

necessary to extend excavations to allow for the installation, operation and
removal of the machine.

The machine is based on a 125mm chassis (liners can be used for 90mm,
63mm and 50mm pipes) complete with trimmer and heater plates and a
hydraulic hand pump. Cost (1993) is around 3000 plus transport. A
small 2.8kVA petrol driven generator is also required to power the
welding machine (budget cost of 750) The whole of this equipment can
be supplied as a package from Fusion Group pic.

Fusion Welding

When first introduced it was not reliable and more costly than other
comparable systems. It is however now a standard for the British Gas
industry and a Water Standard is in the course of being written. As a
result of its increased use and quality control combined with automated
production the cost of fusion fittings has considerably reduced and it is
now comparable with butt welding.

The fittings have sealed in the sockets the necessary heating wires which
have an electric current passed through them to generate the heat required
to fuse the fitting to the pipe.

C/93 T2/3
Operationally the pipe end is cleaned to remove dirt, grease and plastic
impurities and the fitting is then clamped onto the pipe. The fitting has
two terminals which are connected to a controller, current is then passed
through the built in wires for a preset period of time fusing the fitting to
the pipe, the joint is then left to cool and the clamp removed. The more
modern fittings have a set resistance which is measured by the controller
and this automatically sets the correct time for the fusion process.

The main advantage is that no additional excavation is required and a

series of fittings can be clamped onto pipe and the control box moved to
the next as soon as the fusion process is complete. Its disadvantage is that
once the joint is made the only method of removal is to physically cut it off
the pipe and use a new fitting to remake the joint.

The cost of the control box is in the region of 1000 (1993). A small
petrol driven generator is also required, and a series of clamps to hold the
fittings firmly onto the pipe during the fusion operation. The budget cost
for control box, generator and clamps is around 2000 (1993 prices).

Push Fit

This type of joint is very simple and only requires the end of the pipe to be
chamfered and then simply pushed into the socket of the fitting. It has a
standard "O" ring to hold against pressure and a clamp ring to hold the
fitting firmly on the pipe which can be released with a simple tool allowing
the fitting to be reused. The chamfer and extractor tools are simple and
inexpensive.

Its advantage is simplicity but its major disadvantage is cost.

Mechanical

This type of joint has been widely used by WaterAid especially in Sierra
Leone where it was specified as a cheaper alternative to the Push Fit. The
types used have been made of plastic and have the same life span as the
pipes. The fitting contains sealing rings and clamp rings to prevent the
fitting parting under pressure. The only tools required are a set of stilson
wrenches.

Its advantage is that it is easy to remove the fitting and it can be reused
although perhaps with new sealing rings.

C/93 T2/4
 Pipe Supports

Where practicable, pipes are best laid in shallow trench for protection.
pipes are laid above ground they need support. Points to watch are:

1. Vulnerability to damage from people, animals, falling trees, grass

fires, etc.

2. Erosion or other damage by seasonal floods and land slips.

3. Sensitivity of design to line and level.

4. Restraint at bends, junctions, etc. (See separate note on thrust

blocks, T1S.)

5. Provision for expansion and contraction, especially with plastic

pipes. (Long straight steel pipelines may be laid in zig-zags).

6. Accessibility for inspection and repair.

Conventional supports are brick or concrete, or fabricated steel when

pipelines are supported on structures.

Points to watch are:

Loading Primary vertical load is not a problem with small pipelines

and longitudinal thrust from expansion or side thrust due to water pressure
at changes of direction may be more significant. External loading can
arise if the pipe can be sat or walked on. m*

Location Rigid pipes usually need support behind each joint,

sometimes intermediately also with small dia. pipes. Flexible pipes need
enough support to avoid excessive sag under load (check the weight of the
full pipe.

Fixing If pipe level is critical, support design should allow for

local adjustment, especially in bad ground. Avoid rigid fixing but allow
the pipe to slide longitudinally, with firm restraint at all changes of
direction, and at intervals to avoid creep (especially in steep gradients).
Fig.T3/l shows a typical design, but note that:

C/93 T3/1
 (a) in some countries timber cradles may be an acceptable
alternative if durability can be assured;

(b) metal straps may be open to theft; one solution is to

weld the bolts.

Service Pipes If plastic pipe (MDPE or similar) is used adequate

support must be given, preferably by clipping to a flat surface. Support
spacing for MDPE pipes should not exceed 0.4 m for 1" nominal size
pipes, or 0.5 m for 2" pipes when horizontal, or double these distances
when vertical.

River Crossings Rigid pipes may be self-supporting over short

spans - but guard against their use as a bridge! Flexible pipes can be
threaded through a steel pipe 'bridge'or suspended, supported at frequent
intervals to avoid flexing and protected against sunlight.

C/93 T3/2
 Metal strap Bolts to be at (east 100mm
(loose fitting) from the edge of the
cradle

Bearing pad -Precast cradle

(rubber or similar)

-In-situ pillar

Pipe Support Fig T3/1

 Stream Gauging

If practicable, simple or compound weirs are usually the best way of

gauging streams. Construct on a reasonably straight stretch and use a
combination of triangular and rectangular weirs if there is a wide variation
in flow. See F4 for Weir Characteristics.

Approximate methods of gauging flow will usually rely on measuring the

velocity. Again select a straight stretch with constant cross-sectional area.
A surface float, such as a bottle, travels at about 1.15 x the mean velocity
of the vertical plane in which the float travels. See F3 for Open Channel
Flow. A weighted canister or drogue, supported by a small surface float
and positioned to be at 0.6 of the average stream depth, will travel at the
average stream velocity.

If fluorescent dyes or similar colouring matter are available, the average

stream velocity can be readily, if approximately, measured by observation.
This entails quick mixing at the entry point and a consistent cross-sectional
area over the measured length.

Observations at varying rates of flow will enable a stage discharge curve

(i.e. a graph of discharge against water level) to be constructed. This will
help to eliminate rogue observations and provide a ready reference for
quantity at any observed depths.

B/93 T4
 Water Sampling and Analysis

This note is not comprehensive. A full description of suitable methods and

equipment will be found in L G Hutton's book on 'Field Testing of Water
in Developing Countries', available in WaterAid's library, to which
reference should be made if the need for extensive tests is foreseen. A
paper by Simon Trace reviewing water quality standards and testing in
Nepal is also useful.

Sampling Frequently, analysis will be carried out in a laboratory,

but the analysis will only be as good as the sample, and care must be taken
to ensure that the sample is representative of the bulk of the water (if in
doubt, take several from different points or at different times); is not
contaminated in sampling; and is protected so far as possible from change
before it reaches the laboratory.

For chemical analysis a large (say 1 litre) sample is necessary. The

bottle(s) and stopper must be scrupulously clean, and washed out with the
water to be sampled before filling. Stopper (with glass stopper preferably)
- do not leave an air space. Label carefully with date/time/origin/and
name, and get to the analytical laboratory as quickly as possible, keeping
the sample cool and shaded in transit.

For bacteriological analysis even more care is necessary, and some

experience desirable. A 250ml sample is adequate, but a clean sterile
bottle with glass stopper is necessary. Again, rinse with water under test
before filling. Be careful not to touch the contact surfaces of the stopper
with your fingers. Keep the sample shaded and as cool as possible and
analyse within 3hrs of sampling. Label as for chemical analysis. If
sampling from a tap, flame sterilise the tap orifice (with plastic taps use a
strong chlorine solution) and then run some water before taking the
sample.

Field Tests The most common field tests are:-

(a) Conductivity
(b) Turbidity
(c) Chlorine residual
(d) Odour

C/93 T5/1
Field test kits are also available for most physical and chemical
characteristics of interest, and for bacteriological analysis, and the
manufacturers' instructions on them should be carefully followed.

(a) Conductivity This gives a rapid method of estimating total

dissolved salts in water, and is valuable in making a quick first assessment
of the quality of ground water. Light-weight battery powered conductivity
meters are available; if not temperature compensated, a thermometer will
be necessary. Conductivity is expressed as micro-siemens per cm (mu/cm)
- previously called micrornho (muho). A reading in excess of 1500 mu/cm
suggests poor quality, and indicates a total dissolved solids in the range
750-900 mg/1 at 25C.

(b) Turbidity There are no accurate simple field test methods, but a
rough indication can be obtained by fixing a small interior mirror to a
graduated rod, and lowering in full daylight until it cannot be seen. The
depth of immersion corresponds roughly to the silica scale of turbidity as
follows:

Depth Turbidity Filterability

cm (silica scale)

2 1000 1 Sand filters

8 130 J clog quickly

10-15 100-65 ~| Filtration possible

30-45 30-18 J but difficult

80 10 Suitable for
sand filtration

C/93 T5/2
(c) Chlorine Residual All field testing depends on the depth of
colour developed by adding a reagent, and is best measured by using a
suitable test kit. If this is not available, but DPD reagent (Diethyl-para-
phenylene diamine) can be obtained, as foil-wrapped tablets or in liquid
form, add 3-5 drops of reagent to a 5ml sample in a clean glass bottle.
The table below gives a rough and ready relationship:

Colour Residual Chlorine) (mg/1) Odour

Light yellow 0.1 Slight

Yellow 0.2-0.5 Obvious
Deep yellow 0.7-1 Strong
Brown 1 Very strong

(d) Odour As indicated above, smell can be used to give a

very rough indication of chlorine residual.

Other odours may indicate pollution and require investigation. A rough

guide as to acceptable quality is to measure the dilutions required with
odourless (e.g. distilled) water before the odour disappears. Dilutions of 2
or less indicate acceptable quality; 3 to 4 are marginal; and 5 or more
generally unacceptable (but may be the best available).

C/93 T5/3
 Water Treatment

Many surface waters need treating before potable use. Untreated water is
only suitable for domestic use if it comes from an unpolluted source (e.g. a
stream or lake upstream of inhabited areas) or if the user can be trusted to
use simple disinfection methods for water used for drinking or food
preparation. (But see comment in B6)

It is not possible to deal adequately with all aspects of water treatment in a

field handbook. There are many text-books available. A good, simple and
practical account is given by Smethurst in his 'Basic Water Treatment'
(Thomas Telford Ltd., 1979).

It may however be useful to note the usual sequence of operations which

apply to both small and large treatment works:

Coarse screen (100 mm spacings)

o
Pump if necessary
Store if necessary
Fine screen (6 mm)
o
If necessary, add chemical coagulants*0 (often lime and aluminium
sulphate) and mix gently for 15 mins.
o
Settle in sedimentation basin for 2-4 hours
o
Filter through clean sand.
'Rapid' filters remove fine particles.
'Slow' filters (see D12) also improve bacterial quality.
o
Chlorinate if necessary (i.e. if rapid filtration used, not
always after slow filtration)
o
Store (not less than 30 min. retention
o
Distribute

With 'clean' water from wells, boreholes or protected springs, treatment

may not be necessary, although chlorination may be a wise precaution.

C/93 T6/1
It is possible that the alkalinity from new concrete will effectively sterilise
water stored in concrete tanks, but this is unreliable and should not be
depended upon.

(1) Chemical coagulants may be very expensive or unobtainable.

Ground-up seed suspensions of the plant species Moringa oleifern
and Moringa stenopetala have been shown to be an effective
alternative. Details are held on file by WaterAid, and reference
should be made to QAG if this alternative is proposed. If no
coagulant is available, increase the sedimentation period.

Iron Removal

High Iron and Manganese content is undesirable, see B6. If unavoidable

they can be reduced by chemical treatment, using a mixture of sodium
carbonate and sodium phosphate, followed by settling and filtration. A
simpler approach, less effective, but probably adequate in most situations,
is to precipitate by aeration; in the simplest form, water in shallow storage
tanks, open to the air and sunlight, can be agitated to aerate and then settle
before us. A better method is to aerate in a ventilated packed tower, using
two 150mm layers of 25mm stone, and then filtering through coarse sand.
Dissolved air flotation is another possible method, but more sophisticated
and probably not appropriate in most WaterAid situations.

C/93 T6/2
 Piling

Source - ICE Works Construction Guide - 'Pile Driving1.

Construction may involve both sheet piling, and simple timber piling, for
support to intakes and similar application. The above source reference
will be found a useful guide.
Some points of note are:
1. The driving efficiency is related to the ratio between the weight of
the hammer and of the pile.
2. The Hiley formula is a simple and popular method of calculating
the driving resistance.

It is: R = Whn
S+0.5C
where R = the driving resistance, related to the working load by
an appropriate factor of safety
W = the weight of the hammer
h = the fall of the hammer
S = the set per blow
C = the total elastic compression of the pile, dolly
and ground
n = the efficiency of the blow
[The same units should be used for R & W (e.g. Tonnes); and for h, S and
C (e.g. mm)]

For timber piles, driven with a drop hammer, n varies from about 0.5
when the weight of the hammer is equal to the weight of the pile, to 0.2
when the pile is six times the weight of the hammer.

For steel piles driven with a drop bammer,n will be between 0.55 and 0.23
for the same ratios.
The value of C is made up of the temporary compression of the pile head
and dolly, that of the pile itself, and that of the ground under the pile.

C/93 Tll\
For timber piles, C (mm) will vary from 2 + L
3
(where L is the length of the pile in metres) for easy driving, to 10 + L
for hard driving, with 8 + 2L as an average condition.
3
Comparable values for steel piles range from
2 + L through 6 + L to 8 + 2L.
4 2 4
3. Sets of less than 2 nun should be avoided for continuous driving -
the stress in the pile is too large.
4. Similarly, hammer drops should be less than 1 V& m.

5. Guide frames are of course necessary with all types of pile.

6. Hard driving will damage pile heads; 'helmets' or a 'dolly' can be

used as protection, or extra length added so that the damaged
portion can be cut-off; heads of timber piles can be protected by
fitting a steel ring to prevent splitting.

C/93 T7/2
 Timber Struts, Columns and Compression Members

The steps in design are:

1. Calculate the maximum axial compressive force or load (P) that

the member is required to carry.

2. Decide on the allowable compressive stree (f). Typical values for

timber, parallel to the grain are:

Softwood - 30 to 60 N/mmJ (or MN/m2)

Hardwood - 60 to 90 N/mm2

( See Bl and B2 for definition of N.)

3. Hence calculate the minimum cross-section area

(A) required - A =__
f

and choose an appropriate size of member.

4. Calculate the radius of gyration (r) of the selected

member - r =/JJ
J A
For rectangular sections of breadth 'b' and depth (the smaller
dimension) 'd1

I = Jjdi and A = bd, so r = 0.289d

12

For circular sections of diameter D, r = 0.25D

5. Calculate the effective length (Le). This depends on the end fixing
and varies from 0.7 x the actual length (L) for fixed ends, to 2L
when the ends are not restrained. Most struts are pinned at both
ends (i.e. restrained in position but not in angular direction) and
for this condition Le = L, and this is usually a safe assumption.

6. Calculate the slendemess ratio (S) which is Le/r and must pt

exceed 180. If necessary, choose a larger section.

Note Use consistent units throughout, e.g. kg and mm; or T and ins.

C/93 T8/1
 Concrete

Introduction

All engineers are aware of the ideal requirements for producing good
concrete: suitable materials well proportioned, thoroughly mixed and
compacted and adequately cured. In many developing countries these
conditions cannot be easily realised, and die following notes are intended
to guide on the points to watch in more difficult circumstances. Obviously
no risks should be taken with concrete which is used for structural
purposes, where orthodox design and construction methods should be
followed.

Materials

Concrete consists of coarse aggregate in a cement/sand matrix and the

strength of the concrete cannot be greater than the lowest strength of either
component.

(a) Coarse Aggregate

Any reasonably clean, strong, non-reactive graded material, whether

natural or man-made, is usable; thus brick or broken tiles can make
adequate concrete if they are inherently strong enough and do not
deteriorate on immersion in water. Most natural gravels, if clean, are
suitable, since they are a residue of a natural selection process. Crushed
rock is also suitable, if it is not friable or subject to lamination. i

(b) Fine Aggregates

These should ideally be clean and well graded. Materials of near single
size produce harsh concrete, difficult to work and liable to be porous.
High organic or silt content is very undesirable. A simple test for grading
and for silt is to mix the sand with several volumes of water in a jar, and
allow to settle for two hours; the grading between coarse and fine particles
can easily be seen and the silt which settles on the top should not
be greater than 20% by volume. Very silty sand should be washed. Some
salt (sodium chloride) can be tolerated for unreinforced concrete, but high (
sulphate content is most undesirable - in desert countries, sulphates can

C/93 T9/1
migrate and crystallise on the surface and the sand should be taken from a
lower layer. Beach sands, including coral and shell sands, can be used,
but are often saline and must be taken from well above high water; they
are usually poorly graded. See note below on a method of testing the
suitability of sand.

(c) Laterites See Note B3 - Laterite.

rdi Cement

Even if cement is taken from a reliable source it may deteriorate in

storage. It is hydroscopic and unless held in air-tight containers will
gradually hydrate: typically, concrete made with cement 12 months old
will be less than half as strong as that made with fresh cement. Cement
containing soft lumps is suspect, and hard lumps should be viewed with
alarm and rejected, except as a form of coarse aggregate; hydrated cement
cannot be re-used, and crushing hard lumps to incorporate in the mix only
adds an inert material. See note below on a suitable field test for cement
quality.

(e\ Water

If water is suitable for drinking by animals it is probably adequate for

concrete. Quite heavy salt concentrations can be tolerated (reasonable
concrete can be made from clean sea-water, but there is risk of
reinforcement corrosion and sea water should not be used for reinforced
concrete); high silt or organic content is damaging. Water containing a
high sulphate concentration or contaminated with metal salts, for example
from mine wastes, can seriously affect concrete strength.

Cement Mortar Test

When in doubt as to the quality of sand, cement or water, guidance can be

obtained from a simple field test. Mix a 2:1 cement mortar to a stiff
consistency and cure a 12mm thick pat on a polythene sheet. In 24 hours
it should be reasonably (biscuit) hard and should not be friable. If the
result is unsatisfactory, each ingredient can be tested at a time, e.g. if
testing for cement quality, use clean sand and clean water, and so on.

C/93 T9/2
Similarly, in the absence of a laboratory to crush cubes the quality of
concrete can be judged by a surface scratch test using a shovel or pick to
determine the hardness of the concrete after three or four days - hardness
is closely related to strength, but soft surface laitance can be ignored.

Mixing

It is, of course, important that the ingredients should be in the right and
consistent proportions. This cannot be obtained by such elementary
methods as 'Use 40 shovelfuls to one bag of cement.'

Insist, where possible, on volumetric batch mixing, and standardise on a

1:2:4 mix unless weak concrete for fill or similar use is adequate.
Minimise water - aim for a 5 to 7cm slump from a 12" truncated cone pile
- remember that stiff, dry concrete is difficult to compact.

Placing

Good compaction is essential for strength, durability and water-tightness.

Hand tamping will be usual and to be effective concrete should be placed
in layers of not more than 45cm.

Curing

Loss of water from the concrete in the first 24 hours after placing is very
harmful and the concrete should be covered, or at least shaded, for at least
this period. With large volumes of concrete the heat of hydration may
drive off some of the contained water and the aggregates should, if
feasible, be kept in the shade and washed with water before mixing. Weak
concrete is less susceptible to this difficulty than strong concrete. Drying
conditions on the surface from exposure to sun or strong winds will also
lead to evaporation and loss of strength.

C/93 T9/3
Strength

Given adequate materials, mixing and curing, the expected strength of

different mixes with ordinary Portland cement is:

Total Aggregate Compression Strength

to Cement after 28 days (N/mm2)

9 7.5
8 10
7 15
6 20
5 25

Joints

Great care is needed in jointing new concrete to old (ie past the initial set).
The old concrete must be clean, dust-free, and scabbled to remove laitance
and roughen the surface. A 5mm layer of 1:1 cement mortar may be
placed before pouring the new concrete.

Temperature

Concrete should be maintained at 5C or above while curing. The effect

of higher ambient temperatures is to reduce workability (the slump
decreases by about 50% for a rise in temperature of 20C) and to
accelerate strength development, although the 28 day strength, which
approaches the 'ultimate' if the temperature is maintained above 10C, is
not much affected by higher temperatures. The more rapid hydration of
the cement at high temperatures increases the curing problem (and may
necessitate special measures when casting large volumes of concrete to
avoid excessive temperatures developing).

C/93 T9/4
Reinforcement

Unconventional sources of steel reinforcement, such as strapping from

packing cases, old wire ropes, etc., may be utilised. Protection of the
steel from corrosion using adequate cover is more important than bond
and, if practicable, the steel may be painted for this purpose. Substitute
materials are normally used as a binder, rather than for tension strength.
There is a good deal of literature on the use of bamboo for reinforcement,
if this is available in a particular area - refer to QAG for details.

Fibrous materials are useful, but note that asbestos fibres present a health
risk, and glass fibres must be of special quality as conventional glass is
attacked by the alkali in the cement. Chopped polypropylene string is
probably the most suitable material likely to be available.

Corrosion

See separate note (T10) on corrosion of concrete and protective measures.

Formwork

See T16.

Ferrocement is like reinforced concrete but

(a) thickness rarely exceeds 25mm;

(b) has more reinforcement (4 to 8%) in the form of wire mesh expanded
metal, or closely-spaced small wires distributed uniformly in both
directions;

(c) is made with a rich Portland cement mortar (sand/cement ratio 1.5 to
2.5, water/cement ratio 0.35 to 0.5, all by weight), without coarse
aggregate (use clean sand 2mm and uniform grading).

The mortar is applied by hand or trowel to both sides of the mesh

reinforcement, ensuring cover of at least 1.5mm. Plaster in 2 stages with
a 2-week interval if required. Cure as for concrete.

Ferrocement can be used for small tanks and slabs, to any shape without
formwork. It has a high tensile strength-to-weight ratio, and good
cracking behaviour. Galvanised wire may give problems due to reaction
with the alkaline cement.

C/93 T9/5
Ferrocement can be used for small tanks and slabs, to any shape without
formwork. It has a high tensile strength-to-weight ratio, and good
cracking behaviour. Galvanised wire may give problems due to reaction
with the alkaline cement.

