Food Processing Equipment 1

ACHARYA N.G.
RANGA AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY
Course No. FDEN-223
Course Title: Food Processing Equipment - I
Credits: 3 (2 + 1)
Prepared by
Er. B. SREENIVASULA REDDY
Assistant Professor (Food Engineering)

College of Food Science and Technology
Chinnarangapuram, Pulivendula 516390
YSR (KADAPA) District, Andhra Pradesh
Ms. ARUNA KUMARI. Y

Teaching Associate
College of Food Science and Technology
Bapatla - 522101
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DEPARTMENT OF FOOD ENGINEERING
1 Course No : FDEN - 223
2 Title : Food Processing Equipment-I
3 Credit hours : 3 (2+1)
4 General Objective : To impart knowledge to the students on principles,
operation and maintenance of various food
processing equipments namely material handling
equipment, cleaning, grading, sorting, mixing,
forming, size reduction, centrifugation, filtration,
evaporation, drying, cutting and grinding
equipments.
5 Specific Objectives :
a) Theory : By the end of the course, the students will be able to
i) understand different food processing equipments
that are being used in food industries
ii) study about the principles, operation and
maintenance of food processing equipments viz.,
material handling, cleaning, grading, mixing,
forming, size reduction, cutting, grinding,
centrifugation, filtration, evaporation and drying
b) Practical By the end of the course, the students will be able to
i) determine the Engineering properties of food
materials
ii) solve design problems on heat exchangers and
iii) determine overall heat transfer co-efficient of
heat exchangers
A) THEORY LECTURE OUTLINES
1 INTRODUCTION TO MATERIAL HANDLING AND TRANSPORTATION -
SELECTION OF MATERIAL HANDLING MACHINES AND CONVEYORS,
BELT CONVEYOR; BELT CONVEYOR IDLERS, IDLER SPACING, BELT
TENSION
2 BUCKET ELEVATOR: HEAD SECTION, BOOT SECTION, ELEVATOR
LEGS, ELEVATOR BELTS, BUCKETS, DRIVE MECHANISM, HP
REQUIREMENT
3 SCREW CONVEYOR: SCREW CONVEYOR DETAILS, VARIOUS SHAPES
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OF SCREW CONVEYOR TROUGH, CAPACITY AND HORSE POWER
4 PNEUMATIC CONVEYOR, LIMITATIONS OF PNEUMATIC CONVEYING,
CHAIN CONVEYOR
5 PRETREATMENT UNIT OPERATIONS : CLEANING, SORTING: FIXED
APERTURE SORTING
6 SORTING: VARIABLE APERTURE SCREENS, IMAGE PROCESSING,
COLOR SORTING, WEIGHT SORTING AND GRADING
7 PEELING, DEHULLING, DEHUSKING
8 MIXING : INTRODUCTION, AGITATION, AGITATED VESSELS, MIXING OF
LIQUIDS
9 MIXING OF SOLIDS: EQUIPMENT- RIBBON BLENDER, KNEADER,
DOUBLE CONE MIXER, TUMBLING MIXERS, DOUGH AND PASTE
MIXERS
10 FORMING-BREAD MOULDERS, PIE AND BISCUIT FORMERS,
CONFECTIONERY MOULDERS
11 SIZE REDUCTION:INTRODUCTION, GRINDING AND CUTTING, ENERGY
USED IN GRINDING, KICKS LAW, RITTINGERS LAW, BONDS LAW
12 EQUIPMENT FOR SIZE REDUCTION: CUTTERS & GRINDERS,
CRUSHERS, GYRATORY CRUSHER, HAMMER MILL, BALL MILL,
TUMBLING MILL
13 SEPARATION BY CENTRIFUGATION AND FILTRATION
14 SEPARATION BY EXPRESSION, EXTRACTION USING SOLVENTS
15 MEMBRANE CONCENTRATION
16 INTRODUCTION AND IMPORTANCE OF PHYSICAL PROPERTIES-
SHAPE AND SIZE OF GRAINS, SHAPE AND SIZE OF FRUITS, BULK
DENSITY OF THE GRAINS, TRUE DENSITY OF THE GRAINS,
POROSITY, ANGLE OF REPOSE, TEST WEIGHT
17 CO-EFFICIENT OF EXTERNAL FRICTION, CO-EFFICIENT OF INTERNAL
FRICTION, COLOUR OF FOOD MATERIALS
18 THE NEED TO CONSIDER HYGIENIC DESIGN, HAZARDS, HOW TO
APPROACH HYGIENIC DESIGN, HYGIENIC DESIGN PRIORITIES,
HYGIENIC DESIGN PRINCIPLES, SOME GENERAL DESIGN POINTERS
19 SOME BASIC CONCEPTS OF RHEOLOGY, BIOLOGICAL SYSTEMS AND
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES, ASTM STANDARD DEFINITION OF TERMS
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RELATED TO MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
20 OTHER DEFINITIONS RELATED TO MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
21 PHYSICAL STATES OF A MATERIAL, CLASSICAL IDEAL MATERIALS,
IDEAL ELASTIC BEHAVIOR (HOOKEAN BODY), IDEAL PLASTIC
BEHAVIOR (ST. VENANT BODY), IDEAL VISCOUS BEHAVIOR
(NEWTONIAN LIQUID)
22 RHEOLOGICAL MODELS, ELECTRICAL EQUIVALENCE OF
MECHANICAL MODELS
23 RHEOLOGICAL EQUATIONS
24 AERO AND HYDRODYNAMIC PROPERTIES, DRAG COEFFICIENT AND
TERMINAL VELOCITY
25 EVAPORATION, BOILING POINT ELEVATION, TYPES OF
EVAPORATORS, BATCH TYPE PAN EVAPORATOR, NATURAL
CIRCULATION EVAPORATORS
26 RISING FILM EVAPORATOR, FALLING FILM EVAPORATOR, RISING AND
FALLING FILM EVAPORATOR, FORCED-CIRCULATION EVAPORATOR
PLATE EVAPORATOR
27 DESIGN OF A SINGLE EFFECT EVAPORATOR, MATERIAL AND ENERGY
BALANCES, EVAPORATOR EFFICIENCY, BOILING POINT ELEVATION,
METHODS OF IMPROVING EVAPORATOR EFFICIENCY
28 SIZING OF MULTIPLE EFFECT EVAPORATORS
29 THIN LAYER DRYING, MOISTURE CONTENT, EQUILIBRIUM MOISTURE
CONTENT, HYSTERESIS, DRYING CURVES, CONSTANT - RATE
PERIOD, FALLING - RATE PERIOD
30 TRAY AND CABINET DRYER, TUNNEL DRYER, PUFF-DRYING,
FLUIDIZED - BED DRYING, SPRAY DRYING, FREEZE - DRYING
31 INTRODUCTION TO HEAT PROCESSING - BLANCHING,
PASTEURIZATION, STERILIZATION
32 KINETICS OF MICROBIAL DEATH, DECIMAL REDUCTION TIME AND
THERMAL RESISTANCE CONSTANT, PROCESS LETHALITY
B) Practical Class Outlines

1 Determination of engineering properties of food materials
2 Study of Plate type of heat exchangers used in Dairy and Food Industry
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3 Study of Shell and Tube type of heat exchangers used in Dairy and Food
industry
4 Determination of thermal conductivity of milk, solid dairy and food products
5 Determination of overall heat transfer co-efficient of Shell and tube, Plate
heat exchangers, Jacketed kettle used in Dairy and Food Industry - I
heat exchangers, Jacketed kettle used in Dairy and Food Industry - II
heat exchangers, Jacketed kettle used in Dairy and Food Industry - III
8 Studies on heat transfer through extended surfaces
9 Studies on temperature distribution and heat transfer in HTST pasteurizer
10 Design problems on heat exchangers I
11 Design problems on heat exchangers - II
12 Design problems on heat exchangers - III
13 Determination of viscosity of different food materials
14 Design problems on heat exchangers
15 Study of evaporators and their material and enthalpy balances
16 Study of evaporators and their material and enthalpy balances
References
1 Cabe Mc., Smith J.C and Harriot P. Unit operations of Chemical Engineering.
Mc Graw Hill Publishers. New Delhi.
2 Mohesinin N. N. Physical properties of Plant and Animal materials.
3 Stanley E.C. Fundamentals of Food Engineering. AVI Publishers. Westport.
USA.
4 Sahay K.M and Singh K.K. Unit operations of Agricultural Processing. Vikas
Publishing House Pvt. Ltd. New Delhi.
5 Earle R.L. Unit operations in Food Engineering.
6 Fellows P.J. Food Processing Technology, Principles and Practice. Wood
Head Publishing Ltd., Cambridge, England.
7 HSE (Health and Safety Executive) information sheet no.24
8 Singh R. P and Heldman D.R. Introduction to Food Engineering. 3rd Edn.,
9 Smith P.G. Introduction to Food Process Engineering.
10 Chakraverty A. Post Harvest Technology of Cereals, Pulses and Oilseeds.
Page 5 of 151
Oxford & IBH Publishers. New Delhi.
11 Fennema. Principles of Food Science. Part II. Marcel Dekker Inc. publishers.
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LECTURE NO. 1
INTRODUCTION TO MATERIAL HANDLING AND TRANSPORTATION-

SELECTION OF MATERIAL HANDLING MACHINES AND CONVEYORS, BELT
CONVEYOR; BELT CONVEYOR IDLERS, IDLER SPACING, BELT TENSION
Material handling Equipment
Material handling includes a number of operations that can be executed

either by hand (manual) or by mechanical means or devices to convey material
and to reduce the human drudgery.
The most common types of mechanical devices for grain handling are;
1. Belt conveyor
2. Bucket elevator
3. Screw conveyor
4. Chain Conveyor
5. Pneumatic conveyor
Selection of material Handling machines and Conveyors

The selection of proper conveying system is important for ease in
operation and getting desired capacity for a particular product. Principles based
on which the material handling equipment is selected:
Based on the characteristics of the products being conveyed
Working and climatic conditions.
The capacity of conveying
In a conveying system possibility of use of gravity.
The capacity of handling / conveying equipment should match with the
capacity of processing unit or units.
Spillage of conveyed products should be avoided.
Pollution of the environment due to noise or dust by the conveying system
should also be avoided.
Belt conveyors
A belt conveyor is an endless belt operating between two pulleys with its
load supported on idlers. The belt may be flat for transporting bagged material or
V-shaped. The belt conveyor consists of a belt, drive mechanism and end
pulleys, idlers and loading and discharge devices (Fig. 1.1)
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Fig.1.1 Diagram of a belt conveyor
On the belt conveyor baggage/ product lie still on the surface of belt and
there is no relative motion between the product and belt. This results in generally
no damage to material. Belt can be run at higher speeds, so, large carrying
capacities are possible. Horizontally the material can be transported to longer
distance. The initial cost of belt conveyor is high for short distances, but for
longer distances the initial cost of belt conveying system is low.
The first step in the design of a belt conveyor with a specified conveying
capacity is to determine the speed and width of the belt.
The belt speed should be selected to minimise product spillage or

removal of fines due to velocity of the belt. For transportation of grains, the belt
speed should not increase 3.5 m/s. Generally, for grain conveying, belt speed of
2.5 to 2.8 m/s is recommended. The selection of belt width will depend upon the
capacity requirement, speed of operation, angle of inclination of belt conveyor,
trough angle and depth. The capacity of belt conveyor can be calculated as:
Capacity, m2/h = (area of cross - section, m 2 ) X (belt - speed, m/min) X 60
Belt conveyor idlers: The efficiency of belt conveyor is largely

dependent on idlers. For higher efficiency of belt conveying systems, the idlers
must be accurately made and provide a rigid framework. This will maintain a
permanent, well balanced smooth running alignment.
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Fig.1.2 Various troughing configurations
There are three kinds of belt carrying idlers which are used in handling of
bulk materials. The type of idlers affects the cross-sectional load on the belt.
1. The flat belt idlers are used for granular materials having an angle of repose
of not less than 35.
2. Troughing idlers with 20 trough is used for conveying all kinds of bulk
materials.
3. Troughing idlers with 35 and 45 trough angle is mainly used for
transportation of small particle light weight materials like grain, cotton seed etc. It
is also used for carrying heavier, medium size lumps like crushed stones.
Idler Spacing
The spacing between the idlers influences the retention of correct

troughing. The incorrect idler spacing may result in belt undulation. The pitch of
idlers is determined by the idler load rating or the carrying capacity of each idler,
on the sag of the belt between the idlers, belt tension and belt speed. As a
token, the space between the successive idlers should be approximately
equal to the width of belt. The spacing should not exceed 12 metres.
Belt tension
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The tension developed at the drive pulley in transmitting the required
power to move the loaded belt is known as effective tension. The effective
tension is the sum of tension to move the empty belt, the tension to move the
load horizontally and the tension to lift the material. The effective tension is
related with the power required to move the belt and belt speed in the following
manner.
Power in kW
EffectiveTension, Te =
belt Speed , m / s
Grains are mostly discharged from the belt conveyor over the end pulley
or at any other point along the conveyor by a scraper plough or a throw-off
carriage known as a tripper.
While leaving the belt over the end pulley, product flow will describe the
path of a parabola.
Belt conveyors can discharge grains at various locations by means of a
movable tripper (Fig.1.3). Trippers are available as hand propelled, self propelled
or automatic.
Fig.1.3 Tripper for discharge of materials
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LECTURE NO. 2
BUCKET ELEVATOR: HEAD SECTION, BOOT SECTION, ELEVATOR LEGS,
ELEVATOR BELTS, BUCKETS, DRIVE MECHANISM, HP REQUIREMENT
Bucket Elevator
A bucket elevator consists of buckets attached to a chain or belt that

revolves around two pulleys one at top and the other at bottom. The vertical lift of
the elevator may range between few metres to more than 50 m. Capacities of
bucket elevators may vary from 2 to 1000 t/hr. Bucket elevators are broadly
classified into two general types, (1) spaced bucket elevators and (2) continuous
bucket elevators.
The spaced bucket elevators are further classified as,
(1) centrifugal discharge elevators,
(2) positive-discharge elevators,
(3) marine leg elevators and
(4) high-speed elevators.
The continuous bucket elevators are classified as
(1) super capacity bucket elevators and
(2) internal-discharge bucket elevators.
The spaced bucket centrifugal discharge type is most commonly used for
elevating the grains. A centrifugal discharge bucket elevator is shown is Fig.2.1.
The bucket elevator is a very efficient device for the vertical conveyance of bulk
grains. Bucket elevators with belts are employed in food industries for vertical
conveyance of grains, derivatives and flours. Bucket elevators are usually
mounted at a fixed location, but they can also be mounted in a mobile frame.
Bucket elevators have high capacities and it is a fairly cheap means of vertical
conveyance.
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Fig.2.1 Bucket Elevator
It requires limited horizontal space and the operation of conveying is
enclosed in housing, thus it is dust free and fairly quite. The bucket elevator has
limited wear problem since the product is enclosed in buckets.
The buckets are enclosed in a single housing called leg, or two legs may
be used. The return leg may be located at some distance from the elevator leg.
The boot can be loaded from the front or back or both
Fig.2.2 Bucket Feeding
The various discharge types of bucket elevators are shown in the

following figure. The product flow is discharged either by means of gravity or
centrifugal force.
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Fig.2.3 Bucket elevator's discharge methods
1. low speed gravitational discharge 2. high speed centrifugal discharge
The bucket elevator's capacity mainly depends on bucket size, conveying

speed, bucket design and spacing, the way of loading and unloading, the bucket
and the characteristic of bulk material. Belt speed is the first critical factor to
consider. Bucket elevators with a belt carrier can be used at fairly high speeds of
2.5 to 4 m/ s.
The bucket elevator's capacity may be calculated by the following

equation.
Elevator capacity, m3 /hr = bucket capacity, m3 x No. of bucket per m of belt x belt speed, m/min. x 60
Capacity, m3 / h material density, kg / m3
Capacity, t / h =
1000
The main parts of a bucket elevator are,
(1) elevator head section,
(2) elevator boot section,
(3) elevator legs,
(4) belts for bucket elevator and
(5) buckets.
Head Section
A high speed conventional bucket elevator's head section is shown in
Figure. The discharge side of the head should be shaped so that material thrown
from the buckets may not deflect into the down leg. When the product is not
thrown well clear of the buckets into the discharge chute, it will fall in the down
leg. This is called as "back logging".
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Fig.2.4 Diagram of bucket elevator head section
Boot Section
Bucket elevator boots should be of bolted assembly to allow for proper
maintenance and replacement of pulley, shaft and other accessories.
Fig.2.5 Bucket elevator boot section with automatic gravity take-up
Elevator Legs
The up and down moving string of buckets in bucket elevators are
enclosed in elevator legs. The elevator legs limit the emission of dust. These
legs are constructed as all welded, bolted or riveted units. Cross section of
different types of elevator legs is shown in the following Figure.
Figure. 2.6 Cross section of few types of elevator legs
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Elevator Belts
The bucket elevator belt has no support between the drive and the return
pulleys, therefore, cross stiffness of belt is very important. The stretch limitation
of the conveyor belts is also very important. The total stretch of the belt under
maximum load should not exceed 1-2 % of the belt length.
A belt is as strong as its weakest point, so a through connection of the
belt ends is important. Several types of splicing are possible. The type of belt
splice depends on the thickness of the belt and the severity of service. For belts
of five ply thickness or less, the bolted clamp joint, the lap joint, or the butt-strap
joint may be used (Shown in Figure).
Fig.2.7 Belt Splices

I. butt strap joint II. Lap joint III. Clamp joint
Buckets
As per the requirements, buckets are made of different materials and
come in various shapes and sizes. The shape of the bucket is very important for
filling and discharge. The common shape of bucket is shown in the following
Figure. The top angle is generally taken as 80 while the bottom angle is
between 20-30.
Fig.2.8 A common bucket configuration

< 80 <B 20-30
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Drive mechanism
The drive mechanism of a bucket elevator is located near the elevator
head. At the elevator head, the belt is turned around the drive pulley. Drive motor
with gear box and couplings are mounted on a rigid and separate frame.
HP requirement
The theoretical horsepower requirement for the bucket elevator can be
calculated by the following equation.
QHF
hp =
4562
where,
Q = capacity of bucket elevator, kg/min
H = lift of elevator, m
F = factor; 1.5 for elevators loaded on the up side and
1.2 for elevators loaded on the bottom side
The theoretical horsepower should be increased 10-15% to provide for
friction and power requirements for loading, power transmission and drive
losses.
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LECTURE NO. 3
SCREW CONVEYOR: SCREW CONVEYOR DETAILS, VARIOUS SHAPES OF
SCREW CONVEYOR TROUGH, CAPACITY AND HORSE POWER
Screw Conveyor
The screw conveyor consists of a tubular or U-shaped trough in which a

shaft with spiral screw revolves. The screw shaft is supported hanger bearings at
ends. The rotation of screw pushes the grain along the trough. A typical screw
conveyor is shown in the following Figure. The screw conveyor is used in grain
handling facilities, animal feed industries and other installations for conveying of
products generally for short distances. Screw conveyor requires relatively high
power and is more susceptible to wear than other types of conveyors. The pitch
of a standard screw which is the distance from the centre of one thread to the
centre of the next thread is equal to its diameter. For example a 10 cm diameter
screw has a pitch of 10 cm.
Fig.3.1 Screw conveyor
Fig. 3.2 Screw conveyor details

1. screw diameter 2. pitch of screw 3. screw length
As the screw conveyor's driving mechanism is simpler, and no tensioning

device is required, the initial cost of the conveyor is lower than any other
conveyor with the same length and capacity. The main parts of a screw
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conveyor are, screw blade, screw shaft, coupling, trough, cover, inlet and outlet
gates, bearings and drive mechanism.
The screw conveyor is generally used to move grains horizontally.
However, it can also be used at any angle up to 90 from the horizontal, but the
capacity correspondingly reduced as per the inclination of conveyance.
The screw basically consists of a shaft and the screw blade or flight. The
flight is a continuous one piece helix shaped from a flat strip of steel welded onto
the shaft. The screw shaft is usually a joint less tube with thick sides and a high
tensile strength to reduce the weight. The thickness of the steel strip helix
decreases from the inner edge to the outer edge. Troughs of screw conveyor
have different shapes. Most common is U shaped trough. In an enlarged or
flared trough the side walls become wider at the top (Figure). This type of trough
is usually used for conveying non-easy flowing materials which may have lumps.
The tubular trough is completely closed with circular cross-section and mostly
used for conveying materials at inclination or for vertical lift.
Fig.3.3 Various shapes of screw conveyor trough

I. U-trough II. Flared trough III. tubular trough
If the screw conveyor is used to convey different materials, mixing of
products is possible. The capacity of screw conveyor is influenced by the screw
diameter, inclination of the screw blade, speed of the blade, shaft diameter and
cross-section of loading. The theoretical conveyance capacity of the screw
conveyor can be given by the following equation.
Capacity Q, m3/hr = 47.2 (D2 - d2) X P x n

where,
D = screw diameter, m
d = shaft diameter, m
p = pitch, m
n = rpm
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The theoretical capacity is more than the actual capacity because of
screw housing clearance and the loading factor (Figure 3.4).
Fig.3.4 Screw conveyor loading factor

I. 30% loading II. 55% loading
The power requirement of screw conveyors for horizontal operation is
determined by the following equation.
Horse power = QLWF/4560
where, Q = conveyor capacity, m3/hr

