MAE 123 : Mechanical Engineering Laboratory II

Introduction to Experimental Practice

Dr. J. M. Meyers | Dr. D. G. Fletcher | Dr. Y. Dubief

MAE 123 : Mechanical Engineering Laboratory II

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Introduction to Experimental Practice
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OUTLINE

I. Error
Illegitimate error
Random error
Systematic error

II. Accuracy and Precision

Accuracy
Precision (Relative and Absolute)
Significant Digits

III. Propagation of Error: Uncertainty

IV. Parameter Sensitivity

by differentiation
by logarithmic differentiation

V. Presentation of Scientific Data

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I. ERROR

Error: The difference between the true value and a

calculated or observed (measured) value.

There are three types of error we will consider

a.Illegitimate error: a mistake is made in procedure,

leading to a bad value
b.Systematic error: an often unintentional bias that
enters into observations owing to how instruments are
read, faulty calibration of instrument, etc.
c.Random error: fluctuations in observations from
experiment to experiment

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I. ERROR

ILLIGITIMATE ERROR
Error resulting from a careless mistake made in procedure,
leading to a bad value.
Illegitimate errors can be corrected by recognizing the
mistake and redoing the measurement.

Illegitimate Error Examples:

misreading a ruler
copying down a wrong number

How to Minimize:
Just be more careful!

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I. ERROR
SYSTEMATIC ERROR
Owes to unintentional bias that enters into observations due to
how instruments are read, faulty calibration of instrument, etc.
A reproducible error that biases the data in a given direction.
Systematic errors can be eliminated only by critical examination
of the experimental method, and often this is accomplished by
performing an experiment with the apparatus to measure a
known or analytically determined value. Another approach is to
have a different person perform the same experiment!
Systematic Error Examples
The cloth tape measure that you use to measure the length of an object had been stretched out
from years of use. (As a result, all of your length measurements were too small.)
The electronic scale you use reads 0.05 g too high for all your mass measurements (because it is
improperly tared throughout your experiment).
Using a timer that is slow, so that all the times measured are slow by the same factor.

How to minimize
Systematic errors are difficult to detect and cannot be analyzed statistically, because all of the data is
off in the same direction (either to high or too low). Spotting and correcting for systematic error takes
a lot of care.
How would you compensate for the incorrect results of using the stretched out tape measure?
How would you correct the measurements from improperly tared scale?
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I. ERROR
RANDOM ERROR

Fluctuations in observations from experiment to experiment

that follow statistical distributions.

Random errors are not something that can be controlled and

are typically present owing to limitations on instrumentation
or to an inability to completely control the test conditions.
Random error is not the fault of you or the equipment

Random Error Examples:

You measure the mass of a ring three times using the same balance and get slightly different values:
17.46 g, 17.42 g, 17.44 g
Noise in an oscilloscope reading

How to minimize or eliminate random errors:

Take more data. Random errors follow statistical distributions thus can be evaluated through
statistical analysis and can be reduced by averaging over a large number of observations.

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II.II.ACCURACY AND PRECISION
ACCURACY AND PRECISION

ACCURACY: a measure of how close the experimental (or

calculated) value is to the true value

PRECISION: a measure of how exactly the experimental

result is determined without reference to what the result
means. Precision is also a measure of how reproducible the
result is.
Absolute precision: indicates magnitude of uncertainty in
the same units as the result
Relative precision: indicates the uncertainty as a fraction
of the value of the result.

From the definitions it is clear that accuracy precision

The precision of an experimental observation determines the

number of significant digits used to report the value -- points
will be deducted for using too many digits to report an
answer.