Ferro-cement has been adapted for the construction of simple water tanks
using wire-reinforced mortar. These are commonly referred to as 'Ferro-
cement Water Tanks' and a design note (D5) under this heading is included
in Group 5; they differ from conventional ferro-cement in that wire is used
mainly for stress distribution, and is often less than would be needed to
carry the full tensile loads.

C/93 T9/6
 Corrosion of Concrete

The most common forms of attack on Portland cement concrete are from
acids or sulphates. Acidic conditions may occur naturally in peats and |
other soils with high organic content, and protective measures are required
in the pH is less than 4.5. Many industrial wastes, especially from
agriculture of mines, are acidic. Sulphates are often found in groundwater
and if the concentration is in excess of about 1000 mg/l SO4 , protection is
necessary.

Concrete is also attacked by septic sewage. In the complete absence of

oxygen (e.g. in aqua privy vaults) corrosion is not severe, but hydrogen
sulphide is released into the atmosphere and on mixing with air will
oxidise to sulphurous and sulphuric acids. Very acidic conditions may
then result with severe corrosion of the walls of structures or sewers just
above the surface of the sewage.

In general terms the better the quality of the concrete the higher the
resistance to all forms of attack. The following table shows some simple
protective measures.

Method Degree of Protection

Externally

Sacrificial layer Longer life.

Sulphate-resisting Protects against sulphates but not

cement (if avail.) against acids.

External coating Bitumen and coal tar are

satisfactory if free
from pinholes (use two coats).

Plastic film wrap Effective if not damaged.

A/12/86 T10/1
Method Degree of Protection

Internally

Sacrificial layer Lengthens life.

Calcarious aggregate Lengthens life in acidic conditions

(if avail.)
Bitumen or coal tar Not very effective,
coating

Another form of attack on reinforced concrete is corrosion of the

reinforcement which then expands and cracks or spalls and concrete. The
most serious corrosive agents are chlorides and carbon dioxide, both of
which break down the protective oxide layer on steel reinforcement.
Carbon dioxide may form in peat or other soils with a high organic
content, and chlorides are of course present in sea-water and often in
highly mineralised groundwater.

This form of attack is most severe in areas of concrete which are

alternatively wet and dry. The best protection is ample (not less than
40mm) of good dense concrete cover to the reinforcement.

A/12/86 T10/2
 Water Pipelines - Design
These notes reflect field experience:
1. Most water pipelines function as pressure pipes. They do not
need to be of constant diameter throughout, although normal
economic design would seek to keep a generally uniform velocity.

2. Air-locks in pipelines can be very troublesome. Avoid humps if at

all possible by careful choice of route; if humps unavoidable,
provide an air release valve or cock or a stand-pipe at each high
point, and a drain valve at each valley to scour sediment - but bear
in mind misappropriation of water from these valves! Ideally,
provide hatch-boxes or removable pipe sections at intervals, to
allow cleaning tools to be inserted.

3. When screwed couplings are used (as with galvanised steel pipes)
provide screwed unions at key points and at intervals of say 300 m
to enable pipes to be removed without difficulty.

4. With flanged pipes, it is a fallacy that valves etc. can be easily

removed and reinstated unless there is a little longitudinal
'flexibility' - it is easy to remove a 90 bend for this purpose.
5. In many countries there are no standards for flanges, or flange
materials or screwed couplings, so specify carefully:
Flange thickness and diameter.
Pitch circle diameter, number and size of holes.
Flange joint material, and whether full face or within bolt circle.
Diameter and length of flange bolts.
Type of screw thread and number of threads per unit length.

Plastic flanges may buckle between bolthoies and need metal

back-up rings, with longer bolts. Holes in plastic flanges are
sometimes made with a hot poker, but may be oversized and
poorly located.
6. Fill pipelines slowly, to allow air to escape, and when in
operation, open or close valves slowly to minimise surge
pressures.
7. See B8 for recommended minimum velocities.

C/93 Tll/1
8. Ease of access to key points is important for maintenance and
control; measures should be taken to minimise accidental or
deliberate damage to the pipeline.
9. Provide permanent markers (eg concrete) at key points, junctions
and changes of direction to allow pipelines to be located.
10. Pipes in gravity schemes will often need to cross streams or rivers.
If these are shallow it is preferable to lay the pipe under the stream
bed, but ensure that it is well below scour level, or protected with
boulders etc.

With fast flowing water and deep channels it may be necessary to

cross above the stream. In these circumstances:
a) If an adequate permanent bridge structure is available, use
it to carry the pipeline laid on it or slung under the
structure.
b) Allow for the weight of water as well as of the pipes and
support at frequent intervals to minimise deflection,
especially with plastic pipes. (See T3) If joints are
unavoidable use bolted joints if possible.

c) Ensure that the pipe is protected from accidental or wilful

damage and from direct sunlight. In long crossings, allow
for the expansion. (See Tl)
d) Provide isolating sluice valves close to the crossing on
either side.
Should there be no suitable structure, the alternatives are to
construct a special pipe bridge, or, if the gap is not too wide or
piers can be built in the stream, to use rigid pipes to span from
bank to bank. If a length of rigid over-sized pipe is available, the
pipeline can be laid inside. Steps must always be taken to avoid
the pipe being used as a bridge or for play, and a protective fan of
steel spikes at either end is often used. The pipe must of course be
well above possible flood level.

11. Break pressure tanks - High pressure in the distribution network

may result in high leakage at joints, fittings and taps, and residual
head at standpipes should not exceed 10m, (See D6) Pressure

C/93 Tll/2
 reduction valves are expensive and difficult to maintain, and a
simple break-pressure chamber is preferable. This uses a float-
operated valve in a open chamber, similar to a W.C cistern ,
provided with a drain/washout and an overflow. This can also be
used as regulating reservoir. In some circumstances, a simple vent
pipe will serve the purpose, but the outflow pipe needs to have
more capacity than the in flow, to ensure that there is no outflow
from the vent.

12. Nepal practice is to keep the design velocity to 0.7 and 3m/sec; to
provide washouts at lkm intervals; and to allow a 'design length'
of 1.15 times the survey length.
13. Regulating reservoirs can be used to reduce pipe sizes, and avoid
interruption in supply when the source yield is less than peak
demand. In Nepal, they are sized at 0.37 daily demand, for
complete regulation, down to 0.1 d.d. to regulate flows to twice
the daily demand. In Uganda, 3 to 4 1/hd has been found useful.

C/93 Tll/3
 Site Roads

Road design is not likely to fall into WaterAid activity, but occasionally it
may be necessary to construct short lengths of roads suitable for light
traffic to serve treatment, storage or other sites.

Usually it will be possible to get local advice on suitable forms of

construction. The following brief note is intended only to cover
emergency situations where this is not available.

The key points are:

(a) The road material must spread the wheel load to limit the pressure
on the subsoil to within an acceptable limit.

(b) The surface must be shaped and maintained so as to shed water on

either side, and to avoid pot-holes or undulations which escalate
the wheel loading.

(c) The subsoil must be kept as dry as feasible by good side drainage.

With these precautions, many naturally occurring subsoils will be adequate

for light traffic. If not, maximum use must be made of local materials,
usually some form of gravel, or sandy gravel, or crushed stone with
content of fine material to assist in binding. See Fig.T12/l for a typical
cross-section of a simple road of this type.

Suitable material for the road base should not contain more than 25% of
The material (passing No. 200 sieve) or particles larger than about 40mm.
The material should have a Liquid Limit less than about 30, and a
Plasticity Index less than about IS. Most laterite materials (see B3) are
suitable. (The Liquid Limit (LL) is the minimum moisture content at
which the soil will flow under its own weight; the Plastic Limit (PL) is the
minimum moisture content at which the soil can be rolled into a thread
0.125 in. diameter without breaking; and the Plasticity Index (PI) is the
difference between LL and PL. A soils laboratory is needed to determine
these values, but typically a sandy loam has an LL of 25 and a PI of 10;
and clays have LL between 55 and 75, and PI between 30 and 40.)

A/12/86 T12
 (metres)

Fill as necessary Road base of grave! or

raise above water similar, 150mm thick
table and allow
surface water run-off

Cross Section on Single Lane Road Fig T12/1

 Groundwater Development

A. General
(1>
Groundwater does not flow in underground streams (except karstic
areas). It is present in pores and fractures in the soils and rocks
and moves excruciatingly slowly under gravity towards points of
discharge - river beds, etc. At these points the flow may be
concentrated in zones of higher permeability (fractures in rock,
natural pipes in weathered material) producing an illusion of a
linear stream discharging as a spring. Where permeabilities
remain the same throughout the system there is a continuous line
of seepage, e.g. along dambo0* or vlei3 floors or around the
edge of wetlands. Either way a point of discharge defines the
inter-section of the 'water table' with the surface, often due to an
underlying impermeable (clay) layer.

The 'water table' tends to follow the contours of the landscape, only it is
more subdued, being closest to the surface near valleys and deepest on the
top of ridges (Fig.T13/l). If there are any wells/boreholes in an area, by
measuring the rest water level and combining this with known points of
discharge, it may be possible to 'contour' the water table and use this to
predict water levels in a new well.

(1) Bedded limestone with solution cavities.

(2) & (3) African terms for flat-floored valleys where the water table is
close to the surface.

D/93 T13/1
 .Ground surface

Water table

Rock surface

Water Table Configuration Fig T13/1

 B. Well-Siting

A good dug well has

i) shallow water table

ii) permeable strata
iii) easy digging

It should be at least 50m from pit latrines and cattle pens and protected
from waterlogging, surface run off and soil erosion.

Geological maps will establish whether it is a 'hard rock' or 'soft rock'

area. Soft or sedimentary rocks are relatively permeable, particularly
sandstones and bedded limestones. However, much of Africa is underlain
by hard crystalline rocks such as granite and gneiss which are virtually
impermeable unless weathered or fractured. The weathered zone ranges
from 0 to 50m thick.

o Fractures found in association with fault zones, often easily

identified in aerial photographs as linear features exploited by
streams or marked by vegetation changes. Linear drainage
patterns, controlled by faulting, may also be obvious on
topographical maps.

If possible choose a site where two drainage patterns intersect

(Fig.T13/2a)

o Fracturing and deeper weathering often occur adjacent to vertical

dykes - usually composed of dolerite - a fine to medium grained,
greyish black, crystalline rock, more often seen weathered into
large rounded boulders with reddish brown iron-stained surfaces.
It produces a dark red clayey soil. Dolerite dykes may sometimes
from ridges. In aerial photography they show up as linear features
and often attract denser tree cover (Fig. T13/2b)

o Weathering is often deeper around the base of inselbergs (bare

granite outcrops) where the extra surface run-off infiltrates
(Fig.T13/2c).

C/93 T13/2
o Areas of seasonal waterlogging show up as darker patches in aerial
photographs. On the ground the change in vegetation may be quite
subtle and difficult to spot. The presence of low grey anthills may
indicate a water table close to the surface. Wells should be sited i
upslope from the edge of the waterlogged area.

o Site upslope of springs and seepages to intercept the most

permeable zone. (Fig.T13/2d)

o Site upstream of rock bars across valleys (they may act a

subsurface dams).

o Site downstream of earth dam walls, close to the foot to intercept

leakage.

o Where there are changes of slope and no springs, choose a site at

the base of the steepest section (Fig.T13/2e).

o In river valleys tall acacia or manpanil trees often grow on hidden

sandbars - potentially high yielding sites.

o Look for large trees known locally to be water-seeking, eg fig

trees.

o Large high anthills are often a sign of deep weathering. Check

what burrowing animals have brought to the surface - if minerals
look fresh, the weathered zone is shallow. Feldspar is the best
indicator as it weathers it becomes milky and starts to separate
along cleavage plains, later it turns to clay.

o Geophysics may be used to confirm the depth of the weathered

zone. Resistivity and electromagnetic techniques are the most
useful but they will rarely pick out the water table in hard rock
areas. Get local specialist advice on this.

C. Boreholes or Tube Wells

These can be constructed using simple hand held drilling equipment e.g.
Vonder rig. This is possible in areas of deeply weathered bedrock or
unconsolidated sediments.

C/93 T13/3
 a Fault Zone b. Dyke

c Inselberg

d Behind Spring

+ + + + + + + +
e Break in Slope

water table bed rock

Well Siting Fig T13/2
If the ground is firm, auger the hole first and then install casing. Casings
are usually made of steel or plastic; PVC is preferred being cheap and
inert in corrosive groundwaters. Use a central iser if a gravel pack is to
emplaced in the annular space (Fig.T13/3). Where the ground is j
collapsing it will be necessary to auger inside the casing. If the casing
does not fall under its own weight it may have to be driven with sledge
hammers and rotated with chain flanges; therefore use steel casing. It is
possible to complete the well with a smaller diameter plastic casing and
jack out the drilling casing if a gravel pack is needed. In this case add the
gravel pack gradually as the temporary casing is withdrawn to avoid a sand
lock. (Fig.T13/4).

The top of the casing should be sealed with grout (see Fig.T13/3) the
bottom of the casing should be screened to allow water to enter and keep
aquifer particles out. The well should be 'developed' to pull all the fines {
into the well and remove them before the well is fitted with a permanent
pump (this also applies to gravel packed wells). This minimises siltation
and the damage caused by 'pumping sand'. The simplest method of
development is 'rawhiding' - over pump the well, stop and allow the water
level to recover and repeat until the water is clear.

Tube wells can be completed with a pump which could be handpump or

bucket pump.

D. Screens and Gravel Packs

Many types of screen are available commercially. The most efficient is

continuous slotted wire wound screen with an open area of 80% (e.g.
Johnson's); followed by slotted louvre screens, vertically slotted screens
and perforated screens with the least open area. In order not to impede the t
inflow of water a minimum open area of 8% is recommended for
handpumped wells.

The screen's aperture size depends on the size of the particles surrounding
it. This can be increased by adding an artificial gravel pack and is
necessary in silts and fine sands. (Fig.Tl3/4) 'Gravel packs' can be
uniform or graded within narrow limits. The mean diameter of the
particles should be 4 or 5 times that of particles in the aquifer. A
minimum annular space of 50mm should exist before a 'gravel pack' can
be emplaced. Some commercial screens come with a prebonded gravel
pack or wrapped with various configurations of mesh. This is more (
expensive than a loose pack.

C/93 T13/4
 -Grout 1
? Sanitary seal
- d a y backfill J

Plain casing

Cover screen allowing far 20% settlement

of gravel pack during development

Vfeter table

avel pack (0.8 -1.5mm grain size)

Screen (0.8mm slots)

Bottom cap

Simple Tube Well Design Fig T13/3

Temporary drilling , Permanent plastic
casing casing

1. Emplace 1 -1.5m of 2. Emplace more gravel

gravel pack. Jack or and repeat. Do not allow
pull out casing. gravel to fall below
temporary casing if
ground is collapsing

X
Too much gravel causes
a sand lock pulling out
permanent plastic casing
with temporary drilling casing.

Placing Gravel Pack Fig T13

 Slots can close
ground \ under compression
pressure/ if pipe wall is
< = thin.

Slots for Casings Fig T13/5

300mm

40mm

300mm

40mm [
Slot

300 mm

20 mm 20mm spine

Slot Spacing Fig T13/6

A typical well design for use in weathered overburden would consist of an
augered hole (150-200mm dia.), installed with PVC casing and slotted pipe
(110-125mm dia. with slot size of 0.8-lmm), surrounded by a gravel pack
(grain size between 0.8 and 1.5mm dia. or 1 and 1.5nun dia., depending
on slot size).

Use at least 3m (preferably 10m) of screen. Less screens = greater

entrance velocities = turbulent flow = greater drawdown, i.e. decreased
well efficiency, and possible encrustation problems.

Local screens can be made on site from the same material used for casing.
PVC pipe can be slotted if labour is available using a hacksaw (blade lmm
or less). Use Class 10 PVC.

Pipe slotted transversely is stronger than pipe slotted longitudinally<(lateral

compressive forces are greater than vertical forces in a shallow tube well).
(Fig T13/5).

For 110mm diameter pipe:

Cut three rows of slots, each slot lcm apart in blocks 30cm. Leave a 4cm
gap before starting the next block. Leave a vertical spine of about 2cms
between adjacent rows. (Fig.T13/6)

For pipe diameters > 125mm consider four rows of slots.

For steel pipes, drilled holes or torch slots can be used to produce a 'poor
screen', which can be improved by wrapping with lmm mesh.

E Hand Dug Wells

WaterAid has contributed to programmes of hand-dug wells in Ghana, The

Gambia, Sierra Leone, Uganda and Nepal. In Zimbabwe, the Blair
Laboratory with support from WaterAid is responsible for a major
programme of assistance to house-holders who wish to upgrade their
family wells.

Hand-dug wells can be used in a wider variety of soils than hand-drilled

tube wells, although they are unsuitable for hard rock or running sands.
They can be deepened after construction and buckets can be used should

D/93 T13/5
the pump break down, they are thus more reliable. However they take
longer to construct and are more expensive. Of all the technologies which
WaterAid uses, they are potentially the most hazardous. (See Safety, G4)

Design All programmes use a similar basic design (see Fig. T13/7). The
common features are:

The well itself with a 70 to 150mm fixed, impermeable lining of

concrete, brick etc, to prevent collapse or contamination. The
finished internal diameter is normally 1.3m for ease of digging.

(Smaller diameter (normally lm) caisson rings sunk into the

aquifer, possibly with holes or made from porous concrete to allow
water to enter the well. The top-most caisson ring will extend well
above the base of the fixed outer lining.

The head works

An apron to collect spillage and prevent pollution by

surface water
Provision for drainage
Provision for withdrawing water
Safety provisions to prevent people and animals falling
down the well.

Total depths range from about 10m to some as deep a 20m deep in Ghana.
Wells are dug into the water table to that depth which produces a sufficient
yield for toe intended number of users, normally 250*300, that number
which can reasonably use a hand-pump. Each programme has developed
its own guidelines on how far this should be, for example the rule of
thumb in The Gambia was 3m. (It is important that this relates to the
lowest water table in the dry season, and provision made for sinking
deeper should die water table drop in the future).

Well Digging: Wells can be dug by the users, by skilled project staff or
by a combination of the two. With the exception of The Gambia where
there is a tradition of paid well-diggers, wells dug by the users; this keeps
the costs down and is the users' major contribution, but use a plumb line to
keep the well vertical, and watch the safety aspect. In most programmes
communities dig their well with only a few supervising visits from the
project staff until the water table has been reached. Lining is normally
carried out by skilled project staff, although in Ghana local masons living
in the communities lay concrete lining blocks.

D/93 T13/6
 Cov/er

Well
Well Digging and lining: The principle well digging and lining methods
include:

Digging throughout inside large diameter pre-cast concrete

caisson rings. (Fig.T13/8).

Digging and lining with concrete in-situ, in short lifts as

digging proceeds.

Digging unsupported to the water table and lining in one

lift to the surface using:

Curved concrete blocks

In-situ concrete
Caisson rings
Locally burnt bricks

Digging using temporary corrugated steel or timber board

shuttering and lining as above; or backfilling an open pit after
building the well lining. (Do not backfill around a small diameter
rising main.)

Digging and lining in-situ in short lifts will deal with most ground
conditions and is safe in that only short lengths of well are unsupported at
any one time, but is time consuming and expensive.

Digging inside caisson rings is quicker since concrete takes place at the
surface and the rings can be stored ready for use. It is safe in that the
ground is always supported. However, the rings are heavy so that
substantial lifting equipment is required. Some skill is also needed to
ensure that the rings are sunk vertically. In some soils, the rings must be
tied together so that they do not part company.

Soils in Ghana and Uganda are such that it may be safe to dig to the water
table without supporting the sides of the well. The wells are then lined
with the cheapest appropriate material. Where it can be practised safely,
this method is the quickest and cheapest.

Dewatering: It will be necessary to dewater as well digging penetrates

below the water table. (Dig in the dry season!). Hand operated
diaphragm pumps may be adequate. If power operated pumps are
necessary, do not site the prime mover in or near the well, because of CO
danger. Eductors are usefiil (see T19).

D/93 T13/7
Well Deepening: One of the advantages of hand- dug wells over boreholes
is that as if the water table drops the well can be deepened to maintain the
supply of water. This can be facilitated by the use of smaller diameter
caisson rings which can move relative to the fixed, permanent lining.

Head-Works: Head-works are similar with the greatest variation in the

arrangements for drainage of waste water. In countries such as Uganda
with fairly impervious surface soils it is difficult to arrange for proper
drainage. In Ghana all waste water is led to a small pump about 10m from
the well and is drunk by cattle.

Water lifting Devices: Most wells are fitted with hand-pumps (see T18
on choice of pump). If using a pump, there is little possibility of
contamination in use. Some communities in the Upper East region of
Ghana cannot afford to maintain a pump. They buy single collapsible
rubber bucket which is kept by the well on a post and is the only bucket
allowed down the well.

Cover Slab: If a hand or mechanical pump is fitted, the well should be

covered with a concrete slab to prevent surface contamination. For wells
up to 1 V4m dia. a 150mm thick slab reinforced with 8mm reinforcement
bar at 150mm centres in both directions will be adequate; the hole will of
course be sized to suit the pump.

The slab can be cast on the ground, with a ring of bricks if timber
formwork is not available; it can be cast in three sections to make it easier
to handle.

Yield: Where well storage is negligible and the yield is constant, the rate
of drawdown is greatest immediately after pumping starts and falls off
exponentially approaching an asymptote and steady state condition, when
pumping stops, the recovery curve should be a mirror image. (Fig.T13/9).
Therefore:

1. Recovery will appear slow after pumping for a long time.

2 For the same pumping period the drawdown is directly

proportional to the yield. This holds true until the main
aquifer is dewatered.

3. The radius of the cone influence expands with time, not with the
rate of pumping. The rate at which it expands depends on the
transmissivity (permeability x thickness of aquifer).