L = conveyor length, m
W = bulk material weight, kg/m3
F = material factor (for paddy 0.4)
If the calculated horsepower is less than 1.0, double the value.
horse power = 1 to 2 multiply the value by 1.5
horse power = 2 to 4 multiply the value by 1.25
horse power= 4 to 5 multiply the value by 1.1
For horsepower values of more than 5, no correction is required.
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LECTURE NO. 4
PNEUMATIC CONVEYOR, LIMITATIONS OF PNEUMATIC CONVEYING,
CHAIN CONVEYOR
Pneumatic Conveyor
The pneumatic conveyor moves granular materials in a closed duct by a
high velocity air stream. Pneumatic conveying is a continuous and flexible
transportation method. The material is carried in pipelines either by suction or
blowing pressure of air stream. The granular materials because of high air
pressure are conveyed in dispersed condition. For dispersion of bulk material, air
velocities in the range of 15-30 m/s is necessary.
The pneumatic conveying system needs a source of air blowing or
suction, means of feeding the product into the conveyor, ducts and a cyclone or
receiving hopper for collection of product. There are three basic systems of
pneumatic conveying. These are pressure or blowing system, suction or vacuum
system, and combined push-pull or suck blow system.
In blowing or positive pressure systems, the product is conveyed by using
air pressures greater than the atmospheric pressure.
The selection of air mover is the most important aspect of the design of a
pneumatic conveying system. In design, the two factors, (1) supply air pressure
and (2) the volumetric flow rate of air should be considered.
For separation of product particles from air, air-product separators are
used. Cyclones are mostly used to collect the particles. Cyclone is a device
which removes the bulk of the product particle from the conveying air stream by
centrifugal force. In some cyclone, a fabric filter is attached to remove residual
dust and fine product particles from the air stream (Figure 4.1).
Fig. 4.1 Separation of product particles from air by means of a fabric filter
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Limitations of Pneumatic Conveying
1. Erosion of solid surfaces and equipment surfaces by solid particles with
conveying air stream.
2. In case of bends or misaligned sections, the erosion problem becomes
severe.
3. Chances of repeated impacts between the particles and the solid surfaces
are high. Due to such impacts, product degradation results.
Chain Conveyor
A chain is a reliable machine component, which transmits power by
means of tensile forces, and is used primarily for power transmission and
conveyance systems. The function and uses of chain are similar to a belt.
Chains are divided into five types based on material of composition or method of
construction.
Cast iron chain
Cast steel chain
Forged chain
Steel chain
Plastic chain
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LECTURE NO.5
PRETREATMENT UNIT OPERATIONS: CLEANING, SORTING: FIXED
APERTURE SORTING
Pretreatment Unit Operations
At the time of harvest or slaughter, most foods are likely to contain

contaminants, to have components which are inedible or to have variable
physical characteristics (for example shape, size or colour). It is therefore
necessary to perform one or more of the unit operations of cleaning, sorting,
grading or peeling to ensure that foods with a uniformly high quality are prepared
for subsequent processing.
Cleaning
Cleaning is the unit operation in which contaminating materials are
removed from the food and separated to leave the surface of the food in a
suitable condition for further processing. A classification of the type of
contaminants found on raw foods is shown in the following Table.
Table Contaminants found on raw foods
Type of contaminant Examples
Metals Ferrous and non-ferrous metals, bolts, filings

Mineral Soil, engine oil, grease, stones
Plant Leaves, twigs, weed seeds, pods and skins
Animal Hair, bone, excreta, blood, insects, larvae
Chemical Fertilizer, pesticides, herbicides
Microbial cells Soft rots, fungal growth, yeasts
Microbial products Colors, flavors, toxins
Peeling fruits and vegetables, skinning meat or descaling fish are also
considered as cleaning operations. In vegetable processing, blanching helps to
clean the product. Cleaning should take place at the earliest opportunity in a
food process both to prevent damage to subsequent processing equipment by
stones, bone or metals, and to prevent time and money from being spent on
processing contaminants which are then discarded. In addition, the early
removal of small quantities of food contaminated by micro-organisms prevents
the subsequent loss of the remaining bulk by microbial growth during storage or
Page 22 of 151
delays before processing. Cleaning is thus an effective method of reducing food
wastage, improving the economics of processing and protecting the consumer.
Equipment for cleaning is categorized into wet procedures (for example

soaking, spraying, flotation washing and ultrasonic cleaning) and dry procedures
(separation by air, magnetism or physical methods).
Wet cleaning
Wet cleaning is more effective than dry methods for removing soil from
root crops or dust and pesticide residues from soft fruits or vegetables. It is also
dustless and causes less damage to foods than dry methods. Different
combinations of detergents and sterilants at different temperatures allow
flexibility in operation. However, the use of warm cleaning water may accelerate
chemical and microbiological spoilage unless careful control is exercised over
washing times and subsequent delays before processing.
Furthermore wet procedures produce large volumes of effluent, often with

high concentrations of dissolved and suspended solids (measured as biological
oxidation demand (BOD) or chemical oxidation demand (COD)). Examples of
wet-cleaning equipment include spray washers, brush washers, drum or rod
washers, ultrasonic cleaners and flotation tanks.
Dry cleaning
Dry cleaning procedures are used for products that are smaller, have
greater mechanical strength and possess lower moisture content (for example
grains and nuts). After cleaning, the surfaces are dry, to aid preservation or
further drying. Dry procedures generally involve smaller cheaper equipment than
wet procedures do and produce a concentrated dry effluent which may be
disposed of more cheaply
The main groups of equipment used for dry cleaning are:
air classifiers
magnetic separators
separators based on screening of foods
Removing contaminants and foreign bodies
Physical separation of contaminants from foods is possible when the food
has a regular well-defined shape. For example round foods (peas, blackcurrants
and rapeseed ) are separated from contaminants by exploiting their ability to roll
Page 23 of 151
down an inclined, upward moving conveyor belt. A disc separator, used to
separate grain from weed seeds, consists of a series of vertical metal discs with
precisely engineered indentations in the sides that match the shape of the grain.
Screens are also used to remove contaminants from foods.
Fig. 5.1 Separation of chaff from grain by aspiration cleaning.
Contamination by metal fragments or bolts from machinery is a potential

hazard in all processing. Raw materials may pass through metal detectors
before processing and all packaged foods are checked for contamination.
Ferrous metals are removed by either permanent magnets or electromagnets.
Electromagnets are easier to clean (by switching off the power supply) but
permanent magnets are cheaper.
Sorting
Sorting is the separation of foods into categories on the basis of a
measurable physical property. Like cleaning, sorting should be employed as
early as possible to ensure a uniform product for subsequent processing. The
four main physical properties used to sort foods are size, shape, weight and
colour.
Shape and size sorting

The particle size distribution of a material is expressed as either the mass
fraction of material that is retained on each sieve or the cumulative percentage of
material retained.
Page 24 of 151
Fig. 5.2 Belt-and-roller sorter.
The shape of some foods is important in determining their suitability for

processing or their retail value. For example, for economical peeling, potatoes
should have a uniform oval or round shape without protuberances.
Shape sorting is accomplished either manually or mechanically.
Size sorting (termed sieving or screening) is the separation of solids into two or
more fractions on the basis of differences in size. It is particularly important when
the food is to be heated or cooled as the rate of heat transfer is in part
determined by the size of the individual pieces and variation in size would cause
over-processing or under-processing. Additionally, foods which have a uniform
size are said to be preferred by consumers.
Screens with either fixed or variable apertures are used for size sorting. The
screen may be stationary or, more commonly, rotating or vibrating.
Fixed aperture screens
Two common types of fixed aperture screen are the flat bed screen (or
sieve) and the drum screen (rotary screen or reel). The multideck flat bed screen
(Figure 5.3) has a number of inclined or horizontal mesh screens, which have
aperture sizes from 20 m to 125 mm, stacked inside a vibrating frame. Food
particles that are smaller than the screen apertures pass through under gravity
until they reach a screen with an aperture size that retains them. The smallest
particles that are separated commercially are of the order of 50 m .
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Fig.5.3 Multideck flat bed screen
The capacity of a screen is the amount of food that passes through per
square metre per second.
The rate of separation is controlled by:
the shape and size distribution of the particles
the nature of the sieve material
the amplitude and frequency of shaking
the effectiveness of methods used to prevent blocking (or blinding) of the
sieves.
These types of screens are widely used for sorting dry foods (for example
flour, sugar and spices).
The main problems encountered are:
excessive moisture or high humidity, which causes small particles to
stick to the screen or to agglomerate and form larger particles, which
are then discharged as oversize
blinding, particularly if the particle size is close to that of the screen
aperture
high feed rates, which cause the screens to become overloaded and
small particles, are discharged with the oversized particles.
Where vibration alone is insufficient to separate particles adequately, a
gyratory movement is used to spread the food over the entire sieve area, and a
vertical jolting action breaks up agglomerates and dislodges particles that block
sieve apertures.
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Many types of drum screen are used for sorting small-particulate foods
(for example nuts, peas or beans) that have sufficient mechanical strength to
withstand the tumbling action inside the screen. Drum screens are almost
horizontal (510 inclination), perforated metal or mesh cylinders. They may be
concentric (one inside another), parallel (foods leave one screen and enter the
next (Figure 5.4)) or series (a single drum constructed from sections with
different sized apertures). All types have a higher capacity than flat bed screens
and problems associated with blinding are less severe than with flat bed
screens. The capacity of drum screens increases with their speed of rotation up
to a critical point. Above this the food is held against the screen by centrifugal
force and results in poor separation. Similarly there is an increase in capacity
with the angle of the screen up to a critical angle. Above this the residence time
is too short and products pass through without separation.
Fig. 5.4 Parallel drum screen.
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LECTURE NO. 6
SORTING: VARIABLE APERTURE SCREENS, IMAGE PROCESSING, COLOR
SORTING, WEIGHT SORTING AND GRADING
Variable-aperture screens
Variable-aperture screens have either a continuously diverging aperture
or a stepwise increase in aperture. Both types handle foods more gently than
drum screens and are therefore used to sort fruits and other foods that are easily
damaged. Continuously variable screens employ pairs of diverging rollers,
cables or felt-lined conveyor belts. These may be driven at different speeds to
rotate the food and thus to align it, to present the smallest dimension to the
aperture (Figure).
Figure 6.1 Sorting lemons on a roller sorter.

Stepwise increases in aperture are produced by adjusting the gap
between driven rollers and an inclined conveyor belt (Refer Figure on belt and
roller sorter). The food rotates and the same dimension is therefore used as the
basis for sorting (for example the diameter along the core of a fruit).
Image processing
Image processing is used to sort foods on the basis of length, diameter,
and number of surface defects and orientation of the food on a conveyor as well
as colour. It has been used for example with maize cobs, which pass beneath
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three video cameras, placed 120 apart above a conveyor belt. The images of
the surface of the cob are recorded and stored in the memory of a
microprocessor. The information is then analyzed and compared with pre-
programmed specifications for the product, and the cob is either rejected or
moved into a group with similar characteristics.
Colour sorting
Manual sorting by colour is still widely used but is increasingly expensive
in both labour costs, operator training and the space required for sorting tables.
There has therefore been considerable development of machine vision sorting
systems which are said to have lower operating costs and greater accuracy than
manual methods. These include monochrome (black and white), bichrome (4100
shades of red and green) and trichromatic or full colour (262 000 shades of red,
green and blue, with optional infrared).Each is controlled by a programmable
logic controller which has pre-set programs for different products that are easily
changeable by operators using a video display. They are used for example, to
sort potatoes for defects and blemishes by identifying dark areas on the potato
surface. Light sensitive cells in the camera (termed pixels) produce a voltage
that is proportional to the intensity of light received. An electronic circuit that
receives a lower voltage than the pre-set value can thus detect darker objects or
areas which reflect less light than normal. The voltage produced in the electronic
circuit can be adjusted to alter the sensitivity of detection. Up to 10 tonnes of
product per hour pass beneath the cameras on conveyors operating at 150180
m per min. Defective items are removed by electronically controlled air jets that
can operate for 20 milliseconds, thus covering 50 mm of the belt length in a
single blast. In another system, vegetables in free-fall are scanned 1000 times
per second, as they leave a conveyor belt, using concentrated helium-neon or
laser light beams and a high-speed rotating mirror. The machine detects
differences in reflectivity between good product and unwanted material.
Small-particulate foods may be automatically sorted at high rates using
microprocessor controlled colour sorting equipment. Particles are fed into the
chute one at a time. The angle, shape and lining material of the chute are altered
to control the velocity of the pieces as they pass a photodetector. The colour of
the background and the type and intensity of the light used for illuminating the
food (including infrared and ultraviolet options) are closely controlled for each
product. Photodetectors measure the reflected colour of each piece and
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compare it with pre-set standards, and defective foods are separated by a short
blast of compressed air. The computer can store 100 named product
configurations to enable rapid changeover to different products using an operator
touchpad.
Typical applications include peanuts, rice, diced carrot, maize kernels,
cereals, snack foods and small fruits.
Fig. 6.2 Colour sorter.
A different type of equipment employs a sensor located above a conveyor

belt, which views products as they pass beneath. The sensor detects up to eight
colours and provides an alarm or control signal whenever a pre-selected colour
passes the detector beam. It is also able to distinguish between different
coloured foods which are to be processed separately. In a more sophisticated
system, foods which have variations in colour over their surface are colour
sorted by image processing. The foods are fed in rows on a roller conveyor
beneath a video camera. The relative intensities of reflected red, green and
yellow light are transmitted to the microcomputer which constructs a composite
image of each piece of food, showing both the spread of colour and the mean
colour of inspected foods. The computer compares the constructed image with
pre-set specifications and activates a compressed air ejector or a mechanical
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deflector to remove rejected food. When this type of system is used to sort
baked goods, it is also used to control directly the gas or electricity supply to
the ovens, which is reported to reduce energy consumption in ovens by 20%.
The sorter can be easily adapted to different foods, by operators using the
microprocessor keypad.
Weight sorting
Weight sorting is more accurate than other methods and is therefore used
for more valuable foods (for example eggs, cut meats and some tropical fruits).
Eggs are sorted at up to 12 000 per hour into six to nine categories with a
tolerance of 0.5 g. They are first graded by candling and then pass to the weight
sorter. This consists of a slatted conveyor which transports the eggs above a
series of counterbalanced arms. The conveyor operates intermittently and while
stationary, the arms raise and weigh the eggs. Heavy eggs are discharged into a
padded chute and lighter eggs are replaced on the conveyor to travel to the next
weigher.
Aspiration and flotation sorting use differences in density to sort foods
and are similar in principle and operation to aspiration and flotation cleaning.
Grains, nuts and pulses are sorted by aspiration. Peas and lima beans are
sorted by flotation in brine (specific gravity, 1.11621.1362). The denser,
starchy, over-mature pieces sink whereas the younger pieces float.
Fig. Egg sorter.

Grading
This term is often used interchangeably with sorting but strictly means the
assessment of overall quality of a food using a number of attributes. Sorting
(that is separation on the basis of one characteristic) may therefore be used as
part of a grading operation but not vice versa. Grading is carried out by operators
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who are trained to simultaneously assess a number of variables. For example,
eggs are visually inspected over tungsten lights (termed candling) to assess up
to twenty factors and remove those that are for example, fertilized or malformed
and those that contain blood spots or rot. Meats, for example, are examined by
inspectors for disease, fat distribution, bone to flesh ratio and carcass size and
shape. Other graded foods include cheese and tea, which are assessed for
flavour, aroma, colour, etc. Apples are graded with the assistance of coloured
cards that show the required characteristics of different grades in terms of colour
distribution across the fruit, surface blemishes and size and shape of the fruit.
In some cases the grade of food is determined from the results of
laboratory analyses (for example wheat flour is assessed for protein content,
dough extensibility, colour, moisture content and presence of insects). In
general, grading is more expensive than sorting owing to the higher costs of
skilled operators. However, many attributes that cannot be examined
automatically can be simultaneously assessed, and this produces a more
uniform high-quality product.
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LECTURE NO. 7
PEELING, DEHULLING, DEHUSKING
Peeling
Peeling is used in the processing of many fruits and vegetables to remove
unwanted or inedible material, and to improve the appearance of the final
product. The main consideration is to minimise costs by removing as little of the
underlying food as possible and reducing energy, labour and material costs to a
minimum. The peeled surface should be clean and undamaged.
There are five main methods of peeling:
1. flash steam peeling
2. knife peeling
3. abrasion peeling
4. caustic peeling
5. flame peeling.
1. Flash steam peeling

Foods (for example root crops) are fed in batches into a pressure vessel
which is rotated at 4 6 rpm. High-pressure steam (1500 X 103 Pa) is introduced
and all food surfaces are exposed to the steam by the rotation of the vessel for a
predetermined time, which differs according to the type of food. The high
temperatures cause rapid heating of the surface layer (within 1530 s) but the
low thermal conductivity of the product prevents further heat penetration, and the
product is not cooked. Texture and colour are therefore preserved. The pressure
is then instantly released which causes steam to form under the skin, and the
surface of the food flashes off. Most of the peeled material is discharged with
the steam, and water sprays are needed only to remove any remaining traces.
This type of peeler is gaining in popularity owing to the lower water consumption,
minimum product loss, good appearance of the peeled surfaces, a high
throughput (up to 4500 kg/h) with automatic control of the peeling cycle, and the
production of a more easily disposable concentrated waste.
Knife peeling
Stationary blades are pressed against the surface of rotating fruits or
vegetables to remove the skin. Alternatively the blades may rotate against
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stationary foods. This method is particularly suitable for citrus fruits where the
skin is easily removed and there is little damage or loss of fruit.
Abrasion peeling
Food is fed onto carborundum rollers or placed into a rotating bowl which
is lined with carborundum. The abrasive surface removes the skin and it is
washed away by a copious supply of water. The advantages of the method
include low energy costs as the process operates at room temperature, low
capital costs, no heat damage and a good surface appearance of the food.
Irregular product surfaces (for example eyes on potatoes) may mar the
appearance of the peeled product and require hand finishing.
The limitations of the method are:
a higher product loss than flash peeling (25% compared with 818%
losses, for vegetables)
the production of large volumes of dilute waste which are difficult and
expensive to dispose of
relatively low throughputs as all pieces of food need to contact the
abrasive surfaces.
Caustic peeling
A dilute solution of sodium hydroxide (named lye) is heated to 100
120C. In the older method of lye peeling, food is passed through a bath of 12%
lye which softens the skin and the skin is then removed by high-pressure water
sprays. Product losses are of the order of 17%. Although once popular for root
crops, this method causes changes in the colour of some products and incurs
higher costs. It is now largely replaced by steam or flash peeling.
A development of lye peeling is named dry caustic peeling. Food is
dipped in 10% sodium hydroxide and the softened skin is removed with rubber
discs or rollers. This both reduces water consumption and product losses and
gives a concentrated skin paste which is more easily disposed of.
Flame peeling
Developed for onions, this peeler consists of a conveyor belt which carries
and rotates the food through a furnace heated to 1000 C. The outer paper shell
and root hairs are burned off, and the charred skin is removed by high-pressure
water sprays. Average product losses are 9%.
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Dehulling and Dehusking
Dehulling is the process of removing the hulls (or chaff) from beans
and other seeds. This is done using a machine known as a huller. To prepare
the seeds to have oils extracted from them, they are cleaned to remove any
foreign objects. Next, the seeds have their hulls, or outer coverings, or husk,
removed.
Brown rice is produced by removing the husk from the paddy rice. The
husk is removed by friction as the paddy grains pass between two abrasive
surfaces that are moving at different speeds. After dehusking, the husk is
removed by suction and transported to a storage dump outside the mill. Husk
accounts for 20% of the paddy weight and an efficient husker should remove
90% of the husk in a single pass.
Rice hulling and shelling are different processes. So far in both the
condition the major aim is milling of paddy to get rice. Shelling of paddy is
such a term where the operation of taking out husk from paddy is known
while hulling or dehusking is that process where not only husk is separated
but some part of grain embryo and bran is also separated.
Page 35 of 151
LECTURE NO.8
MIXING: INTRODUCTION, AGITATION, AGITATED VESSELS, MIXING OF
LIQUIDS
Mixing
Mixing is the dispersing of components, one throughout the other. The
mixing of liquids, solids and gases is one of the commonest of all operations in
the food processing industries. Of the possible combinations of these states,
those of principal interest are liquid/liquid mixtures, solid/solid mixtures, and
liquid/solid mixtures or pastes.
Reasons for mixing are:

to bring about intimate contact between different species in order for a
chemical reaction to occur ; and
to provide a new property of the mixture which was not present in the
original separate components. An example is a food mixture of a given
component for nutritional purposes.
It should be clear from the foregoing that mixing is brought about by
agitation.
There are three criteria by which the performance of a mixer should be

assessed. These are:
1. the degree of mixedness achieved,
2. the time required to bring about mixing, and,
3. the power consumption required.
Agitation
The agitation of a liquid is defined as the establishment of a particular flow
pattern within the liquid, usually a circulatory motion within a container. Mixing is
brought about by agitation.
Purposes of agitation
Liquids are agitated for a number of purposes, depending on the objectives of
the processing step. These purposes include:
1. Suspending solid particles.
2. Blending miscible liquids, for example, methyl alcohol and water.
3. Dispersing a gas through the liquid in the form of small bubbles.
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4. Dispersing a second liquid, immiscible with the first, to form an emulsion or
a
suspension of fine drops.
5. Promoting heat transfer between the liquid and a coil or jacket.
AGITATED VESSELS
Liquids are most often agitated in some kind of tank or vessel, usually
cylindrical in form and with a vertical axis. The top of the vessel may be open to
the air; more usually it is closed. The proportions of the tank vary widely,
depending on the nature of the agitation problem. A standardized design such as
that shown in the following figure however, is applicable in many situations. The
tank bottom is rounded, not flat, to eliminate sharp corners or regions into which
fluid currents would not penetrate. The liquid depth is approximately equal to the
diameter of the tank. An impeller is mounted on an overhung shaft, that is, a
shaft supported from above. The shaft is driven by a motor, sometimes directly
connected to the shaft but more often connected to it through a speed reducing
gearbox. Accessories such as inlet and outlet lines, coils, jackets, and wells for
thermometers or other temperature-measuring devices are usually included.
Figure 8.1 Typical Agitation Process Vessel
The impeller causes the liquid to circulate through the vessel and eventually
return to the impeller. Baffles are often included to reduce tangential motion.
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Mixing of Liquids - Liquid Mixing Equipment
For the deliberate mixing of liquids, the propeller mixer is the most
common and the most satisfactory. In using propeller mixers, it is important to
avoid regular flow patterns such as an even swirl round a cylindrical tank, which
may accomplish very little mixing. To break up these streamline patterns, baffles
are often fitted, or the propeller may be mounted asymmetrically.
The mixing of liquids is achieved in an agitated tank. A large number of

different types of impellers are in use; different impellers impart different flow
patterns to the liquid and they must be matched to the rheology of the liquid and
to the desired shear rate. Mixing vessels usually have rounded bottoms, rather
than flat ones, to prevent the formation of dead spaces. The liquid depth is
normally equal to the tank diameter. When an impeller rotates in a liquid the
liquid is likely to swirl in a mass and a vortex will form (Figure). This is
undesirable; the vortex may well draw air from the surface down to the impeller
with the possibility either of unwanted dissolution of air or a waste of energy as
the impeller rotates partly in air at the expense of agitating the liquid.
Consequently baffles are fitted to the tank which consists of vertical strips of
metal running the full depth of the inside surface of the tank. Normally four
baffles are used, their width being about 10 % of the tank diameter. Baffles
minimize vortex formation, prevent swirling of the liquid, and result in more rapid
mixing.
Figure 8.2 Paddle impeller
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Figure 8.3 Anchor impeller
Figure 8.4 Gate Impeller
Figure 8.5 Helical Impeller
Figure 8.6 Vortex formation: without baffles
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Figure 8.7 Vortex formation: with baffles
Various baffles can be used and the placing of these can make very
considerable differences to the mixing performances. It is tempting to relate the
amount of power consumed by a mixer to the amount of mixing produced, but
there is no necessary connection and very inefficient mixers can consume large
amounts of power.
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LECTURE NO.9
MIXING OF SOLIDS: EQUIPMENT- RIBBON BLENDER, KNEADER, DOUBLE

