Chapter 18: Electric Current and

Circuits
Electric current
EMF
Current & Drift Velocity
Resistance & Resistivity
Kirchhoffs Rules
Series & Parallel Circuit Elements
Applications of Kichhoffs Rules
Power & Energy
Ammeters & Voltmeters
RC Circuits
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 18.1 Electric Current

e- e- e-
e- A metal wire.
e- e- e- e-

Assume electrons
flow to the right.

q Current is a measure of the amount

Current : I = of charge that passes though an area
t
perpendicular to the flow of charge.

Current units: 1C/sec = 1 amp = 1 A

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A current will flow until there is no potential difference.

The direction of current flow in a wire is opposite the flow of

the electrons.

e- e- e-
e-
e- e- e- e-

ve

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Example: If a current of 80.0 mA exists in a metal wire,
how many electrons flow past a given cross-section of the
wire in 10.0 minutes?

q
I=
t
( )
q = It = 80.0 10 3 A (600 sec ) = 48.0 C

q
# of electrons =
charge per electron
48.0 C
=
1.60 10-19 C/electron
= 3.00 10 electrons
20

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 18.2 EMF and Circuits

An ideal battery maintains a constant potential difference.

This potential difference is called the batterys EMF().

The work done by an ideal battery in pumping a charge q

is W=q.

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 At high potential

The circuit symbol for a

+
battery (EMF source) is -

At low potential

Batteries do work by converting chemical energy into

electrical energy. A battery dies when it can no longer
sustain its chemical reactions and so can do no more work
to move charges.

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 18.3 Microscopic View of Current
in a Metal

Electrons in a metal might have a speed of ~106 m/s, but

since the direction of travel is random, an electron has
vdrift = 0.

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Only when the ends of a wire are at different potentials
(E0) will there be a net flow of electrons along the wire
(vdrift 0). Typically, vdrift < 1 mm/sec.

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Calculate the number of charges (Ne) that pass through the
shaded region in a time t:
l
l = vD t
n: number of free charge/ unit volume
l

N e = n( Al )
= nA(vd t )
q eN e
The current in the wire is: I = = = neAvd
t t
Cross-sectional area
of wire
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Example (text problem 18.19): A copper wire of cross-
sectional area 1.00 mm2 has a constant current of 2.0 A
flowing along its length. What is the drift speed of the
conduction electrons? Copper has 1.101029 electrons/m3.

I = neAvd
I 2.0 A
vd = =
( )( )(
neA 1.10 10 29 m -3 1.60 10-19 C 1.00 10 6 m 2 )
= 1.1 10 4 m/sec = 0.11 mm/sec

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 18.4 Resistance and Resistivity

A material is considered ohmic if VI, where

Ohms Law

V = IR
The proportionality constant R is called
resistance and is measured in ohms (; Non-ohmic
and 1 = 1 V/A).

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 L
The resistance of a conductor is: R=
A

where is the resistivity of the material, L is the length of

the conductor, and A is its cross sectional area.

With R a material is considered a conductor if is small

and an insulator if is large.

Note: Resistivity is the reciprocal (inverse) of electrical

coductivity

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The resistivity of a material depends on its temperature:

= 0 (1 + (T T0 ))

where 0 is the resistivity at the temperature T0, and is

the temperature coefficient of resistivity.

A material is called a superconductor if =0.

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T/TC
Example (text problem 18.28): The resistance of a conductor
is 19.8 at 15.0 C and 25.0 at 85.0 C. What is the
temperature coefficient of resistivity?

Values of R are given at different temperatures, not

values of . But the two quantities are related.

L
R = (1) = 0 (1 + (T T0 )) (2)
A
Multiply both sides of equation (2) by L/A and use
equation (1) to get:

R = R0 (1 + (T T0 )) (3)
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Example continued:

Solve equation (3) for and evaluate using the given

quantities:

R
1 25.0
1
=
R0
= 19 .8 3
= 3.75 10 C -1

T 85.0 C 15.0 C

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The Electric Circuit

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 18.5 Kirchhoffs Rules
Junction rule: The current that flows into a junction is the
same as the current that flows out. (Charge is conserved)
A junction is a place where two or more wires (or other
components) meet.

I1=I2+I3

Loop rule: The sum of the voltage dropped around a closed

loop is zero. (Energy is conserved.)
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For a resistor: If you cross a resistor in the direction of the
current flow, the voltage drops by an amount IR (write as
IR). There is a voltage rise if you cross the other way
(write as +IR).