D/93 T13/8
 Concrete slab Closed with
around the concrete cover
well

Closed lining to
prevent water from
the top aquifer
entering the well

Porous lining
below the water
level

Storage capacity
of at least 3m3

Well with Caisson Rings Fig T13/8

 A clayey aquifer will have low transmissivity and a narrow deep
cone of influence; a gravel aquifer will have high transmissivity
and a wide shallow cone of influence. Therefore the distance
between wells and latrines is more critical for sand or gravel
aquifers.

4. The water table can maintain steeper slopes where the

transmissivity is low. Therefore water will be closer to the surface
on topographical highs compared to an aquifer with high
transmissivity; as a rule of thumb, look for a recovery rate of
lm/hr.

F Geophysics

Geophysical methods are often used in large scale initial surveys. They
require specialist input and the cost is relatively high - if the groundwater
is close to the surface, hand-dug wells are better and cheaper. Basically
they help to locate rock surfaces rather than water table level.

D/93 T13/9
 Rest Water
Level

DRAWDOWN
1 *
Water level

Steady State Q-

TIME -~
PUMPING

Rest Water
Level

RECOVERY \ Water level

Steady State

TIME -
RECOVERY

Well Drawdown
and Recovery Fig T13/9
 Shallow Excavations

Uncontrolled excavation is dangerous. The following notes summarise

good UK practise. It will be a matter of judgment as to how far to relax
this to conform to local practise.

Source - CIRIA Report 97: Trenching Practices

CIRIA Report 113: Control of
Groundwater for Temporary Works

This note gives guidance on excavation with vertical or battered sides for
depths up to about 3 m. The Reports cited above give more detailed
information and advice on excavations of up to 6 m depth. Still deeper
excavations should always be designed and supervised by competent and
experienced engineers.

1. Ground Types

For this purpose ground types can be classified as shown in Table 1.

2. Safe Slopes for Temporary Excavations

These depend on many factors, including the type and condition of ground,
the presence of surface or groundwater, surcharge loading, and the time
the excavation is left open. Slopes indicated in the following table offer a
rough guide. They assume that the excavation is not open for more than
14 days, and that there is no surcharge and no hazard to adjacent
structures. Local conditions, such as Assuring or running sand, are
important and should be taken into account. (See Table 2).

3. Supports for Vertical-sided Excavation

For trenches, etc., less than 1.2 m deep, support is only required as
necessary to keep the excavations open. For trenches between 1.2 and 3 m
deep, timber sheeting should be used except in unfractured rock. Close
sheeting should always be used for gravels, sand, silt, soft clay and highly
compressible peat. Hit and miss sheeting can be used for firm clay and for
peat of low compressibility. Sheeting should be toed in at the formation
level and walings spaced at 1 to 1.5 m centres. Examples of suitable
waling and strut, assuming good quality softwood, are given in Table 3.

C/93 T14/1
Walings must be supported by hangers or puncheons, and struts by Up
blocks. Sheeting should be wedged tight against the walings after placing
the struts.

4. Groundwater Control

Surface or groundwater can give unstable conditions, except in unfractured

rock, and control in excavation is essential. Methods available fall into
four basic groups:

i) those that stop surface water from entering the excavation, e.g.
cut-off ditches, low height embankments.

ii) those that allow water to flow into the excavation and be pumped
out from sumps and ditches

iii) those where the soil is pre-drained by lowering the groundwater

level by wells or well points

iv) those that stop the groundwater entering the excavation by some
form of cut-off, such as sheet piling

The pros and cons of the more usual methods are summarised in Table 4.

C/93 T14/2
 Tablet

Characteristics of Ground Types

Type Designation Particle Size Appearance

Granule Cobbles/Boulders 60mm Particles visible

Gravel 2-60mm Sand feels
Sand 0.06-2mm gritty

Cohesive Silt 0.002-0.06mm Water separates

when sample shaken
Clay Below 0.002m Can be moulded on the
fingers. Obvious organic
content.

Mixed - - Characterised by dominant

Soils particle size.

Fill - - Relate to main soil type.

Rock Stonger than above soil types

n
Table 2

Ground Types Safe Temporary Slope

(Degrees from horizontal)

Dry Wet

Boulder/Cobble 35-40 30-35

Gravel 30-40 10-30
Sand 30-35 10-30
Silt 20-40 5-20
Soft Clay 30-45 10-20
Firm Clay 35-45 20-25
Fibrous Peat 35^0 20-25
Non-fibrous Peat 10-20 5-10
Mixed soil )
Consolidated Fill) According to characteristic content
Rock According to degree of jointing,
bedding, fracture.
5
TnbleS

Minimum sizes for Walings and Struts

Strut Waling Waling Strut Section (mm) for

Spacing Spacing Section Trench Widths of:
(m) <m) (mm) lm l.Sm 2m
1.8 1 225x75 150 x75 150 x100 150 xl50

2.5 0.9 200 x 100 150 x75 150 x 100 150 x 150

3.0 0.9 225 x 150 150 x75 150 x 100 150 x 150

S Watt tin
n
Table 4

Groundwater Control Methods and Open Excavations

Method Suitable Soils Advantages Disadvantages

Surface Water All (use polythene Simple May

Control sheeting on permeable obstruct
soils access

Internal All Simple May encourage

pumping pumping formation
equipment instability.
Fines lost on
sandy soils

Well points Permeable Quick and Needs specialist

easy to equipment/experience
install/move

Shallow Wells Permeable Simple Costly

Sheet Piles All except Simple Needs material

boulders, and driving
rocks gear. May be
expensive.
5. Permeability

Hie general relationship for ground permeability is Q = k A h.

L

where Q = quantity of water flow

k = coefficient of permeability
A = ground cross-section area
h. = hydraulic gradient
L

Approximate values of k are set out in Table 5.

Pumping out tests from a well observing the steady state water level in
radial observation boreholes can be used to determine the coefficient
permeability in situ.

The approximate radius of influence of the cones of depression on a

dewatering well in various soils is shown in Table 6. The quantity of
water from the well can be roughly calculated from the formula

Q - k (H2 -h)

log e R

When Q = Flow (m3/s)

k = Permeability (m/s)
H Depth of water when not pumping(m)
h = Depth of water when pumping (m)
R = Radius of influence
r = Radius of well

6. Surface Water Control Methods

The figure attached shows typical details. (Fig.T14.)

C/93 T14/7
 TbbteS

Coefficients of Permeability

Soil Type Degree k(m/s x 1O6)

Clean gravel High 1000

Coarse sand Medium 10-1000

Fine sand Low 0.1-10

Silt, sandy clay Very low 0.00)4.1

Clay Impervious 0.001

60
n
5

-Bible 6

Cones of Depression in Homogeneous Strata

Radius of Influence (m)

Drawdown (m) (fine sand) (sand) (gravel)

1 9 30 95

2 19 60 190

3 28 90 285

4 38 120 379

5 47 ISO 474
7. Well points

Well points are essentially a series of shallow boreholes with 0.5-1 m long
screens on suction tubes of about SO nun dia. connected to a common
suction pipe. They are normally installed by jetting and in fine or sandy
soils a sand filter pack round the screen is desirable. Experience in laying
out and installing well points is desirable, but details of equipment and
installation can be obtained from wellpoint system manufacturers.

8. Pumps for DeWatering Excavations

Suitable pumps for dewatering excavations include:

(a) Air Lift Air is fed into a length of tubing. Efficiency

varies according to several factors, but is generally
low. However, the method may be convenient for
shallow lifts of short duration.

(b) Diaphragm Hand-operated pumps of 30 and 100 mm

Pumps dia. have outputs of about 0.3 and 41/sec.
respectively. Standard motor driven
diaphragm pumps are typically of 75 or 100 mm
dia. with outputs of between 6 and 101/sec. They
will handle some detritus in the water.

(c) Centrifugal All types of centrifugal pumps, including

Pumps submersible, can be used, but many are not
suitable for water containing silt or sand. Typical
outputs at a working head of about 6 m range from
7 1/sec for 50 mm (3 in.) pumps to 401/sec for 150
mm (6 in.) pumps.

(d) Eductors - See T19

C/93 T14/10
9. Delivery Pipes

Delivery pipes from dewatering pumps are frequently of rubber or canvas.

The friction characteristics of rubber hose result in head losses
approximately as follows:

(a) 50mm dia. hose

Loss - 1 0 m per 100 m at 41/sec.

- 30 m per 100 m at 7 1/sec.

(b) 100mm dia. hose

Loss - 8 m per 100 m at 201/sec.

- 35 m per 100 m at 401/sec.

C/93 T14/11
 Open * c h or stone-
filed agricultural
type drain

(a) Cut-off Drain

Timber box channel

Clay seal
IVmeable So.l[//

Ditch or stone drain

Impermeable
Stratum
Timbered
Excavation

(b) Alternative forms of *Garland' drain

for Timbered Excavation

TJSump
(c) Sump Drainage
Note-
In impermeable stratum or if water table high, sump
will need to be pumped dry. If water table is below
formation in permeable stratum extend sump into
permeable layer for gravity drainage.

wSurface Water
Control Methods Fig T14
7. Well points

Well points are essentially a series of shallow boreholes with 0.5-1 m long
screens on suction tubes of about 50 mm dia. connected to a common
suction pipe. They are normally installed by jetting and in fine or sandy
soils a sand filter pack round the screen is desirable. Experience in laying
out and installing well points is desirable, but details of equipment and
installation can be obtained from wellpoint system manufacturers.

8. Pumps for DeWatering Excavations

Suitable pumps for dewatering excavations include:

(a) Air Lift Air is fed into a length of tubing. Efficiency

varies according to several factors, but is generally
low. However, the method may be convenient for
shallow lifts of short duration.

(b) piaphyagpi Hand-operated pumps of 30 and 100 mm

Pum.ps di&- have outputs of about 0.3 and 4 I/sec.
respectively. Standard motor driven
diaphragm pumps are typically of 75 or 100 mm
dia. with outputs of between 6 and 101/sec. They
will handle some detritus in the water.

(c) Centrifugal Alt types of centrifugal pumps, including

Pumps submersible, can be used, but many are not
suitable for water containing silt or sand. Typical
outputs at a working head of about 6 m range from
7 1/sec for 50 mm (3 in.) pumps to 401/sec for 150
mm (6 in.) pumps.

(d) Eductors -SeeT19

C/93 T14/12
9. Delivery Pipes

Delivery pipes from dewatering pumps are frequently of rubber or canvas.

The friction characteristics of rubber hose result in head losses
approximately as follows:

(a) 50mm dia. hose

Loss - 1 0 m per 100 m at 4 I/sec.

30 m per 100 m at 7 1/sec.

(b) 100mm dia. hose

Loss - 8 m per 100 m at 20 1/sec.

- 35 m per 100 m at 401/sec.

C/93 T14/13
 Thrust Blocks

In pressure pipelines, unbalanced forces occur at changes of diameter and

direction, and at valves, junctions and stop ends. These may distort the
pipework or open up the joints. With large pipes (say over 250mm
diameter) and high pressures (say over 1 bar) the thrust restraint is a major
design feature and should be treated as such. These notes are intended for
guidance on small, low-pressure, pipelines.

Calculation

The main unbalanced force is due to the internal pressure:

When P = the internal pressure (kN/m1)

A = the pipe cross-section area (m1)
8 the angle of change of direction

then i) At bends, the force ' F equals 2 PA Sin&

2
ii) At stop ends, valves
and T junctions F = PA

iii) At tapers F ~ P(A, - A2)

Methods of Restraint

Pipelines above ground need to be firmly strapped to or supported by

adjacent fixed structures or adequately sized brick, concrete or steel
columns, driven piles etc.

With buried pipelines the passive restraint of the soil, and the friction of
the ground round the pipes may be sufficient, but if in any doubt, use
concrete thrust blocks as shown in Fig.TIS, to increase the bearing area
and transmit forces to undisturbed ground.

A/8/88 T15/1
Joint Restraint

Even if the friction and passive support is judged adequate, there will be
some movement of the joints before the full resistance is developed
(depending on the nature of the ground). Some method of joint restraint
may then be necessary.

Steel pipes are normally welded. Butt-welded or fused joints in plastic

pipes should also be adequate for low pressures, but when flexible rubber
ring type joints are used, special restraining joint assemblies can be
obtained from manufacturers; if not available, use generously sized thrust
blocks or other positive restraint.

A/8/88 T15/2
 Anchor block at gate valve
utilising puddle flange pipe.
Anchor block at taper reducer.
Anchor block at 45 bend
Anchor block at 90 bend.
Anchor block at blank end.
Anchor block at equal tee.

Typical Arrangement of
Concrete Anchor Blocks
used in conjunction with
P.V.C. pipework incorporating
rubber ring mechanical
joints when buried. Fig T15
 Shuttering (Formwork)

The essentials of shuttering are:

1. It should be strong enough to resist the weight and pressure of the
concrete during casting.
2. It should be leak-proof.
3. It should be easy to erect and remove (except (c) below).
Materials
Suitable materials include:
(a) Timber
(b) Sheet metal (plain or corrugated)
(c) Brick or concrete blocks incorporated in the structure as
'permanent' shuttering
Composite materials are common, e.g. plywood or sheet metal facing with
a timber framework; a liner of plastic, rubber or even cardboard sheeting,
can be used to prevent leaks and give a smoother finish to rough
shuttering.

Loading
Many factors affect the pressure on theformworkduring casting - the
nature of the concrete, the rate and method of placing, the method of
compaction, and the floor slope and depth of the cast section. The
maximum pressure is often less than the pressure which would be exerted
if the concrete behaved as a fluid.
e
(Ve$ure

urc

A/3/88 T16/1
A full discussion of this subject is contained in CIRIA Report 108
(Concrete Pressure on Formwork) 1985, but for field use using normal
Portland Cement concrete the approximate loading in Table 1 may suffice.

Access

Tall shutters will create access problems. Best to keep platforms, etc.
independent, but if they are attached to the formwork, remember to allow
for the weight of the people who will use them!

Striking

The time that should be allowed before formwork can safely be removed
depends on a variety of factors including the nature and load on the cast
section, the concrete mix, and the temperature, and is fully discussed in
CIRIA Report 73 ('Fonnwork Striking Times Method of Assessment',
1987). However, safe rules of thumb striking times are contained in
BS:811 of which Table 2 is an abstract.

Removal

Shuttering should, if possible, be designed for easy removal and, of

course, with an eye for the reuse of the material. With internal circular
shuttering, include a small key panel which can be released and removed
without difficulty. A release agent applied to the face of the shutter before
placing the concrete will avoid the shutter sticking to die concrete with
consequent difficulty in removal and damage to the face of the concrete.
There are many proprietary materials for this purpose, but oil, a lime
wash, a sheet of polythene or even paper, can be quite effective.

A/3/88 T16/2
 Tkble 1 Concrete Pressures on Formwork

Concrete Form Columni

Temp- Height (lplanduneiuion>Zm) (Both pUn duntnmooi < 2)
white
placing
*C

Placing - Rate of Riae PUcing-IUte of Rite

m/hr m/hr

1 10

2 45 50 50

3 55 65 75 75 75 75

4 65 70 85 85 100 100

2 40 45 50

10 3 45 55 70 65 75 75

4 50 60 75 75 90 100

35 45 50

15 40 50 65 60 75 75

45 50 70 65 85 95

Pretturc on Formwork in kN/m1 for good concrete

with ordinary Portland cement (P max. in the sketch
onT16/l)

A/3/88 T16/3
Table 2 - Minimum period before striking formwork (good quality
concrete made with ordinary Portland cement)

Surface temp. of concrete

16C 7C
and above

Vertical formwork to 12h 18 h

columns, walls and
large beams

Soffit formwork 4 days 6 days

to slabs

Soffit formwork 10 days IS days

to beams and props
to slabs

Props to beams 14 days 21 days

Support
Formwork can be braced end to end or supported by struts etc. externally,
or for wall sections supported by wire or bolt ties running through the
concrete. Ties can leave a water path through the wall and may corrode.
There are proprietary tie systems which avoid this problem, but these are
unlikely to be available and if wire ties are used the wire should be cut
back an inch or so from the face and die hole plugged with cement mortar:
if metal bolts are used they should be sleeved with plastic or cardboard,
allowing them to be withdrawn: plastic or cardboard should be removed
for at least an inch from the face, and the hole plugged.

/VH/3/88 T1674
 Sanitation

Basic Principles of Latrine Design

The fundamental requirements of latrines are that they:

1. Isolate excreta from the environment

2. Provide privacy and convenience
3. Are affordable

A wide range of designs are available; all require care and attention to
detail during construction, use and maintenance. No latrine is ideal for all
situations and for all uses. The major options of latrine technologies are
sketched in Figure T17/1. Any material can be used. Those locally
available may have the shortest life, but will be more easy to replace.

Siting

The main reason for siting latrines well away from kitchen or living
quarters is smell nuisance, which can be controlled to some extent by good
ventilation and maintenance. The risk of aerial transmission of bacteria
and viruses is much less than the risk of poor personal and domestic
hygiene.

It is, however, vital that latrines be sited so as to avoid contamination of

drinking water sources. Porous soils above ground water level are
effective in removing faecal micro-organisms and in breaking down
chemical compounds, particularly after the latrine has been in use and
some clogging of the soils has taken place. However, bacteria and viruses
survive for long periods in water saturated layers and if the water table is
close to the bottom of the pit, or if the stratum has large pores, such as
gravels or is comprised of fissured rock, then contamination of the water
table is very likely. High intensity rainfall aggravates the problem by
washing contamination rapidly into die saturated zone. It is advised that:

a) the base of pit latrines be at least 1 metre above the highest

recorded or expected groundwater level.

B/93 T17/1
 vr (V(P)
Pit

\ \
\
\
Pour
pit")

Bas ic
b) the nearest well or borehole be at least 10 metres away if there is 4
metres of fine soil below the base of the pit, and up to SO metres
distant if the pit is close to the groundwater level, or if the stratum
is very porous or of fissured rock.

c) if in doubt, ensure that the water supply is tested regularly and

especially when the water table is high or after high intensity
rainfall.

General Guidelines

Pits for latrines should be lined where the soil is unstable. Suitable linings
can be made from concrete, bricks, bamboo reinforced cement, timber etc.

The capacity of the pit should be calculated on the basis of 0.06 cu. metres
of sludge per person, per year where solids are used for anal cleansing or
0.04 where water is used. Composted sludge can be safely used as a soil
conditioner after standing for one year. Where it is locally unacceptable to
re-use sludge, full pits can be planted with fruit trees.

Superstructures can be built in any style or design to suit the user, except
for VIP latrines, where the provision of plenty of air flow and exclusion of
light is essential. Avoid constructing solid, permanent structures over
lined pits unless there is a removable cover for compost removal. Slabs
are the most critical part of all latrines and should be close-fitting to the
walls of the pit to isolate excreta from the environment.

Squatting holes can be made in a variety of shapes to suit the users, the
hole should be large enough to prevent fouling, but not so large that
children can fall down it. Footrests can be placed on either side, close
enough together for children to be able to use it. Typical dimensions are
shown in Figure T17/2. Covers for squatting holes can be made of wood
or other material, as available, and should be well-fitting to avoid fly
nuisance.

B/93 T17/2
 Note
Footrest

Minimum 1m

PLAN
1

8mm reinforcement
bars
/ Hole Footrest
1 1 mnffH""^*"i
SECTION 1
Squatting Slab Fig
Hygiene

With all types of latrines, cleanliness is essential to avoid odour control

and fly nuisance. A floor which is easily cleaned is essential and in dry
latrines hand washing facilities should be provided. Figure T17/3 shows a
simple Tippy lap which has been used with success in Uganda, combining
convenience with economy.

Household Latrine Types

These are illustrated in Figure T17/1

a) Simple Pit Latrines.

These are the cheapest latrines and can usually be made entirely out of
locally available materials. They can be smelly and fly ridden, especially
if they are too shallow, and should ideally be 3m deep and are usually 1 -
1.2m in diameter for ease of digging. A latrine of this size should last a
family of 10 people for up to 7 years. If the water table is high, or if there
is hard rock near the surface, it may be possible to mound the soil up to
give additional depth.

Slabs to cover the pit can be made of timber or thick bamboo and sealed
with mud mortar, but such slabs may have a life of less than 3 years and
are difficult to clean. A better solution is a simple concrete slab which can
be moved to a new pit when the original pit becomes full or unusable. A
flat concrete slab spanning a 1.2m diameter pit will need some simple bar
or mesh reinforcement, and will need to be 50 to 75mm thick. An
alternative is a dome shaped slab (Figure T7/4) unreinforced except for a
single 8mm circumferential bar to prevent damage when handling, cast on
a mound of earth with a circular former (more easily said than done!);
slabs of this size will weigh upwards of 275 kg. A satisfactory solution is
plaster the or pave the latrine floor or the ground around the pit - this helps
cleanliness but of course does nothing to control flies or odour, and is less
durable. A further alternative is the 'sanplat' - a small (0.6m3),
light,portable concrete slab sitting on a timber floor, which helps
cleanliness but has obvious limitations.

B/93 T17/3
 Soap

A apurd or timt&r FiU neck

can be u s e d , o r a vessel
fV**<cat"t<k "fr-oKv a ton or
df f e r t p t x , VVC

I'A neek rvns OMI"

^. T 17/3
 SUb rotnj be

k-

Domed
. T17/4-
Squatting holes must be fitted with a lid to prevent access by flies. Odour
can be controlled by keeping the slab clean and throwing ash or similar
material down the squatting hole onto the sludge. A support lining may be
necessary, depending on the strata, and can be made of any available local
material, with open joints or similar arrangements to allow liquid to soak
into the adjacent soil. If the pit is lined, or in good soil, it may be
possible, when the pit is becoming full, to leave the sludge to compost for
12 months and then dig it out and reuse the pit. Alternatively a new pit
must be used.