CONE MIXER, TUMBLING MIXERS, DOUGH AND PASTE MIXERS
Mixing of Solids
A theory for solids mixing, as is the case generally for the processing of
particulate solids, is not available as it is for liquids. However a number of mixing
mechanisms can be identified and to a limited extent these can be related to
mixing equipment. The solids mixing mechanisms which can be identified are
diffusion, convection, and shear.
Particles diffuse under the influence of a concentration gradient in the same
way that molecules diffuse. They move by inter-particle percolation, that is, in the
void spaces between other particles under the influence of either gravity or, in
higher speed mixers, of centrifugal effects. Fick's law can be used to describe
this phenomenon.
Convection describes the movement of groups of particles from one place to
another within the mixer volume because of the direct action of an impeller or a
moving device within the mixer body. As in convection within fluids this is likely to
be a more significant effect than diffusion but diffusional effects will still be
present.
The shear mechanism operates when slipping planes are formed within
the particulate mass, perhaps because of the action of a blade, which in turn
allow particles to exploit new void spaces through which particles can then
diffuse.
In addition to these mixing mechanisms, segregation acts against mixing to
separate components which have different physical properties. Segregation is
usually due to gravitational forces, but is heightened when centrifugal effects are
present and occurs when particles have the possibility of falling through the
spaces between other particles. The degree of segregation is a function of
particle size (with smaller particles being more likely to segregate), density, and
shape. Thus, larger size differences and larger density differences in a
particulate mixture are likely to bring about increased segregation and make
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mixing more difficult. It is more difficult to quantify the effect of shape, although
gross differences in shape are more likely to lead to poor mixing.
Equipment for Solids Mixing
A huge variety of devices for the mixing of solids is available.
Ribbon Blender
The essential feature in these mixers is to displace parts of the mixture

with respect to other parts. The ribbon blender, consists of a trough in which
rotates a shaft with two open helical screws attached to it, one screw being right-
handed and the other left-handed. As the shaft rotates sections of the powder
move in opposite directions and so particles are vigorously displaced relative to
each other.
It is usually operated in batch mode with mixer volumes up to about 15 m,

but continuous operation is possible with feed rates up to 10 t/h. Helical ribbon
mixers can be used for slightly cohesive solids, for very thin pastes or for the
addition of liquids to solids. Mixing is strongly convective and segregation is far
less pronounced than in either tumbling mixers or fluidised beds.
Figure 9.1 Mixers (a) ribbon blender, (b) double-cone mixer
Figure 9.2 Y-cone mixer
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Tumbling mixers / Cone MIxers: Essentially these are enclosed containers
which rotate about a horizontal axis and include the horizontal drum, double-
cone, V-cone, Y-cone, and cube. The above figures show double-cone mixer
and Y-cone mixer. These mixers are operated in batch mode being partially filled
with solids (up to about 60% by volume). Tumbling mixers are run at a fraction of
the critical speed required for centrifugation (at which all the solids would be
thrown outwards towards the mixer walls) with a practical maximum speed of
about 100 rpm. They are used for free-flowing solids, but small amounts of liquid
may be added, and are best suited for particles of similar size and density
because strong segregation can occur. Such mixers may have baffles fitted to
the inner walls which help to lift solids or alternatively may be fitted with ploughs
to assist convection.
Dough and Paste Mixers
Dough and pastes are mixed in machines that have, of necessity, to be

heavy and powerful. Because of the large power requirements, it is particularly
desirable that these machines mix with reasonable efficiency, as the power is
dissipated in the form of heat, which may cause substantial heating of the
product. Such machines may require jacketing of the mixer to remove as much
heat as possible with cooling water.
Perhaps the most commonly used mixer for these very heavy materials is
the kneader which employs two contra-rotating arms of special shape, which fold
and shear the material across a cusp, or division, in the bottom of the mixer. The
arms are of so-called sigmoid shape as indicated in below Figure 9.3.
Figure 9.3 Kneader
They rotate at differential speeds, often in the ratio of nearly 3:2.

Developments of this machine include types with multiple sigmoid blades along
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extended troughs, in which the blades are given a forward twist and the material
makes its way continuously through the machine.
Another type of machine employs very heavy contra-rotating paddles,

whilst a modern continuous mixer consists of an interrupted screw which
oscillates with both rotary and reciprocating motion between pegs in an
enclosing cylinder. The important principle in these machines is that the material
has to be divided and folded and also displaced, so that fresh surfaces
recombine as often as possible.
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LECTURE NO.10
FORMING-BREAD MOULDERS, PIE AND BISCUIT FORMERS,
CONFECTIONERY MOULDERS
Forming
Forming is a size enlargement operation in which foods that have a high
viscosity or a dough-like texture are moulded into a variety of shapes and sizes,
often immediately after a mixing operation. It is used as a processing aid to
increase the variety and convenience of baked goods, confectionery and snack
foods. It has no direct effect on the shelf life or nutritional value of foods. Close
control over the size of formed pieces is critical ( for example to ensure uniform
rates of heat transfer to the centre of baked foods, to control the weight pieces of
food, and to ensure the uniformity of smaller foods and hence to control fill
weights ). Extrusion also has a forming function.
In high-viscosity liquids, pastes or doughs, a different action is needed.
Here, mixing occurs by:
kneading the material against the vessel wall or into other material
folding unmixed food into the mixed part
shearing to stretch the material.
Efficient mixing is achieved by creating and recombining fresh surfaces in
the food as often as possible. However, because the material does not easily
flow, it is necessary either to move the mixer blades throughout the vessel or to
move the food to the mixer blades.
Forming Equipment
There are many designs of moulding and forming equipment made
specifically for individual products. In this section the equipment used for bread,
biscuits, pies, snack foods and confectionery is described.
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Figure 10.1 Drum moulder for bread doughs.
Bread moulders
This equipment (Figure 10.1) shapes the dough into cylinders that will
expand to the required loaf shape when proofed. The three stages are
1. Sheeting
2. Curling
3. rolling-sealing.
The first three sets of rollers have successively smaller gaps (or nips) to
roll the dough gently into sheets without tearing. The sheet is loosely curled,
rolled into a cylinder and then sealed by a revolving drum, which presses the
dough against a pressure plate. The pressure is gradually increased to expel
trapped air. Compression of the dough structure causes the moisture content of
the sheet to increase at the trailing end. It is preferable to have the moist part of
the dough at the centre of the cylinder, and a variety of designs are used to
change the direction of the sheet to roll the trailing edge first (for example cross-
grain moulders and reverse sheeting moulders).
ENCASING
In forming and encasing balls of dough with other materials, the inner
material and outer material are co-extruded and then divided and shaped by two
encrusting discs (Fig. 10.2 (a)). In contrast to conventional forming techniques,
where the size of the product is determined by the size of the feed material, the
relative thickness of the outer layer and the diameter of the inner sphere are
determined by the flow rate of each material. It is therefore possible to alter the
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relative thickness of inner and outer layers (Fig. 10.2(b)) simply by adjusting the
flow rates, giving a high degree of flexibility for the production of different
products. This equipment was developed in Japan for production of cakes
having an outer layer of rice dough and filled with bean paste, but they have
found wide application and are used to produce sweetbreads filled with jam,
doughnuts, meat pies, hamburgers filled with cheese and fish filled with
vegetables.
Figure 10.2 (a) Two revolving encrusting discs continuously divide food and
shape it into balls; (b) differences in thickness of outer layer (A) and inner layer
(B) result from different material flow rates.
Pie and biscuit formers
Pie casings are formed by depositing a piece of dough into aluminium foil
containers or re-usable pie moulds and pressing it with a die. A filling is then
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deposited into the casing and a continuous sheet of dough is laid over the top.
Finally the lids are cut by reciprocating blades (Figure 10.3).
Biscuits are formed by one of four methods:
1. the dough is pressed into shaped cavities in a metal moulding roller
(die forming) (Figure 10.4(a))
2. shapes are cut from a sheet of dough using a cutting roller. Raised
characters on a printing roller simultaneously imprint a design on the
upper surface of the biscuit (Fig10.4 (b))
3. soft dough is extruded through a series of dies in a wire-cut machine
(Fig. 10.4(c))
4. a continuous ribbon of dough is extruded from a rout press (similar to a
wire cut machine but without the cutting wires), and the ribbon is then cut
to the required length using a reciprocating blade.
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Figure 10.4 Biscuit formers: (a) rotary moulder; (b) moulding rollers; (c) wire-cut
machine.
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Confectionery moulders
Confectionery depositing-moulding equipment consists of individual
moulds, which have the required size and shape for a specific product, attached
to a continuous conveyor. They are carried below a depositor, which has a
piston filler to deposit accurately the required volume of hot sugar mass into
each mould. Depositors can place food of a single type, in layers, or centre filled
(Figure 10.5(a)) (for example liquid centres or chocolate paste around hard-
boiled sweets). The food is then cooled in a cooling tunnel. When it has
hardened sufficiently, individual sweets are ejected and the moulds restart the
cycle (Figure 10.5(b)).
The three main types of equipment differ in the method of ejection, and
the material used for the mould:
1. metal moulds fitted with ejector pins are used for hard confectionery
(for example butterscotch)
2. flexible polyvinyl chloride moulds, which eject the food by mechanical
deformation, are used for soft confectionery (for example toffee, fudge,
jellies, caramel, fondant and chocolate)
3. polytetra fluoro ethylene-coated aluminium moulds, with compressed-
air ejection, are used for jellies, gums, fondant and cremes.
Figure 10.5 (a) Depositing centre-filled confectionery; (b) confectionery

moulding: an air demoulding depositor.
Page 51 of 151
LECTURE NO. 11
SIZE REDUCTION: INTRODUCTION, GRINDING AND CUTTING, ENERGY
USED IN GRINDING, KICKS LAW, RITTINGERS LAW, BONDS LAW
Size Reduction
Raw materials often occur in sizes that are too large to be used and,
therefore, they must be reduced in size. Size reduction or comminuition is the
unit operation in which the average size of solid pieces of food is reduced by the
application of grinding, compression or impact forces. When applied to the
reduction in size of globules of immiscible liquids (for example oil globules in
water) size reduction is more frequently referred to as homogenization or
emulsification. The size reduction of liquids to droplets is done by atomization.
Size enlargement is achieved by extrusion, agglomeration or forming.
Size reduction has the following benefits in food processing:
There is an increase in the surface-area-to-volume ratio of the food
which increases the rate of drying, heating or cooling and improves the
efficiency and rate of extraction of liquid components (for example fruit
juice or cooking oil extraction.
A similar range of particle sizes allows more complete mixing of
ingredients (for example dried soup and cake mixes).
Size reduction and emulsification have little or no preservative effect.
They are used to improve the eating quality or suitability of foods for further
processing and to increase the range of products available. In some foods size
reduction may promote degradation by the release of naturally occurring
enzymes from damaged tissues, or by microbial activity and oxidation at the
increased area of exposed surfaces, unless other preservative treatments are
employed.
Different methods of size reduction are classified according to the size
range of particles produced:
1. Chopping, cutting, slicing and dicing:
(a) Large to medium
(b) medium to small
(c) small to granular
2. Milling to powders or pastes of increasing fineness
3. Emulsification and homogenisation
Page 52 of 151
GRINDING AND CUTTING
Grinding and cutting reduce the size of solid materials by mechanical

action, dividing them into smaller particles. Perhaps the most extensive
application of grinding in the food industry is in the milling of grains to make flour,
but it is used in many other processes, such as in the grinding of corn for
manufacture of corn starch, the grinding of sugar and the milling of dried foods,
such as vegetables.
Cutting is used to break down large pieces of food into smaller pieces
suitable for further processing, such as in the preparation of meat for retail sales
and in the preparation of processed meats and processed vegetables.
In the grinding process, materials are reduced in size by fracturing them.

The mechanism of fracture is not fully understood, but in the process, the
material is stressed by the action of mechanical moving parts in the grinding
machine and initially the stress is absorbed internally by the material as strain
energy. When the local strain energy exceeds a critical level, which is a function
of the material, fracture occurs along lines of weakness and the stored energy is
released. Some of the energy is taken up in the creation of new surface, but the
greater part of it is dissipated as heat. Time also plays a part in the fracturing
process and it appears that material will fracture at lower stress concentrations if
these can be maintained for longer periods. Grinding is, therefore, achieved by
mechanical stress followed by rupture and the energy required depends upon
the hardness of the material and also upon the tendency of the material to crack
- its friability.
The force applied may be compression, impact, or shear, and both the
magnitude of the force and the time of application affect the extent of grinding
achieved. For efficient grinding, the energy applied to the material should
exceed, by as small a margin as possible, the minimum energy needed to
rupture the material. Excess energy is lost as heat and this loss should be kept
as low as practicable.
The important factors to be studied in the grinding process are the amount
of energy used and the amount of new surface formed by grinding.
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Energy Used in Grinding
Grinding is a very inefficient process and it is important to use energy as

efficiently as possible. Unfortunately, it is not easy to calculate the minimum
energy required for a given reduction process, but some theories have been
advanced which are useful.
These theories depend upon the basic assumption that the energy
required to produce a change dL in a particle of a typical size dimension L is a
simple power function of L:
dE
= KLn (11.1)
dL
where dE is the differential energy required, dL is the change in a typical

dimension, L is the magnitude of a typical length dimension and K, n, are
constants.
Kick assumed that the energy required to reduce a material in size was directly
proportional to the size reduction ratio dL/L. This implies that n in eqn. (11.1) is
equal to -1. If K = KK fc
where KK is called Kick's constant and fc is called the crushing strength of the
material, we have:
dE/dL = KKfcL-1
which, on integration gives:
E = KKfc loge(L1/L2) (11.2)
Equation (2) is a statement of Kick's Law. It implies that the specific

energy required to crush a material, for example from 10 cm down to 5 cm, is the
same as the energy required to crush the same material from 5 mm to 2.5 mm.
Rittinger, on the other hand, assumed that the energy required for size
reduction is directly proportional, not to the change in length dimensions, but to
the change in surface area. This leads to a value of -2 for n in eqn. (1) as area is
proportional to length squared. If we put:
Page 54 of 151
K = KR fc
and so
dE/dL = KRfcL-2
where KR is called Rittinger's constant, and integrate the resulting form
of eqn. (11.1), we obtain:
E = KRfc(1/L2 1/L1) (11.3)
Equation (11.3) is known as Rittinger's Law. As the specific surface of a

particle, the surface area per unit mass, is proportional to 1/L, eqn. (11.3)
postulates that the energy required to reduce L for a mass of particles from 10
cm to 5 cm would be the same as that required to reduce, for example, the same
mass of 5 mm particles down to 4.7 mm. This is a very much smaller reduction,
in terms of energy per unit mass for the smaller particles, than that predicted by
Kick's Law.
It has been found, experimentally, that for the grinding of coarse particles
in which the increase in surface area per unit mass is relatively small, Kick's Law
is a reasonable approximation. For the size reduction of fine powders, on the
other hand, in which large areas of new surface are being created, Rittinger's
Law fits the experimental data better.
Bond has suggested an intermediate course, in which he postulates that n is -

3/2 and this leads to:
E = Ei (100/L2)1/2[1 - (1/q1/2)] (11.4)
Bond defines the quantity Ei by this equation: L is measured in microns in

eqn. (11.4) and so Ei is the amount of energy required to reduce unit mass of the
material from an infinitely large particle size down to a particle size of 100 mm. It
is expressed in terms of q, the reduction ratio where q = L1/L2.
Note that all of these equations [eqns. (11.2), (11.3), and (11.4)] are
dimensional equations and so if quoted values are to be used for the various
constants, the dimensions must be expressed in appropriate units. In Bond's
Page 55 of 151
equation, if L is expressed in microns, this defines Ei and Bond calls this the
Work Index.
The greatest use of these equations is in making comparisons between

power requirements for various degrees of reduction.
EXAMPLE 1. Grinding of sugar

Sugar is ground from crystals of which it is acceptable that 80% pass a
500 m sieve (US Standard Sieve No.35), down to a size in which it is
acceptable that 80% passes a 88 m (No.170) sieve, and a 5-horsepower
motor is found just sufficient for the required throughput. If the requirements are
changed such that the grinding is only down to 80% through a 125 m (No.120)
sieve but the throughput is to be increased by 50% would the existing motor
have sufficient power to operate the grinder? Assume Bond's equation.
Solution:
Using the subscripts 1 for the first condition and 2 for the second, and
letting m kg h-1 be the initial throughput, then if x is the required power
Now 88 m = 8.8 x 10-6 m , 125 m = 125 x 10-6 m , 500 m = 500 x 10-6m
E1 = 5/m = Ei(100/88 x 10-6)1/2 [1 (88/500)1/2]
E2 = x/1.5m = Ei(100/125 x 10-6)1/2 [1 - (125/500)1/2]
E2/E1 = x/(1.5 x 5) = (88 x 10-6)1/2[1 - (125/500)1/2]

(125 x 10-6)1/2[1 (88/500)1/2]
x/(7.5) = 0.84 x (0.500/0.58)

= 0.72
x = 5.4 horsepower.
So the motor would be expected to have insufficient power to pass the

50% increased throughput, though it should be able to handle an increase of
40%.
Page 56 of 151
LECTURE NO. 12
EQUIPMENT FOR SIZE REDUCTION: CUTTERS & GRINDERS, CRUSHERS,
GYRATORY CRUSHER, HAMMER MILL, BALL MILL, TUMBLING MILL
Equipment for Size Reduction
Size reduction equipment is divided into crushers, grinders, ultra fine

grinders, and cutting machines.
Crushers do the heavy work of breaking large pieces of solid material

into small lumps. A primary crusher operates on run-of-mine material, accepting
anything that comes from the mine face and breaking it into 150 to 250-mm
lumps. A secondary crusher reduces these lumps to particles perhaps 6 mm in
size.
Grinders reduce crushed feed to powder. The product from an

intermediate grinder might pass a 40 mesh screen; most of the product from a
fine grinder would pass a 200 mesh screen with a 74 m opening.
An ultra fine grinder accepts feed particles no larger than 6 mm; the
product size is typically 1 to 50 m. Cutters give particles of definite size and
shape, 2 to 10 mm in length.
These machines do their work in distinctly different ways. Compression is the
characteristic action of crushers. Grinders employ impact and attrition,
sometimes combined with compression; ultrafine grinders operate principally by
attrition.
Crushers
Crushers are slow-speed machines for coarse reduction of large quantities of
solids. The main types are
jaw crushers,
gyratory crushers,
smooth-roll crushers, and
toothed-roll crushers.
The first three operate by compression and can break large lumps of very
hard materials, as in the primary and secondary reduction of rocks and ores.
Page 57 of 151
Jaw Crusher
In a jaw crusher the feed is admitted between two jaws, set to form a V open
at the top. One jaw is stationary; the other, driven by an eccentric, reciprocates
in a horizontal plane and crushes lumps caught between the jaws.
In a gyratory crusher a conical crushing head gyrates inside a funnel-shaped
casing, open at the top. An eccentric drives the shaft carrying the crushing head.
Solids caught between the head and the casing are broken and re-broken until
they pass out the bottom.
Figure 12.1 a) Jaw Crusher b) Gyratory crusher
Grinders
The term grinder refers to a variety of size reduction machines for
intermediate duty. Product from a crusher is often fed to a grinder for further
reduction. Some of the commercial grinders are hammer mills, impactors, rolling
compression machines, attrition mills, and tumbling mills.
Figure 12.2 Hammer mill

Hammer mills:
These mills all contain a high-speed rotor turning inside a cylindrical
casing. Usually the shaft is horizontal. Feed dropped into the top of the casing is
broken and falls out through a bottom opening. In a hammer mill, the particles
are broken by sets of swing hammers pinned to a rotor disk. A particle of feed
Page 58 of 151
entering the grinding zone cannot escape being struck by the hammers. It
shatters into pieces, which fly against a stationary anvil plate inside the casing
and break into still smaller fragments. These in turn are rubbed into powder by
the hammers and pushed through a grate or screen that covers the discharge
opening.
Several rotor disks, 150 to 450 mm in diameter and each carrying four to
eight swing hammers, are often mounted on the same shaft. The hammers may
be straight bars of metal with plain or enlarged ends or with ends sharpened to a
cutting edge. Intermediate hammer mills yield a product 25 mm to 20-mesh in
particle size. In hammer mills for fine reduction, the peripheral speed of the
hammer tips may reach 110 m/s; they reduce 0.1 to 15 tons/h to sizes finer than
200-mesh. Hammer mills grind almost anything-tough fibrous solids like bark or
leather, steel turnings, soft wet pastes, sticky clay, hard rock. For fine reduction
they are limited to the softer materials.
The capacity and power requirement of a hammer mill vary greatly with
the nature of the feed and cannot be estimated with confidence from theoretical
considerations. Commercial mills typically reduce 60 to 240 kg of solid per kilo
watt hour of energy consumed.
Figure12.3 A conical ball mill