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For batteries (or other sources of EMF): If you move from
the positive to the negative terminal the potential drops by
(write as ). The potential rises if you cross in the other
direction (write as +).

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A current will only flow around a closed loop.

A B
VAB is the
terminal
voltage.

VAB IR = 0
Applying the loop rule:
Ir IR = 0
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In a circuit, if the current always flows in the same direction
it is called a direct current (DC) circuit.

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 18.6 Series and Parallel Circuits
Resistors:

The current through the two

resistors is the same. It is not
used up as it flows around
the circuit!

These resistors are in series.

Apply Kirchhoffs loop rule: IR1 IR2 = 0

= IR1 + IR2 = I ( R1 + R2 ) = IReq
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The pair of resistors R1 and R2 can be replaced with a
single equivalent resistor provided that Req=R1 + R2.

In general, for resistors in series Req = R1 + R2 + + Rn

n
= Ri .
i =1

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Current only flows around closed loops. When the current
reaches point A it splits into two currents. R1 and R2 do not
have the same current through them, they are in parallel.

Apply Kirchhoffs loop rule:

I1 R1 = 0
I 2 R2 = 0

The potential drop across

each resistor is the same.

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Applying the junction rule at A: I =I1+I2.

From the loop rules: = I1 R1 = I 2 R2

Substituting for I1 and I2 in the junction rule:

I= +
R1 R2
I 1 1 1
= + =
R1 R2 Req
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The pair of resistors R1 and R2 can be replaced with a
single equivalent resistor provided that

1 1 1
= + .
Req R1 R2

In general, for resistors in parallel

1 1 1 1
= + ++
Req R1 R2 Rn
n
1
= .
i =1 Ri
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Example (text problem 18.40): In the given circuit, what is
the total resistance between points A and B?

R1= 15
A

R 2=
R 3=
12 24

1 1 1
R2 and R3 are in parallel. Replace = +
with an equivalent resistor R23. R23 R2 R3
R23 = 8
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Example continued:

The circuit can now be redrawn:

R1= 15
A
The resistors R23
and R1 are in series:
R23=8

R123 = R1 + R23
= 23 = Req
B

A
Is the equivalent
R123 circuit and the total
=23 resistance is 23 .
B
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Capacitors:

C1 C2
For capacitors in series the charge
on the plates is the same.

Q Q
=0
Apply Kirchhoffs loop rule: C1 C2
1 1 1
= + =
Q C1 C2 Ceq

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The pair of capacitors C1 and C2 can be replaced with a
single equivalent capacitor provided that

1 1 1
= + .
Ceq C1 C2

In general, for capacitors in series

1 1 1 1
= + ++
Ceq C1 C2 Cn
n
1
= .
i =1 Ci
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 C2

C1 Apply Kirchhoffs loop rule:

Q1
=0
C1
Q2
=0
C2

For capacitors in parallel the charge on the plates may be

different. Here
Qeq = Q1 + Q2
Ceq = C1 + C2
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The pair of capacitors C1 and C2 can be replaced with a
single equivalent capacitor provided that Ccq= C1 + C2.

In general, for capacitors in parallel

n
Ceq = C1 + C2 + + Cn = Ci .
i =1

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Example (text problem 18.49): Find the value of a single
capacitor that replaces the three in the circuit below if
C1 = C2 = C3 = 12 F.
C1

C2 and C3 are in parallel

C3 C2
C23 = C2 + C3
= 24 F
B

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Example continued:

The circuit can be redrawn:

C1

A
The remaining two capacitors
are in series.
1 1 1
= +
C23 C123 C1 C23
1 1
= +
B
12 F 24 F
C123 = 8 F
A

C123
Is the final, equivalent circuit.
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B
 18.7 Circuit Analysis Using
Kirchhoffs Rules

To solve multiloop circuit problems:

1. Assign polarity (+/-) to all EMF sources.

2. Assign currents to each branch of the circuit.
3. Apply Kirchhoffs rules.
4. Solve for the unknowns.

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Example (text problem 18.53): Find the three unknown
currents (the current in each resistor).
I3

+ -
2 R3
I2

R2
+ I1
-

1 R1
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Example continued:

Loop EDCFE: 1 I1 R1 I 2 R2 = 0

Loop AFCBA: 2 + I 2 R2 I 3 R3 = 0
Note: Could also use Loop AFEDCBA

Junction C: I1 = I 2 + I 3
Note: could also use junction F
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Example continued:

The point is to write down three equations for the three

unknown currents.