Borehole latrines can be quickly constructed with a hand auger and are
especially useful where a quick sanitation solution is essential and where
people are likely to move around regularly, but the small diameter of the
hole means that it is likely to foul, block and fill quickly.

b) Ventilated Improved Pit Latrines

These have been designed to reduce smell by drawing odour away from
the squatting slab and to discourage flies and mosquitoes. They are more
expensive and must be regarded as more permanent, but are appropriate
where people are more prosperous and where the quality of construction
can be controlled. Ventilation is provided by a vent pipe with fly proof
netting. Wind blowing across the top of the vent pipe causes air to move
upwards, but when there is no wind, air in the vent pipe is moved upwards
when it is heated by the sun. The interior of the superstructure must be
kept relatively dark so that flies do not come up through the squatting
hole. Details of the design are therefore important and these will be found
in D15 in the Outline Design Section.

c) Pour Flush Latrines

Pour flush (water seal) latrines are appropriate where people cleanse
themselves with water after excreting. Construction is more costly and
complex than a simple pit latrine and a reliable source of water in needed
for flushing purposes. The latrine hut can be sited directly over the pit, or
the pit can be offset, which is an advantage in that when the pit is full a
new one can be dug near it without removing the super structure. The
water seal pan can be moulded out of cement plaster, or plastic, glass fibre
or ceramic materials. The smoother the finish and smaller the water seal,
the less water is needed for flushing. D14 in the Outline Design Section
shows the details of an Offset Pit Pour Flush Latrine.

B/93 T17/4
 Handpumps

There is much literature and ongoing research on handpumps.

These brief notes are intended to assist project staff and engineers in the
field to assess the type of handpump most suited to their requirements.

In some countries a decision may have already been taken to standardise

on a particular type of pump. In these circumstances the notes may prove
of help in trying to improve performance or in spotting malfunctions.

1. Type of Pump

The type of pumps commonly used can be classified in accordance with the
engineering principle of operation:

a) Suction Pumps

The type of handpump often used in country households before

development of piped water supply. Action of the pumping
mechanism in the pump head created vacuum, thus drawing up the
water. Limited to 7m head lift at sea level and needs priming
before operation which may allow polluted water to be introduced.

b) Positive Displacement Pumps - Direct Action

The pump rod operates inside the rising main and incorporates a
plunger which is pulled up and pushed down by hand, moving
within a cylinder at the bottom. At the same time, a foot valve in
the cylinder closes to retain the water. On the upstroke, the
plunger flat valve closes, and the bottom front valve opens.

It is effective up to a depth of 13-lSm, is easy to use and is

mechanically simple and robust. It is only suitable for small flows
at maximum depth. The Tara is an example.

c) Positive Displacement Pumps - Reciprocating Action

Essentially similar in engineering concept to the direct action pump

but the pump rod is activated by a pump handle improving the
mechanical advantage and making it suitable for deeper wells and
larger flows. The Afridev, Zimbabwe Bush Pump and India
pumps are examples.

A/93 T18/1
d) Progressive Cavity Pumps

A hand turning mechanism at the top of the well rotates the pump
rod turning a rotor in the cylinder at the bottom of the rising main,
forcing the water upwards. A foot valve may not be required.

The Mono and Moyno pumps are examples but no local

manufacture.

e) Diaphragm Pumps

A flexible diaphragm within a cylinder at the bottom of the rising

main is inflated by a small foot pump at the surface. The
diaphragm distends and forces water through a discharge val*e
into the rising main. The Vergnet is an example.

f) Solar Pumps (not strictly a hand-pump, but does not depend on an

extended power source).

The solar pump is only now being developed fully for commercial
use and should be available in 1993. The concept is relatively
simple, alternatively using solar rays to heat and gasify a fluid
which is then cooled and refluidised. The associated change in
volumes is utilised to continually change the volume of oil inside a
flexible bag in a fixed container filled with water, developing a
negative pressure which lifts the column of water in the rising
main.

A/93 T18/2
 The VLOM Concept

The VLOM or Village Level Operation and Maintenance is an

important concept where the breakdown of a pump may mean
weeks before skilled assistance is available to carry out repairs.
Therefore the design and development of handpumps has been
directed to ensuring not only that movable and wearing parts are
the most durable but that when replacement of parts becomes
necessary they are freely available locally and preferably made
locally to avoid the foreign exchange problem (which may be
insurmountable at village level). The VLOM concept also requires
that the down-the-hole working parts such as the pump rod,
plunger and discharge valve and the bottom cylinder and foot valve
can be extracted from the well without the use of sophisticated
equipment.

Advisers faced with pump selection should put some weight on this
concept. A pump which breaks down monthly but can be repaired
in a day using local labour is preferable to one breaking down once
a year but requiring a month before imported replacement parts
and skilled technicians are available to carry out the repairs.

3. Considerations when Choosing Pumps

No subject is likely to produce more strongly held and differing

opinions based on personal experiences than village handpumps.
Circumstances such as local manufacturing capability and local
practice may direct choice to particular types and good locally
made pumps may be preferable to better imported products for
those reasons.

Depth of water table will affect choice of pump. The World Bank
define shallow wells as being up to 12m to steady water level,
intermediate between 12m and 25m and deep between 25m and
45m.

A/93 T18/3
a) Shallow Wells

For the shallower depths in this range, open wells with bucket and
windlass are an option, as are suction pumps. Both are cheap to
install and service but are liable to pollution unless care is taken.
The direct action type is very suitable and pollution free but can be
tiring to operate at depth, producing less water. Reciprocating
action pumps are also used in this range but some designs use a
chain mechanism to lift the pump rod, which for shallow wells is
not heavy enough to drop quickly enough on the down stroke,
(e.g. India Mk II)

b) Intermediate and Deep Wells

Positive displacement reciprocating action pumps are the general

rule in this area. Pumps which fit the VLOM criteria are found
for intermediate depths but not usually for deep wells.

4. WaterAid Experience

There are a number of designs available, but based on the principle of

VLOM and locally produced products where possible the following pumps
(positive displacement reciprocating action, except where noted) have been
found to perform satisfactorily.

(i) Tara (Direct action)

Suitable for shallow wells, maximum depth 15m, discharge 1200

lph in shallow wells, less at depth. True VLOM.

(ii) Afridev

This pump has been exhaustively developed by agencies such as

the World Bank and ODA. The CRL laboratories have
continuously researched aspects of the pump and currently are
developing GRP pump rods and joints for the uPVC rising main
to obviate stress raising characteristics yet allow easy withdrawal.
Local manufacture is undertaken in several countries. The pump
can produce up to 1320 lph (less at depth) and will operate up to a
claimed 45m depth.

A/93 T18/4
(iii) Zimbabwe Bush Pump

Developed by Blair Labs and claimed to have similar

characteristics to the Aridev but more robust. Currently
experimenting with high impact uPVC rising main to overcome
corrosion problems.

(iv) India Mark III

Developed from the earlier India Mk II to improve VLOM

characteristics. Widely used throughout India and Africa although
some critical comments from UNICEF in Uganda. Discharge 720
lph.

A/93 T18/5
 The Eductor Set (for Well Dewatering)

The complete Eductor set comprises :-

(i) Stainless steel concentric eductor and strainer

(ii) A contractors pump with hoses

(Hi) A well head plate and attachments

(iv) A combined water pressure and riser pipe. Fig T19

are diagramatic layouts.

The Eductor is a hydrodynamic device where water is applied to a venturi

sited at the bottom of the well and then returned to the surface. The
venturi is designed so mat it picks up additional water from the well and
this excess can be discharged to a tank or simply to waste. The pump
rectrculates the water keeping the system in motion. The system is
continuous, once primed, and provides a steady unpulsed flow.

The clearances in the Eductor usually exceed 10mm and the unit is fitted
with a ball valve so that water is retained in the system after priming.
They are useful for suction lifts up to 50m, beyond this efficiency tends to
fall away. At best they are less efficient than borehole pumps but are
useful for test purposes, or for lifting silt-laden water.

A/93 T19
 CoXica\ \ M
(return

Oich*-r<jc

i.t.

A
and.
vi e f

Staii<Lav<ii to ZOm. iOm.

ic^ T\9
 INDEX - GROUP 5

Group5 Outline Designs

Dl - Spring Development and Protection

D2 - Intakes for Ponds
D3 - Intakes for Rivers
D4 - Roof Catchments
D5 - Ferro-Cement Water Tanks
D6 - Standpipes and Taps
D7 - Surface Dams, Ponds and Reservoirs
D8 - Sand Dams
D9 - Groundwater (Sub-surface) Dams
D10 - Basic Household Water Treatment
Dll- Solar Disinfection
D12 - Sedimentation Basins for Water
D13 - Slow Sand Filters
D14 - Pour Flush (water-seal) Latrines
D15- VIP Latrines
D16 - Aqua Privies

D/93
 Spring Development and Protection

Sources - Various, including:

Water for the World - Technical Note RWS ID1

Helvetas Manual 1 - Design of Gravity Water Systems in Sri Lanka
Uganda Spring Protection Manual
Waterlines Technical Briefs Nos. 3 and 34
General

All springs have their own characteristics, so this general advice must be
adapted to the circumstances. The primary aims are to protect the
catchment area, collect water to a central point and provide collection
facilities easy to maintain and to keep clean. A secondary aim may be to
provide storage. Obviously it is wise to check the minimum flow in dry
season and the year-to-year reliability of the spring, by reference to
rainfall and water-table levels, and local knowledge.

Catchment Protection

It is important to protect the water quality by fencing off the immediate

catchment area (a minimum of 10 metres radius above the spring is
suggested) and by diverting surface water away from the protected area.
The protected area should not be used of agriculture or grazing, and is best
planted with grass and not trees. It should not be assumed that water, even
from a protected spring, is uncontaminated. (Fig.Dl/1)

B/93 Dl/1
C aXc)\ m e
Development

If the spring is not artesian, or has no defined source, collect seepage by a

land drainage technique. This will usually mean excavating a shallow
trench or trenches through to the eye of the spring. If possible, lay small
(30 - 50mm i.d.) perforated or open jointed pipes in the trench surrounded
by clean gravel or broken stone, but if necessary rely on coarse gravel or
broken stone to collect water (Fig. Dl/2). Cover the stone with heavy
duty polythene or puddled clay or concrete, and reinstate. Grade the
trenches to not less than 1 degree. If there is a steep hillside a short (not
more than 3m) adit may be preferred to deep trenches.

Collection Structure

This will have to suit the particular circumstances and might include:

a) a spring box with an open bottom where there is artesian water

(Fig Dl/3)

b) a spring box with pervious side for steep hillsides (Fig.D1/4)

c) more often a protective structure, with or without storage, into

which drainage trenches feed (Fig. Dl/S). Storage may be
combined with a downstream break pressure tank.

In all instances provide an overflow, ensure good access and pave and
drain floor below the delivery pipes.

B/93 Dl/2
Removable cover slanted
to deflect rainwater

Overflow pipe screened

to downstream drain

Tamped soil

Outlet (to distribution

or storage)

Puddled clay seal

Spring Box with Open Bottom Fig D1/3

 Top soil Removable cover sloped
to deflect rainwater
Diversion ditch 8m
above spring
Overflow pipe screened
to downstream drain

Concrete apron

Water bearing l e v e l ~ :

Outlet (to distribution

or storage)
Impervious I Gravel Large and small stones

Spring Box with Open Side Fig 0

\.
q<rv<n
q <l at*
Wvel
2. OwHeV t

. If

Dl/5
 Intakes for Ponds

Source - Water for the World Technical Note RWS ID2.

These are ideas for simple intakes from ponds and other bodies of still
water. The object is to take water from a clear area not too near the top or
bottom and well away from the bank. Sometimes two intakes are helpful
to allow a choice to suit varying circumstances.

A. Floating Inlet. (Fig.D2/l.)

Position the inlet 0.3 to 0.5 m below the surface. Use a flexible
pipe and anchor both pipe and float. Floats may be in drum or raft
form.

B. Fixed Inlet. (Fig.D2/2.)

Rigid pipes should be used. Supports should hold the inlet at least0.6
0.6m from the bottom (allow for soft sediment). Space supports at
joints and at intermediate intervals as necessary to avoid excessive
deflection.

C. Strainer. The intake needs to be protected from plants, fish and

rubbish. Fig.D2/3 shows a simple strainer. If available, a double
walled slotted pipe with annular space filled with small (0.5 to 1
mm for 0.5 nun slots) gravel is ideal. The strainer portion should
be removable for cleaning.

Remember: 1. Pond water is usually heavily contaminated unless

in a protected catchment.

2. The strainer must be accessible for cleaning.

B/93 D2/1
 Pump weU-H

Anchors

Floating Intake Fig D2/1

Pump

Low level
Pump well|

Strainer
Note : Direct coupled pumps can be used if self- priming
and suction head is not too great.

Fixed Intake Fig D2/2

6 mm mesh screen
Clamp, f 10 mm holes Clamp

Plug or cap
200mm

Improvised Strainer Fig D2/3

 Intakes for Rivers

Source - Water for the World Technical Note RWS ID3.

Techniques depend on stream size, flow variation, bank and bed

stability, and nature of ground. Alternatives include:

A. Riverside Well. (Fig.D3/l.)

The well should be sunk to at least 0.5 m below the stream bed
and lined with a perforated casing (see Well Design, Note D5).
The distance from the bank depends on the porosity of the subsoil;
for coarse sand, gravel or other porous soils the well should be at
least IS m from the bank.

B. Infiltration Gallery.
The yield of riverside wells can be increased if necessary by
collecting pipes parallel to the river bank discharging into the well
(Fig.D3/2). The infiltration pipes should be laid 1 m below the
lowest water table, graded to the well, and surrounded with gravel
or broken stone. Use perforated or open-jointed pipes. If the
stream is seasonal, it may be practicable to lay infiltration pipes
under the steam bed at a depth of 0.3 to 0.5 m and filled with
gravel, graded from coarse (150 mm) next to the pipe to fine
(25 mm) carried up to the stream bed; this will only be successful
on stable stretches not subject to accretion or scour. Double-
walled, gravel packed, perforated or slotted pipes buried in
stable sand bars may also be suitable, and could be connected
direct to the pump suction, or discharge into a river-bank wet-well
if pumping is intermittent.

C. Gravity Intake.
If the stream bed and bank are stable and the lowest level
sufficient, a direct intake can be used, having an intake pipe with
strainer (see Intakes for Ponds, D2) protected by concrete or brick
wing wells. The intake pipes should be at least 0.5 m above the
bed of the stream. Large intakes may be further protected with a
bar screen across the wing walls, parallel to or facing downwards
from the stream flow. Bars should have at least 100 mm clear
spacing. Provide access to clean the screen, and ensure strainers
are accessible for cleaning, and preferably removal.

B/93 D3/1
D. Suspended (pumped) intake.
The suction from a pump may be suspended from a simple
structure, suitably protected (Fig.D3/3). For small, slow-flowing
streams, an intake similar to the fixed inlet for ponds may suffice,
but the danger of accumulation of weed etc on the pipe should not
be overlooked.

Remember: 1. River water is often polluted - consider the

upstream catchment. Quality as well as quantity
may fluctuate widely with seasons, or over long
periods of drought.

2. Use self-priming pumps, if possible.

B/93 D3/2
 'Top above maximum flood level and
covered with removable timber or
concrete slab

Well
Brick or concrete

<tO5m Bottom section perforated

T

1Sffl
in porous soil

Bank Wel Fig

 Direct coupled pump
Timber catwalk

Concrete abutment

Concrete pipe or Rip-rap

brick,hottow pillar
support

Notes
t Detail pipework to aHow access
Strainer to Check valve and Strainer
2 Allow for maximum flood level
but desigrr structure robustly

Fixed Intake Fig /3

 Alternative 'under-bed'
infiltration

25 mm gravel or
stone

300-150 mm gravel Perforated or open

or stone jointed pipes

Infiltration pipes / Tump welt

Layout Plan Section A-A

Open jointed collection pipe - Pump well

Gravel or broken
/stone surround

Longitudinal Section
Infiltration Pipes Fig D3/2
 Roof Catchments

Sources - Water for the World Technical Note RWS ID4

BRE Digests 188 and 189 (1976)

Roof catchments can be an effective way of collecting rainwater but

require periodic attention if they are to fulfil this function effectively.
Adequate storage must be provided to cover dry periods.

Run-off

Corrugated sheet, tiles, slates or other impermeable material are

suitable for rainwater collection. There will be a small wetting and
evaporation loss which may be of the order of 10% on average, but
obviously varies depending on the rainfall pattern.
Thatch or other permeable material is less suitable - there is no
evidence of increased health hazard, but the water may be discoloured
and of unpleasant taste.

The run-off will be a direct function of the rainfall intensity and the
plan area of the roof. 1 m2 plan area yields one litre of water from 1
mm of rainfall, less evaporation, etc., losses. Wind effects may
increase or decrease the run-off - the effective roof area may be as
much as + or - 50% of the elevation area variation from the plan area,
but in most situations this refinement can be neglected.

The effective yield will be less than the theoretical if the capacity of the
gutter and/or down pipes is less than the peak rate of run-off, resulting
in uncontrolled spillage. This is likely to be significant in areas where
rainfall takes place in short-period, high-intensity storms, unless the
gutter and down pipes are designed to take the maximum rate of run-
off at the peaks of rainfall.

C/93 D4/1
Gutters

Suitable material includes galvanised metal, PVC and other plastics,

asbestos-cement (if sound - it should not be used if there is risk of
fibres becoming detached from damaged areas), wood and split
bamboo. A simple design of gutter used in Kenya is shown in Fig.
D4/1.

Gutters should be laid with a nominal fall of about 8 mm per metre so

as to avoid standing water. The distance from the roof drip to the top
of the gutter should not exceed SO mm so as to avoid excessive loss
from wind effects, and this limits the gutter length between down pipes
to about 6 m.

Gutter capacity is a function of the cross-sectional area, the fall, the

material, the outlet configuration and, of course, the cleanliness. It is
usual to assume level gutters for capacity calculation, in which case the
capacity for half-round gutters is as tabulated below.
Capacity
Diameter (mm) (litres/sec)

75 0.4
100 0.8
125 1.5
150 2.3

For other shapes of gutters assuming free discharge the general

function is
3/2 mm
x BB x

where Q - capacity in litres/sec

A = cross section area in mm2
B = width at the water surface in mm

C/93 D4/2
 Corrugated iron
sheeting,
Roofing nail (spiked to
bottom purlin)

Skirt of 28gge CI sheet

8gge galv wire brackets

at 1m centres

Suspended wires
(22gge gaW. adjusted
to give slope to
C&I.'V gutter (150mm
gutter)
overlap at joints)

Section Through Typical

Wall, Rafter & Corrugated
Iron Sheet Showing V
Gutter Suspended on 22gge
Wires from Skirt Which is
.is Nailed Above G.I. Sheeting
'to Bottom Purlin Fig D4/1
Down Pipes

These should be designed to have greater capacity than the gutters so

that there is free discharge at entry.

If the head over the entry (that is, the gutter depth when running full,
is less than one-third of the down pipe diameter, the entry acts as a
weir and the capacity can be calculated by

where Q ~ litres/sec
H = head over the entry in nun
D = entry diameter in mm

It is assumed that the down pipe is no smaller than the entry, so that
the entry condition controls the down pipe capacity.

If the head is greater than one-third of the gutter diameter, the down
pipe will act as an orifice and the entry capacity is

Q = D 2 x H'A

15000

In approximate terms, a 50 mm down pipe is required for half-round

gutters up to 100 mm diameter, and a 75 mm down pipe is suitable for
gutters of between 125 and 150 mm diameter. If possible, sharp bends
in the gutter close to the outlet should be avoided. A bend within 2 m
of the outlet may induce swirl and reduce the down pipe capacity by
about 20%.

It may be convenient to use a box type receiver or hopper at the head

of the down pipe. This should be at least as wide as the gutter, but not
longer than twice the diameter of the down pipe or, again, swirl may
occur with reduced capacity.

C/93 D4/3
Quality

A coarse mesh screen should always be placed in an accessible position

over the storage tank to catch leaves and other debris.

If there are long dry periods, accumulation of bird droppings, dust,

etc. will result in an initial flush of foul water run-off. Three remedies
are suggested:

A. Diversion.
A length of flexible pipe, or swivel elbow, or diverter plate can be
used to manually divert the first flush from the storage cistern.

B. A 'foul flush box' can be used to store the initial flow.

This must of course be emptied periodically and is not very
effective (Fig.D4/2).

C. A charcoal filter system can be used to remove some of the

impurities (Fig.D4/3). The filter material needs periodic
cleaning and/or replacement.

A combination of these may be economical - e.g. combine A with C to

reduce cleaning frequency, or use B as a back-up to A. Unfortunately
all methods require attention, which is unlikely to be reliable.

Storage

Rainwater, protected from the incursion of insects, debris, etc, will

remain fresh for several months when stored in the dark.

Storage jars and tanks can be constructed above or below ground from
a wide range of materials: pottery, concrete blocks, bricks, steel,
fibreglass, ferrocement, etc. Ferrocement or wire reinforced cement
mortar tanks are a widely applicable low cost option.

C/93 D4/4
Tank designs up to 150 m3 are described in 'Ferrocement Water
Tanks' by S B Watt, see (D5). Modified designs using stick basket
work reinforcement have proved successful for 10 m3 tanks.
Construction manuals are available from WaterAid.

Traditional systems to collect surface run-off in haffirs and valley

tanks are not recommended for domestic use without further
treatment.

C/93 D4/5
 Downpipe.
Removable cover

Screened intake

Cistern (with access

hatch)

Tap to drain foul

flush

Overflow
pipe

Foul Flush Box Fig D4/2

Downppe
Coarse screen
(removable).
Fine screen \
(removable)^ *

Gravel
Sand 0.5m to
Cistern (with access CnarcMi 10m
h3tCh)
\ Pea gravel

Stainless steel or plastic

support grid
Overflow'
pipe

Filter System Fig D4/3

 Ferro-Cement Water Tanks

Tanks made from wire reinforced cement mortar are widely used in
many parts of the world and are built by hand-trowelling a cement-
rich mortar onto a mesh of reinforcement to form cylindrical tanks
with thin walls which vary in thickness from 3 - 10cm depending on
the size of the tank. The advantages of this form of construction are
that it uses locally available skills and materials, is of low cost but high
durability, is easy to repair, and is sufficiently light for very small
tanks and jars to be moved from a central construction point. The
fact that, weightwise, it uses less materials than the equivalent
masonry or RCC tank structure is particularly attractive in countries
such as Nepal, where construction materials have to be carried over
long distances to site on peoples backs.