Ball Mill
In a ball mill or pebble mill, most of the reduction is done by impact as the
balls or pebbles drop from near the top of the shell. In a large ball mill the shell
might be 3 m in diameter and 4.25 m long. The balls are 25 to 125 mm in
diameter; the pebbles in a pebble mill are 50 to 175 mm. A tube mill is a
continuous mill with a long cylindrical shell, in which material is ground for 2 to 5
times as long as in the shorter ball mill. Tube mills are excellent for grinding to
very fine powders in a single pass where the amount of energy consumed is not
Page 59 of 151
of primary importance. Putting slotted transverse partitions in a tube mill converts
it into a compartment mill. One compartment may contain large balls, another
small balls, and a third pebbles. This segregation of the grinding media into
elements of different size and weight aids considerably in avoiding wasted work,
for the large, heavy balls break only the large particles, without interference by
the fines.
Segregation of the grinding units in a single chamber is a characteristic of
the conical ball mill illustrated in above Figure 12.3. Feed enters from the left
through a 60one into the primary grinding zone, where the diameter of the shell
is a maximum. Product leaves through the 30 cone to the right. A mill of this
kind contains balls of different sizes, all of which wear and become smaller as
the mill is operated. New large balls are added periodically. As the shell of such
a mill rotates, the large balls move toward the point of maximum diameter, and
the small balls migrate toward the discharge. The initial breaking of the feed
particles, therefore, is done by the largest ball dropping the greatest distance;
small particles are ground by small balls dropping a much smaller distance. The
amount of energy expended is suited to the difficulty of the breaking operation,
increasing the efficiency of the mill.
The load of balls in a ball or tube mill is normally such that when the mill is
stopped, the balls occupy about one half the volume of the mill. The void fraction
in the mass of balls, when at rest, is typically 0.40. The grinding may be done
with dry solids, but more commonly the feed is a suspension of the particles in
water, increasing both the capacity and the efficiency of the mill.
When the mill is rotated, the balls are picked up by the mill wall and
carried nearly to the top, where they break contact with the wall and fall to the
bottom to be picked up again. Centrifugal force keeps the balls in contact with
the wall and with one another during the upward movement. While in contact
with the wall, the balls do some grinding by slipping and rolling over one another,
but most of the grinding occurs at the zone of impact, where the free falling balls
strike the bottom of the mill.
The faster the mill is rotated, the farther the balls are carried up inside the
mill and the greater the power consumption and the capacity of the mill. If the
speed is too high, however, the balls are carried over and the mill is said to be
centrifuging. The speed at which centrifuging occurs is called the critical speed.
Page 60 of 151
From a balance between the gravitational and centrifugal forces, the critical
speed nc may be found from the equation
1 g
nc =
2 Rr
where g is the acceleration of gravity, R is the radius of the mill, and r is the
radius of the grinding elements. The operating speed n must be less than nc.
ULTRA FINE GRINDERS
Many commercial powders must contain particles averaging 1 to 20 m in
size, with substantially all particles passing a standard 325-mesh screen that has
openings 44 m wide. Mills that reduce solids to such fine particles are called
ultra-fine grinders. Ultra fine wet grinding is done in agitated mills.
Cutting machines
In some size reduction problems the feed stocks are too tenacious or too
resilient to be broken by compression, impact, or attrition. In other problems the
feed must be reduced to particles of fixed dimensions. These requirements are
met by machines known as granulators, which yield more or less irregular
pieces, and cutters, which produce cubes, thin squares, or diamonds.
Page 61 of 151
LECTURE NO. 13
SEPARATION BY CENTRIFUGATION AND FILTRATION
Foods are complex mixtures of compounds and the extraction or

separation of food components is fundamental for the preparation of ingredients
to be used in other processes (for example cooking oils from oilseeds or gelatin
from connective tissue); or for retrieval of high value compounds, such as
enzymes (e.g. papain from papaya for meat tenderisation or rennet from calf
stomachs for cheese making) etc.
There are three main categories of separation:
1. Separation of liquids and solids from slurries, pastes, particulates or
flours, where either one or both components may be valuable (for
example juices, pectin, enzymes, cooking oil, cream and coffee
solubles).
2. Separation of small amounts (less than 2%) of solids from liquids. Here
the main purpose is purification of water or clarification of liquids such
as wine, beer, juices, etc. and the solids are not valuable.
3. Extraction of small amounts of valuable materials using a solvent.
Centrifugation
There are two main applications of centrifugation: separation of
immiscible liquids and separation of solids from liquids. Separation of solid
particles from air by centrifugal action is done in the cyclone separator.
Centrifugal force is generated when materials are rotated; the size of the
force depends on the radius and speed of rotation and the density of the
centrifuged material. In the separation of immiscible liquids, the denser liquid
moves to the bowl wall and the lighter liquid is displaced to an inner annulus
(Figure 13.1).
Page 62 of 151
Fig. 13.1 Separation of immiscible liquids: r1, radius of dense phase outlet; r2,
radius of light phase outlet; rn, radius of neutral zone.
The thickness of the layers is determined by the density of the liquids, the
pressure difference across the layers and the speed of rotation. A boundary
region between the liquids at a given centrifuge speed forms at a radius rn where
the hydrostatic pressure of the two layers is equal. This is termed the neutral
zone and is important in equipment design to determine the position of feed and
discharge pipes. It is found using:
ArA2 B rB2
rn2 =
A B
where (kg/m3) = density and r (m) = the radius. The subscripts A and B
refer to the dense and light liquid layers respectively.
Sample problem
A bowl centrifuge is used to break an oil-in-water emulsion. Determine the
radius of the neutral zone in order to position the feed pipe correctly. (Assume
that the density of the continuous phase is 1000 kg/m3 and the density of the oil
is 870 kg /m3. The outlet radii from the centrifuge are 3 cm and 4.5 cm.)
Solution :
Page 63 of 151
Equipment
Centrifuges are classified into three groups for:
1. separation of immiscible liquids
2. clarification of liquids by removal of small amounts of solids (centrifugal
clarifiers)
3. removal of solids (desludging or dewatering centrifuges).
Liquidliquid centrifuges
The simplest type of equipment is the tubular bowl centrifuge. It consists
of a vertical cylinder (or bowl), typically 0.1 m in diameter and 0.75 m long, which
rotates inside a stationary casing at between 15000 rev per min and 50 000 rev
per min depending on the diameter. Feed liquor is introduced continuously at the
base of the bowl and the two liquids are separated and discharged through a
circular weir system into stationary outlets (Fig. 13.1).
Disc bowl centrifuge
Better separation is obtained by the thinner layers of liquid formed in the
disc bowl centrifuge (Fig. 13.2). Here a cylindrical bowl, 0.21.2 m in diameter,
contains a stack of inverted metal cones which have a fixed clearance of 0.5
1.27 mm and rotate at 20007000 rev/min. They have matching holes which
form flow channels for liquid movement. Feed is introduced at the base of the
disc stack and the denser fraction moves towards the wall of the bowl, along the
underside of the discs. The lighter fraction is displaced towards the centre along
the upper surfaces and both liquid streams are removed continuously by a weir
system at the top of the centrifuge in a similar way to the tubular bowl system.
Disc bowl centrifuges are used to separate cream from milk and to clarify oils,
coffee extracts and juices. Disc bowl and tubular centrifuges have capacities of
up to 150 000 l/h.
Page 64 of 151
Figure 13.2 Disc bowl centrifuge.
Filtration
Filtration is the removal of insoluble solids from a suspension (or feed
slurry) by passing it through a porous material (or filter medium). The resulting
liquor is termed the filtrate and the separated solids are the filter cake.
Filtration is used to clarify liquids by the removal of small amounts of solid
particles (for example from wine, beer, oils and syrups).
When a suspension of particles is passed through a filter, the first
particles become trapped in the filter medium and, as a result, reduce the area
through which liquid can flow. This increases the resistance to fluid flow and a
higher pressure difference is needed to maintain the flow rate of filtrate. The rate
of filtration is expressed as follows:
driving force (the pressure difference across the filter )
Rate of filtration =
resistance to flow
Assuming that the filter cake does not become compressed, the
resistance to flow through the filter is found using
V V
R = r c
A+ L
Where R (m-2) = resistance to flow through the filter,
(N s m-2) = viscosity of the liquid,
r (m-2) = specific resistance of the filter cake,
Page 65 of 151
V (m3) = volume of the filtrate,
Vc = the fractional volume of filter cake in the feed liquid volume, V
A (m2) = area of the filter and
L = equivalent thickness of the filter and initial cake layer.
Equipment
Gravity filtration is slow and finds little application in the food industry.
Filtration equipment operates either by the application of pressure to the feed
side of the filter bed or by the application of a partial vacuum to the opposite side
of the filter bed. Filter aids are usually applied to the filter or mixed with the food
to improve the formation of filter cake.
Pressure filters
Two commonly used pressure filters are the batch plate-and-frame filter
press (Fig 13.3) and the shell-and-leaf pressure filter.
Plate-and-frame filter press
In the plate-and-frame design, cloth or paper filters are supported on
vertical plates. Feed liquor is pumped into the press and liquid passes through
the filter cloths and flows down the grooved surfaces of the plates to drain
through an outlet channel in the base of each plate. A layer of cake builds up on
the cloths until the space between the plates is filled. In operation, the pressure
is increased to a pre-determined value and the plates are then back-washed with
water. The press is dismantled and the cake is removed, ready to begin another
cycle. The filter press has relatively low capital costs, high flexibility for different
foods, it is reliable and easily maintained. It is widely used for the production of
apple juice and cider. However, it is time consuming and highly labour intensive.
Fig. 13.3 Plate-and-frame filter press.
Page 66 of 151
LECTURE NO. 14
SEPARATION BY EXPRESSION, EXTRACTION USING SOLVENTS
Expression
The main applications of expression are in the extraction of components
plant materials either for direct consumption (for example fruit juices) or for use
in subsequent processing (for example sugar, grape juice for wine and vegetable
oils). These materials are located within the cell structure of the plants and it is
necessary to disrupt the cells in order to release them. This is achieved either in
a single-stage, which both ruptures the cells and expresses the liquid, or in two
stages (size reduction to produce a pulp or flour, followed by separation in a
press). In general the single-stage operation is more economical, permits higher
throughputs and has lower capital and operating costs, but for some products
that are especially hard (for example oil bearing nuts) a two-stage expression is
more effective. Better extraction is achieved by heating oilseeds or flours to
reduce the oil viscosity, release oil from intact cells and remove moisture. There
is optimum moisture content for each type of oil seed to obtain a maximum yield
of oil.
In fruit processing, the press should remove the maximum quantity of
juice, without substantial quantities of solids, or phenolic compounds from the
skins which cause bitterness and browning. This is achieved using lower
pressures and fewer pressings. It is also necessary to increase the pressure
slowly to avoid the formation of a dense impenetrable press cake, as the solid
material is easily deformed and blocks the press.
The factors that influence the juice yield from a press include:
maturity and growth conditions of the raw material
extent of cell disruption
thickness of the pressed solids and their resistance to deformation
rate of increase in pressure, the time of pressing and the maximum
pressure applied
temperatures of solids and liquid and the viscosity of the expressed
liquid.
Equipment
Batch presses
Common types of equipment for expressing juice or oils are the tank
press and the cage press.
Page 67 of 151
Tank press
The tank press is used for fruit juice production and consists of a
horizontal cylinder which is divided internally by a membrane. During an
automatically controlled pressing cycle of 1.5 h, fruit pulp is fed into one side of
the membrane and compressed air is applied to the opposite side (Figure.14.1).
Juice flows out through channels and, when pressing is completed, the tank is
rotated to loosen and discharge the press residue. High yields of good-quality
juice are obtained by the gentle increase in pressure at capacities ranging from
3600 kg to 25 000 kg.
In the cage press, up to 2 t of fruit pulp or oilseed flour is placed into a
vertical perforated or slatted cage, either loose or in cloth bags depending on the
nature of the material. In larger presses, ribbed layer plates are used to reduce
the thickness of the pulp or flour bed. The pressure is gradually increased on the
top plate by an hydraulic system or motor-driven screw thread and liquid is
collected at the base of the press. The equipment allows close control over the
pressure exerted on the pulp/flour and may operate semi-automatically to reduce
labour costs.
Figure 14.2 Tank press: 1, tank filled; 2, membrane partly inflated; 3, membrane
further inflated; 4, loosening residue; 5, discharge.
Page 68 of 151
Figure 14.3 Screw press, showing throttle ring used for oilseed pressing.
Continuous presses
There are several types of continuous press used commercially: the belt
press for fruit processing, the screw expeller for both fruit processing and oil
extraction, and the roller press for sugar cane processing.
Screw expeller
The screw expeller consists of a robust horizontal barrel containing a
stainless steel helical screw (Figure 14.4). The pitch of the screw flights
gradually decreases towards the discharge end, to increase the pressure on the
material as it is carried through the barrel. The final section of the barrel is
perforated to allow expressed liquid to escape. Press cake is discharged through
the barrel outlet and the pressure in the barrel is regulated by adjusting the
diameter of the discharge port. Frictional heat reduces the viscosity of the oil and
some types of expellers have supplementary heaters fitted to the barrel to
improve yields. In juice extraction the barrel is cooled to reduce the friction heat,
generated by the movement of food, which may have an undesirable effect on
flavour and aroma. Capacities range from 40 kg/h to 8000 kg/ h. The oil cake
has 518% (w/w) residual oil, depending on the type of oil-seed and the
operating conditions.
Extraction using solvents

Unit operations that involve separation of specific components of foods
are important in a number of applications, including production of:
cooking oils or specialty oils from nuts and seeds
Page 69 of 151
flavors and essential oils (e.g. black pepper, cardamom, clove, ginger,
hops, parsley, vanilla, etc.)
coffee
sugar
removal of caffeine from coffee and tea.
Once the solvent has been removed from the extracted foods, some may
be used directly (for example cooking oils) or they may be further processed by
concentration and/or dehydration.
The main types of solvents used for extraction are water, organic solvents
or supercritical carbon dioxide.
Solid-liquid extraction involves the removal of a desired component (the
solute) from a food using a liquid (the solvent) which is able to dissolve the
solute. This involves mixing the food and solvent together, either in a single
stage or in multiple stages, holding for a pre-determined time and then
separating the solvent. During the holding period there is mass transfer of
solutes from the food material to the solvent, which occurs in three stages:
1. the solute dissolves in the solvent
2. the solution moves through the particle of food to its surface
3. the solution becomes dispersed in the bulk of the solvent.
During extraction, the holding time should therefore be sufficient for the
solvent to dissolve sufficient solute and for the changes in composition to
approach an equilibrium. The time required depends on the solubility of a given
solute in the solvent selected and also on the following factors:
The temperature of extraction: Higher temperatures increase both the
rate at which solutes dissolve in the solvent and the rate of diffusion into
the bulk of the solvent. The temperature of most extraction operations is
limited to less than 100C by economic considerations, extraction of
undesirable components at higher temperatures or heat damage to food
components.
The surface area of solids exposed to the solvent. The rate of mass
transfer is directly proportional to the surface area, so reductions in
particle size (giving an increase in surface area) increase the rate of
extraction up to certain limits.
The viscosity of the solvent. This should be sufficiently low to enable the
solvent to penetrate easily the bed of solid particles.
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The flow rate of the solvent. Higher flow rates reduce the boundary layer
of concentrated solute at the surface of particles and thus increase the
rate of extraction.
Table 14.1 : Solvents used to extract food components
Adapted from data of Brennan et al. (1990) and Clarke (1990).
Page 71 of 151
LECTURE NO. 15
MEMBRANE CONCENTRATION (HYPERFILTRATION AND

ULTRAFILTRATION)
Reverse osmosis (RO) (or hyperfiltration) and ultrafiltration (UF) are both
unit operations in which water and some solutes in a solution are selectively
removed through a semi-permeable membrane. They are similar in that the
driving force for transport across the membrane is the pressure applied to the
feed liquid. However, reverse osmosis is used to separate water from low-
molecular-weight solutes (for example salts, mono-saccharides and aroma
compounds), which have a high osmotic pressure. A high pressure, five to ten
times that used in UF (40008000X 103 Pa), is therefore necessary to overcome
this (hence the term reverse osmosis).
The largest commercial food application of reverse osmosis is the
concentration of whey from cheese manufacture, either as a pre-concentration
stage prior to drying or for use in the manufacture of ice cream. Reverse
osmosis is also used to:
concentrate and purify fruit juices (Robe, 1983), enzymes, fermentation
liquors and vegetable oils
to concentrate wheat starch, citric acid, egg white, milk, coffee, syrups,
natural extracts and flavors
to clarify wine and beer
to demineralise and purify water from boreholes or rivers or by
desalination of sea water.
In the last application, monovalent and polyvalent ions, particles, bacteria
and organic materials with a molecular weight greater than 300 are all removed
by up to 99.9% to give high-purity process water for beverage manufacture and
other applications.
Other applications include dealcoholisation to produce low-alcohol beers,
cider and wines, and recovery of proteins or other solids from distillation
residues, dilute juices, waste water from corn milling or other process wash
waters. Membrane pre-concentration is also used to prepare coffee extracts and
liquid egg for drying and to pre-concentrate juices and dairy products before
evaporation, so improving the economy of evaporators. Concentrating fluids by
removal of water at low temperatures in the dairy, fruit juice and sugar
Page 72 of 151
processing industries competes with vacuum evaporation and freeze
concentration. The advantages of membrane concentration over concentration
by evaporation are:
the food is not heated, and there is therefore negligible loss of volatiles
or changes to nutritional or eating quality
in contrast with boiling, membrane concentration does not involve a
change in phase and therefore uses energy more efficiently (Table 6.4)
simple installation with lower labour and operating costs
no requirement for steam boilers.
The main limitations of membrane concentration are:
variation in the product flow rate when changes occur in the
concentration of feed liquor
higher capital costs than evaporation
a maximum concentration to 30% total solids
fouling of the membranes (deposition of polymers), which reduces the
operating time between membrane cleaning.
Different types of membrane reject solutes with specific ranges of
molecular weight. These molecular weight cut-off points are used to
characterize membranes.
For reverse osmosis membranes, the cut-off points range from molecular
weights of 100 Da at 40007000 X103 Pa to 500 Da at 25004000 X103 Pa.
Figure 15.1 Size separation capabilities of different membrane systems.
Page 73 of 151
The term nanofiltration (NF) (or loose reverse osmosis) is used when
membranes remove materials having molecular weights in the order of 300
1000 Da (Rosenberg, 1995). This compares to a molecular weight range of
2000300 000 for ultrafiltration membranes, although above 30 000 there is
overlap with microfiltration (Fig.15.2). NF is capable of removing ions that
contribute significantly to the osmotic pressure and thus allows operation at
pressures that are lower than those needed for RO.
Page 74 of 151
LECTURE NO. 16
INTRODUCTION AND IMPORTANCE OF PHYSICAL

PROPERTIES-SHAPE AND SIZE OF GRAINS, SHAPE AND SIZE
OF FRUITS, BULK DENSITY OF THE GRAINS, TRUE DENSITY OF
THE GRAINS, POROSITY, ANGLE OF REPOSE, TEST WEIGHT
Introduction and Importance of Engineering Properties
The knowledge of physical properties such as shape, size, volume,

surface area, test weight, density, porosity, angle of repose, etc., of different
grains is necessary for the design of various equipment for handling, processing
and storage of grains.
SHAPE AND SIZE

Shape of the grain is connected with the geometrical form of the grain.
Size of the grain refers to the characteristics of an object which in term
determine how much space it occupies and, within limits, can be described in
terms of length, width, and thickness. The Shape and size together with other
characteristics of the grains is important in the design of the seed grader. These
factors determine the free flowing or bridging tendencies of the seed mass, and
therefore, determine the suitable handling and feeding equipment. Sphericity and
equivalent diameters are also used to describe the shape and size, respectively
for the grains.
The sphericity () defined as the ratio of the surface area of sphere having
the same volume as that of the grain to the surface area of the grain, can be
calculated from the axial dimensions of the grain as follows:
(li bi t i )1 / 3
= ------------------------------- (16.1)
li
Equivalent diameter (Dp) of the grain, considering a prolate spheroid
shape for grains, can be calculated through the following expression:
1/ 3
bi + t i 2
D p = 4li --------------------------- (16.2)
4
The sphericity () of the fruits can be calculated using the following

formula.
(abc)1 / 3
= ----------------------------------- (16.3)
a
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Where,
(a) = major diameter
(b) = intermediate diameter
(c) = minor diameter
The geometrical mean diameter (GMD) can be calculated as follows:
1
GMD = (abc) 3
------------------------------------- (16.4)
Grain shape tester or grain vernier is used for grains whereas vernier
Calipers having least count of 0.01 mm is used to take dimensions of fruits.
THE BULK DENSITY

The bulk density (b) considered as the ratio of the weight of the grain in
kg to its total volume in m3. The bulk density of grains is measured using 1 liter
measuring cylinder and electronic balance. The bulk density of the food grains
changes with the change in the moisture content. Hence, the moisture content of
the food grains at which the bulk density was measured also to be reported. The
bulk density can be calculated using the following formula.
Ws
b = ------------------------------------- (16.5)
Vs
where,
b = bulk density, kg/m3,
Ws = weight of sample, kg and
Vs = volume of the sample i.e., 1000 cc or 10-3 m3
TRUE DENSITY
The true density (t) defined as the ratio of mass of the sample (W) to its
true volume. The true density (t) is determined using a Multivolume Pycnometer
(Helium gas displacement method). Multivolume Pycnometers Helium
displacement method provides a rapid means for precisely determining the true
volume of pores, porous materials, and irregularly shaped food grains. The true
density of the grains is found to be decreased with an increase in moisture
content as the increase in true volume of the grains is higher compared to the
increase in moisture content of the grains. Since, the true density varies with the
moisture content of the food grains, the moisture content of the food grains also
to be reported.
True density can be calculated using following formula.
Page 76 of 151
Total mass of the grain, kg
True density, t = -------------------------- (16.6)
Vsamp
Multivolume pycnometer is used to measure the true volume.
POROSITY
Properties such as bulk density, true density and porosity of grains are
useful in design of various separating, handling, storing and drying systems.
Resistance of bulk grain to airflow is a function of the porosity and the kernel
size.
The porosity () defined as the percentage of void space in the bulk grain
which is not occupied by the grain can be calculated from the following
relationship:
t b
= 100 ------------------------------------
t
(16.7)
where,
= porosity
b = bulk density, kg/m3
t = true density, kg/m3
ANGLE OF REPOSE
Angle of repose is important in designing a structure for storage of food
grains in bulk. When a granular material is allowed to flow freely from a point into
a pile, the angle which the side of the pile makes with horizontal plane is called
the angle of repose (IS: 6663-1972).
The angle of repose is influenced by size, shape, moisture content and
orientation of the particles. It has been found that the angle of repose increases
with the increase in moisture content. The cohesive materials have larger angle
of repose. Lower angle of repose represents easier flowability.
Angle of repose of the grain can be calculated experimentally using the
following formulae:
2H c
= tan 1 -------------------------------------
Dc
(16.8)
where,
Hc = height of cone formed measured with depth gauge
Dc = diameter of the platform on which the cone formed
Page 77 of 151
Fig. 16.1 Line diagram of Experimental Set up for Angle of Repose
TEST WEIGHT OF THE GRAINS

Test weight is the weight of test sample per unit sample and is direct
indication of bulk density. It is closely related to kernel weight. It is a useful index
to milling outturn in measuring the relative amount of dockage or foreign material
in given lot of paddy. It is also useful in measuring the amount of shriveled or
immature kernels and in estimating the weight contained in a storage bin of
given volume. Test weight is the easiest and most convenient method of
estimating quality of paddy during procurement.
Page 78 of 151
LECTURE NO. 17
CO-EFFICIENT OF EXTERNAL FRICTION, CO-EFFICIENT OF INTERNAL
FRICTION, COLOUR OF FOOD MATERIALS
COEFFICIENT OF STATIC FRICTION