(1) I1 R1 + I 2 R2 = 1

(2) I 3 R3 I 2 R2 = 2

(3) I1 = I 2 + I 3

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Example continued:

Substitute (3) into (1): (R1 + R2 )I 2 + R1I 3 = 1 (4)

R3 I 3 R2 I 2 = 2 (2)

Multiply the top equation by R3 and the bottom equation

by +R1, add the equations together, then solve for I2.

R3 (R1 + R2 )I 2 R1 R3 I 3 + R1 R3 I 3 R1 R2 I 2 = R1 2 R3 1
R1 2 R3 1
I2 =
R3 (R1 + R2 ) R1 R2
I 2 = 0.123 amps
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Example continued:

Substitute I2 = -0.123 amps in to (2):

2 + I 2 R2
I3 =
R3
I 3 = +0.199 amps

Now substitute the known values of I2 and I3 into (3):

I1 = I 2 + I 3
= 0.123 amps + 0.199 amps
= +0.076 amps
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Example continued:

The negative sign on I2 means that instead of the current

going from right to left (from point C to point F) in the branch
with resistor 2, it really goes from left to right. It is essential
to keep the negative sign when evaluating your equations
numerically. Make the correction only when the problem is
finished.

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 18.8 Power and Energy in Circuits

U q
The energy dissipation rate is: P= = V = IV
t t

For an EMF source: P = I

V 2
For a resistor: P = IV = I 2 R =
R

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 18.9 Measuring Currents and
Voltages

Current is measured with an ammeter. An ammeter is placed

in series with a circuit component.

A1 A1 measures the
An ammeter R1 current through R1.
has a low
internal A2 A2 measures the
resistance. R2 current through R2.

A3 A3 measures the
current drawn from
the EMF.
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A voltmeter is used to measure the potential drop across a
circuit element. It is placed in parallel with the component.
A voltmeter has a large internal resistance.

The voltmeter measures the

voltage drop across R1.
R1

R2

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 18.10 RC Circuits

Switch R Close the switch at t=0 to

start the flow of current.
+- C
The capacitor is being
+
- charged.

Q
Apply Kirchhoffs loop rule: IR = 0
C
Q
Note : I =
t
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The current I(t) that satisfies Kirchhoffs loop rule is:

I (t ) = I 0 e
t

where I0 = and = RC.
R

is the RC time constant and is a measure of the

charge (and discharge) rate of a capacitor.

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 The voltage drop t
VC (t ) = 1 e
across the capacitor is:

VR (t ) = I (t )R
The voltage drop
across the resistor is:

Q C (t ) = CVC (t )
The charge on the
capacitor is:

Note: Kirchhoffs loop rule must be satisfied for all times.

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Plots of the voltage drop across the (charging) capacitor
and current in the circuit.

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While the capacitor is charging S2 is open. After the capacitor
is fully charged S1 is opened at the same time S2 is closed:
this removes the battery from the circuit. Current will now
flow in the right hand loop only, discharging the capacitor.

I Apply Kirchhoffs loop rule:

S1 R
S2
+- C Q
IR + = 0
C

I (t ) = I 0 e
t

The current in the circuit is .

But the voltage drop across the capacitor is now VC (t ) = e

t

.
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The voltage drop across the discharging capacitor:

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Example (text problem 18.83): A capacitor is charged to an
initial voltage of V0=9.0 volts. The capacitor is then
discharged through a resistor. The current is measured and
is shown in the figure.

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Example continued:

(a) Find C, R, and the total energy dissipated in the resistor.

Use the graph to determine . I0=100 mA; the current is

I0/e = 36.8 mA at t= 13 msec.

I 0 = 100 mA =
R
= 13 msec = RC
Since = V0 = 9.0 volts, R = 90 and C = 144 F.

All of the energy stored in the capacitor is eventually

dissipated by the resistor.
1
U = CV0 = 5.8 10 3 J
2

2 52
Example continued:

(b) At what time is the energy in the capacitor half of the

initial value?
1 1
U (t ) = CV (t ) and U (t = 0) = CV02
2

2 2

1 1
Want: U (t ) = U (t = 0) = CV02
2 4
1 1
CV (t ) = CV0
2 2

2 4
1
V (t ) = V0
2
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Example continued:

Solve for t:

t 1
V (t ) = V0 e
= V0
2
t = ln 2 = (13 msec) ln 2 = 4.5 msec

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 Summary
Current & Drift Velocity
Resistance & Resistivity
Ohms Law
Kirchhoffs Rules
Series/Parallel Resistors/Capacitors
Power
Voltmeters & Ammeters
RC Circuits

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