The design and construction of such tanks is discussed fully in a book

"Ferro-cement Water Tanks" by S.P.Watt, copies of which are in the
WaterAid library. This note is intended as a reminder of some of the
key points and a reflection of WaterAid's own experience in the field,
which has been gained mainly in Nepal, Sierra Leone, Tanzania and
Uganda. Most of our experience has been on small tanks, to which this
note specifically refers. However, larger tanks of up to ISO m3 capacity
can be made without difficulty, using the same technique. Water depths
are generally limited to 2m or less and roofing therefore becomes more
complicated on the larger tanks. Every field engineer intending to attempt
this form of construction should have their own copy of Watt's book.

Basic designs vary between the different WaterAid country

programmes. Practice adopted by Nepal, where the technology has
been widely used by both government and non-government agencies
for many years, is described below, followed by a list of some
variations practised elsewhere.

The construction sequence for these small tanks (1 to 20m3) is as

follows:

1. Tanks are provided with a 15cm plain concrete floor (1:2;4

mix).

A/93 D5/1
2. Main vertical reinforcement in the tank's cylindrical wall
consists of 8mm diameter high tensils steel bars tied onto starter
bars cast into the floor and spaced at around 50cm c/c. This
reinforcement is carried over to form radial reinforcement in the
roof.

Two layers of 22 gauge chicken wire mesh (19mm mesh

aperture) are tied to the vertical bars to form a cylinder. This is
considered to distribute stress and to control cracking, but to have
little structural effect. 3.5mm diameter steel fencing wire is
wound around the outside of the cylinder, over the chicken wire
mesh, at a pitch of between 8 and 14cm c/c to provide the
circumferential reinforcement.

3. An internal cylindrical form is used to plaster against. This

may be made from tin sheet, bamboo matting, or HDP pipe (used
later in the project pipeline) coiled helically against, and tied to,
the vertical reinforcing bars.

4. One 12.5mm (0.5") thick layer of 1:2 (cement:sand) plaster,

with a water:cement ratio of 0.5:1, is applied to the mesh against
the form and left to set for 24 hours. A second similar layer is
then applied and the whole kept damp and left to cure for at least a
week. The internal form is then stripped and a further two layers
of plaster applied from the inside, making the total wall thickness
5cm.

5. A cement/water 'wash1 (1:1) is then applied to internal surfaces of

the tank which will be in contact with water to give a final seal and
a smooth finish.

6. Roofs are constructed using the same techniques as the walls. On

the smallest tanks the plastering of the roof and wall may be done
simultaneously. On most tanks however it will not be possible to
complete a single plaster layer for both in one operation, and the
roofs are constructed after the walls are completed. The
wall/roof joint does not seem to cause any problem as
reinforcement is contiguous.

A/93 D5/2
1. Good quality mortar is essential. Sand must be of uniform
grade and both sand and water should be clean. The mix should
be stiff but workable.

2. Joints should be avoided in construction, at least in the walls and

each layer of mortar should be applied in one continuous
operation. Mortar more than 0.5 hours old should not be used.

3. Curing is vital and should extend at least one week after

construction work is complete. Tanks should be filled slowly for
the first time, or when a tank has been empty for a long time, to
give the walls time to take up moisture.

4. Internal coving of the wall/floor joint (the most critical point

for cylindrical tanks) helps to reduce cracking at this point.

5. Pipework must enter and exit through the PCC floor and not
through the ferro-cement walls.

6. Water depths do not exceed 1.7m for the given wall section.

Noted variations in technique in other WaterAid programmes

are:

From Uganda:

(a) Tanks founded in active clay or weak soil should have mesh
reinforcement on the base slab.

(b) For the wells, one layer of 22 gauge mesh is adequate above the
bottom 90 cms. If 24 gauge mesh is used then 2 layers are
necessary for the whole depth, and possibly 3 near the base of
large tanks.

(c) The final cement/water wash on internal faces is not necessary.

(d) Pipework can pass through tank walls if above the tap water
level.

In Sierra Leone it is advised that all surface tanks above 20 m3 capacity be

built in reinforced concrete designed to CP 110 and BS 5337, with a
minimum wall thickness of 200 mm and using block shuttering.

A/93 D5/3
 Standpipes and Tkps

Sources - Papers by Hugh Speed and WHO Int.Ref. Centre (Tech.

paper 14,1979)

The essential needs are a well-supported tap, a free draining bucket

stand, and an adequate drain for spillage.

Ideally, residual head at standpipes should be 5 to 10m. Fig D6 shows

a typical design developed in Sierra Leone, where standpipes are
spaced not more than 150m apart and provided at the rate of 1 tap per
10 households. This can be readily adapted to 2 taps (back to back),
extending the platform to both sides.

Points to watch - either prevent the bucket being hung on the tap, or give it
support (e.g. a bracket for the bucket over the tap).

- Fix the tap on so tight that it cannot be stolen - or use a

collar and padlock.

- in vandal prone areas, bury the standpipe in a concrete

column.

- if alternative materials are used for the post, ensure that

it is strong and durable.

- the bucket stand shown is in concrete. If not available a

simple hard stone slab may be used * but provide
adequate drainage to deal with spilt water.

- if necessary, fence around the tapstand.

The WHO paper referenced has graphs of head v. flow for xh" (12mm) to
1 V4" g.s pipes/taps. Typically, lh" taps will give 800 1/hr at 10m head,
and 3/4 " (18mm) 1500 1/hr at 10m head.

C/93 D6/1
Taps

Taps at tap stands need to be robust, easy to maintain and preferably

self-closing. Frequently, conventional bib-cocks are used, because they
are available (and often made) locally. They do not comply with any
of these criteria especially if locally made!
Alternatives are:

(1) Spring-loaded bib taps

(2) Weight-loaded bib taps

(3) The Talbot 'Taflo' spring loaded tap superior to (1) and (2) but
costs more.
B

(4) The 'Lane' tap, developed in Nepal - simple, can be made locally,
low maintenance, but not self closing and most suited to low
pressures.

For a tap stand serving up to 80 users, a tap-flow rate of 0.1 1/sec can
be assumed; pipeline branches should be designed in the assumption
that ajl taps on the branch flow simultaneously.

B/3/88 D6/2
 1000
a
ftGunmetal elbow

20mm MOPE

PLAN

U No. 12mm
ms bars
.75mm pipe
Waste water to 15mm nominal bore
or gs socket elbow

15mm nominal
bore gs socket
ELEVATION
Hook bolts
15 mm nominal bore
medium gspipe.
i- 300
[Bucket star*
trl-
-'Gunmetal change
CST .coupling GL
MDP

20mm stop cock &

pipe surround Gunmetal elbow
Concrete base

Single Tap Public Standpost Fig D6

 Surface Dams, Ponds and Reservoirs

Water supply from small rivers and streams may be interrupted in dry
weather, and storage is often used in developed countries to overcome
this difficulty. One of the simplest means of storage is to create a
reservoir or lake by building a dam across the stream, but in
developing countries it will rarely be possible to provide storage
capacity for more than a few days' supply, and consequently designs
should be usually based on minimum flow in dry weather.

Small dams may however be necessary to divert water, or to provide a

simple stilling pond and offtake. They can also be used to 'hold' water
to recharge and aquifer.

Dam design is a job for a specialist, and advice must be sought for any
dam exceeding 2m height, and should be obtained where possible for
smaller dams.

For small dams the essentials are:

1. An impervious core of puddled clay, concrete or asphalt.

2. Protection to the upstream face, preferably with stone rip-rap or

precast blocks or bricks, laid on a graded filter layer to avoid
damage on draw-down.

3. An adequate overflow to take the maximum expected flood flow

over a concrete weir and channel.

4. An adequate 'cut-off underneath the dam to prevent seepage. A

trench taken to impervious strata and back-filled with clay or
concrete is a convenient solution in many instances.

The dam must obviously be stable when full - the 'middle third' rule is
safe.

Where concrete is available, a mass concrete dam may be the best

solution - Fig.D7 shows a design developed in Sierra Leone.
Shuttering can be avoided by using brick or block work.

Sand and sub-surface dams are the subject of Notes D8 and D9.

B/93 D7/1
Ponds and Surface Reservoirs

It is difficult, if not impossible, to prevent pollution of small ponds,

whether natural or artificial. If used for domestic water supply it is
preferable to draw water from just below the surface, using a floating
intake fitted with a strainer (see D2), and it is unlikely that the water
will be safe without some treatment.

B/93 D7/2
 Overflow weir

/Stop valve
XCD Draw off

Screened Net
(duplicated)

Steel bars grouted

into bedrock

Small Gravity Dam Fig D7

 Sand Dams

Sand dams can provide a simple and inexpensive way of storing water
in the beds of intermittent streams. The objective is to accumulate
coarse sediments behind a shallow weir which is raised in successive
steps. This reduces evaporation and overcomes some other problems
found with shallow water reservoirs, and reduces the load on the dam
(nevertheless, dam height^ pf more than 2 to 3m must not be attempted
without advice from an engineer experienced in dam design).

Some of the essentials for success are an adequate transportation of

sand or gravel, and a suitable impervious foundation for the dam not
too far below the bed of the stream. The implications of reduced
downstream flow should be considered, and the passage of flood flows
must not be obstructed.

Fig. D8/1 shows the general principle; abstraction from the sand
reservoir can alternatively be by well or borehole. The dam is raised
in stages so as to maintain sufficient velocity when the stream flows to
prevent fine material silting behind the dam. Alternative designs for
the dam include concrete, stone masonry, or gabions with clay or
plastic film face or core (Fig. D8/2). The dam need not be watertight -
some downstream seepage may be beneficial if the loss of water can be
tolerated.

Simple design instructions are given by Nissen-Petersen (Rain

catchment and water supply in rural Africa - Hodder and Stoughton,
UK, 1982) and more extensive aspects are discussed by Wipplinger
(Sand storage dams in S W Africa - Die Siviele Ingenieur in Suid-
Africa, 1974, ppl35-136).

B/93 D8/1
 Direction of ground water flow

General Principle of a Sand Dam

 Concrete

Erosion protection

fa! UJ 1

a C o n c r e t e s a n d dam

Stone masonry

Erosion protection

b Stone masonry sand dam

Gabions or blocks

Erosion protection

c Gabion s a n d dam w i t h clay cover

Alternative Types _. _ Q / _
F|
of Sand Dam 9 D8/2
 Groundwater (Sub-surface) Dams

In many river beds, outcrops of impervious bedrock form natural

barriers which store water in upstream alluvial deposits (Fig. D9). In
suitable hydrogeolic situations, artificial sub-surface barriers can be
constructed to interrupt the groundwater flow in the dry season for a
similar purpose.

Adequate exploration to determine the depth of the water table, and

the existence of a suitable impervious strata beneath a layer of coarse
sediment is obviously necessary. This note serves only to outline
possible forms of dam.

Assuming trench excavation by hand labour, in battered excavation

without support, the maximum depth should not exceed 4 to 5 m.
Complete watertightness is not essential, but leakage is wasteful, and
alternative forms of barrier that might be considered are clay,
concrete, masonry supporting plastic sheet, rendered brick or
blockwork, sheet PVC or galvanised iron, or even plastic sheeting on a
wooden board structure. Obviously, sheet trenching or piling driven
from the surface is suitable, if the equipment is available - or even
injected cement or bentonite grout.

Control of groundwater during excavation will be a problem - if

possible, minimise this by construction in the dry season. If the
ground is suitable (e.g. fissured rock, or coarse gravel), pumping from
inside the excavation is suitable; for fine sands, local dewatering from
boreholes or wells outside of the trench may be necessary. Similarly,
if there is a surface stream even in the dry season, it will need to be
diverted away from the excavation or perhaps carried over in a timber
flume. In either case, watch out for flash floods.

A more detailed discussion of the subject is contained in a research

report by Nilsson (Ground-water dams for rural water supply in
developing countries - 1984) held in WaterAid library.

B/93 D9/1
 UPSTREAM Green vegetation DOWNSTREAM Dry vegetation

T-tl
"r^m" Trapped Water in sand . r '<-
y - ; ' ; ;: D r y . s a n d ; - . ';.. /
Ctaytsh soil /lL
V/ / / / / / / / /
77 /

Natural Sub-Surface Dam Fig

Basic Water Treatment

Source - Water for the World Technical Notes RWS 3D1 and RWS
3D4.

For isolated situations that cannot be served by a community water

supply, simple techniques can be used to provide safe water. The
need is to remove turbidity and sterilise, and the preferred method is
to pass through a sand filter, chlorinate and store.

A. Filtration Fig.D10/1 shows a simple filter. If possible,

provide for a continuous flow, with a small overflow, so as to keep
the sand wet. The sand will of course need to be replaced (or
taken out, washed, and returned) periodically.

B. Chlorination Although the sand filter, if kept wet, will remove

most bacteria, and storage of filtered water for 5 or 6 days will
effect further improvement, it is better not to rely on this if
chlorination is feasible. (If not, boil water before use for drinking,
etc.)

Chlorine may be available in liquid form (sodium hypochlorite,

available as household bleach) or solid form (calcium hypochlorite
powder or tablets). Both lose strength on exposure to air and the
following table applies to fresh, full-strength ingredients. The aim
is to make a 1 % solution for use. (see Table).

The 1 % solution should be added to the raw water at the rate of 3

drops per litre, or 30 ml (about 2 tablespoonfuls) per 145 litres.

The aim is to achieve a freely available chlorine residual of 0.4

mg/1 after a 30-minute contact period, which should give a slight,
but not excessive, chlorine taste and odour.

Some simple, cheap expedients for applying chlorine solution for

small community water supplies are described below.

Pot Chlprinators These are suitable without sand filtration for

clear water from contaminated shallow well sources. The pot is
simply suspended underwater. Fig.D10/2 shows the design; a pot
containing 1.5 kg of chlorinated lime will effectively chlorinate a
well supplying 1000-1500 I/day for about one week.

C/93 D10/1
Drip Feed Chlorinators are suitable for liquid chlorine solutions - see
Fig.D10/3.

Floating Bowl Chlorinators are an alternative method of adding

chlorine solution at a controlled rate - Fig.D10/4.

A possible alternative to chlorination in some localities is solar

disinfection - see separate Note Dl 1.

C/93 D10/2
Table- Quantity of material to be added
to 1 litre of water to give a
1 * solution of chlorine

%avilblc Approx.Otv
Material chlorine Required
per Litre

Calcium Hvoochlorite

High-test1 or
Perchloron Powder 70 IS gm> (1 level
table spoon)

B-K powder SO 18.6 gmi (1.25

level table
tpoont)

Chlorinated lime 35 37.S gnu (2.5

level table spoons)

Sodium HvDochlorite

Liquid (commercial) 12 120 ml (half cup)

Chlorox 5 240 ml (1 cup)

Purex 3 540 ml (2.25 cups)

C/93 D10/3
 Cover

Overflow 50mm
above inlet
Inlet

Flat stone to
200 litre barrel prevent hollowing
out of sand

600 mm sand

30 mm pea-sized
gravel
Outlet

'12-25mm pipe
perforated with
Platform
2mm holes

Household Sand Filter Fig DIV1

Bleaching powder
and sand
Clay pot
Pea gravel

6*8mm holes

Pot Chlorinator Fig DW2

 Hole cut in bottom Sieve Cover
Plastic jerry can

^-15-^
" M v.:

Rubber stopper Derail of Float and Tube

Plastic cap
Chlorine Rubber hose

Drip
no Feed Chloriostor
nai Fig 0^3
 Metal container Stopper

Liquid level

Liquid level

Pebbles
Rubber stopper

200 litre metal 6 mm dia tube

drum

m
Taut nylon string
Outlet
Flexible rubber tube
Taut nylon string

Flexible hose
Detail of Bowl

Floating Bowl Chlorinaf-or Fig DW4

 Solar Disinfection

Solar disinfection is the simplest possible technique for providing safe

water in small quantities, but is feasible only in localities (such as parts
of the Middle East) where adequate sunshine can be expected virtually
every day. Suggested limits are 35N to 35S in areas having at least
300 clear sunny days each year.

The active sterilising agent is ultra-violet light. In good conditions this

can effect 99.9% reduction of coliform bacteria and associated
pathogenic bacteria in less than an hour (it may be less effective with
viral diseases).

This entails leaving the water exposed to the sun, and the following are
important:

1. Exposure should be for at least 60 minutes between 2

hours before and after mid-day.

2. The water should be clear - if necessary filter through sand

first.

3. Clear glass or plastic containers should be used not

exceeding 1 litre capacity.

More detail can be found in a UNICEF publication 'Solar Disinfection

of Drinking Water' by Aera, Raffoul and Karabagoptian.

The sun can also be used in simple non-mechanised 'stills' to produce

potable (distilled) water from brackish or salt water.

B/93 Dll
 Sedimentation Basins for Water

Source - Water for the World Technical Note RWG 3D2.

The quality of water from streams etc can often be materially

improved by removal of suspended matter, and a simple sedimentation
basin is the easiest method.

Most suspended particles are heavier than water (a small proportion

may float) and will settle in quiescent conditions (very fine particles
will not). Almost any structure which stores water will function as a
sedimentation basin - natural or artificial ponds and lakes for example
- but purpose-made structures should incorporate efficient inlet and
outlet arrangements, and facilities for removing settled matter, and
emptying to clean.

The inlet should be designed to minimise turbulence and distribute the

inflow as evenly as possible. Simple board, trough or box baffles will
be suitable - see Fig.D12/l.

The outlet should be arranged to take water from the top of the basin,
but a shallow scum baffle is useful to exclude leaves and other floating
matter - see Fig.D12/2.

A rectangular plan with length about three times the width is usually
preferred but not essential. With a rectangular tank it is easy to show
that for perfect conditions without turbulence the performance is
independent of depth, and the settling rate of particles removed
equates to the rate of flow through the tank divided by the plan area.
But flow distribution in very shallow tanks is poor, and there is
insufficient sludge storage capacity, so that in practice tanks of 1.5 - 2
m depth are usual (although in Nepal silt removal is effected in tanks 0.8m
deep, with length 6 times the width).

B/93 D12/1
A simple jar test will show the rate of settlement of suspended
particles, but the following table gives some guidance.

article. Settling
Material Diameter Velocity
(mm) (m per hr)

Coarse Sand 1 365

0.5 194
Fine Sand 0.25 98
0.10 29
Silt 0.05 11
0.005 0.15
Clay 0.001 0.005
0.0001 0

In practice, a basin 2 m deep with a capacity of 2 - 4 hrs at the

maximum flow rate is practicable and will remove most sand and silt.
Bigger basins will usually only be justified if they also serve a storage
function.

For very small installations, it may be helpful to fill the basin with
large gravel or broken stone. This overcomes the difficulty of the
inflow disturbing settled solids, but makes cleaning difficult (it will be
necessary to wash sediment from the stone into the drain with a
hosepipe, or buckets of water).

B/93 D12/2
 Inlet

1m

Drain

a Board Baffle

Inlet
1
Drain

b Box Baffle

Inlet Arrangement Fig DJ2/1

Plain or
Scum board castellated weir

=**-
- Drain

rrangement F g Dtt/2
 Slow Sand Filters

Source - Water for the World Technical Note RWS 3D3

If good quality sand is available, a slow sand filter is an effective method

of treating impure water and is relatively easy to operate. It functions by
forming a film of bacteria etc on the surface of a sand filtration bed. The
rate of flow through the filter must be carefully controlled, and the top
50mm of the sand cleaned at intervals.

Fig.D13/l shows a typical design of which the essentials are:

(a) An open tank about 3m deep.

(b) A bed of about lm clean coarse sand (of effective size 0. IS -

0.35mm) graded to be as near single size as practicable (i.e. a
uniformity coefficient - the ratio of sieve sizes passing 60% and
10% of the sand respectively of less than 3).

(c) Sand support medium of graded pea gravel - ideally between 2 and
10mm.

(d) A floor drainage system - eg open-jointed pipes in the gravel, or

floor of bricks or blocks with open joints.

(e) A baffled inlet with 1 to 1.5m of water above the sand.

(f) An outlet control weir and valve to enable the filtration velocity to
be adjusted to between 0.1 and 0.2 m/h.

(g) Start up at low flow, fill in reverse direction to avoid air pockets,
build up to full flow over 12 hours or more and run to waste for a
further 2 days, unless there is post-filter disinfection.

(h) At least 2 filters in parallel, to allow each to be cleaned without

interruption to supply. Cleaning comprises draining down
some 200mm below surface, and skimming off the top 50mm of
sand at periods of weeks or months (depending on how dirty the
water is). After cleaning, run water to waste for 24 hours to allow
the biological film (Schmutzedecke) to be rebuilt. Top up sand
periodically as necessary.

B/93 D13/1
(i) Personnel involved in cleaning and operation should be free from
infection, and wear clean footgear and clothes.

Fig.D12/2 illustrates a simple design which has been used in China.

If a permanent installation is intended, it would be advisable to get

specialist advice on design and operation.

B/93 D13/2
 , Drain valve
.Fill valve Outlet valve
Inlet valve Baffle Control valve Drain Ventilator Oram

Wafer
Schmutzedeefce
(bwiogicai film)
Sand

Drainage system

To storage

Slow Sand Fitter with Valve

System and Clear Water Well Fig D13/1
 Removable cover

Fine sand
Storage and
pump well
Coarse sand - 4
Pebbles ^

Perforated pipes

Collection pipe or c p r T i n K I A A
channel SECTION A - A

Perforated pipes

V77//7777s

Inlet
-J
^^$7777777%
Collection pipe or
channel PLAN

Vertical pond-side filter Fig D13/2

 Pour Flush (water-seal) Latrines

If the ground is permeable, a water-seal latrine has the advantage of

being odour, fly and insect free. A dual pit system is proposed as it
has the advantage that each pit is used alternatively and emptied after a
minimum retention of two years. During this period the pit content is
converted to odourless and rich organic humus which can be used as
fertiliser and handled safely. Fig.D14 shows a typical arrangement.