The frictional properties of granular materials are important in designing of
storage bins, hoppers, chutes, pneumatic conveying system, screw threshers
and conveyors, forage harvesters, etc,. The ratio between the force of friction
(F), and the force normal to the surface of contact (N), is known as the
coefficient of friction ().
Mathematically,
F
Coefficient of friction, =
N
where,
F = Frictional force (Amount of total Weights added +
Suspended Pan )
N = Normal Load (Weight of the material + Circular Ring)
COEFFICIENT OF INTERNAL FRICTION

The friction of the kernels or grains against each other is known as
internal friction where as the friction between the grain mass and the contact
surface is known as static friction. The coefficient of the internal friction of the
grains is required in predicting the lateral pressure on a retaining wall in silos or
design of silos and hoppers for gravity flow. The method employed for the
determination of the coefficient internal friction is by tri-axial compression test
apparatus or Shear test apparatus.
The direct shear test apparatus consists of a shear cell, a controlled
loading device and a recorder. The normal load is applied by weights acting
vertically. The shearing action is provided by means of an electrical or
mechanical drive with a load cell or dynamometer in line for force measurement.
The shearing force acts in the plane of contact between the base and the ring.
The shear cell assures a uniform stress distribution across the specimen sample
and shear of solid in the plane between the ring and base.
Page 79 of 151
Fig. 17.1 Experimental set up for coefficients of internal friction
Shear test apparatus is used to estimate the coefficient of internal friction

of the grains.
COLOUR
The optical properties such as light transmittance and reflectance
properties of fruits or grains are important in electronic sorting and grading,
maturity, and surface color determinations. The surface color of the fruits and
food grains are measured using the Hunter Lab in terms of CIE L, a and b
values. Hunter scale, L measures lightness and varies from 100 for perfect
white to zero for black, approximately as the eye would evaluate it. The
chromaticity dimensions (a and b) give understandable designations of color as
follows, a measures redness when positive, gray when zero, and greenness
when negative. b measures yellowness when positive, gray when zero, and
blue when negative.
Page 80 of 151
LECTURE NO. 18
THE NEED TO CONSIDER HYGIENIC DESIGN, HAZARDS, HOW TO
APPROACH HYGIENIC DESIGN, HYGIENIC DESIGN PRIORITIES, HYGIENIC
DESIGN PRINCIPLES, SOME GENERAL DESIGN POINTERS
Hygienic Design of Food Processing Equipment
The need to consider hygienic design
The need to consider hygienic design at the specifying (if purchasing) and
designing (if manufacturing) stages is now crucial as users face increasing
potential problems from loss of product through spoilage, food safety fears and
loss of market confidence. Their prime needs are ease of access and ease of
cleaning.
Hazards
Food safety hazards can arise from:
microbiological causes such as pathogens, spoilage organisms or toxins;
chemicals such as cleaning agents, disinfecting agents and lubricants;
foreign bodies such as raw materials, pests and materials used in the
construction of the machinery.
How to approach hygienic design
Machinery makers/suppliers
A risk assessment should be undertaken by the machine manufacturer at

the design stage as different products at different stages of processing give rise
to different levels of food safety risk and need different levels of rigour in
engineering the hygiene controls. Low-risk product / process machinery may
need only to partially conform to best engineering practice. However, high-risk
product/process machinery will need to fully conform to design requirements set
in Standards (see References) and operate within set heat, chemical or physical
treatment limits and require planned disassembly for cleaning.
Hygienic risk factors to consider
Purpose of the machine (is it intended for a single type of food)
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Nature of the food (is it raw material or ready for consumption)
Stage of processing (will the machine only handle raw materials or

produce the final product)
Stage of the food (will it be consumed immediately or have a defined shelf

life)
Consumer of the food (is the food intended for vulnerable groups such as
children or the elderly)
Market (is the food intended for local or international markets)
Use of the machine (will it be used infrequently, or be in continuous use)
Cleaning and inspection (will this be done routinely during the day or once
a week)
Machinery users
Intending users of equipment will be undertaking their own analysis of

food safety risks which can help them decide the hygienic design risk
specification they need. Users will need to ensure there is a good match
between the level of good hygienic design they need in the process for the
product and the level of hygienic design offered by the equipment. Ideally,
users should set a specification for the supplier or maker to match. However, if
this is not possible, and for series production machines, the maker can specify
the risk levels the machine has been designed for through limits of intended
use and safe applications. It is then down to the user to select only suitable
machinery for use.
Hygienic design priorities
Those machines for products and processes which pose the highest food
safety risks to consumers need to have their hygienic design needs considered
more rigorously and in more depth.
The main hygienic design priorities to any machinery, and its cleaning-
in-place (CIP) system, is intended or could be used for:
Page 82 of 151
liquid filling, especially in the dairy industry;
dairy products;
cooked meat;
short shelf-life, chilled foods;
finished salads;
conveyor systems for unpacked product;
meat slicers;
ice cream production post-pasteurisation;
cook chill production;
sandwich manufacture;
pork pie and pastry production; and
dust control units and silos (infestation risks).
Hygienic design principles
The broad principles can be summarized as follows:
firstly, establish whether the food safety risk can be eliminated by design
and construction methods which are state of the art;
if not, reliance has to be placed on cleaning and disinfection regimes -

these need to be given to the user in instructions from the maker and the
machine designed to allow easy and effective cleaning;
if not, limitations need to be given in instructions to the user on use of the

machine (temperature, product etc).
Some general design pointers
Dos:
Ensure that the materials and surfaces food will come into contact with
are suitable (eg. corrosion resistant, non-absorbent, unpainted and easy
to clean) - such materials must not be likely to break, crack or fracture in
normal use.
Page 83 of 151
Ensure surfaces food will come into contact with are made of non-toxic
materials which will not transfer any odor, taint or taste to the product.
Ensure permanent joints are smooth where joints are in the same plane or
curved where they are not.
Ensure dismountable joints have a true and hygienic fit.
Ensure projections, edges and recesses are kept to a minimum.
Ensure internal curves allow thorough cleaning and, where necessary,

disinfection.
Ensure all fluids, including those from foods and cleaning the machine,
can be easily discharged from the machine.
Ensure shafts and seals are self- or product lubricated or use food grade
lubricants - ensure they can be cleaned and, where necessary,
disinfected.
Ensure appropriate materials are used in the machine construction - there

may be a balance between ease of access for effective cleaning
indicating ordinary steel could be used and lack of such access (eg. in
enclosed plant) indicating stainless steel could be used.
Donts:
Dont allow dead spaces or bends in pipe work in the food area which
allow product to accumulate if this is unavoidable, then ensure good
drainage and cleanability.
Dont allow bearings in the food area unless this is unavoidable - use food
grade lubricants and ensure cleanability and, where necessary,
disinfectability.
Dont use screws, screw heads and rivets in contact with food.
Dont allow liquids, pests or organic matter to enter parts of machines

which cannot be cleaned.
Dont allow ancillary substances (eg. lubricants) to come into contact with
the food.
Page 84 of 151
LECTURE NO. 19
SOME BASIC CONCEPTS OF RHEOLOGY, BIOLOGICAL SYSTEMS AND
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES, ASTM STANDARD DEFINITION OF TERMS
RELATED TO MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
SOME BASIC CONCEPTS OF RHEOLOGY

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES are defined as those having to do with the
behavior of the material under applied forces. Following this broad definition,
such properties as stress strain behavior of a material under static and dynamic
loading as well as flow characteristics of the material in air or in water, can be
classified as mechanical properties.
Rheology has been defined as "a science devoted to the study of
deformation and flow." Therefore, when the action of forces result in
deformation and flow in the material, the mechanical properties will be referred-
to as rheological properties. Moreover, rheology considers the time effect during
the loading of a body. Rheologically then, mechanical behavior of a material is
expressed in terms of the three parameters of force, deformation and time.
Examples of rheological properties are time-dependent stress and
strain behavior, creep, stress relaxation, and viscosity.
BIOLOGICAL SYSTEMS AND MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
Each unit of the food and feed materials selected from agricultural
products is in itself a biological system which differs from identical mass-
produced products. These materials are alive, constantly undergoing changes in
shape, size, respiration, and other aspects of life processes. During development
and storage, the cells are sensitive to such external influences as humidity,
temperature, oxygen, food supply, energy consumption, as well as the interplay
of internal factors which are difficult to control. In biological solids elasticity varies
with age and physiological conditions. Biological fluids are mostly non-Newtonian
liquid which cause additional complications.
As a result of this complex situation, in studying the rheology of a
biological system, only an empirical approach-is possible.
ASTM STANDARD DEFINITION OF TERMS RELATED TO
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
Strain
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The unit change, due to force, in the size or shape of a body referred to
its original size or shape. Strain is a non dimensional quantity, but it is frequently
expressed centimetres per centimetre, m/m, mm/mm etc.
a. Linear (tensile or compressive) strain: The change per unit length due
to force in an original linear dimension.
b. Axial strain: Linear strain in a plane parallel to the longitudinal axis of
the specimen.
c. Transverse strain: Linear strain in a plane perpendicular to the axis
of the specimen.
d. Shear strain (angular strain): The tangent of the angular change, due
to force, between two lines originally perpendicular to each other through
a point in a body.
e. True strain: In a body subjected to axial force, the natural logarithm
of the ratio of the gauge length at the moment of observation to original
gauge length.
f. Macro strain: The mean strain over any finite gauge length of
measurement large in comparison with inter atomic distances.
Stress
The intensity of a point in a body of the internal forces or components of
force that act on a given plane through the point. Stress is expressed in
force per unit of area (kilograms-force per square millimeter).
a Nominal stress: The stress at a point calculated on the net cross section
by simple elastic theory without taking into account the effect on the stress
produced by geometric discontinuities such as holes, grooves, fillets etc.
b Normal stress: The stress component perpendicular to a plane on which

the forces act. Normal stress may be either:
1 Tensile stress: Normal stress due to forces directed away from the
plane on which they act, or
2 Compressive stress: Normal stress due to forces directed towards
the plane on which they act.
c Shear stress : The stress component tangential to the plane on which
the forces act.
d Torsional stress: The shear stress on a transverse cross section resulting
from a twisting action.
Page 86 of 151
e True stress : The axial stress in a tension or compression test, calculated
on the basis of the instantaneous cross sectional area instead of the original
area.
f. Principal stress (normal): The maximum or minimum value of the
normal stress at a point in a plane considered with respect to all possible
orientations of the considered plane. On such principal planes the shear stress is
zero.
g. Fracture stress: The true normal stress on the minimum cross sectional
area at the beginning of fracture.
Bearing load
A compressive load on an interface.
Compressive strength
The maximum compressive stress which a material is capable of

sustaining. Compressive strength is calculated from the maximum load during
a compression test and the original cross sectional area of the specimen.
Elastic Limit
The greatest stress which a material is capable of sustaining without any

permanent strain remaining upon complete release of the stress.
Modulus of elasticity
The ratio of stress to corresponding strain below the proportional limit.
(Note)For materials where the stress-strain relationship is curvilinear
rather than Linear, one of the four following terms may be used):
a Initial tangent modulus: The slope of the stress-strain curve at the

origin.
b Tangent modulus : The slope of the stress-strain curve at any specified
stress or strain.
c Secant modulus : The slope of the secant drawn from the origin to any
specified point on the stress-strain curve.
d Chord modulus: The slope of the chord drawn between any two
specified points on the stress - strain curve.
Poisson's ratio
Page 87 of 151
The absolute value of the ratio of transverse strain to the corresponding
axial strain resulting from uniformly distributed axial stress below the
proportional limit of the material.
Proportional Limit
The greatest stress which a material is capable of sustaining without any

deviation from proportionality of stress to strain (Hookers law).
Set
Strain remaining after complete release of the load producing the

deformation Shear strength
The maximum shear stress that a material is capable of sustaining.

Shear
strength is calculated from the maximum load during a shear or torsion
test and is based on the original dimensions of the cross section of the
specimen.
Tensile strength
The maximum tensile stress that a material is capable of sustaining.

Tensile
strength is calculated from the maximum load during a tension test carried
"to rupture and the original cross sectional area of the specimen.
Yield point
The first stress in a material, less than the maximum attainable stress, at
which an increase in strain occurs without an increase in stress.
Page 88 of 151
LECTURE NO. 20
OTHER DEFINITIONS RELATED TO MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
Pressure
A measure of the mean normal stress on a point of body (kg / cm2)
Deformation
Deformation or distortion is the relative displacement of points within a
body. Deformation like stress is a vector quantity. In general, deformation is
accompanied either by change of volume or by change of shape. The change
of volume is caused by isotropic stress such as hydrostatic pressure. The
change of shape is brought about by shear stresses. Material can be deformed
by uniaxial compression, uniaxial tension, shear, and bulk compression:
Bioyield point
A point, such as y in Figure 20.1 on the stress-strain or force-deformation
curve at which there occurs an increase in deformation with a decrease or no
change of force. In some agricultural products, the presence of this bioyield point
is an indication of initial cell rupture in the cellular structure of the material. The
term bioyield point is proposed for biological materials to differentiate this
phenomenon from the yield point in engineering materials. The bioyield point
may occur at any point beyond the point LL, where the curve deviates from the
initial straight line portion.
Figure 20.1. A possible force-Deformation curve for an agricultural product. LL

linear limit; y, Bioyield point;, R, rupture point
Page 89 of 151
Figure 10. 2 Degree of elasticity from a loading-unloading curve. De = elastic or
De
recoverable deformation; Dp = plastic or residual deformation; = degree
D p + De
of elasticity
Rupture point
A point on the stress-strain or force-deformation curve at which the axially
loaded specimen ruptures under a load. In biological materials, rupture may
cause puncture of shell or skin, cracking, or fracture planes. It may be stated that
a bioyield point" in these materials corresponds to a failure in the
microstructure while a "rupture point" corresponds to a failure in the
macrostructure of the specimen. In a force-deformation curve such as Figure
20.1, the point of rupture of the specimen may occur at any-point on the curve
beyond the bioyield point. In a "brittle" material, rupture may occur in the early
portion of the curve. In a "tough" material, rupture may take place after
considerable plastic flow at such point as R.
Stiffness
Stiffness or rigidity is indicated by the slope of the initial straight line
portion of the curve (Figure 20.1). The ratio of stress to strain in this more or less
elastic region of the curve may be referred to as the "modulus of elasticity" or
"Young's modulus" (kg/cm2). In the case of nonlinear stress-strain behavior,
stiffness or "apparent modulus" can be defined in terms of initial tangent
modulus, secant modulus, or tangent modulus, as illustrated in Figure 3. Initial
tangent modulus is taken as the slope of the curve at the origin. Secant modulus
is the slope of the line connecting the origin and a selected point A on the curve.
Page 90 of 151
Tangent modulus is the slope of the tangent line to a selected point B on the
curve.
Elasticity
The capacity of a material for taking elastic or recoverable deformation. In
those portions of the curve in Figure 20.1 before the point LL is reached,
elongations are, in large part at least, recoverable, and are a measure of elastic
deformation.
Plasticity
The capacity of a material for taking plastic or permanent deformation.
Since deformations from the bioyield point to the point of rupture are not all
recoverable, the unrecoverable part can be taken as a measure of plastic
deformation (Figure 20.2).
Degree of elasticity
The ratio of elastic deformation to the sum of elastic and plastic
deformation when a material is loaded to a certain load and then unloaded to
zero load (Figure 20.2).
Strength
The resistance to applied force (kg/cm).
Ultimate strength
The stress corresponding to the rupture point (kg/cm2).
Bioyield strength
The stress corresponding to the bioyield point.
Toughness
The work required to cause rupture in the material. This can be
approximated by the area under the stress-strain or force-deformation curve up
to the point selected as the rupture point (cm-kg/cm3). If in estimating toughness,
a force-deformation curve is used, the size of the specimen and the loading
surface area should be specified.
Resilience
The capacity of a material for storage of strain energy in the elastic range
(cm-kg/cm3). Thus the area under the unloading curve in Figure 20.2 is a
measure of resilience of the material. As in the case of toughness, when a force-
deformation curve is used, the size of the specimen and the loaded area should
be specified.
Mechanical hysteresis
Page 91 of 151
The energy absorbed by a material in a cycle of loading and unloading
evaluated as area between loading and unloading curve (Figure 20.2).
Mechanical hysteresis is a measure of the; damping capacity or the ability of the
material to dissipate the strain energy as heat (cm-kg per cycle).
Stressed object
An object under a "balanced" set of forces, tending to change its shape or
size, or both.
Strained object
An object subjected to a change of shape or size, or both as a result of
application of a "balanced" set of forces.
Elastic-fore-effect and elastic after-effect
Delayed elastic deformations which take place upon loading and recovery
upon unloading (Figure 20.2).
Figure 20.3 Methods for defining the modulus in non-linear stress-strain

diagrams
Rigidity or shear modulus
Rigidity or shear modulus is the ratio between shearing stress and the
elastic shearing strain (kg/cm2).
Deviatoric stress component
The stress which is responsible for change in shape.
Isotropic stress component
The stress which is responsible for change in volume.
Viscoelasticity
A combined solid-like and liquid-like behavior in which the stress-strain
relationship is time dependent.
Linear viscoelasticity
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A viscoelastic behavior in which the ratio of stress to strain is a function of
time alone and not of the stress magnitude.
Stress relaxation
Decay of stress. with time when the material is suddenly deformed to a
given deformation-constant strain.
Relaxation time
The rate of stress decay in- a material subjected to a sudden strain. It is
the time required for the stress in the Maxwell model, representing stress
1
relaxation behavior, to decay to or approximately 37 percent of its original
e
value.
Creep
Deformation with time when the material is suddenly subjected to a dead
load-constant stress.
Retardation time
The rate at which the retarded elastic deformation takes place in a
material creeping under dead load. It is the time required for the Kelvin model,
1
representing creep behavior, to deform to ( 1 ) or about 63 percent of its total
e
deformation.
Viscosity
Resistance to flow indicated by coefficient of viscosity.
Viscosity coefficient
The ratio of shearing stress to shearing rate in Newtonian fluids.
dynes sec lb sec

= poise or

2 2
cm ft
Kinematic viscosity
Coefficient of viscosity divided by the mass density (ft2/sec).
Newtonian liquid
An ideal fluid in which the relationship between shear stress and shear
rate is a straight line passing through the origin (Figure 20.3).
Non-Newtonian liquid
A liquid in which the relationship between shear stress and shear rate is
non-linear. If the flow curve is concave to the shear stress axis, the flow is called
Page 93 of 151
dilatant. If the flow curve is convex to the shear stress axis, the flow is called
pseudoplastic.
Thixotropic fluids
Those fluids which show a decrease in shear stress with time of shear at
a given shear rate.
Rheopectic fluids
Those fluids which show an increase in shear stress with time of shear at
a given shear rate.
Page 94 of 151
LECTURE NO. 21
PHYSICAL STATES OF A MATERIAL, CLASSICAL IDEAL MATERIALS, IDEAL
ELASTIC BEHAVIOR (HOOKEAN BODY), IDEAL PLASTIC BEHAVIOR (ST.
VENANT BODY), IDEAL VISCOUS BEHAVIOR (NEWTONIAN LIQUID)
PHYSICAL STATES OF A MATERIAL
The state of various materials depends at any instant on load and
deformation history to which it is subjected to as well as environmental factors
such as temperature. In the case of biological materials, the moisture content
also affects the physical state of the material. The creep compliance function J
(t) is the ratio of shear strain to shear stress at any given time t when the load or
stress is kept constant. The relaxation modulus function G (t) is the ratio of
shear stress to shear strain at any time t when strain is kept constant.
Shear Strain
creep compliance function J (t) =
ShearStress
1
relaxation modulus function G (t) =
J (t)
CLASSICAL IDEAL MATERIALS

There are two types of deformation, elastic deformation and flow. Flow is
also divided into plastic flow and viscous flow. Therefore, elasticity, plasticity
and viscosity are three fundamental properties by which the rheological
behavior of a material can be described. The three classical ideal bodies
representing these properties are Hookean body, St. Venant body, and
Newtonian liquid. Since no real material behaves perfectly elastic or perfectly
plastic, the three ideal bodies have been chosen to serve as standards of
comparison in the analysis of the behavior of any real material.
Page 95 of 151
Figure 21.1 a) Linear elasticity in steel, (b) non-linear elasticity in
rubber, (c) inelasticity in corn
Ideal elastic behavior (Hookean body)
In a Hooke body, stress is directly proportional to strain as illustrated in
Figure 21.1 (a). The relationship is known as the Hooke's law and the behavior is
referred to as Hookean behavior. The difference between the Hookean or linear
elasticity shown for steel and the non-linear elasticity shown for rubber is shown
in the Figure 21.1 (b).
Compression tests of a variety of food and feed materials such as fruits
and vegetables, forage, cereal grains, and egg shell have indicated that
Hookean elasticity, even for very small strains, apparently does not exist in these
biological materials. Figure 21.1 (c) shows the first cycle of loading and
unloading for the horny endosperm of dry com kernel. This type of curve which
shows some residual deformation upon unloading is typical for most of the food
and feed materials.
Based on Hooke's law and together with Poisson's ratio, the following
relationships have been established for elastic, homogeneous and isotropic
materials (Figure 2).
Figure 21.2. Hookes elasticity in tension and shear
Page 96 of 151
When the Hooke solid is under tensile or compressive stress, modulus of
elasticity or Young's modulus is given by
tensile or compressive stress l
E= where =
tensile or compressive strain l
When the Hooke solid is subjected to distortion by shear stresses the
shear modulus or modulus of rigidity is given by
shear stress D
G= where = = tan
shear strain l
When the Hookean solid is under hydrostatic pressure the bulk modulus
or incompressibility is given by
hydrostatic pressure p v
K= where v =
Volume strain v v
The relationship between the above elastic constants and Poisson's ration
is given by
1 1 1
= +
E 3G 9 K
E = 3K (1 2 )
E = 2G (1 + )
=
(3K E )
6K
=
(E 2G )
2G
For most materials Poisson's ratio is between 0.2 and 0.5. The Poisson's
ratio approaches 0.5 as the character of a material approaches that of rubber or
liquids. This becomes evident when we recall that a liquid cannot support any
shear stresses, resulting in a rigidity modulus of G equals zero.
Ideal plastic behavior (St. Venant body)
A friction block such as shown in Figure 21.3 can be used as the
mechanical model for St. Venant Body representing ideal plasticity. In this model
the solid friction between the block and the surface prevents any movement of
the block. When the pull slightly exceeds the static friction, the block starts to
move. Once the movement begins, the pull must overcome only the kinetic
friction to keep the block moving. In this model the displacement gradient
(cm/cm) stands for shearing strain in an ideal plastic material. The material
Page 97 of 151
does not flow until a limiting value of shearing stress y , called the "yield-stress,"
is reached. The material can sustain no stress greater than this value and flows
indefinitely under this stress unless distortion is restricted by some other factor.
Figure 21.3 Friction block representing St. Venant Body for ideal plasticity
Ideal viscous behavior (Newtonian liquid)

In an ideal plastic material, a minimum stress, called the yield stress, is
necessary before deformation and flow begins. In a liquid, deformation and flow
begin as soon as a shear stress is applied, and when the stress is removed , like
in the case of plastic flow, it will not return to its original state. In a liquid, strain is
a function not only of stress but of time as well.
In a "simple" liquid with laminar flow the velocity gradient may be
expressed as follows:
dv 1
= =
dy
where dv is the velocity increment of one layer of the liquid passing over
another layer a distance dy apart (Figure 21.4). The movement is due to a
shearing stress, , which is proportional to the velocity gradient with proportional
1
factor , called fluidity, or = , called viscosity.