A long pit service has the advantage of less frequent emptying but at
the expense of a deeper and hence more costly pit. In the present
design, pit service life of three years is recommended to keep the cost
low and to demonstrate to school children the recycling of waste as
manure for school gardening.

Water-seal pans and traps which require no more than 2 litres of

water for flushing are recommended. The main characteristics are a
steep base slope and a minimum waterseal.

B/93 D14
-DOOR SUPERSTRUCTURE

INSPECTION BOX -HUD COVER

PIT C O V E R f GROUND LEVELr

X I

i U.LEACH PIT
I ! (ONE OF TWO

0 14"
 VIP Latrine

Source - Blair Research Bulletins.

The ventilated improved pit latrine was introduced in Africa in the

1970s and has proved successful in rural areas in overcoming fly/odour
problems. Fig.D15/l gives the outline design. The superstructure can
be adapted to local situations. Points to note:

Siting At least 30m from wells. Not close to trees or bushes.

Downwind of houses and on firm and, if possible, elevated
ground. Approach area laid to falls, and if possible paved.

The Pit For family use, 1.2 dia. and at least 3m deep. This should
last 10 people for 7 years.

Cover Slab Best in concrete. Essential to seal joint with pit lining.
Precasting useful, but watch weight and handling.

Vent Pipe PVC 110mm i.d. preferred. Steel or asbestos alternative.

Brick possible but less efficient and should be 225mm
sq.smooth internally.

Screen Stainless steel 16 mesh preferred. Aluminium alternative.

PVC-coated fibreglass has been used but life less than 5 r
years.

Orientation Priorities should be to face opening

(a) For privacy.

(b) To face the prevailing wind.
(c) Face North or South rather than E/W, with the
vent pipe facing the sun.

Note - Muslims do not turn their backs to Makkah when defaecating.)

B/93 D15/1
Adaptation Capacity can be increased by:

(a) Deeper pit.

(b) Double (or more) compartments.
(c) Overflow to separate adjacent soakaway (use a dip
pipe as shown in Fig.D15/2). In suitable soils a
soakaway will enable use in peri-rural situation
with a pour-flush toilet, or with piped water and
flush toilet Fig.DlS/3) - this is essentially a form
of Aqua-privy (see D16).

B/93 D15/2
 Odours Fly screen
r Top of roof below
- top of vent pipe

Thatch or similar
roof

Brick or concrete block

25m spiral superstructure

PVC vent pipe Approach falls away

from VIP-pave if
possible

3m min
Pit lined with cement
mortar or brick

ase not lined

Section

1.6m
1.3Siti

O
-2.V -Vent pipe ^ o , / V e n t pipe
Alternative Plans of Superstructure
Schematic Diagram
of s Ventilated
Improved Pit Latrine Fig D15/1
 63mm pvc effluent
discharge pipe
length 15m
Inspection cover
Inspection tube
Soakaway cover slabv Squat note

Gravel pack 20/2 5mm Crust;;:-;

chips

Plastered brick
'or btockwork
-Effluent

Open jointed brick -Tank

or bkxkwork

Arrangement of Tank and 12m

Soakaway Version of VIP Latrine Fig D15/2
 i
Flush toilet
Diiei

Floor drainage

VIP Latrine
with Flush Toilet Fig D15/J
 Aqua Privies

Source - Water for the World Technical Note SAN 1D4

The aqua privy comprises a watertight vault which receives excreta

and washwater from a drop pipe and discharges effluent to a separate
soakaway or trench.

The vault should be 15m from the nearest water source

3m from the nearest dwelling

The soakaway " " 30m from a water source

6m from a dwelling
3m from trees or bushes

The vault should be lm 3 capacity for every 8 people (and lm 3

minimum) with a liquid depth of 1 -1.2 m.

Concrete or rendered brickwork are suitable for the vault.

The VIP latrine with flush toilet is essentially an aqua privy (see D1S).

B/93 D16
 Section 2 - Electrical and Mechanical Engineering

These notes are arranged in 3 groups:

1 - Electrical Sheets prefaced E

2-Mechanical " " M
3 - Miscellaneous " " X

These Groups are separated by coloured dividers. A subject index appears

at the front of each Group.

B/3/88
 Index - Group 1 (M & E) - Electrical

El Units and Formulae

Common Units
Formulae - Ohm's Law
Voltage Drop
Motor HP
Water HP
3 Phase Formulae
E2 Electrical Supply Systems
AC
Protection Swhchgear
Earth Leakage Protection
Overcurrent Protection
E3 Electric Motors
E4 Starting Systems for AC Motors
E5 Connections for 3 phase Induction Motors
E6 Motor Installation
E7 Operation and Maintenance
E8 Fault Diagnosis
E9 Starting Frequency

D/93
 Units and Formulae

Common Units

Quantity Symbol Unit Name

Current of flow I Ampere (amp)

Potential Difference) E(V) Volt

Electro-Motive Force)

Resistance/Impedance R Ohm (ft)

Capacitance C Farad

Power W Watt

Frequency (Cycles f Hertz (Hz)

per second)

Formulae

(i) Ohm's Law The current flowing in a circuit depends upon the
voltage producing the current and the overall
resistance of the circuit:-

I - V

where I = current in amperes

V = potential difference in Volts
R = resistance in ohms

NB: In electromagnetic circuits (transformers, motors, etc) the combined

effects of inductance and capacitance will create additional impedance
(resistance).

(ii) Voltage Drop Conductors should always be sized to limit the

amount of voltage drop between the supply and any point in the
installation. For circuits with electric motors the voltage drop at
full load should not exceed 7.5% of the rated supply voltage.

B/3/88 El/1
 For DC (direct current) and single phase AC (alternating current)
2 wire circuits:-

Voltage drop = Current x Total Resistance of Cables, (lead and

return) = 2IR.

Temperature rise increases resistance. As an approximate

correction add 15% to the volt drop as calculated from the above
formula for rubber, PVC and polythene insulated cables when
operating at maximum permitted temperatures.

For 3 phase AC circuits:-

Voltage Drop = 1.73 x IR (where I = line current per phase and

R = Resistance of one core only).

(iii) Motor Horse Power

lhp = 550 foot-pounds per second = 746 watts.

Brake horse power (bhp) is the net available horse power at the
motor driving end after deducting all losses within the motor
itself.

Motor efficiency = Power output

Power input

Motor efficiency varies from 85% for small motors to 90% and
above for large motors.

Power factor varies with size, speed and loading of the motor, but,
if not known, an average figure of 0.8 can be used in approximate
calculations. The current taken by a 3 phase motor at foil load,
where E is the voltage between phases is :-

I- bhp x 746 x 100 amps

1.732 x E x % efficiency of motor x power factor

B/3/88 El/2
(iv) 'Water1 Horse Power

bhp = I.g.p.m x ft.hd x 100

3,300 efficiency %

= I.g.p.m. x psi x 100

1,430 efficiency %

= 1/s x m x 100

75 efficiency

Fluid kW = 1/s x m = 1/s x bar

101.92 10

Motor output kW required = fluid kW x 100

efficiency %

(v) 3 pfrase formulae

kW = kVa x power factor = hp x 746

1000 x Efficiency

= Line amps x Line volts x 1.73 x pf

1,000

kVa = kW = hp x 746

pf 1000 x Efficiency x pf

= Line amps x Line volts x 1.73

1,000

B/3/88 El/3
 Electrical Supply System

AC (alternating current)

Ac (alternating current) is the normal system used in public supply systems

or for local generation for power purposes. Whilst single phase (2 wire)
systems are adequate for lighting and heating loads, single phase a.c.
motors are not very satisfactory as there are difficulties in making such
motors self-starting. However if three phases are used, each displaced by
one third of a cycle, then the motors are self-starting, more reliable and
more efficient. Transmission with three phases allows generation and
distribution at high voltages over long distances with economically sized
conductors. Three phase transformers are used to step the voltages up or
down. The normal final stage of distribution is at 11,000 volts (1 lkV)
transformed down to between 400 to 420 volts. (Fig.E2/l.)

This three phase voltage is used for motors and large appliances. For
domestic circuits one of the phases is used with a neutral (Fig. E2/2)
(single phase and neutral or SP and N) and the voltage is then equal to the
phase voltage divided by,/T. For example with a phase voltage of 415
volts, the single phase and neutral voltage would be 415 = 240 volts.

yf
The three phases of the supply have a normal frequency of 50Hz (cycles
per second) or, in some cases, 60Hz and the voltages are displaced at 120 s
to each other.

As can be seen from Fig. E2/1, the sum of the coordinates of the three
phases on any vertical line is zero. If the load on the three phases is
balanced then the algebraic sum of the currents in each phase will also be
zero. Thus the three windings of a three phase machine can be
interconnected and this is done using either a Star (A) or Delta (A)
connection. The three phases are usually designated as Red (R),
Yellow(Y) and Blue(B) lines.

Star Connection

This method is shown in Fig. E2/2 where it can be seen that the three
windings are connected in common at the neutral mid-point. At this point,
in a balanced circuit the current will be zero as the value of the current
flowing towards the mid-point in any one phase is balanced by the current
flowing away to the other two phases.

B/3/88 E2/1
 Red phase volts
Yellow phase volts
Blue phase volts

Three Phase Waveforms Fig E2/1

Red Line ( R )

Yellow Line(Y)

Blue Line (B)

j* VBN VYN VRN

tages I I I
i . Neutral (N)

Phase
Voltages

Star Connection Fig E2/2

The mid-point connection of a transformer connected in 'Star' is used to
provide the neutral in a three phase and neutral (TP and N) supply as is
shown in Fig. E2/2 by the dotted line, the mid-point of the star connected
to 'Earth'.

In the star connected supply system there are two different voltages.
There is the line voltage between any two of the three phases and the phase
voltage between any one of the three phases and the neutral.

Line voltage =JTx Phase voltage

The line current and the phase current are equal in a star connected circuit.

Line current = Phase Current

Delta Connection

Fig. E2/3 shows the windings connected to form a closed circuit. The
voltage across any phase is equal to the voltage between the lines
connected to that phase:

Line Voltage = Phase Voltage

The Line and Phase currents are not equal:

Line current =JTx Phase Current

Protective Switchgear

Every circuit requires means of isolation and automatic means of

interrupting the circuit in the event of faults. Manual switcbgear
comprises switch-fuses with fuses incorporated in the switch-box or
separate switch-boxes and fuse-boxes or fuse-switches where the HRC
fuses are fitted to the moving carriage. Fuses may be rewireable but
should preferably be HRC (high rupturing capacity) sealed cartridges.
HRC fuses are designed to rupture rapidly on heavy short-circuit faults,
not to deteriorate in service and are less liable to incorrect replacement.
The significantly higher cost is justified by the greater safety but care must
be taken with electric motor drives that the fuse is rated adequately to
prevent operation during the short period heavy starting currents.

B/3/88 E2/2
Automatic circuit breakers have many advantages. These can be oil
immersed or air break for large loads, but for the normal loads
experienced in the field miniature circuit breakers (MCB's) or moulded
case circuit breakers (MCCB's) will meet most applications. They are
tamperproof, have a high breaking capacity, accurate and reliable overload
protection and time-delay characteristics to avoid tripping on harmless
transient overloads. The cost and delays of fuse replacement are avoided
as the circuit breaker can be reset once the fault has been removed.
Thermally operated MCB's are sensitive to ambient temperatures, but
magnetic hydraulic types are not affected.

Ratings of fuses, switches and circuit breakers must be adequate in size to

carry the anticipated full load but must never exceed the rating of the
cables being protected. If larger fuses have to be fitted to cater for the
surge of motor starting currents then, it may be necessary to provide
heavier circuit cables between the supply point and the motor starter.
Fuses must never be fitted in the neutral line. (NB: See Section 3 -
Electric Motors, for details of motor protection circuits).

Earth Leakage Protection

Reliable protection is essential against the dangers of electric shock or

earth leakage fire risk caused by insulation failures. All exposed
metalwork, e.g. switchgear cases, and metallic cable sheaths, conduits or
trunking must be bonded together by adequately sized protective
conductors and connected to a main earthing terminal or bar. The main
earthing terminal on a public supply would usually be connected to the
earthed point of the source of supply as provided by the utility. The use of
earth electrodes is not practible unless there is a significant moisture
content and , therefore, should only be used in permanently marshy
ground or where the electrode is deep enough to reach the water table. In
any situation where simultaneous contact between earthed metal work of
the electrical system and other metalwork of the structure or other services
(e.g. water pipes) is possible, then the latter metalwork must also be
bonded to the main earth. The impedance (resistance) of any earthing
system must always be sufficiently low to ensure that no potential
difference can exist between any part of the system and earth without
operating the protective fuse or circuit breaker rapidly.

B/3/88 E2/3
Table 1 - Relative Sizes of Phase and Earthing Conductors
or Simitar Materials

Cross-sectional Minimum cross-

area of phase section of
conductors (nun2) earthing conductor
conductor (mm2)

1 1
1.5 1.5
2.5 2.5
4 4
6 6
10 10
16 16
25 16
35 16
50 25
70 35
95 50
120 50
150 70
185 95
240 120

It is difficult to give a complete protection to installation metalwork

against the risk of shock. With high risk equipment such as portable tools
and inspection leads it is possible to use safe, low voltages below 50 volts
by using step-down transformers. Another method is to attempt to restrict
the maximum earth leakage current to a figure around 25mA (milli-amps),
but with circuit sensitivity of this order it is difficult to avoid nuisance
tripping. The third method is to try to restrict the duration of any
possible shock. The aim is instantaneous isolation of the circuit when
voltages in excess of 40 volts appear on the installation metalwork.

Fuses alone cannot protect against many earth leakage fire risks. To
provide complete protection the maximum earth leakage current would
have to be limited to about 1 amp. This can be achieved with an earth
leakage circuit breaker capable of detecting 1 amp, which would give good
protection to a 60 amp circuit. However, if the same circuit was protected
only by a 60 amp fuse an earth leakage current of 100 amp could flow for
at least one minute, creating a serious fire hazard. Earth leakage circuit
breakers and monitoring devices are reasonably priced and readily
available.

B/3/88 E2/4
Overcurrent Protection

The following checks to ensure overcurrent protection should be made on

each installation:-

a) That the installation as a whole and each circuit is protected

against overcurrent by fuses or circuit breakers.

b) That each circuit is protected by a device which will operate

automatically and safely for the protected circuit.

c) That the current breaking capacity of the device is sufficient to

handle the maximum prospective fault current.

d) That, should the device operate, there is no danger from

overheating, arcing or scattering of hot metal fragments and the
supply can be reconnected without danger.

e) That, where 3 phase motors are connected, arrangements are made

for all three phases to be disconnected from the motor should a
fuse blow in one phase only to prevent damage to the motor by
"single phasing".

f) That, on any system of supply where the neutral supply point is

permanently earthed, no fuses or protective devices are fitted in
the neutral conductors.

g) That, every fuse or circuit breaker is marked with the nominal

current rating for the circuit being protected. The type of fuse link
and its fusing factors should be indicated.

h) That, if unskilled persons might replace fuses without supervision,

it should not be possible to insert a fuse of the wrong rating.

i) If the fuses might be removed or replaced while the circuit is alive,

it must be possible to do so without danger by fitting fully
shrouded fuse carriers and holders, or preferably by using
cartridge fuse links.

j) Circuit breaker settings for overcurrent release should not be

adjustable by unskilled persons. A key or special tool should be
needed to alter the calibrated setting and a visual indication given
of the actual setting.

B/3/88 E2/5
 Tfcble 2 - Sizes of Plain or Tinned Copper Fuse Wire,
(for use in semi-enclosed fuses)

Nominal Nominal Approx.Imperial

current diameter equivalents
of fuse of wire
Amps mm inches sw
3 0.15 0.006 38
5 0.2 0.0084 35
10 0.35 0.0136 29
15 0.5 0.020 25
20 0.6 0.024 23
25 0.75 0.028 22
30 0.85 0.032 21
45 1.25 0.048 18
60 1.53 0.056 17
80 1.8 0.072 15
100 2.0 0.080 14
The characteristics and settings of overcurrent protective devices should be
chosen to ensure that a fault in one circuit will not disconnect another
circuit. The fuse or circuit breaker nearest the fault should be the only one
to operate. (Fig. E2/4).

B/3/88 E2/6
 Red Line ( R )
f f
VRY V
Yellow Line(Y)

VYB
Blue Line ( B )

Delta Connected
Three Phase System Fig E2/3

Major . .
Fuse Link 80 amps

R&ink M 5 0 " 5 i 50 amps

Minor . .
Link L J 30 amps
Fuse Link 20 amps 20 amps

Fault

Example Illustrating
Discrimination between
Overcurrent Protective
Devices Fig E2/4
 Electric Motors

Common Types. Characteristics and Application

These are outlined in the following Table.

DC motors are included for completeness, but will seldom be met. Most
motors supplied by WaterAid will be squirrel cage.

C/93 E3/1
 Table 1

n
2
Motor Characteristics Applications

DC Motors

Shunt-wound Speed relatively constant over Machine tool drives,

the working range of loads. Drop wood working machinery,
in speed between no load and full centrifugal pumps.
load varies from 2% to 6%.

Series-wound Torque increases and speed Fans, air compressors,

decreases with increasing cranes.
current. Speed high on
low load and complete loss
of load will cause motor to race.

Compound - Differing speed/torque can be Lifts, rolling mills,

wound achieved by varying the ratio fans with heavy rotors,
of shunt to series windings.

Continued/
E3/2
o Tfeble 1 (Continued)

Motor Characteristics Applications

Single-Phase AC Motors
Series-wound:
a) Universal As for series-wound DC motors Normally in fractional
sizes only - vacuum
cleaners, sewing machines,
domestic appliances.
b) Repulsion Lifts.cranes.
Induction Motors
c) Shaded pole As for shunt-wound DC motors. Small fans.clocks.
d) Split-phase Non-reversing fractional
h.p drives
e) Capacitor Constant speed with
intermittent loads -
refrigerator compressors.
f) Repulsion- Machine tools, pumps, mixers.
Contuued/
 TWle 1 (Continued)

Motor Characteristics Applications

Three-phase AC Motors

Induction Types

Squirrel Cage Can be designed for a wide range All applications except
of starting and maximum torques. where very high starting
Standard types have starting torque is needed or where
torques from 100% to 175% of starting currents have to be
full load torque, with starting severely limited.
currents from 500% to 800% of
full load current.

Double-cage machines give high

starting torque with low starting
current.

Slipring wound Relatively constant speed over Air compressors, ram pumps
roltir the load range. Speed/torque cranes, high inertia
m can be varied by addition of drives, variable speed duty.
resistance in the rotor circuit.
 Tfcblel (Continued)

Motor Characteristics Applications

Induction Tvpes (Cont/'d)

Commutator Variable speed with constant Large machinery, lifts,

type torque. Speed ranges of 3:1 to fans, pumps.
15:1 dependent on design. Speed
controlled by induction regulator
or by brush shifting.

Synchronous Types

Salient Pole ) Straight tine speed/torque Large outputs with non-

Synchronous) characteristics from no load reversing duties and
Induction ) to 140% full load. Low starting infrequent light duty
torque. Salient pole type runs starting. Motor generator
3 constantly at synchronous speed.
Power factor controllable.
sets, compressors, ventilating fans.
AC Induction Motor Speeds

no-load speed in rpm of an AC motor

= Frequency (Hz/cycles per second) x 60

No. of pairs of poles

Approximate full load speeds (rpm) allowing for slip are shown in Table 4.

Table 4 - Approximate Full Load Speeds of AC Motors

kW No. of Poles Supply Frequency (Hz)

50 60
2 2 820 3 380
0.75 to 2.2 4 1405 1685
6 930 1 115
2 2 855 3 425
3 to 7.5 4 1420 1700
6 945 1 130
2 2 910 3 490
11 to 22 4 1445 1730
6 960 1 145
8 720 860
2 2 935 3 520
30 to 75 4 1475 1 1770
6 975 1 170
8 735 880

C/93 E3/6
Induction Motor Currents

These are shown in Table 3 below.

Table 3 - Current per phase in amps (amperes) for 3 phase induction

motors at full load with average power factors and
efficiencies

3 phase Voltage

HP
380 400 415 440

1 1.9 1.8 1.7 1.7

2 3.6 3.4 3.3 3.1
3 5.1 4.8 4.6 4.4
5 5.1 4.8 4.6 4.4
7.5 11.5 11 10.6 10
10 15 14.3 13.8 13
15 22 21 20 19
20 29 28 27 26
25 37 35 34 32
30 43 41 39 38
40 59 56 54 51
50 73 69 66 63
60 87 83 80 75
70 102 97 93 88
80 117 111 107 101
100 145 138 133 126

C/93 E3/7
3-Phase Motor Fuse Ratings

The table below shows recommended fuse ratings.

Table 4 - Recommended HRC Cartridge Fuse Ratings

for 3-Phase Motors

Motor Full Load Fuse rating

Current (amps)
Direct on-line Assisted starting
starting (Star-Delta etc)

0- 1.5 6 4
1.6-2.2 10 6
2.3-3.0 15 6
3.1-5.2 15 10
5.3-6.6 20 15
6.7 - 9.6 25 15
9.7 - 10.8 30 20
10.9 - 13.0 35 25
13.1 - 19.2 50 30
19.3-23.3 60 35
23.4 - 30.8 80 40
30.9 - 42.2 100 60
42.3 - 64.3 200 100
64.4 - 93.0 200 125
93.1 - 128.6 250 200
128.7 - 150.0 300 200

The recommended sizes of HRC (High rupturing capacity) cartridge fuse-

links are based on short circuit protection only. Overload protection relays
must be provided in addition. For direct-on-line starting a starting current
of seven times full load current and a duration of ten seconds has been
allowed to cover normal conditions.

C/93 E3/8
For the assisted start ratings using star-delta, auto transformer or rotor
resistance starters, the recommendations are based on a starting current of
3.5 times full load current for a duration of 20 seconds.

The ratings will need to be modified if the following special circumstances

apply:-

(i) Heavy accelerating torque which causes an excessively long

starting period.

(ii) Frequent, successive starts without intermediate cooling periods,

(ii) An ambient temperature in excess of 25 C.

The use of rewirable fuses in motor control circuits should be avoided

wherever possible and should never be used where the circuits exceed a 30
amps rating.

C/93 E3/9
gffect of Voltage Variations

These are shown in the table below:

Table 5 - Effect of 10% Voltage Variations on 3-Pnase

Motor Characteristics

Voltage Change
Characteristic
Plus 10% Minus 10%

Starting Torque Increases by Decreases by

21% 19%

Speed at full load Increases by Decreases by

1% 1.5 %

Current - Starting Increases by Decreases by

10 to 12% 10 to 12%

Current - Full Load Decreases by Increases by

7% 11%

Power Factor at Full Decreases by Increases by

Load 3% 1%
at 75% Full Load "4% "2 to 3%
at 50% Full Load " 5 to 6% "4 to 5%

Efficiency at Full Increases by Decreases by

Load 1% 2%
at 75% Full Load No change No change
at 50% Full Load Decreases by Increases by
Ito2% Ito2%

Temperature rise Decreases by Increases by

3to4C 6to7C

C/93 E3/10
 Standard Methods or Starting AC Motors

Most single-phase motors used as industrial drives will have

separate 'start' and 'run' windings and will incorporate a
centrifugal switch to isolate the 'start' winding when the motor has
run up to speed. Direct switching starters are suitable for such
applications. If no centrifugal switch is fitted a three-position
starter would be required to change over from 'off to 'start' and
to 'run'.

Three-phase machines with gouirrel-**atte rotor

The most common type of 3-phase AC motor is the squirrel-cage

induction motor in which the rotor windings are internally short
circuited. This motor is simple robust, requires minimum
maintenance and should be chosen whenever possible. However,
when connected direct-on-line (DOL) a heavy current is taken
during the acceleration period with maximum torque on start up.
The level of current surge varies with the motor design but is,
typically in the range of 6 to 8 times the full load current (FLC).

On a public electric supply there will probably be a limit on the

horsepower which can be connected direct-on-line. Also, if the
motor is driving high inertia plant (e.g. high lift pumps starting
against an open delivery valve) the acceleration period may be
extended causing difficulty in starting due to operation of the
overload devices. Current surge can be reduced by the following
methods of reduced voltage starting but starting torque is also
reduced.

a) Star-Delta Starting This is the most common and requires a six

terminal motor with both ends of each motor winding brought out
to the terminals for connection to the starter. The windings are
first connected in 'star' and after the motor has run up to nearly
full speed are reconnected in 'delta'.

When the motor is connected in 'star' the applied voltage per

phase in 57.7% of the line voltage and the starting current is
reduced to one-third of the direct-on-line starting current. The
starting torque is also reduced by one-third.

C/93 E4/1
 With a manually operated start the handle is held in the 'star'
position until the motor has accelerated to full speed. The handle
is then rapidly pushed over to the 'run' position. Preferably, an
automatic push button contactor starter should be used which
provides the following sequence when the 'star' button is pressed:-

i) The 'line' and 'star' contactors operate simultaneously to

start the motor.

ii) An adjustable timing device set to operate at the end of the

acceleration period changes over and opens the 'star'
contactor and closes the 'delta' contactor.

The 'star' and 'delta' contactors are interlocked both mechanically

and electrically to ensure that both cannot be closed together as
this would cause a short-circuit.

At the instant of change-over with a star-delta starter the motor is

temporarily disconnected and a slight loss of speed occurs. When
the 'delta' contactor closes there will be a current surge similar to
direct-on-line starting. The magnitude of the surge is controlled
by allowing the motor to run up to as near as possible to full speed
in the 'start' position and achieving the change-over to 'delta' as
rapidly as possible.

b) Auto-Transformer Starting These starters are expensive and would

not normally be used with small motors. An exception would be
submersible pumps in boreholes where star-delta starting would
require six cables cores to be fitted to the unit, whilst only three
cores would be needed for auto transformer starting.

The auto-transformer is provided with a number of selectable

tappings, usually arranged to give voltages of SO, 60, or 75 per
cent of line voltage. The tapping chosen is the one that reduces
the starting current sufficiently whilst still allowing sufficient
torque for starting. The motor torque and current in relation to the
direct-on-line values can be calculated by multiplying the
direct-on-line values by the square of the voltage tapping used.
For example if the motor when switched direct-on-line has a
starting torque of 2.5 times full load and a starting current of 8
times full load current, then if started on a 75% auto-transformer
tapping, the figures would be:-

C/93 E4/2
 Starting torque

0.75 2 x 2.5 - 1.4 x Full load torque

Starting current

- 0.75 2 x 8 - 4.5 x Full load current

If a 60% auto-transformer tapping is selected for the same motor

the figures would be:-

Starting torque

= 0.6 2 x 2.5 = 0.9 x Full load torque

Starting current

= 0.6 2 x 8 = 2.88 x Full load current

C/93 E4/3
 Typical Connections of 3-Phase Induction Motors

1. Direct-on-line or Auto-transformer starting (Fig. E5/1)

N.B. To reverse rotation:-

Change over any two line leads.

2. Star-Delta starting (Fig.ES/2)

Sequence:

START. Switch makes Star connection

RUN. Switch makes Delta connection

N.B. To reverse rotation:-

Change over any two lines leads.

3. Slip-ring Motors (not often met)

Three Stator and three

Rotor motor terminals

N.B. To reverse rotation:-

Change over any two line leads.

C/93 E5/1
 u
FI

TC. * C<>.
FX

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 Motor Installation

Inspection

Ensure that no parts are broken or missing. If the motor has to be stored
before use keep in a dean, dry place, free from foundation vibrations.

Check that the supply details and rated output on the motor nameplate
conform with the specification. Check the insulation resistance of the
motor winding with a 500 volt insulation tester ('megger'). The insulation
resistance in megohms should be not less than

Motor rated voltage

1000 + motor rated hp

Check the bearings for correct lubrication. With sleeve bearings check
that the oil wells are filled to the level indicated and that oil rings are free
to rotate.

Ball and roller bearings are correctly packed with grease by the
manufacturer and require no additional lubrication during the first few
months of service. If stored for more than six months the grease may
deteriorate and may shrink away from the bearing cage. Before
commissioning the bearing caps should be removed and if the grease is dry
and hard it should be renewed.

Check for any bearing damage by spinning the rotor by hand and listening
at each bearing using a short stick held against the bearing cap. Check fit
of any coupling or pulley which has to be fitted to the motor shaft. A
pulley requires a 'tap-on' fit and a coupling should have a force fit. When
fitting a pulley or coupling on to the motor shaft ensure that the opposite
end of the shaft is supported.

Check the starter to ensure that it is the correct type as specified and that
protective devices are correctly rated and adjusted for the actual load
conditions.

B/3/88 E6/1
Alignment

Bed-plates or slide rails must be securely bolted to a solid and level

foundation of concrete or solid masonry. Mountings must be rigid, free
from vibration and level. When erecting machines with direct coupling
drive between motor and driven machine, both shafts must be in line.
Check the gap between the faces of the half-couplings, place a straight
edge across the edge of both half-couplings and check on each side into a
feeler gauge for alignment. Rotate the coupling and check at 12, 3, 6 and
9 o'clock positions (see Fig. E6/1). Adjustments should be made by
inserting metal shims under the machine feet as required to align the
coupling accurately. Flexible couplings must be used for coupling
machines with ball and roller bearings or sleeve bearings. Only if
coupling to a single bearing machine must a solid coupling be used.

With a belt drive, the tight side of the belt should be on the underside.
Minimum distance between pulleys should be four times the diameter of
the large pulley. Belts should be tightened just enough to prevent slipping.
Excessive tension will cause damage. Adjusting screws of slide rails
should be arranged as shown in Fig E6/1 and a cord used, as shown, for
alignment.

B/3/88 E6/2
 n

Gap

1. Aligning a Coupling 2 Checking Positions

Slide rail

Adjusting screw

Driving pulley Driven pulley

n
xord for alignment held tight
3. Alignment f o r Pulley Drive

Couplings Fig E6/1

 Operation and Maintenance

Lubrication

Ball and roller bearings must not be overfilled with grease as this causes
overheating and bearing failure. When a bearing is filled with grease take
care to fill all the bearing space between the rolling elements, but the outer
bearing caps should be only two-thirds full. When the motor is operating a
small amount of additional grease should be added every 2000 running
hours.

Every two years completely renew the grease. Ensure that only grease
recommended by the manufacturer is used.

For sleeve bearings or oil-filled thrust bearings, check the levels at

frequent intervals and top up to the indicated level with the motor stopped.

Every six months completely change the oil.

Ensure that only oil recommended by the manufacturer is used.

Keep all covers closed and plugs tight.

Except with totally enclosed motors dust and dirt will be drawn into the
motor by the rotor fan. This can lead to overheating and damage to the
windings. Clean out any dust regularly, preferably by using a powerful
suction cleaner. The use of a high powered blower can lead to dust
accumulating within the windings.

Temperature

Ensure adequate ventilation. The temperature rise of a normal protected

motor is 21 C. If motors are to operate in ambient temperatures above
24 the final temperature could be excessive unless high temperature
windings have been specified or motors with a lower temperature rise.

B/3/88 E7/1
Single Phasiqg

If a 3-phase motor is running and one phase becomes disconnected (e.g. a

blown fuse or bad connection) the motor will continue to run as a single
phase machine but will take excessive current through the phase windings
leading to rapid burning out. If an attempt is made to start a motor under
these conditions it will not rotate or, if it does, will only turn very slowly.
The motor will make a load humming noise and take extremely high
currents from the main destroying the windings until the other fuses
operate.

To reduce the risk of such a break in one phase of the supply check that
the circuit main fuses have a capacity of at least three times the full load
current of the motor, that the overload trips are correctly set and that
protection is fitted, to ensure that rapid disconnection of the motor, should
there be reduced or nil voltage in one or more of the phases.

B/3/88 E7/2
 Fault Diagnosis

a
Table of common electric motor faults

Fault Possible Cause Remedy

Detection by sight:

No rotation Supply failure - either Disconnect motor immediately (with

complete or single phase a single phase fault serious overloading
and burn out could occur rapidly.
Ensure that correct supply is restored to
motor terminals.

Insufficient torque Check starting torque required and

and compare with motor rating taking
into account type of starter in use.

Reversed phase Change to larger motor or to different

type of starter. Check connections in
turn and correct.

tn Continued/
oo
 Table of common electric motor faults (Continued)

Fault Possible Cause Remedy

oo
oc

Detection by hearing:

Steady electrical Running single phase Check that all supply lines are alive
hum with balanced voltage.

Excessive load Compare line current with motor

rating.
Reduce load or change motor.

Reversed Check connections in turn and correct.

Uneven air gap Check with feelers. If due to worn

bearings fit new ones.

Pulsating electrical Defective rotor Check speed at full load. If it is

hum low and there is fluctuating current, the
rotor could be defective.

Continued/
m
00
 Table of common electric motor faults (Continued^

as
oo
OC Fault Possible Cause Remedy

Pulsating Defective wound rotor - Check rotor resistance and open-circuit

electrical loose connection or voltage between sliprings.
hum. (Cont/'d) partial short circuit

Mechanical Foreign matter in air gap Check, dismantle and clean.

Noise

Bearings damaged Check with listening stick - fit new

bearing.

Coupling out of line Check coupling gap and realign.

Detection by touch:

Vibration Uneven foundations Check level and alignment - realign.

Defective rotor. As above for pulsating electrical hum.

Continued
m
00
 Table of common electric motor faults (Continued)

S Fault Possible Cause Remedy

Vibration Unbalance Uncouple from driven machine, remove

(Continued) motor pulley or coupling. Run motor
between each of these operations to
determine whether unbalance is in the
driven machine, pulley or rotor.
Rebalance.

Frame heating Excessive load Reduce load or change motor.

(NB frame Foreign matter in air gap Check, dismantle and clean.
temperature will Excessive ambient
be approx. 10C temperature Check motor temperature
rating.
lower than
winding Partial short or open Check with suitable meter.
temperature) circuit in windings

Bearing heating Too much/too little grease. Remove surplus/wash bearings

and replenish grease.
m
 Starting Frequency

Avoid frequent starts unless the motor has been specifically designed for
such duties. As a general guide:-

2 - pole motors (3000rpm) - 2 starts/hour

4 - pole (or above) (ISOOrpm or less) - 3 starts/hour.

B/3/88 E9
 INDEX - Group 2 (M & E) - Mechanical

Ml - Conversion Factors and Formulae

M2 - Pumps - Basic Types
M3 * Pumps - Data Required for Ordering
M4 - Pump Installation - Surface
- Borehole

M5 - Pumps - Maximum Suction Lift

M6 - Pumps * Centrifugal Pump Fault Finding
M7 - Pumps - Starting and Stopping Procedure
M8 - Pumps - Gland Repacking
M9 - Diesel Engines - Derating with Altitude
M10 - V-Belt Drives
Mil - Petrol engines - Fault Tracing
M12 - Diesel Engines - Fault Tracing

D/93
 Conversion Factors and Formulae

Imperial to Metric Metric to Imperial

gals (Imp) x 4.546 = litre (1) x 0.22 = gals Ginp)

3
gals (Imp) x 0.004546 = m x 220 = gals (Imp)
gals (US) x 3.785 = 1 X 0.2642 = gals (US)
gals/min x 0.07577 = 1/sec x 13.2 = gpm
OOOgals/h x 1.263 = 1/s x 0.792 = 000 gph
mgd x 52.61 = 1/s x 0.019 = mgd
cusecs :it 28.32 = 1/s x 0.0353 = cusecs
psi x 0.06895 = bars x 14.504 = psi
psi x 0.703 sg = m.liquid x 1.422 x sg = psi
m.liquid x 0.098065xsg= bars x 10.192 sg = m.liquid
hp x 0.7457 = kW x 1.341 = hp

1 Imp. gallon = 101b cold freshwater == 1.2 US gal

1 cubicfoot = 6.23 Imp. gal - 62.31b cold freshwater
Feet-head = psi x 2.31 sg
1 hp = 33,000ft libs per minute

Water horsepower (Whp) =

gpm x ft hd x sg x 100 = bhp

3,300 Efficiency %

gmp x psi x 100 = bhp

1430 Efficiency %

gal/hour x psi x 100 = bhp

85,800 Efficiency %

Fluid hp = 1/s x m x sg

Fluid kW = 1/s x m x sg = 1/s x bar

Ml/1
Driver output kW required = Fluid kW x 100

Pump Efficiency %

Efficiency % = Fluid kW x 100

kW input to pump

B/3/88 Ml/2
 Pumps - Basic Types

Pumps available are either hand or power operated.

Hand Operated Pumps (see also T18)

There are three main categories - suction, direct action and lever action.

Suction Pumps: These are suitable where the water is close to ground
level and will only operate in practical terms to depths of less than 6m.
They are found in places such as Bangladesh and Nepal where tube wells
are easily sunk into the soft deposits in a river basin or delta.

Direct Action Pumps: These have a cylinder below water level. The
piston is operated by rods and there is a separate rising main. They are
suitable to depths of 15m.

Lever Action Pumps: When the water has to be pumped from a depth
greater than 15m a hand pump requires some form of lever operation, and
can then be operated to a depth of 45m.

There are many different types of handpump in current use or available,

we recommend only those which meet the criteria of VLOM (Village
Level of Maintenance).

WaterAid aims to provide manufacturers' literature for the types likely to

be encountered in each country.

Power Driven Pumps: These may be surface units or borehole pumps

used too raise water from below ground level.

Surface Units are usually centrifugal or progressively cavity types.

Centrifugal (rotodynamic) pumps are manufactured to very tight tolerances

and aggressive materials such as sand cause excessive wear, with loss of
efficiency and output.

Progressive Cavity Pumps consist of a single helix rotor inserted into a

double helix stator and are useful where small quantities of water are
required at high heads.

Borehole Pumps may be reciprocating, submersible, centrifugal or

progressive cavity types.

A/93 M2/1
Reciprocating pumps have a piston driven by shafts from a surface power
unit moving within a cylinder below water level, and have inlet and outlet
valves. Water is drawn into the cylinder (normally by the downward
stroke) and forced into the rising main by the upward stroke. Whilst some
of these may still be met spares are very expensive and submersible
centrifugal pumps are preferred, which, together with the motor unit, are
submerged below water level. They have a number of disadvantages:-

(a) Because boreholes in the countries in which we operate tend to be

of small diameter (6" or 8"), the pumps are small, multi-stage, and
suffer excessive wear if the water has abrasive qualities.

(b) They depend on water for cooling and if installed without low
water level protection the motor or pump fails if the borehole runs
dry.

(c) Similarly, when the flow of water into the borehole is restricted,
insufficient water flows across the motor unit (which is below the
pump inlet) causing rapid overheating of the motor. This can be
overcome by fitting a shroud to the unit to ensure that water
always passes over the motor.

(d) In many of the countries in which we operate it is impossible to get

submersible motors rewound and if they are of the encapsulated
type rewinding is impossible in any case.

(e) For a submersible pump installation to be of any practical use there

must be a good supply of electricity so that Direct on Line starting
can be used. (Star-Delta starting should not be used for this type
of pump as the inertia gained during the star phase will rapidly
fade on the switch to delta giving a virtual DOL start with resultant
high current and voltage drop).

(f) It is advisable to fit a footvalve to prevent water in the rising main

forcing the pump to contra rotate or "back plane" when the motor
is switched off. If an attempt is made to restart during this period
the motor will suffer serious if not fatal damage. (The
disadvantage is that when the pump is raised the valve increases
the weight to be lifted).

A/93 M2/2
Progressive cavity pumps are described for surface units, but in this case
the pump unit is attached to the rising main and driven by a shaft from the
surface which has bobbins to centralise it in the main. The shaft normally
has couplings every 3m and in many cases this also incorporates the
bobbin. The drive head and power unit are at ground level, usually
occupied by V-belts.

These pumps do have a number of advantages :-

(a) There are no electrical components down the borehole.

(b) The pumps can be driven by either petrol diesel engines or electric
motors and since the power unit is at ground level maintenance can
more easily be carried out.

(c) Since the weight of the pump unit is less, the rising main is
sometimes smaller and lighter.

(d) They are much better at handling waters which contain fine
abrasive particles and tend to have a much longer period of
operation between overhauls.

(e) They can be simply adjusted to increase or decrease output should

there be a change in borehole characteristics or consumer demand,
either by changing the drive pulley ratios, or on diesel driven units
by increasing or decreasing the speed of the engine.

Increasing the engine speed should give no problems but when

reducing the speed take into account:

(i) Ensure that the load on the engine does not fall
below half the designed output as this will result in
excessive coking if the engine is run on light load.

(ii) On this type of pump a reasonable torque is required on

starting, especially when new, to overcome the "sticksion"
between the stator and the rotor, and when diesel engines
are used as the motive power, centrifugal clutches are put
on the engines, usually operating at 1100 rpm; if the
engine speed is reduced below this level no drive will be
obtained.

(f) Footvalves do not need to be fitted to this type of pump as no

contra rotation occurs when the pump stops or is shut down as the
unit seals itself.
A/93 M2/3
(f) Footvalves do not need to be fitted to this type of pump as no
contra rotation occurs when the pump stops or is shut down as the
unit seals itself.

D/93 M2/4
 Pumps - Data Required for Ordering

To obtain the correct pump for a given application, factual data must be
supplied - remember it is better to give more information than required
than too little.

A. Site Conditions

(i) Altitude (m/ft). (Especially important if diesel engines are

to be used as the motive power).

(ii) Temperature (Deg C/Deg F)

B. Output required

(i) quantity (Litres/sec or Cubic metres/hour).

(ii) Quality of water, i.e. corrosive or abrasive substances and

if possible PH value.

C. Static Suction Lift (m/ft). Wherever possible on surface units,

suctions should be flooded giving a positive suction head; if this is
not possible, give the suction lift required, bearing in mind the
effect of altitude, (see MS)

D. Delivery Pipe Details

(i) Diameter of pipe (mm/ins). (Clearly state if this is the

internal or external diameter as some standards such as
MDPE and PVC differ).

(ii) Type and length of pipe (i.e. MDPE/PVC/GALV STEEL)

and likely condition so that full consideration can be given
to the friction head.

(iii) Static head (m/ft). Properly surveyed, not guessed from

maps.

E. Type of Pump (Surface or Borehole)

(i) Surface

(a) Is this new or replacement pump?

A/93 M3/1
 (b) If replacement, are there any existing foundations to work
to - if so give details of any bolts, including their size and
the centres between them.

(c) Is there existing pipework and are special fittings and

valves needed?

(ii) Borehole

(a) Is this a new or replacement pump?

(b) If replacement, give full details of existing pump unit,

headworks, rising main and cables, stating condition and
need for replacement.

(c) Diameter of borehole (mm/ins)

(d) Static level

(e) Level at the duty required

(f) Any additional lift required above GL at the borehole,

together with the appropriate pumping main details.

G. Drive Unit

(i) Electrical. If from commercial electricity supply

company, give full details, i.e. Voltage, Frequency,
3ph/lph and also reliability and sustainability of the stated
voltage.

(ii) Diesel. Important to remember altitude for derating.

Whatever the application, always try to give a sketch showing the

detailed requirements.

A/93 M3/2
 Pump Installation

Surface Pumps

Location: The pump should be sited with the shortest possible suction
pipework as the easier the suction conditions the more efficiently it will
operate.

Ensure that it is located on a solid level foundation and leave ample floor
space and headroom for inspection and maintenance purposes.