Page 98 of 151
Figure 21.4 Laminar flow of a liquid under shear
Figure 21.5 shows the plot of Newton's law of viscosity and a simple
dashpot representing the mechanical model for Newtonian liquids. The plot is a
straight line passing through the origin. The slope of the line is by definition the
viscosity. This shows that although the yield value in an ideal liquid is zero, there
is an internal frictional resistance to flow called the viscosity. The mechanical
model, called the viscous element, is supposed to be a weightless, loosely fitted
piston moving in a medium filled with the liquid.
Figure 21.5 Newtonian liquid and the model
The viscosity of a liquid is measured by the tangential force and a unit

area of either of two horizontal planes at unit distance apart, required to move
one plane with unit velocity with reference to the other plane. When the force is
Page 99 of 151
one dyne over one square centimeter, the distance between planes is one
centimeter, and the velocity one centimeter per second, the absolute viscosity is
1
by definition one "poise." A centipoise, which is one of one poise, is usually
100
taken as the unit of measurement. The kinematic viscosity or "stokes," used in

engineering practice, is , where is the mass density of the liquid. The units

of viscosity in the system are kg-sec/cm2.
Page 100 of 151

LECTURE NO. 22
RHEOLOGICAL MODELS, ELECTRICAL EQUIVALENCE OF MECHANICAL
MODELS
Rheological Models
Mechanical models consisting of springs and dash pots are used to
explain and interpret the rheological behavior of linear viscoelastic materials. The
model is supposed to behave qualitatively, to some degree of approximation, in
a manner similar to that of an actual material. If the mechanical behavior can be
expressed in terms of force-deformation or stress-strain and time, the results can
lead to a rheological equation. This equation can be used to explain and in
certain cases predict the behavior of the material under various loading
conditions.
The two basic mechanical elements used in mechanical models are a
spring which obeys Hooke's law and a dashpot with a Newtonian liquid. These
elements and their two basic combinations, Kelvin model and Maxwell model,
are shown in Figure 22.1. These curves are drawn for two strain rates 1 and 2 .
It is shown that for the spring the behavior is independent of time. For the
dashpot and the other models containing a dashpot, stress - strain relationship is
time dependent.
In the Kelvin model, both the spring and dashpot are forced to move
together at a constant rate. Therefore, the force due to the dashpot jumps to a
constant value instantaneously and remains constant while the force on the
spring starts at zero and gradually builds up. When the effects of the two
elements are superimposed the net effect is the behavior of the Kelvin model.
Page 101 of 151

Figure 22.1 Effect of strain rate on stress-strain curves of four basic
.
.
models 2 = 2 1
In the Maxwell model, initially all the stress goes into stretching the spring,
resulting in an initial straight line portion of the curves which obeys Hooke's law.
As the spring changes, the dashpot carries more and more of the stress until the
spring reaches the end of its elongation. At this point all the stress goes into flow
in the dashpot and the stress-strain curve levels off.
Electrical equivalence of mechanical models
It has been said that if a physical phenomenon can be represented by a
mechanical model, it can also be represented by an infinite number of other
models. Since the differential equations governing the mechanical behavior of a
material provides the most complete knowledge of its properties, and the most
thoroughly studied examples of these equations are available for the linear
electrical networks, the electrical analog of the mechanical models has been
suggested for rheological studies.
Figure 22.2 Electrical analogs of mechanical models
Page 102 of 151

In this analogy, the spring, representing elasticity, is replaced by a
capacitance and the dashpot, representing viscosity, is replaced by a resistance.
The tension and compression of the spring corresponds to charging and
discharging of the capacitor. The work done on the dashpot is dissipated as heat
just as the work done on the electrical resistance is converted to heat. Figure
22.2 shows the electrical analog of the basic mechanical element and the
models. Note that when elements are coupled in parallel in the mechanical
model, its equivalent in the electrical network is a series coupling. Similarly, a
series coupling in the mechanical system has a parallel equivalence in the
electrical system. In the electrical network, the stress is represented by the
electric potential (voltage) and the strain by electric current.
Page 103 of 151

LECTURE NO. 23
RHEOLOGICAL EQUATIONS
Total stress and total strain
When a material is subjected to tensile or compressive stresses resulting
in both change in shape and change in volume, the deformation may be shown
to be a combination of both shear and bulk deformation. Consequently, stress
components at any point of this material can be decomposed into a deviatoric
stress component, which is responsible for the change in shape, and an isotropic
stress component which is responsible for the change in volume. Therefore, the
total stress in the x direction, x can be written as follows:

x = S x +

Where S x is the deviatoric stress and is the mean normal stress
defined as
= ( x + y + z )
1
3
Similarly, the total strain in the x direction, x , can be resolved into a

deviatoric strain ex and a mean normal strain as follows:

x = ex +
where
( x + y + z )
1
=
3
Page 104 of 151

LECTURE NO. 24
AERO AND HYDRODYNAMIC PROPERTIES, DRAG COEFFICIENT
AND TERMINAL VELOCITY
Aero and Hydrodynamic Characteristics
In handling and processing of agricultural products often air or water is
used as a carrier for transport or for separating the desirable product from the
unwanted materials. The pneumatic separation and conveying has been in use
in agricultural machinery and food processing equipment for many years. Use of
water however, as a carrier for more economical transport or less injury to such
products as fruits and vegetables, is a relatively new idea in the agricultural
industry. In either case, fluid flow occurs around the solids and the problem
involves the action of the forces exerted by the fluid on these solids. As the
principles of this subject, known as fluid mechanics, find increasingly wide
applications in handling and processing of agricultural products, it becomes
necessary to have a knowledge of those physical properties which affect the
aero and hydrodynamic behavior of agricultural products.
DRAG COEFFICIENT
When fluid flow occurs about immersed objects, the action of the forces
involved can be illustrated by diagram as shown in Figure 24.1. The pressure on
the upper side of the object is less than and that on the lower side is greater
than the pressure P in the undisturbed fluid stream. This results in a decrease of
pressure, - P, on the upper side, and an increase of pressure, +P. In addition to
these forces normal to the surface of the object, there are shear stresses, ,
acting tangential to the surface in the direction of flow and resulting from
frictional effects.
Figure 24.1 The Forces acting on a body immersed in a fluid current
Page 105 of 151

The resultant force Fr may be resolved into components, Fh, the drag
and FL the lift. The equations for calculating drag and lift have been
derived by dimensional analysis assuming the smooth object having a
projected area, Ap, moving through a fluid of mass densit, f ', viscosity,
, and modulus of elasticity, E, with a velocity , V. Therefore,

Fh = f1 (A p , f , , E , V )
Fv = f 2 (A p , f , , E , V )
Employing the methods of dimensional analysis, the following equations

have been established for drag and lift
fV 2
Fh = C D A p
2
fV 2
Fv = C L A p
2
where CD and CL are the (dimensionless) drag coefficient and lift
coefficient of the object, respectively.
In most agricultural engineering applications the moving object is
usually free to assume its own random orientation. For this reason the net
resistance force Fr can be given in terms of an overall drag coefficient C as
follows
1
Fr = C AP f V 2
2
where
Fr = resistance drag force or weight of particle at terminal
velocity, kg
C = overall drag coefficient (dimensionless)
Ap = projected areaof the particle normal to direction of motion, m2
f = mass density of the fluid, kg.s2 / m4
V = relative velocity between main body of fluid and object, m/s
Terminal velocity
The terminal velocity of a particle may be defined as equal to the air

velocity at which a particle remains in suspended state in a vertical pipe. In the
condition of free fall, the particle attains a constant terminal velocity, Vt, the net
gravitational accelerating force, Fg, equals the resisting upward drag force, Fr.
If V=Vt, Fg= Fr
Page 106 of 151

By substituting the values of Fg and Fr, the terminal velocity can be
expressed as;
( p f ) 1
mp g = C A p f Vt
2
p 2
2W ( p f ) 2
1
Vt =
p f A p C
2W ( p f )
and C =
Vt A p p f
2
where,
Vt = terminal velocity, m l s
C = overall drag coefficient
g = acceleration due to gravity, mls2
mp= mass of the particle, kg
p = mass density of particle, kg.s2/m4
f = mass density of fluid, kg.s2/m4

Ap= projected area of particle in perpendicular direction of motion, m2
W = weight of particle, kg
In the steady state conditions, after attaining the terminal velocity, if the
density of the particle is greater than the density of the fluid, the particle will
move downward. If the density of the particle is lesser than the density of the
fluid, the particle will rise upward. If the separation of mixture of wheat and
foreign matters is to be achieved by air stream, the terminal velocities of each
component of mixture decide the range of air velocity to be used for a definite
extent of separation. . The drag coefficient of the material and its resistance to
air flow depend upon, (1) the bed thickness of the material, (2) type, shape and
size of grain, (3) the air velocity and (4) orientation and packing of the material.
Page 107 of 151

LECTURE NO. 25
EVAPORATION, BOILING POINT ELEVATION, TYPES OF EVAPORATORS,
BATCH TYPE PAN EVAPORATOR, NATURAL CIRCULATION
EVAPORATORS
Evaporation
Evaporation is an important unit operation commonly employed to remove
water from dilute liquid foods to obtain concentrated liquid products. Removal of
water from foods provides microbiological stability and assists in reducing
transportation and storage costs. A typical example of the evaporation process is
in the manufacture of tomato paste, usually around 35-37% total solids obtained
by evaporating water from tomato juice, which has an initial concentration of 5-6
% total solids.
Evaporation differs from dehydration, since the final product of the
evaporation process remains in liquid state. It also differs from distillation, since
the vapors produced in the evaporator are not further divided into fractions. In
Fig. 25.1 a simplified schematic of an evaporator is shown.
Fig. 25.1 Single effect evaporator

Essentially, an evaporator consists of a heat exchanger enclosed in a
large chamber; a non contact heat exchanger provides the means to transfer
heat from low-pressure steam to the product. The product inside the evaporation
chamber is kept under vacuum. The presence of vacuum causes the
temperature difference between steam and product to increase and the product
boils at relatively low temperatures, thus minimizing heat damage. The vapors
produced are conveyed through a condenser to a vacuum system. The steam
condenses inside the heat exchanger and the condensate is discarded.
Page 108 of 151

In the evaporator shown in Fig. 25.1, the vapors produced are discarded
without further utilizing their inherent heat, therefore this type of evaporator is
called a single-effect evaporator, since the vapors produced are discarded. If
the vapors are reused as the heating medium in another evaporator chamber, as
shown in Fig.25.2. the evaporator system is called a multiple-effect
evaporator.
Fig. 25.2 Multiple (triple) -effect evaporator

In a multi-effect evaporator, steam is used only in the first effect. The use
of vapors as a heating medium in additional effects results in obtaining higher
energy-use efficiency from the system. The partially concentrated product
leaving the first effect is introduced as feed into the second effect. After
additional concentration, product from the second effect becomes feed for the
third effect. The product from the third effect leaves at the desired concentration.
This particular arrangement is called a forward feed system. Other flow
arrangements used in industrial practice include backward feed systems and
parallel feed systems.
The characteristics of the liquid food have a profound effect on the
performance of the evaporation process. As water is removed the liquid
becomes increasingly concentrated, resulting in reduced heat transfer. The
boiling point rises as the liquid concentrates resulting in a smaller differential of
temperature between the heating medium and the product. This causes reduced
rate of heat transfer.
Food products are noted for their heat sensitivity. Evaporation processes
must involve reducing the temperature for boiling as well as the time of heating,
to avoid excessive product degradation.
Page 109 of 151

Boiling-Point Elevation
Boiling-point elevation of a solution (liquid food) is defined as the increase
in boiling point over that of pure water, at a given pressure.
Fig. 25.3 Duhring lines illustrating the influence of solute concentration on boiling point
elevation
A simple method to estimate boiling-point elevation is the use of Duhring's
rule. The Duhring rule states that a linear relationship exists between the boiling-
point temperature of the solution and the boiling-point temperature of water at
the same pressure. Duhring lines for a sodium chloride-water system are shown
in Fig.25.3.
Types of Evaporators
Several types of evaporators are used in the food industry.
1. Batch-Type Pan Evaporator

One of the simplest types of evaporators used in the food industry is the
batch-type pan evaporator, shown in Fig.25.4. The product is heated in a steam
jacketed spherical vessel. The heating vessel may be open to the atmosphere or
connected to a condenser and vacuum. Vacuum permits boiling the product at
temperatures lower than the boiling point at atmospheric pressure, thus reducing
the thermal damage to heat sensitive products.
Page 110 of 151

Fig. 25.4 A batch-type pan evaporator
The heat-transfer area per unit volume in a pan evaporator is small. Thus,
the residence time of the product is usually very long. Heating of the product
occurs mainly due to natural convection, resulting in smaller convective heat
transfer coefficients. The poor heat transfer characteristics substantially reduce
the processing capacities of the batch-type pan evaporators.
2. Natural Circulation Evaporators

In natural circulation evaporators, short vertical tubes, typically 1- 2 m
long and 50- 100 mm in diameter, are arranged inside the steam chest. The
whole calandria (tubes and steam chest) is located in the bottom of the vessel.
The product, when heated, rises through these tubes by natural circulation while
steam condenses outside the tubes. Evaporation takes place inside the
tubes, and the product is concentrated. The concentrated liquid falls back to the
base of the vessel through a central annular section. A natural circulation
evaporator is shown in Fig.25.5.
Fig.25.5 A natural circulation evaporator
Page 111 of 151

LECTURE NO. 26
RISING FILM EVAPORATOR, FALLING FILM EVAPORATOR, RISING AND
FALLING FILM EVAPORATOR, FORCED-CIRCULATION EVAPORATOR
PLATE EVAPORATOR
1. Rising-Film Evaporator
In a rising-film evaporator (Fig. 26.1), a low-viscosity liquid food is allowed
to boil inside 10-15 m long vertical tubes. The tubes are heated from the outside
with steam. The liquid rises inside these tubes by vapors formed near the bottom
of the heating tubes. The upward movement of vapors causes a thin liquid film to
move rapidly upward. A temperature differential of at least 14C between the
product and the heating medium is necessary to obtain a well developed film.
High convective heat-transfer coefficients are achieved in these evaporators.
Liquid can be recirculated if necessary to obtain the required solid concentration.
Fig. 26.1 a rising-film evaporator

2 Falling-Film Evaporator
In contrast to the rising-film evaporator, the falling-film evaporator has a
thin liquid film moving downward under gravity on the inside of the vertical tubes.
(Fig.26.2). The design of such evaporators is complicated by the fact that
distribution of liquid in a uniform film flowing downward in a tube is more difficult
to obtain than an upward flow system such as in a rising-film evaporator. This is
accomplished by the use of specially designed distributors or spray nozzles.
Page 112 of 151

Fig. 26.2 Falling-film evaporator
The falling-film evaporator allows a greater number of effects than the
rising-film evaporator. For example, if steam is available at 110 C and the
boiling temperature in the last effect is 50C, then the total available temperature
differential is 60C. Since rising-film evaporators require 14C temperature
differential across the heating surface, only four effects are feasible. However, as
many as 10 or more effects may be possible using a falling-film evaporator. The
falling-film evaporator can handle more viscous liquids than the rising-film type.
This type of evaporator is best suited for highly heat-sensitive products such as
orange juice. Typical residence time in a falling-film evaporator is 20-30 seconds,
compared with a residence time of 3-4 minutes in a rising-film evaporator.
Fig.26.3 Rising / falling-film evaporator

3. Rising/Falling-Film Evaporator
In the rising/falling-film evaporator the product is concentrated by
circulation through a rising-film section followed by a falling-film section of the
evaporator. As shown in Fig.26.3, the product is first concentrated as it ascends
Page 113 of 151

through a rising tube section, followed by the pre-concentrated product
descending through a falling-film section; there it attains its final concentration.
4 Forced-Circulation Evaporator
The forced-circulation evaporator involves a non-contact heat exchanger
where liquid food is circulated at high rates (Fig. 26.4). A hydrostatic head,
above the top of the tubes, eliminates any boiling of the liquid. Inside the
separator, absolute pressure is kept slightly lower than that in the tube bundle.
Thus, the liquid entering the separator flashes to form a vapor. The temperature
difference across the heating surface in the heat exchanger is usually 3-5C.
Axial flow pumps are generally used to maintain high circulation rates with
linear velocities of 2- 6 m/s, compared with a linear velocity of 0.3-1 m/s in
natural-circulation evaporators. Both capital and operating costs of these
evaporators are very low in comparison with other types of evaporators.
Fig. 26.4 A forced-circulation evaporator

5. Plate evaporators
In addition to the tubular shape, plate evaporators are also used in the
industry. Plate evaporators use the principles of rising falling-film, falling-film,
wiped-film, and forced-circulation evaporators. The plate configuration often
provides features that make it more acceptable.
A rising/falling-film plate evaporator is more compact, thus requiring
less floor area than a tubular unit.
Page 114 of 151

LECTURE NO. 27
DESIGN OF A SINGLE EFFECT EVAPORATOR, MATERIAL AND ENERGY
BALANCES, EVAPORATOR EFFICIENCY, BOILING POINT ELEVATION,
Design of a Single Effect Evaporator
The primary quantities required to design an evaporator are the flow rates of
the major streams: feed, vapour and concentrated liquor; the steam flow rate and
the area of the heat transfer surface across which heat is transferred from steam
to liquid in the evaporator. This requires a material balance, an enthalpy
balance and a heat transfer rate equation to be solved simultaneously.
Fig. 27.1 Single effect evaporator: Material and energy balance

Material and Energy Balances
Referring to Figure 27.1, an overall material balance across a single effect

evaporator yields
F = V+L ----------------------- (27.1)
where F, V, and L are the mass flow rates of feed, vapour, and liquor,
respectively. The component material balance is now
x F F = yV + x L L ---------------------------------(27.2)
where xF, y, and xL are the mass fractions of solids in the feed, vapour
and liquor, respectively. However, because there is no solids in the vapour
stream, y = 0 and the component balance reduces to
xF F = xL L -----------------------------(27.3)
An enthalpy balance over the evaporator involves two further streams, the
inlet steam S and the condensate C. The combined enthalpy of the feed and
Page 115 of 151
the steam must balance that of the vapour, liquor and condensate. Thus, if hF is
the specific enthalpy of the feed, hS that of the steam and so on,
FhF + Shs = V hv + LhL + S hc -------------------- (27.4)
where each term in Equation (4) represents a flow of heat associated with that
particular stream and has units of either W or kW if h has units of J.kg-1 or kJ.kg-
1
, respectively. Strictly, the steam and condensate should be included in the
material balances. However they may be omitted because, of course, the flow
rate and composition of the steam remains unchanged as it gives up heat and
condenses. Thus, in Equation (12.4), S = C. For the purpose of calculation, the
enthalpies of liquid streams are obtained from steam tables and care must be
taken not to confuse the subscripts F and f.
Rearranging Equation (27.4) to give the steam flow rate produces
S (h s hc ) = V hv + LhL F hF -------------(27.5)
Fig.27.2 Single effect evaporator: material and enthalpy balance

Now the left-hand side of Equation (27.5), the difference between the
enthalpy of the steam and that of the condensate, must be equal to the rate Q at
which heat is transferred from the steam to the feed, that is,
Q = S (hs hc ) -----------(27.6)
The enthalpy given up by the steam is transferred across the tube walls of
the calandria, across which the temperature difference is T , and therefore
S (hs hc ) = U A T -----------(27.7)
where A is the heat transfer surface area; this area must be determined in order
for the calandria and the evaporator to be sized. An evaporator of course is a
kind of heat exchanger and the overall heat transfer coefficient can be obtained
by summing the various thermal resistances as in the examples of chapter
seven. The temperature driving force is that between the steam and the boiling
liquor in the evaporator. Hence
Page 116 of 151

T = TS TE -----------(27.8)
Any evaporator problem now requires the simultaneous solution of

Equations (27.3), (27.5), and (27.7). However it is very likely that there will be
sufficient information available to solve the material balance independently.
Equally, if the working pressures of the evaporator are specified then the steam
and condensate enthalpies can be determined from steam tables. The major
difficulty may be in finding values of enthalpy and boiling point for food solutions,
but a reasonable first estimate is to assume that the properties of food solutions
approximate to those of water.
Example 27.1
A single effect evaporator is to be used to concentrate a food solution

containing 15% (by mass) dissolved solids to 50% solids. The feed stream
enters the evaporator at 291 K with a feed rate of 1.0 kg s-1. Steam is available
at a pressure of 2.4 bar and an absolute pressure of 0.07 bar is maintained in
the evaporator. Assuming that the properties of the solution are the same as
those of water, and taking the overall heat transfer coefficient to be 2,300 W m-
2
K-1, calculate the rate of steam consumption and the necessary heat transfer
surface area.
Working in units of kg s-I, the overall material balance becomes
1.0 = V + L
Substituting into the component material balance for xF = 0.15 and xL = 0.50
gives
0.15 x 1.0 = 0.50 L
from which the unknown liquor flow rate is