Foundations: The pump should be placed on firm foundations substantial

enough to eliminate vibration and pump/motor misalignment. Allow about
1" below the pump baseplate for grouting. When the grout has dried out,
the base should be drawn down evenly, checking the pump alignment.
Misalignment will cause excessive wear to couplings and bearings. Fixing
a flexible coupling between the pump and driving unit is not a cure for
alignment inaccuracies.

Pipe Connections: All pumps should be installed with a suction and

delivery valve to allow the pump to be removed for maintenance or
renewal and the valve on the pump discharge can, provided the appropriate
pressure gauges are fitted, be used for test purposes to obtain the main
characteristics.

Ensure that the suction pipework has a continuous rise to the pump to
avoid air traps and that all pipework is properly supported so that the
pump casing is not subject to externally induced stresses.

Check the pump: Rotate the pump by hand to ensure there is no binding
or seizure.

Ensure that the glands have been properly packed or that mechanical seals
have not been damaged; always allow a slight leak from the gland, and
never start a pump with new packing under compression.

Fully prime the pump and suction before starting and spin to check
rotation under closed valves conditions before pumping under load.

A/93 M4/1
Borehole Pumps

Before installing a new or replacement pump in a borehole the hole should

be plumbed with a plate to ensure that there are no protrusions likely to
impede the installation of the unit and that the exact depth of the hole is
known (lowering the motor of a submersible into silt will result in burn-
out).

Pipework Ensure that the pipework is strong enough to carry the weight
of itself and the pump unit, and the stresses induced when the pump is
operational.

\falves: Wherever possible fit a non-return valve at ground level so that

the rising main water is not lost when the pump is topped.

Electric Cables: Ensure that the cable size is adequate to avoid voltage
drops greater than those acceptable to the unit.

A/93 M4/2
 Maximum Suction Lift at Varying Altitudes

Altitude Barometric Equivalent Practical

Pressure head of maximum
water in suction lift
of pumps
Bar mm m m
hg

Sea level 1.013 760 10.33 6.5

500m 0.954 716 9.73 6.0
1000m 0.899 674 9.16 5.5
1500m 0.846 634 8.62 5.0
2000m 0.796 597 8.12 4.5

A/93 M5
 Centrifugal Pump Fault Finding

(a) No delivery

Pump not fully primed.

Leaking footvalve, suction pipe or glands.
Hump in suction line (air-locking).
Wrong direction of rotation.
Strainer blockage or blockage in pump or pipes.
Low drive speed (motor under-voltage, belt slippage.)
Head too high for pump.
Suction lift too high.
(b) Loss of delivery

Leaky suction pipes or glands.

Air or gas in liquid.
Inlet becoming uncovered or inadequately submerged.
Suction lift exceeding pump capability owing to falling level.

(c) Excess Power

Speed too high.

Pump misalignment.
Head too low (or too high) according to pump characteristic.
Foreign matter in pump body.

(d) Noise/Vibration

Delivery head too high.

Suction lift too high.
Blocked suction line or impeller.
Air in liquid.
Misalignment.
Worn or faulty bearings.

B/3/88 M6
 Pumps - Starting and Stopping Procedures

Starting
Where fitted supply cooling water to:-

Bearing jackets.
Gland/mechanical seal connections.
Michell bearings.
Oil coolers.

Pumps with Positive Pumps with Negative

Suction

a) Fully open suction valve a) Prime pump against a

foot valve or use
priming equipment

b) Check that correct suction b) Release all air

head is available from pump

c) Release all air from c) Release all air from

pump suction piping

d) Release all air from d) Check suction valve

from suction piping fully open

e) Start drive unit

f) Observe oil-rings (if fitted) rotate freely

g) Open pump delivery valve

h) Check that electric motor current is normal and

that pump delivery pressure is correct.

i) Check that packings/mechanical seal are

running cool

Stopping
a) Close delivery valve.
b) Stop driver unit.
c) Close any auxiliary water supplies.

B/3/88 M7
 Pumps - Gland Repacking

See Fig. M8.

1) Use a pair of extractor tools to withdraw all the old rings of

packing. Wipe the inside surfaces clean.

2) Check that the shaft runs true and is free from pitting, scoring or
sharp edges beneath the packing. Check the gland follower for
correct fit within the stuffing box. The maximum clearance
between the inside of the gland and the shaft should be 0.4mm.
The maximum clearance between the gland follower inside face
and the stuffing box inside face should be 0.25mm.

3) Cut rings off the spiral, spool or coil at an angle of 45 to exact

shaft size so that ends of packing meet around the shaft size and
check the first ring fits correctly in box.

4) Metallic and extruded packing rings are spirally opened ready for
fitting.

5) Fit each ring separately using a tamping stick to ensure that the
ring is pushed hard home. NB. PTFE multi-filament yarns are just
slid into the box and must not be driven home.

6) Joints are staggered by 120. Before fitting each ring check that
the shaft turns freely. If a lantern ring is fitted, position below
inlet connection, allowing for slight compression of bottom
packing rings.

7) Bring the gland follower up squarely against the last packing ring
and tighten the nuts evenly to finest pressure, checking the shaft
turns freely.

8) With pumps, leakage should take place. After start-up the gland
nuts should be tightened by one-sixth of a full turn at 10 minute
intervals, until leakage is reduced to an acceptable level.

9) Ensure that the gland remains cool and re-adjust after a few hours'
running.

C/93 M8/1
10) With packing glands of valves tighten the gland nuts until the
packing offers moderate resistance to spindle movement.
(Acknowledgements to Crane Packing Ltd., for the above
procedure recommendations).

C/93 M8/2
 Retaining Pressure Rubber
ringv spring, / seal
Packing
Running
land
face
Shaft bush
Shaft

a) Soft-packed stuffing box b) Mechanical seal

maximum
ft
0.25
maximum

c) Packing withdrawal d) Gland follower clearances

Pump Glands Fig M8

 Derating or Diesel Engines with Altitude

Where the motive power is supplied by a diesel engine it is important to

remember that the manufacturers stated outputs are usually only applicable
to 1500m (500ft) above sea level. For every 300m (100ft) of altitude
above this level the power output should be derated by 3.5%.

Also, the manufacturers stated outputs are usually at an ambient

temperature up to 30 deg C (85 deg F) and power output should be derated
by 2% for every 2 deg C (10 deg F) in excess >

Derating for humidity can be up to 6%.

A/93 M9
 V-Belt Drives

The endless V-Belt drive is extensively used by pump and compressor

manufacturers to transmit power from the drive unit and it is important
that when replacements are required the correct belt is requested.

Where the manufacturer has fitted a multi belt pulley, ensure that all the
belts are fitted, as running with less will result in damage to the remaining
belts. Replacement should be made in matched sets and old and new belts
should not be mixed.

Do not use automotive belts for industrial purposes as they are designed
for and operate under quite different conditions, i.e. rapidly increasing and
decreasing speed loads. The V-Belt is manufactured with a core of high
tensile cord embedded in rubber or a synthetic and encased in a fabric and
rubber reinforcement and all belts have a standard angle of 40 deg. The
most common type are wedge belts and these come in four sizes, SPZ,
SPA, SPB, SPC, and the number which follows the code is the length of
the belt in mm.

The correct installation of belts is very important and they should be

placed in their grooves by hand. The use of levers to force belts onto
pulleys can damage the load bearing cords causing premature failure.

It is particularly important that during the early life of the belt, when
bedding-in is taking place, belts are checked for tensioning as heat
generated if the belt slips causes severe damage.

A/93 M10
 Petrol Engines - Fault Tracing

Petrol (Internal Combustion) Engines

D3 Fault Tracing Chart
00
00

ENGINE WILL NOT START

Starter wilt not turn engine 1. Battery discharged or corroded terminals.

2. Loose connections or faulty starter switch
contacts.
3. Starter motor brush or commutator trouble.

Starter turns engine slowly 4. Any of faults 1, 2, or 3

Engine partially seized.

Continued/
 Fault Tracing Chart (Continued^

oo ENGINE WILL NOT START

00

5. Loose or faulty low tension cable to coil.

6. Faulty capacitor.
7. Faulty ignition coil or contact breaker.
Starter turns engine 8. Faulty distributor rotor or high tension
normally but engine pick-up contact.
does not start 9. Damp HT leads or sparking plugs.
10 Lack of fuel.
11 Filters or pipes choked.
12 Petrol supply faulty.
13 Air leaks in induction system.
14 Sticking or leaking valve.
IS Valve timing incorrect.
16 Ignition timing incorrect.
17 Leakage past pistons and cylinders.

Continued/
 Petrol (Internal Combustion') Engines

Fault tracing Chart (Continued)

oc

FAULTY IDLING

Any of faults S, 6, and 7.

18. Plug insulation defective, sooted up or gaps
too wide.
Engine fires but dies 19. Ignition too retarded.
out 20. HT leads wrongly connected.
21. Fuel supply inadequate - Faults 11 and 12.
22. Mixture controls incorrect.
23. Water in carburettor.
24. Vent hole in petrol tank cap blocked.
Engine wilt not slow-run 25. Valve sticking.
26. Slow running adjustment set incorrectly.
27. Slow running jet blocked.
28. Worn valves, guides or piston rings.
29. Valve clearances wrongly adjusted.

Continued/
 Petrol flntemai Combustion) Engines
Fault Tracing Chart (Continued)

ERRATIC RUNNING

Engine will not open Any of Faults 6, 7, 18 or 19.

up and lacks power 30. Main jet blocked.
31. Petrol shortage.
32. Choked exhaust system.

All ignition faults.

Engine misfiring and 33. Unsuitable sparking plugs. All carburation
spitting back faults.
34. Weak mixture.
35. Throttle not opening fully.

36. Engine tight.

37. Fan faulty - blades bent or belt slipping.
Engine overheats 38. Cooling system faulty - radiator blocked, pump
not working.
39. Slipping clutch or binding brakes.

Continued/
 ' Petrol (Internal Combustion) g
Fault Tracine Chart (Continued)

ro
OO
oc ENGINE RUNNING NORMALLY

Engine cuts out suddenly. Usually electrical fault.

Engine dies out gradually. Usually carburation fault.

Mechanical noise:-

Medium low pitch knock Big end bearing wear.

High pitch tap Worn gudgeon pins.
Low pitch thud Main bearing slack.
Intermittent thuds Loose fly wheel or end play on crankshaft.
Shrill squeaking Distributor cam.
Whistling or hissing Air leaks in induction system.
Continuous tapping Excessive valve clearances.

l/i
 Diesel Engines - Fknlt Tracing

Diesel fComjpression Ignition) Engine

Fault Tracine Chart
30
J

ENGINE WILL NOT START

Starter wilt not turn engine 1. Battery discharged or corroded terminals.

2. Starter switch contacts faulty or loose
connections.
3. Starter motor brushes or commutator faults.

Starter only turns slowly Any of Faults 1,2 and 3.

4. Engine partially seized.

5. Lack of fuel
Starter turns engine normally 6. Choked filter.
7. Faulty fuel supply pump.
8. Air lock in fuel system.
9. Injection pump fault.
10. Loss of compression - defective valves.

Continued/
 Diesel (Compression Ignition^ Engine Fault Tracing Chart (Continued)

oc

FAULTY RUNNING

Any of Faults 8, 9, 10 and 11.

Erratic running 12. Leaks in fuel system.
13. Poor engine compression.
14. Water in fuel.

Any of Faults 6, 7, 8, 9, 11, 12 and 13.

Lack of power 15. Injection pump timing incorrect.

ENGINE RUNNING NORMALLY

Any of Faults 12, 13, and 15.

Excess fuel consumption 16. Engine valve clearances need adjustment.
17. Fuel injection pump needs adjustment.
18. Fuel injection pump governor set wrongly.
19. Fuel supply controls set wrongly.

to
to Continued/
 Diesel fComDression lenttion) En&ine Fault Tracine Chart (Continued!

Fault 8
Excessive knocking 20. One or more injectors sticking.
(deonation) 21. Lack of water in cooling system.
22. Lack of engine lubricating oil.
23. Start of injection too far advanced.
24. Excessive carbon deposit.

Mechanical noise:-

Low pitch knock Big end bearings worn.

Low pitch thud Main bearing worn.
Intermittent thuds Loose flywheel or excessive crankshaft end
play.
High pitch tap Worn gudgeon pins.
Continuous light tapping Excessive valve clearances
Continuous slapping Excessive piston clearance - may disappear
when engine warm.
 INDEX - Group 3 (M & E) - Miscellaneous

XI Planned Preventive Maintenance (P.P.M.)

X2 Vehicle Maintenance and Loading
X3 Pump and Valve Maintenance
X4 Hand Tools

D/93
 Planned Preventative Maintenance (P.P.M.)

Adequate maintenance can only be carried out on a satisfactory basis if

planned. The following guidelines are suggested for instituting P.P.M.
(Planned Preventative Maintenance) for vehicles, pumps and other
equipment and installed plant.

1) List all equipment which needs regular maintenance and establish

realistic frequencies for maintenance tasks.

2) Ensure, as far as practible that the need for frequent maintenance

is 'designed out' by choosing equipment suitable for its duties and
environment.

3) Determine those tasks of 'first line* routine maintenance, e.g.

lubrication, gland packing, leakages, blockages, meter reading,
which operational staff should be trained to carry out.

4) Fit 'fail safe' controls to avoid extensive damage from predictable

causes, e.g. low voltage and phase-failure trips to protect motors,
low water level trips to protect borehole pumps.

5) Plan safe working conditions and access to allow all maintenance

tasks to be carried out.

6) Ensure that drawings and instructions are readily available.

C/93 XI
 Vehicle Maintenance and Loading

The following note refers specifically to Land Rovers, but the principles
apply to other vehicles.

Maintenance , s^n .
Every vehicle should be regularly serviced and in countries where
temperatures are high and conditions are dusty, service intervals should
not exceed 4000 kin's (2500 miles).

It is of particular importance that drivers examine their vehicles on a

regular basis betwgeaservices and that any change
in vehicle handling is noted and investigated. The sooner faults are :
rectified the less the chance of transfer of loading onto other components,
causing a domino effect.

The checks that should be carried out on a regular basis are:

(a) Engine Compartment

(i) - i Levels of oil in engine, gearbox and axles

(ii) i Levels of fluid in brake clutch and radiator reservoirs,
investigate further if levels are down
.i Orivebelts? . . ,;'. . : , - ; f
> tc W Fuel sedimentors for water
viX*) h>< -iAir filter (especially in dusty conditioas) .; ,
(b) ii

)4\)rj-:: Leaks on shock absorbers . vi

K <ii); :, Suspension bushes , ^^t
(HO Springs and spring fixings ,, ,: ,',,
(iv) Look for uneven tyre wear
.<);,( ;'i Tyre pressures and lyre condition (inc. spares) r . >i
Steering , J 4 ^ c ' ,;,.:= -: , r; ^i.s.-^-r-St:,
' ' "i, ; v v i1'''''" ;.' '"" ' 'd'' ;
V: (' :".. ;.,. ;ii; .,.,-'it\.,:.i * ; $%.

(i) Wear on steering bushes and joints : , ,r; r

(ii) Alignment or toe in. Ensure that on major services
Jis-.r- caster and camber angles are checked ^ :.i^ - A

A/93 X2/1
A H l i g h t s i n c l u d i n g brtilsfe i n d i c a t o r te>: ^ 4 ES'^-J a:: M P * . C J ^ ' ^"i
I., ' r t f , ' ::;iiK> ;' l.qxf?-
(i) Look around for fluid leaks, especially on brake system
(ii) Wear on drive system ie. universal joints * t kM
(m) ^ s ft pressures are ever used vehicle speed should not
exceed 40 kph (25 mph) ?i ;,:>- -:
:. . . .'- ; .,.., iOt a?iv i : \ f feia ,Vi-ir.\r"-i<JT^:
Loading _ ' ...!!> v* X ? >**,./:* rvt

Overloading or incorrect loading can have1 serious consequences for the7

vehicle and its driver and passengers. Care shouldValways be taken ta
ensure that manufacturers weights are not; exceeded and that loads are :
correctly distributed. - ' ?-.:: l i t "VV&.VJ rf : ! Vi ':.
. 1 . Z . 7 1 rtli i. Jiis;~.:.':

The total or GfVW for which the LandRover is designed is 3050 kg. This
consists of the kerb weight and payload and the followingtpayloads are
applicable:-
. fr:: ; . .jg ""?.:% ;j i'.-;
(a) 110 Station Wagon 1081 kgs
(b) 110 Pick Up ;- * H: ' - 1211 kgs
"-*: (c) i 10 High Capacity Pick Up ti?;. 117 kgs

But equally important is the fact that the vehicle designed to have
maximum axle weight of 1200 kg at the fronvdnd 1850 kg at the rear. So
the actual load you can carry may be limited by. the axle load factor.

Since in the field you will not have a weighbridge a practrcaj^giilde is a

correctly fully loaded LandRover should have about 50 mm (2") between
the front bumper rubber and axle pad and 75 mm(3") clearance at the
rear. The load should also be distributed with weight concentration
forward of the rear axle. v> -.>, 5 ' f i;

If a roof rack is fitted the maximum load is 150 kg which includes the
weight of the rack itself and it should be remembered that a roof rack
allows you to carry more volume not extra weight. The roof raffle should
not be loaded on an empty vehicle and should not extend over the bonnet
of the vehicle. .;*'! j a : . : .....''? . . ..-''' '

A vehicle overloaded or badly loaded can have serious consequences by

causing unnecessary stress in the chassis and suspension, uneven wear in
suspension components and serious imbalance when manoeuvring the
vehicle over rough terrain.

A/93 * X2/2
 Pump and \folve Maintenance

A. General

1. n "' Pumps (of any type) should be inspected at regular intervals -

' before faults or output deduction occurs.

2. When dismantling pumps or any mechanical equipment cleanliness

T, is essential lay parts on a clean board or sheet when dismantling.

3:" Bf'asshuts Should'be used if possible lightly grease bolt threads

before assembly and if necessary drill and pin the nut to prevent it
Working loose.
\s',*;. . .... '" v,\ .;

4. , n Screw valves can be either right left hand closing and the valve
] * Ihpuld have* an appropriate indication on the valve wheel. Valves
should never be left hard open against the stop as they can become
jammed.

5. ^ ^ O i j return (refluxj'valves should need little attention but remove

^ cover occasionally and clear any accumulated scale or dirt.

6. Relief valves also should need little attention but turn the adjusting-
screw for setting the relief pressure from time to time to prevent
its becoming seized up. If possible the relief valve discharge
ho'iild beamed tp the suction. The relief valve setting should be
&.*> -M^^aL'! n^naaj maximum pressure.

7. Pressure reducing valves will usually be of the spring operated

type but are not top accurate or reliable. The spring seating and
, .^jusimeHil and the freedom of operation of the valve, must be ~
1ti; ; :
c l i c k e d frequently. '" "'' '

8. Check the operation or air release valves and air vents on storage
" ,tanki pericKlicaIly.'s "'"'' . ' " '
r& t , , >

A/93 X3/1
 B. Positive Displacement Pumps

1. There should be isolating valves on all positive displacement

pumps (i.e.reciprocating ram or piston or J^iono type) which
must of course be ,oj>en when slartiqgjhe |>ijmjpi (whereas on a
centrifugal pump the pump may be started against a closed
; ,L delivery valve to reduce engine/motor sta^tingjlqad^ _ ,

2. A pressure gauge, should be fitted on ihe delivery stde of the

.^pump and a compound.or vacuum,g3uge.pn the jiuction^osciHating
;,.'"; pressures will cause me gauge^'tp flicker e^^sjy^lyjf a
cushioning arrangement such as an airbottle ^ not been
installed, in which event try shutting the control cock slightly.
on
S ,|. Although reciprbcajtingpuijjp?^iv$J0. V^^^f^f^^^
7 the suction side .JshouM be ^p^ re^pi^bty^ig^ |o preyent air
X
ingress. " ""' ' ""*" '"'"'" *\.rxi.w.

,4^ .. If the pump is; belt driven ij is important that the^elt pension is
l: kept to the, supplier's recommendation - |oo tigh^wijjt cause
heaving damage and too slack belt slip.

1-- C . A i r C o m p r e s s o r s .f . ... , . * ; < ..-., , p ^ . , v;> -r^ui

*^.r Correct type (non^detergen^ and^ yiscosj^j^|u^^)iii f oil and

correct levels should.be maintained. T09 j^ti^oj|. in,tn sump
will cause inlet and outlet valves to stick, and may also affect the
t loading/off^,loaduig control valve. v; , v ->

2.e If there is .continuous requir$nent~for the air aife compressor

should be of a capacity that it does not n^ed to run more than V& at
a time.

3. If there is ah air receiver Ft should have ^relief valufej set about

10% above the maximum working pressure. Air receivers should
be fitted with a drain which should be opened daily to evacuate
accumulated water.

4. Air compressors get hot and it is therefore essential that they are
sited in a well ventilated space.

A/93 ^ X3/2
5. Compressors are very susceptible to suction conditions and care
should be taken that the suction (inlet) filter is kept clean. Inlet,
outlet valves also are critical and their seating has to be perfect,
otherwise the compressor will be worked excessively and may not
attain its proper working pressure.

6. As a general rule compressors and pneumatic equipment requires

very much more maintenance than an oil pump and hydraulic
system.

'!?

A/93 X3/3
Most field offices will have acces$r.to a commercial repajr hqp/workshop,
biit a basic set of hand tools is"always useful,,and thj^ fQjlpw^g is
offeirfed as a check list: ' '""'..''!. /;''.. 31 - > v '~<>^,ir'vi m ..;..!:

Universal joint sockets

ets .. :_., ^c.,3?r-,
Ring spanners *
Open spanners
Combination spanners
Screw drivers (straight and Phillips)
Electricians screw drivers
Allen keys
Taps and dies set
Breast drill
Files (flat and round)
Adjustable wrenches
Pliers
Chisels and punches
Hammers
Hacksaws
High speed twist drills
Pipe wrenches
Chain wrenches
Extractors
Tin snips
Pop rivet kit
Valve tapper and feeler gauges
Vice
12V. inspection lamp

C/93 a?K:' : X4