L = 0.3 kg s-1
Hence from the overall balance the flow rate of vapour is
V == 0.7 kg s-1
To proceed with an enthalpy balance, specific enthalpies must be
obtained from steam tables. If the steam and condensate remain saturated at
2.40 bar then hs ; is equal to hg at 2.40 bar and hc is equal to hf at 2.40 bar. Thus
hs = 2,715 kJ kg-1 and hc = 530 kJkg -1. The feed enthalpy is determined by its
temperature. Assuming the feed to be pure water, hF is equal to hf at 291 K and
Page 117 of 151

therefore hF = 75.5 kJ kg-1. The enthalpies of the vapour and liquor streams are
a function of the pressure within the evaporator: hV = 2,572 kJ kg -1 (hg at 0.07
bar) and hL = 163 kJ kg-1 (hf at 0.07 bar). The enthalpy balance [Equation (5)]
now becomes
S (2715 - 530) = (0.70 x 2572) + (0.30 x 163) - (1.0 x 75.5)
from which S = 0.812 kgs-1. The rate of heat transfer, from Equation (6), is now
Q = 0.812 (2715 - 530) kW or Q = 1774 kW
The temperature of steam at 2.4 bar is Ts = 126.1 C and the temperature of

saturated liquid water at the evaporator pressure of 0.07 bar is TE = 39.0 C.
Thus to find the heat transfer area from the rate equation,
Q 1774
A= , A= m2
U (Ts TE ) 2.30 (126.1 - 39.0)
or
A = 8.86 m2
Evaporator Efficiency
A common measure of the efficiency of an evaporator is the mass of

vapour generated per unit mass of steam admitted to the calandria. This quantity
is known as the economy. Thus
V
economy = ------(27.9)
S
Clearly it is impossible, in a single effect evaporator, for 1 kg of steam to
generate more than 1 kg of vapour. In practice, because of energy losses, the
economy will be below unity and values of 0.8 or slightly greater may be
expected for industrial units.
Example 27.2
Calculate the economy of the evaporator in Example 27.1.
From the definition in Equation (27.9)
0.70
economy = , economy = 0.862
0.812
In other words 0.862 kg of vapour are produced for every kg of steam
used.
Page 118 of 151

Example 27.3
An aqueous food solution at a temperature of 18 C contains 6% solids by

mass and is to be concentrated to 24 % solids in a single effect evaporator. The
evaporator has a total heat transfer surface area of 30 m2, uses steam at 300
kPa and operates under a vacuum of 79.3 kPa. Previous operating experience
with these conditions suggests an overall heat transfer coefficient of 2,200 W m-
2
K-1. Determine the mass flow rate of steam required and the evaporator
economy.
The various specific enthalpies and temperatures are obtained from steam
tables as follows:
For the steam and condensate at 300 kPa, hs = 2,725 kJ kg-1, hc = 561 kJ
kg-1 and the steam temperature is 133.5e. The enthalpy of feed at a
temperature of 18 C is hF = 75.5 kJ kg-1. Taking atmospheric pressure to be
101.3 kPa, the pressure within the evaporator is 22.0 kPa and therefore the
evaporator temperature (assuming no boiling point elevation) is 62.2 C.
Consequently hv = 2,613 kJ kg-1 (hg at 0.22 bar) and hL = 260 kJ kg-1(hf at 0.22
bar).
From Equation (7) the steam flow rate is
U A T 2.20 X 30 X (133.5 62.2)
S= , S=
(hs hc ) (2725 561)
or
S= 2.175 kg s-1
Because neither the feed flow rate nor the product flow rate is specified,
the material and energy balances must be solved simultaneously. The
component balance, with XF = 0.06 and XL = 0.24, is
0.06 F = 0.24 L
from which
F = 4L
Substituting this into the enthalpy balance gives
S (hs hc ) = (4 L L)hv + L hL 4 LhF
and
2.175(2725 - 561) = (3L x 2613) + 260 L 302 L
Page 119 of 151

This can be solved to give L = 0.604 kg s-1 and from the overall material
balance therefore V = 1.811 kg s-1. Consequently the economy becomes
1.811
economy = economy = 0.833
2.175
Boiling Point Elevation
The vapour pressure of an aqueous solution is less than that of pure water.
Consequently the boiling point of the solution is higher than that of pure water
and this difference must be taken into account in the enthalpy balance. The
boiling point rise or boiling point elevation is defined as the difference between
the boiling point of the solution and that of pure water, at the same pressure.
In single stage evaporation the enthalpy of the vapour is wasted because

the vapour is either vented to atmosphere or condensed. This poor use of steam
results in low thermal efficiency and a low steam economy. Reusing the vapour,
either by recycling it to the calandria or by passing it to the calandria of a second
evaporator, means that 1 kg of original steam can be used to generate more
than 1 kg of vapour giving economies greater than unity.
Vapour Recompression
(a) Mechanical recompression Mechanical recompression (Figure 27.3(a))

of the exhaust vapour from an evaporator allows the enthalpy of the vapour to be
reused. In com- pressing the vapour its enthalpy is increased to that of the
original steam. Because of inevitable heat losses in the system some make-up
steam will be required but a large increase in economy can be expected. A
major disadvantage of this technique is that a large volume of vapour must be
handled which in turn requires a large compressor; positive displacement
compressors are normally used. The increase in steam economy must be
balanced against the running costs of the compressor.
(b) Steam jet ejector: An alternative method of reusing the vapour is to

inject high pressure steam via a nozzle, or steam jet ejector (Figure 27.3 (b)).
This creates a vacuum which entrains the low pressure vapour from the
evaporator at right angles. The combined stream is then recycled to the
calandria. Again, the fresh steam requirement is reduced but there are several
advantages over mechanical recompression. The steam jet ejector has the
ability to handle very large volumes of vapour and can operate at lower
Page 120 of 151

pressures. There are no moving parts, no power requirement and corrosion
resistant materials can easily be used. The major disadvantage is that optimum
operation of such a device occurs at a specific pressure and temperature;
variation of the conditions in the evaporator may well lead to a reduction in the
economy which can be achieved.
Fig. 27.3(a) Mechanical Vapor recompression
Fig. 27.3(b) Steam ejector vapor recompression
Page 121 of 151

LECTURE NO. 28
SIZING OF MULTIPLE EFFECT EVAPORATORS
The rate equation can be written for each effect in turn
Q1 = U1 A1 T1
Q2 = U 2 A2 T2
Q3 = U 3 A3 T3
(28.1)
where the temperature differences are defined by

T1 = TS T1
T2 = T1 T2 (28.2)
T3 = T2 T3
and the subscripts 1, 2, and 3 refer to the first, second and third effects,
respectively.
If now it is assumed that there is no boiling point rise, that the enthalpy
required to raise the feed to the temperature T1 can be neglected and that the
enthalpy carried by the concentrated liquor to subsequent effects is negligible,
then the heat flux Q1 appears as the latent heat of the vapour in the calandria of
effect 2. Therefore
Q1 = Q2 = Q3 (28.3)
and
U1 A1 T1 = U 2 A2 T2 = U 3 A3 T3 (28.4)
If each unit is geometrically similar each will have the same area and
U 1 T1 = U 2 T2 = U 3 T3 (28.5)
The total capacity of the evaporator Q is then given by
Q = Q1 + Q2 + Q3 (28.6)
and
Q = U av A( T1 + T2 + T3 ) (28.7)
Page 122 of 151

where A is the area of a single effect and Uav is an average overall heat transfer
coefficient.
It is important to understand that a single effect evaporator will have
approximately the same capacity Q as the multiple effect evaporator if the
temperature difference is the same as the total temperature difference of the
multiple effect unit, the area is the same as the area of one effect and the overall
heat transfer coefficient is the same. The advantage of multiple effect
evaporation is not an increased capacity but an increased steam economy. In an
n effect evaporator 1 kg of steam evaporates approximately n kg of vapour.
Thus the economy of the multiple effect system is greater but the capital cost is
greatly increased. For n effects the capital cost will be approximately n times that
of a single effect and the optimum number of effects is a balance between the
capital cost on the one hand and the improved economy and therefore lower
operating costs on the other.
In order to determine the area of a multiple effect evaporator an iterative
calculation is required. If the likely values of the overall heat transfer coefficient
for each effect are known then, together with the temperature in the final effect
(which is a function of the degree of vacuum applied), a first approximation of
the temperature differences T1 , T2 and T3 can be obtained from Equation
(28.4). This will give the temperature in each effect from which the enthalpies of
vaporization can be found and hence the material and energy balances can be
solved to give the steam and vapour flow rates. A first approximation of the area
of each effect can now be made from the rate equations [Equation (27.9)].
Because of the assumptions made in this procedure, it is very likely that this first
iteration will give unequal areas. A new approximation of each temperature
difference is now obtained from an equation of the form
T1 A1
new T1 = (28.8)
Amean
where Amean is the average of each effect area. This calculation is repeated until
the areas of each effect are sufficiently close together.
Example 5
A 4% aqueous food solution is fed at a rate of 2.0 kg s-1 and a

temperature of 70 C to a forward feed double-effect evaporator with equal
Page 123 of 151

surface areas. The solution is concentrated to 20% by mass. The second effect
is maintained at a pressure of 20 kPa with a boiling point elevation of 8 K.
Steam at 240 kPa is available. The heat transfer coefficients in the first and
second effects are 2.20 and 1.50 kW m-2 K-1, respectively, and the heat capacity
of each liquid stream may be assumed to be 4.18 kJ.kg-1 K-1. Calculate the heat
transfer surface area of each effect and the economy.
A component material balance gives
0.04 x 2.0 = 0.20 L2
and therefore the flow rate of concentrate from the second effect L2 equals 0.40
kg s -1. From an overall balance the total vapour generated V, equal to V1 + V2, is
then (2.0 - 0.40) = 1.60 kg s-1. The steam temperature at 240 kPa is Ts =
126.1C. The temperature in the second effect is equal to the boiling point of
water at 20 kPa plus the boiling point elevation, thus
T2 = 60.1 + 8.0 = 68.1C
and the overall temperature difference, equal to T1 + T2 , is (126.1 - 68.1) =
58 K. Now from Equation (28.5)
2.20 T1 = 1.50 T2
and consequently T1 = 23.5 K and T2 = 34.5 K. From Equation 11 the

temperature in the first effect T1 is (126.1 - 23.5) = 102.6C. Ignoring the
enthalpy of the stream LI, an enthalpy balance over the first effect can now be
written as
S (hs hc ) + Fc p (TF T1 ) = V1 hv1
where hv1 , represents the enthalpy of vapour at T1 and TF is the feed
temperature. Thus
2185 S + (2.0 x 4.18 (70 - 102.6)) = 2680.4VI
and
2185 S = 2680.4 VI + 272.5 (i)
The enthalpy balance over the second effect, ignoring the stream L2, is
V1 h fg1 + ( F V1 ) c p (T2 T1 ) = V2 hv 2
where h fg 1 , represents the latent heat of vapor is at ion at T1. Thus
Page 124 of 151

2250.2V1 + (2.0 V1) 4.18(102.6 - 68.1) = 2623 V2
which simplifies to
2106.0 VI + 288.4 = 2623V2 (ii)
From the material balance

V1 + V2 = 1.60
(iii)
Now solving (i) -- (iii) simultaneously yields
V1 = 0.826 kg s-1
V2 = 0.774 kgs-I, S = 1.138 kgs-1
Hence the first estimate of the area of each effect can be obtained from
the rate equation [Equation (28.1)] and
1.138 X 2185.0 2
A1 = m , or A1 = 48.1 m 2
2.20 X 23.50
Similarly
0.826 X 2250.2 2
A2 = m , or A2 = 35.9 m 2
1.50 X 34.50
The values of A1 and A2 are not equal and a second iteration is

necessary. The temperature difference T1 is now amended using Equation
(28.8).
T1 A1
new T1 =
( A1 + A2 ) / 2
Therefore
23.5 X 48.1
T1 = K , T1 = 26.9 K
(48.1 + 35.9) / 2
By difference the amended temperature driving force for the second effect is
T2 = 31.1 K.
The procedure is now to recalculate T1 which becomes (126.1- 26.9) = 99.2
C, determine new values of hv1, and hfg1, from steam tables, repeat the
calculation of V1,V2, and S and so on. This produces
V1 = 0.825 kg s-1, V2 = 0.775 kg s-1, S = 1.122kg s-1
The area of the first effect is now
Page 125 of 151

1.122 X 2185.0 2
A1 = m , or A1 = 41.4 m 2
2.20 X 26.9
and that of the second effect is

0.825 X 2280.8 2
A2 = m , or A2 = 40.3 m 2
1.50 X 31.1
The estimates of the two areas are now sufficiently close together giving a
mean heat transfer surface area of 40.9 m2. Two iterations are therefore
sufficient. The economy is now equal to the total vapour produced (1.60 kg.s-1)
divided by the steam flow rate of 1.122 kgs-1. Thus the economy at 1.426 is
greater than unity.
Page 126 of 151

LECTURE NO. 29
THIN LAYER DRYING, MOISTURE CONTENT, EQUILIBRIUM MOISTURE
CONTENT, HYSTERESIS, DRYING CURVES, CONSTANT - RATE PERIOD,
FALLING - RATE PERIOD
DRYING
Generally the term drying refers to the removal of relatively small amount
of moisture from a solid or nearly solid material by evaporation. Therefore, drying
involves both heat and mass transfer operations simultaneously. Because of the
basic differences in drying characteristics of grains in thin layer and deep bed,
the whole grain drying process is divided into thin layer drying and deep bed
drying.
THIN LAYER DRYING
Thin layer drying refers to the grain drying process in which all grains are
fully exposed to the drying air under constant drying conditions, i.e., at constant
air temperature, and humidity. Generally up to 20 cm thickness of grain bed
(with a recommended air-grain ratio) is taken as thin layer. All commercial flow
dryers are designed on thin layer drying principles. Terms used in describing
the drying process are:
Moisture content
Usually the moisture content of a substance is expressed in percentage
by weight on wet basis. But the moisture content on dry, basis is simpler to use
in calculation as the quantity of moisture present at any time is directly
proportional, to the moisture content on dry basis.
The moisture content, m, per, cent, wet basis is:
Wm
m= X 100
Wm + Wd
where
Wm = weight of moisture and
Wd = weight of bone dry material.
The moisture content, M, dry basis, per cent is :
Wm m
M= X 100 = X 100
Wd 100 m
Page 127 of 151

The moisture content, X, dry basis is sometimes expressed in decimal also:
M
X=
100
Moisture measurement
Moisture content can be determined by direct and indirect methods.
Direct method includes air-oven drying method (1300 2 C) and distillation
method. Direct methods are simple and accurate but time consuming whereas
indirect methods are convenient and quick but less accurate.
Equilibrium moisture content
When a solid is exposed to a continual supply of air at constant
temperature and humidity, having a fixed partial pressure of the vapour; p the
solid will either lose moisture by evaporation or gain moisture from the air until
the vapour pressure of the moisture of the solid equals p. The solid and the gas
are then in equilibrium, and the moisture content of the solid in equilibrium with
the surrounding conditions is known as equilibrium moisture content E.M.C.
(Fig. 29.1). The E.M.C. is useful to determine whether a product will gain or lose
moisture under a given set of temperature and relative humidity conditions.
A plot of the equilibrium relative humidity and moisture content of a
particular material at a particular temperature (usually 25 C) is known as
equilibrium moisture curve or isotherm. Grain isotherms are generally S-shaped
and attributed to multi-molecular adsorption.
Fig.29.1 Desorption isotherms for paddy
DETERMINATION OF EQUILIBRIUM MOISTURE CONTENT,

Generally EMC is determined by two methods: (a) the static method, and
(b) the dynamic method. In the static method, the grain is allowed to come to
Page 128 of 151

equilibrium with the surrounding still air without any agitation, whereas in the
dynamic method, the air is generally mechanically moved.
E.M.C. Models
A number of E.M.C. equations namely BET equation, Harkin and Jura
equation, Smith equation, Henderson equation, Chung and Fost equation, etc.,
have been developed for different ranges of relative humilities.
The Hendersons equation to express the equilibrium moisture content is :
[
1 RH = exp cTM en ]
Where,
RH = equilibrium relative humidity, decimal
Me = E.M.C., dry basis, per cent
T = temperature, K and
c and n = product constants, varying with materials.
Hysteresis
Many solid materials including cereal grains exhibit different equilibrium
moisture characteristics depending upon whether the equilibrium is reached by
adsorption / sorption or desorption of the moisture. This phenomenon is known
as hysteresis which is shown in the following figure 29.2.
Fig. 29.2 Relation between equilibriurn moisture content of

paddy and relative humidity showing hysteresis
Bound moisture
This refers to the moisture-contained by a substance which exerts
equilibrium vapour pressure, less than that of the pure liquid at the same
temperature (Fig.29.3). The bound moisture may be contained, inside the cell
walls of the plant structure, moisture in loose chemical combination with the
cellulosic material, moisture bound in small capillaries and crevasses through
out the solid.
Page 129 of 151

Fig. 29.3 Types of Moisture
Unbound moisture
This refers to the moisture contained by a substance which exerts
equilibrium vapour pressure equal to that of the pure liquid at the same
temperature (Fig.29.3).
Free moisture
Free moisture is the moisture contained by a substance in excess of the
equilibrium moisture, X - XE. (Fig.29.3 ). Only free moisture can be evaporated
and the free water content of a solid depends upon the vapour concentration in
the air.
Drying Curves
A typical drying curve is shown in Fig.29.4. The figure clearly shows that
there are two - major periods of drying, namely, the constant-rate period and the
falling rate period.
Fig.29.4 Typical drying rate curve, constant drying condition.

The plots of moisture content versus drying time or drying rate versus
drying time or drying rate versus moisture content are known as drying curves
(Figs.29.5 and 29.6)
Page 130 of 151
Fig. 29.5 Moisture content versus drying time
Fig.29.6 Drying rate versus drying time

Constant-rate period
Some crops including cereal grains at high moisture content are dried
under constant-rate period at the initial period of drying. Falling-rate period
follows subsequently. As for example, wheat is dried under constant- rate
period when its moisture content exceeds 72%.
In the constant-rate period the rate of evaporation under any given set of
air conditions is independent of the solid and is essentially the same as the rate
of evaporation from a free liquid surface under the same condition. The rate of
drying during this period is dependent upon: (a) difference between the
temperature of air and temperature of the wetted surface at constant air velocity
and relative humidity, (b) difference in humidity between air stream and wet
surface at constant air velocity and temperature, and (c) air velocity at constant
air temperature and humidity.
In the constant-rate period drying takes place by surface evaporation and
moisture moves by vapour pressure difference. The moisture content at which
the drying rate ceases to be constant is known as the critical moisture content of
the solid. The average critical moisture content, Xc for a given type of material
depends upon the surface moisture concentration, bed thickness of the material
and rate of drying. The critical moisture content of a product also depends upon
the characteristics of the solid such as shape, size and the drying conditions.
Page 131 of 151
If the drying takes place entirely within the constant-rate period so that X1,
X2 > Xc.
Wd dX
Then by definition, R =
A d
Separating the variables and integrating the equation within proper limits, we
get:
Wd X1 X 2
time of drying , c =
A R c
where
Wd = Weight of dry solid, kg
A = Wet surface, m2
X1 = Initial moisture content, kg moisture/kg dry solid
X2 = Final moisture content, kg/kg
Xc = Critical moisture content, kg/kg
Rc = Rate of drying in the constant rate period, kg moisture
evaporated / hr.m2
c = drying time, hr.
Falling-rate period
Cereal grains are usually dried entirely under falling-rate period.
The falling rate period enters after the constant drying rate period and
corresponds to the drying cycle where all surface is no longer wetted and the
wetted surface continually decreases, until at the end of this period the surface
is dry. The cause of falling off in the rate of drying is due to the inability of the
moisture to be conveyed from the centre of the body to the surface at a rate
comparable with the moisture evaporation from its surface to the surroundings.
The falling-rate period is characterized by increasing temperatures both at
the surface and within the solid.
DEEP BED DRYING
In deep bed drying all the grains in the dryer are not fully exposed to the
same condition of drying air. The condition of drying air at any point in the grain
mass changes with time and at any times it also changes with the depth of the
grain bed. Over and above the rate of air flow per unit mass of grain is small
Page 132 of 151

compared to the thin layer drying of grain. All on-farm static bed batch dryers are
designed on deep bed drying principle. The condition of drying in deep bed is
shown in the following Figure 29.7.
Fig.29.7 Deep bed drying characteristics at different depths.
The drying of grain in a deep bin can be taken as the sum of several thin
layers. The humidity and temperature of air entering and leaving each layer vary
with time depending upon the stage of drying, moisture removed from the dry
layer until the equilibrium moisture content is reached. Little moisture is
removed, rather a small amount may be added to the wet zone until the drying
zone reaches it. The volume of drying zone varies with the temperature and
humidity of entering air, the moisture content of grain and velocity of air
movement. Drying will cease as soon as the product comes in equilibrium with
the air.
Time of advance of drying front

The time period taken by the drying front to reach the top of the bin is called
the maximum drying rate period.
Page 133 of 151

LECTURE NO. 30
TRAY AND CABINET DRYER, TUNNEL DRYER, PUFF-DRYING, FLUIDIZED -
BED DRYING, SPRAY DRYING, FREEZE - DRYING
Different Types of Dryers
Tray or Cabinet Dryers
These types of dryers use trays or similar product holders to expose the
product to heated air in an enclosed space. The trays holding the product inside
a cabinet or similar enclosure (Fig.30.1) are exposed to heated air so that
dehydration will proceed. Air movement over the product surface is at relatively
high velocities to ensure that heat and mass transfer will proceed in an efficient
manner.
Fig.30.1 Cabinet Type Tray Drier
In most cases, cabinet dryers are operated as batch systems and have
the disadvantage of non-uniform drying of a product at different locations within
the system. Normally, the product trays must be rotated to improve uniformity of
drying.
Tunnel Dryers
Figures 30.2(a) and 30.2(b) show examples of tunnel dryers. As

illustrated, the heated drying air is introduced at one end of the tunnel and
moves at an established velocity through trays of products being carried on
trucks. The product trucks are moved through the tunnel at a rate required to
maintain the residence time needed for dehydration. The product can be moved
in the same direction as the air flow to provide concurrent dehydration (Fig.
30.2(a)), or the tunnel can be operated in counter current manner (Fig. 30.2(b)),
Page 134 of 151

with the product moving in the direction opposite to air flow. The arrangement
used will depend on the product and the sensitivity of quality characteristics to
temperature.
With concurrent systems, a high-moisture product is exposed to high

temperature air, and evaporation assists in maintaining lower product
temperature. At locations near the tunnel exit, the lower-moisture product is
exposed to lower-temperature air. In counter current systems, a lower-moisture
product is exposed to high-temperature air, and a smaller temperature gradient
exists near the product entrance to the tunnel.
Fig. 30.2(a) A concurrent flow tunnel dryer
Fig. 30.2(b) A counter current flow tunnel dryer
Puff-Drying
In this drying process foods are dried by explosion puff-drying. This

process is accomplished by exposing a relatively small piece of product to high
pressure and high temperature for a short time, after which the product is moved
to atmospheric pressure. This results in flash evaporation of water and allows
vapors from the interior parts of the product to escape. Products produced by
Page 135 of 151
puff-drying have very high porosity with rapid rehydration characteristics. Puff-
drying is particularly effective for products with significant falling-rate drying
periods. The rapid moisture evaporation and resulting product porosity
contribute to rapid moisture removal during the final stages of drying. The puff-
drying process is accomplished most efficiently by using 2 cm cube shapes.
These pieces will dry rapidly and uniformly and will rehydrate within 15 minutes.
Fluidized-Bed Drying
In this system, the product pieces are suspended in the heated air
throughout the time required for drying. As illustrated in Figure 30.3, the
movement of product through the system is enhanced by the change in mass of
individual particles as moisture is evaporated. The movement of the product
created by fluidized particles results in equal drying from all product surfaces.
The primary limitation to the fluidized-bed process is the size of particles that will
allow efficient drying. As would be expected, smaller particles can be maintained
in suspension with lower air velocities and will dry more rapidly. Not all products
can be adapted dried with this process.
Fig.30.3 Fluidized bed drier
Spray Drying
The drying of liquid food products is often accomplished in a spray dryer.

Moisture removal from a liquid food occurs after the liquid is atomized or sprayed
into heated air within a drying chamber. Although various configurations of the
chamber are used, the arrangement shown in Figure 30.4 illustrates the
introduction of liquid droplets into a heated air stream.
Page 136 of 151

While liquid food droplets are moving with the heated air, the water
evaporates and is carried away by the air. Much of the drying occurs during a
constant-rate period and is limited by mass transfer at the droplet surface. After
reaching the critical moisture content, the dry food particle structure influences
the falling-rate drying period. During this portion of the process, moisture
diffusion within the particle becomes the rate-limiting parameter.
Fig.30.4 Spray drying System
After the dry food particles leave the drying chamber, the product is
separated from air in a cyclone separator. The dried product is then placed in a
sealed container at moisture contents that are usually below 5%. Product quality
is considered excellent due to the protection of product solids by evaporative
cooling in the spray dryer. The small particle size of dried solids promotes easy
reconstitution when mixed with water.
Freeze-Drying
Freeze-drying is accomplished by reducing the product temperature so

that most of the product moisture is in a solid state, and by decreasing the
pressure around the product, sublimation of ice can be achieved. When product
quality is an important factor for consumer acceptance, freeze-drying provides
an alternative approach for moisture removal.
The heat- and mass-transfer processes during freeze-drying are unique.

Depending on the configuration of the drying system (Fig.30.5), heat transfer
can occur through a frozen product layer or through a dry product layer.
Obviously, heat transfer through the frozen layer will be rapid and not rate-
Page 137 of 151

limiting. Heat transfer through the dry product layer will be at a slow rate due to
the low thermal conductivity of the highly porous structure in a vacuum. In both
situations, the mass transfer will occur in the dry product layer. The diffusion of
water vapor would be expected to be the rate-limiting process because of the
low rates of molecular diffusion in a vacuum.
Fig.30.5 Freeze drying System
Page 138 of 151

LECTURE NO. 31
INTRODUCTION TO HEAT PROCESSING - BLANCHING, PASTEURIZATION,
STERILIZATION
THERMAL PROCESSING OF FOODS

BLANCHING
One of the main objective of the blanching is to destroy enzymic activity in
vegetables and some fruits, prior to further processing. Blanching is combined
with peeling and/or cleaning of food, to achieve savings in energy consumption,
space and equipment costs. To achieve adequate enzyme inactivation, food is
heated rapidly to a pre-set temperature, held for a pre-set time and then cooled
rapidly to near ambient temperatures. The factors which influence blanching time
are:
type of fruit or vegetable
size of the pieces of food
blanching temperature
method of heating.
The maximum processing temperature in freezing and dehydration is
insufficient to inactivate enzymes. In canning, the time taken to reach sterilizing
temperatures, particularly in large cans, may be sufficient to allow enzyme
activity to take place. It is therefore necessary to blanch foods prior to these
preservation operations. Under blanching may cause more damage to food.
The heat resistance of enzymes is characterized by D and z values
(Chapter 1). Enzymes which cause a loss of eating and nutritional qualities in
vegetables and fruits include lipoxygenase, polyphenoloxidase,
polygalacturonase and chlorophyllase. Two heat-resistant enzymes which are
found in most vegetables are catalase and peroxidase. Although they do not
cause deterioration during storage, they are used as marker enzymes to
determine the success of blanching. Peroxidase is the more heat resistant of the
two, so the absence of residual peroxidase activity would indicate that other less
heat-resistant enzymes are also destroyed. The factors that control the rate of
heating at the centre of the product are:
the temperature of the heating medium
the convective heat transfer coefficient
the size and shape of the pieces of food
Page 139 of 151
the thermal conductivity of the food.
Equipment
The two most widespread commercial methods of blanching involve
passing food through an atmosphere of saturated steam or a bath of hot water.
Both types of equipment are relatively simple and inexpensive. Steam blanching
results in higher nutrient retention provided that cooling is by cold-air or cold-
water sprays.
Steam blanchers
At its simplest a steam blancher consists of a mesh conveyor belt that
carries food through a steam atmosphere in a tunnel. The residence time of the
food is controlled by the speed of the conveyor and the length of the tunnel.
Typically a tunnel is 15 m long and 11.5 m wide. The efficiency of energy
consumption is 19% when water sprays are used at the inlet and outlet to
condense escaping steam. Alternatively, food may enter and leave the blancher
through rotary valves or hydrostatic seals to reduce steam losses and increase
energy efficiency to 27%, or steam may be re-used by passing through Venturi
valves. Energy efficiency is improved to 31% using combined hydrostatic and
Venturi devices.
Nutrient losses during steam blanching are reduced by exposing the food
to warm air (65C) in a short preliminary drying operation (termed pre-
conditioning). Surface moisture evaporates and the surfaces then absorb
condensing steam during Individual Quick Blanching (IQB). Weight losses are
reduced to 5% of those found using conventional steam blanching. Pre-
conditioning and individual quick blanching are reported to reduce nutrient losses
by 81% for green beans, by 75% for Brussels sprouts, by 61% for peas and by
53% for lima beans and there is no reduction in the yield of blanched food.
The equipment for IQB steam blanching (Fig.31.1(a)) consists of a bucket
elevator which carries the food to a heating section. The elevator is located in a
close fitting tunnel to reduce steam losses. A single layer of food is heated on a
conveyor belt and then held on a holding elevator before cooling. The cooling
section employs a fog spray to saturate the cold air with moisture. This reduces
evaporative losses from the food and reduces the amount of effluent produced.
Typically the equipment processes up to 4500 kg/h of food.
Page 140 of 151

Hot-water blanchers
There are a number of different designs of blancher, each of which holds
the food in hot water at 70100C for a specified time and then removes it to a
dewatering-cooling section.
Fig. 31.1 Blanchers: (a) IQB steam blancher (b) blanchercooler and (c) counter-
current blancher
Developments in hot-water blanchers, based on the IQB principle, reduce
energy consumption and minimize the production of effluent. For example, the
blancher-cooler has three sections: a pre-heating stage, a blanching stage and
a cooling stage (Fig.31.1 (b)). The food remains on a single conveyor belt
Page 141 of 151

throughout each stage and therefore does not suffer the physical damage
associated with the turbulence of conventional hot water blanchers. The food is
pre-heated with water that is re-circulated through a heat exchanger. After
blanching, a second recirculation system cools the food. The two systems pass
water through the same heat exchanger, and this heats the pre-heat water and
simultaneously cools the cooling water. Up to 70% of the heat is recovered. A
recirculated water-steam mixture is used to blanch the food, and final cooling is
by cold air. Effluent production is negligible and water consumption is reduced to
approximately 1m3 per 10 t of product. The mass of product blanched is 16.7
20 kg per kilogram of steam, compared with 0.250.5 kg per kilogram in
conventional hot-water blanchers.
In another design, used for blanching broccoli, lima beans, spinach and
peas, is the water and food move counter-currently (Fig.31.1(c)).
Pasteurization
Pasteurization is a relatively mild heat treatment, in which food is heated
to below 100C. In low acid foods (pH > 4.5, for example milk) it is used to
minimize possible health hazards from pathogenic micro-organisms and to
extend the shelf life of foods for several days. In acidic foods (pH < 4.5, for
example bottled fruit) it is used to extend the shelf life for several months by
destruction of spoilage micro-organisms (yeasts or moulds) and/or enzyme
inactivation.
The extent of the heat treatment required to stabilize a food is determined
by the D value of the most heat-resistant enzyme or micro-organism. As flavors,
colors and vitamins are also characterized by D values, pasteurization conditions
can be optimized for retention of nutritional and sensory quality by the use of
high-temperature short-time (HTST) conditions. For example in milk processing
the lower temperature longer time (LTLT) process operating at 63C for 30 min
(the holder process) causes greater changes to flavour and a slightly greater
loss of vitamins than HTST processing at 71.8C for 15 s and it is less often
used. Higher temperatures and shorter times (for example 88C for 1 s, 94C for
0.1 s or 100 C for 0.01 s for milk) are described as higher-heat shorter-time
processing or flash pasteurization.
Equipment Used
Pasteurization of packaged foods
Page 142 of 151

Some liquid foods (for example beers and fruit juices) are pasteurised
after filling into containers. Hot water is normally used if the food is packaged in
glass, to reduce the risk of thermal shock to the container (fracture caused by
rapid changes in temperature). Maximum temperature differences between the
container and water are 20 C for heating and 10 C for cooling. Metal or plastic
containers are processed using steamair mixtures or hot water as there is little
risk of thermal shock. In all cases the food is cooled to approximately 40 C to
evaporate surface water and therefore to minimize external corrosion to the
container or cap, and to accelerate setting of label adhesives.
Hot-water pasteurizers may be batch or continuous in operation. The
simplest batch equipment consists of a water bath in which crates of packaged
food are heated to a pre-set temperature and held for the required length of time.
Cold water is then pumped in to cool the product. A continuous version consists
of a long narrow trough fitted with a conveyor belt to carry containers through
heating and cooling stages.
A second design consists of a tunnel divided into a number of heating
zones. Very fine (atomized) water sprays heat the containers as they pass
through each zone on a conveyor, to give incremental rises in temperature until
pasteurization is achieved. Water sprays then cool the containers as they
continue through the tunnel.
Pasteurization of unpackaged liquids
Swept surface heat exchangers or open boiling pans are used for small-
scale batch pasteurization of some liquid foods. However, the large scale
pasteurization of low viscosity liquids (for example milk, milk products, fruit
juices, liquid egg, beers and wines) usually employs plate heat exchangers.
Some products (for example fruit juices, wines) also require de-aeration to
prevent oxidative changes during storage. They are sprayed into a vacuum
chamber and dissolved air is removed by a vacuum pump, prior to
pasteurization.
The plate heat exchanger (Fig.31.2) consists of a series of thin vertical
stainless steel plates, held tightly together in a metal frame. The plates form
parallel channels, and liquid food and heating medium (hot water or steam) are
pumped through alternate channels, usually in a counter-current flow pattern
(Fig.31.3). Each plate is fitted with a synthetic rubber gasket to produce a
watertight seal and to prevent mixing of the product and the heating and cooling
Page 143 of 151

media. The plates are corrugated to induce turbulence in the liquids and this,
together with the high velocity induced by pumping, reduces the thickness of
boundary films to give high heat transfer coefficients (3000 11500W m-2 K-1).
The capacity of the equipment varies according to the size and number of plates,
up to 80 000 l h-1.
Fig.31.2 Plate heat exchanger.
31.3 Counter-current flow through plate heat exchanger:

(a) one pass with four channels per medium;
(b) two passes with two channels per pass and per medium.
Page 144 of 151

Fig.31.4 Pasteurizing using a plate heat exchanger.
In operation (Fig.31.3), food is pumped from a balance tank to a
regeneration section, where it is pre-heated by food that has already been
pasteurised. It is then heated to pasteurizing temperature in a heating section
and held for the time required to achieve pasteurization in a holding tube. If the
pasteurizing temperature is not reached, a flow diversion valve automatically
returns the food to the balance tank to be repasteurized. The pasteurized
product is then cooled in the regeneration section (and simultaneously preheats
incoming food) and then further cooled by cold water and, if necessary, chilled
water in a cooling section.
Heat sterilization
Heat sterilization is the unit operation in which foods are heated at a
sufficiently high temperature and for a sufficiently long time to destroy microbial
and enzyme activity. As a result, sterilized foods have a shelf life in excess of six
months at ambient temperatures.
In-container sterilization
The length of time required to sterilize a food is influenced by:
the heat resistance of micro-organisms or enzymes likely to be present in
the food
the heating conditions
the pH of the food
the size of the container
Page 145 of 151

the physical state of the food.
In order to determine the process time for a given food, it is necessary to
have information about both the heat resistance of micro-organisms, particularly
heat resistant spores, or enzymes that are likely to be present and the rate of
heat penetration into the food.
Retorting (heat processing)
The shelf life of sterilized foods depends in part on the ability of the
container to isolate the food completely from the environment. The four major
types of heat-sterilisable container are:
1. metal cans
2. glass jars or bottles
3. flexible pouches
4. rigid trays.
Before filled containers are processed, it is necessary to remove air by an
operation termed exhausting. This prevents air expanding with the heat and
therefore reduces strain on the container. The removal of oxygen also prevents
internal corrosion and oxidative changes in some foods. Steam replaces the air
and on cooling forms a partial vacuum in the head space.
Containers are exhausted by:
hot filling the food into the container
cold filling the food and then heating the container and contents to 80
95C with the lid partially sealed (clinched)
mechanical removal of the air using a vacuum pump
steam flow closing, where a blast of steam (at 34 41.5 x 103 Pa) carries
air away from the surface of the food immediately before the container is sealed.
This method is best suited to liquid foods where there is little air trapped in the
product and the surface is flat and does not interrupt the flow of steam.
Equipment
Sterilising retorts may be batch or continuous in operation. Batch retorts
may be vertical or horizontal; the latter are easier to load and unload and have
facilities for agitating containers, but require more floor space. For example, the
Orbitort consists of a pressure vessel that contains two concentric cages. Cans
are loaded horizontally into the annular space between the cages and when full,
the retort is sealed. The cages hold the cans against guide rails as they are
slowly rotated to cause the headspace bubble to stir the contents.
Page 146 of 151

Fig. 31.5 Continuous hydrostatic steriliser.
Continuous retorts (for example, Fig 31.5) permit close control over the
processing conditions and hence produce more uniform products. They produce
gradual changes in pressure inside cans, and therefore less strain on the can
seams compared with batch equipment. The main disadvantages include a high
in-process stock which would be lost if a breakdown occurred, and in some,
problems with metal corrosion and contamination by thermophilic bacteria if
adequate preventative measures are not taken.
Page 147 of 151

LECTURE NO. 32
KINETICS OF MICROBIAL DEATH, DECIMAL REDUCTION TIME AND
THERMAL RESISTANCE CONSTANT, PROCESS LETHALITY
KINETICS OF MICROBIAL DEATH
The destruction of micro-organisms in foods using heat is a well-known

phenomenon in the preservation techniques of foods. However the temperature
response of vegetative cells and spores is far from uniform. Spores tend to be
more heat resistant than vegetative cells which in turn range widely in their heat
resistance. Even individual bacteria within a population of a given species show
a normal distribution of heat resistance. Thus it is possible to allow heat resistant
(or thermoduric) organisms to survive by using a heating regime which is
sufficient to destroy bacteria of low to intermediate heat resistance but which
fails to kill thermoduric bacteria. These may then thrive within a processing unit,
for example, a blancher, and increase the microbial load on a subsequent
sterilization operation.
The heat resistance of micro-organisms is also affected by a number of
other factors such as:
1. the age of cells; younger cells are less heat resistant,

2. the medium in which growth has occurred; a more nutritious medium
increases heat resistance,
3. moisture content; dry foods tend to require more severe heat treatment
during sterilization,
4. the presence of sodium chloride, proteins and fats all increase
heat resistance,
5. pH.
Decimal Reduction Time and Thermal Resistance Constant
The decline in the number of micro-organisms when subjected to heat is

asymptotic with time and therefore it is not possible to eliminate all
microorganisms. There is a logarithmic relationship between the number of
survivors of a given microorganism n and time t at any given temperature
(Figure 32.1 ). This is known as a survivor curve. The gradient of the survivor
curve increases markedly with temperature.
Page 148 of 151
Fig.32.1 Survivor curve
The decimal reduction time D is defined as the time for a tenfold reduction
in the number of survivors of a given micro-organism, in other words the time for
one log cycle reduction in the microbial population. Higher values of D imply, at a
given temperature, greater resistance of micro-organisms to thermal death.
Because D depends upon temperature, the temperature in C is appended as a
subscript. Thus D121.1 is the time required at 121.1 C to reduce a microbial
population by 90%. A temperature of 121.1 C (or 250F) is used as a common
reference point and therefore, because of its importance, this is sometimes
referred to as Do.
The logarithmic decline in the number of organisms n is represented by
dn
= kn
dt
where k is a rate constant. Therefore the equation of the line in survivor curve is
represented by
t = D (log n1 log n2 ) or
n
t = D log 1
n2
where n1 and n2 are the initial and final number of micro-organisms, respectively.
The value of D is independent of the initial population of microorganisms.
Example
A sample of fixed volume was held at a constant temperature and the

number of microorganisms in the sample measured as a function of time.
Calculate the decimal reduction time.
Page 149 of 151

Time (min) Number of micro-organisms
1.0 2.00 X 105
2.0 4.31 X 104
4.5 6.32 X 103
6.0 2.00 X 103
7.5 6.32 X 102
Sol: A plot of the natural logarithm of the number of organisms against time
gives a straight line of gradient 3 min. Hence D = 3 min.
The concept of decimal reduction time allows the probability of the

survival of spores to be predicted. For example, if a process is sufficiently
effective to produce 10 decimal reductions in the microbial population then, if a
canned food which is to be sterilised contained initially 1010 spores per can, the
final population would be one spore per can. Alternatively, for an initial
population of 105 spores per can, the final population would be 10-5 spores per
can. This latter figure is interpreted to mean that one can in 105 is likely to
contain a spore. Such a process is referred to as a 10D process.
Figure 32.2 Thermal resistance curve.
A plot of the logarithm of decimal reduction time against temperature is

generally linear. This is known as a thermal resistance curve (Figure 32.2) from
which a thermal resistance constant, or more commonly a z value, can be
defined. The z value is the temperature change for a ten-fold change in
decimal reduction time D and larger z values indicate greater heat resistance
to higher temperatures. Thus, for an organism for which z = 13 K, an increase in
Page 150 of 151

temperature of 13 K will produce a decrease in the decimal reduction time of
90%. For clostridium botulinum the value of z is 10K. The characterization of the
kinetics of microbial death in terms of decimal reduction time and thermal
resistance constant is the first step in specifying a sterilization process.
Process Lethality
Having established a method of describing microbial death rates it is

necessary to find a way of characterizing a sterilization process so that its
effectiveness for any given application can be judged. Because a range of
temperature/time combinations can be used to achieve the same reduction in
population of a given micro-organism, different sterilization processes can be
compared using a quantity known as total process lethality, F, which represents
the total temperature/time combination to which a food is subjected. Less
commonly this is called thermal death time.
F is the time required (usually expressed in minutes) to achieve a given
reduction in a population at specified temperature. For example, a process
lethality of F = 2.5 implies heating for two and a half minutes at the reference
temperature and for a specified z value. The reference temperature is usually
appended as a subscript and the z value as a superscript giving, for example,
10
F121 .1 . These particular conditions are used as a reference value of F which is
designated as Fo.
Page 151 of 151

Food Processing Equipment 1

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What are the different types of food processing equipment discussed?

What are the different types of food processing equipment discussed?

What are some important physical properties of food materials mentioned?

What are some important physical properties of food materials mentioned?

ACHARYA N.G.

RANGA AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY

Course No. FDEN-223

Course Title: Food Processing Equipment - I

Er. B. SREENIVASULA REDDY

Assistant Professor (Food Engineering)

Ms. ARUNA KUMARI. Y

B) Practical Class Outlines

INTRODUCTION TO MATERIAL HANDLING AND TRANSPORTATION-

Material handling Equipment

Material handling includes a number of operations that can be executed

Selection of material Handling machines and Conveyors

The belt speed should be selected to minimise product spillage or

Belt conveyor idlers: The efficiency of belt conveyor is largely

The spacing between the idlers influences the retention of correct

Fig.1.3 Tripper for discharge of materials

A bucket elevator consists of buckets attached to a chain or belt that

Fig.2.2 Bucket Feeding

The various discharge types of bucket elevators are shown in the

The bucket elevator's capacity mainly depends on bucket size, conveying

The bucket elevator's capacity may be calculated by the following

Fig.2.5 Bucket elevator boot section with automatic gravity take-up

Figure. 2.6 Cross section of few types of elevator legs

Fig.2.7 Belt Splices

Fig.2.8 A common bucket configuration

The screw conveyor consists of a tubular or U-shaped trough in which a

Fig.3.1 Screw conveyor

Fig. 3.2 Screw conveyor details

As the screw conveyor's driving mechanism is simpler, and no tensioning

Fig.3.3 Various shapes of screw conveyor trough

Capacity Q, m3/hr = 47.2 (D2 - d2) X P x n

Fig.3.4 Screw conveyor loading factor

Horse power = QLWF/4560

where, Q = conveyor capacity, m3/hr

At the time of harvest or slaughter, most foods are likely to contain

Table Contaminants found on raw foods

Type of contaminant Examples

Metals Ferrous and non-ferrous metals, bolts, filings

Equipment for cleaning is categorized into wet procedures (for example

Furthermore wet procedures produce large volumes of effluent, often with

Fig. 5.1 Separation of chaff from grain by aspiration cleaning.

Contamination by metal fragments or bolts from machinery is a potential

Shape and size sorting

The shape of some foods is important in determining their suitability for

Fig. 5.4 Parallel drum screen.

Figure 6.1 Sorting lemons on a roller sorter.

Fig. 6.2 Colour sorter.

A different type of equipment employs a sensor located above a conveyor

Fig. Egg sorter.

1. Flash steam peeling

Reasons for mixing are:

There are three criteria by which the performance of a mixer should be

Figure 8.1 Typical Agitation Process Vessel

The mixing of liquids is achieved in an agitated tank. A large number of

Figure 8.2 Paddle impeller