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II. ACCURACY AND PRECISION
SIGNIFICANT DIGITS:
a. Left-most non-zero digit is most significant digit
b. If no decimal point, right-most non-zero digit is least
significant digit
c. If decimal point right-most, digit is least significant even if 0
d. All digits between least and most significant count as
significant digits
All numbers below have 4 significant In many cases it is beneficial
digits by the above rules. to use scientific notation

1,234 1.234(10)3 How many significant

123,400 1.234(10)6 digits does this readout
123.4 1.234(10)2 have?
What would be its
1,001 1.001(10)3
representation in
1,000. 1.000(10)3 scientific notation?
10.10 1.010(10)1
0.0001010 1.010(10)-4
Reporting in scientific notation makes it easier to keep track of significant digits in calculations
Quoting result of experiment should use one figure more than determined by experimental
precision
In calculations keep this extra digit for each variable, so that the final result retains equivalent
precision from all input
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II. ACCURACY AND PRECISION
Example 1: Tabletop Measurement Error, Precision, and Accuracy

A student measures table top with steel meter rule and finds an average value of 1.982 m for the
length.
This student finds after that the rule was calibrated at 25 C, and has an expansion coefficient of
0.0005/C.

The experiment was done at 20 C, so the student multiplies result by 1-5(0.0005) = 0.9975, so his
result is now 1.977 m.

This illustrates a systematic error due to incorrect calibration and how this particular systematic
error can be corrected.

Precision: reported length is precise 1.977 m.

Represented significant digits Imply measurement has an absolute precision of 1 mm. (relative
precision on the order of 1/1977)

The table manufacturer lists the table at a length of L = 2.000 m. This means the result is
inaccurate by 23 mm.

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II. ACCURACY AND PRECISION

Additional Notes:
Round off the calculated result from all input to the reflect
the precision, and use the normal rounding rules (if greater
than 1/2 round up, less round down, equal to 1/2 round to
even)
Accuracy depends on how well we control systematic error
(reproducible differences)
Precision depends on how well we handle random errors

How can these be managed?

Improvements to instrumentation (if you can afford it) if it is
due to imprecise instrumentation
If the random errors come from imprecise control of
conditions for the experiment, then we can reduce the errors
by taking more measurements over a longer period, and the
effect of random errors will be reduced on the average
result.

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III. PROPAGATION OF ERROR: UNCERTAINTY

Generally, the result of our experiment is an estimate of the true value.

We can only estimate the errors since we often do not know the true value in advance
Repeating experiment often gives a different result, so we look to see if the results agree within
estimated uncertainty.

Repeating the experiment to reduce influence of random errors means we will usually estimate a
mean and standard deviation for the data -- statistical analysis

Usually, the result we are looking for in an experiment is determined from a combination of
measurements. Thus, the uncertainty in the result is determined by the uncertainty in the separate
measurements. What is this dependence?

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III. PROPAGATION OF ERROR: UNCERTAINTY
Measured data with only random error contributions follow a normal (aka Gaussian) distribution with
parameters and . This probability density function is given by:
4
1
= 0, = 0.1 = exp
= -1, = 0.1 2 2
= 0, = 0.5
3

mean value
f(x)

standard deviation
2 FWHM FWHM

1 variance
FWHM FWHM = 2 2 ln 1/2
0
-2.0 -1.5 -1.0 -0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
x

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III. PROPAGATION OF ERROR: UNCERTAINTY
Normally, measurements of more than one parameter are made to determine or reduce a
property of interest.
Each of these individual parameter measurements will have their own respective random error.
In many experiments it is important to understand how these measurement errors affect the
overall uncertainty of these other properties.
Consider the problem of computing the quantity # which is a function of $ independent variables
to be measured: % , , ' , )
* = +(-. , -/ , -0 , -1 )

The average or mean values of the The corresponding variances:

measured quantities are: (recall variance = (std dev)2)
9
1 1
% = 5 % 6 78 = 5 % 6 %
4 41
6 6:%
9
1 1
= 5 6 7; = 5 6
4 41
6 6:%
9
1 1
' = 5 ' 6 7< = 5 ' 6 '
4 41
6 6:%
9
1 1
) = 5 ) 6 7= = 5 ) 6 )
4 41
6 6:%

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III. PROPAGATION OF ERROR: UNCERTAINTY
Each combination of measurements can be used to estimate the deviation from the average value
using a Taylor Series expansion:

?# ?#
#6 # % 6 % + 6
? % 7; ,7< ,7=
? 78 ,7< ,7=
?# ?#
+ ' 6 ' + + ) 6 )
? ' 78 ,7; ,7=
? ) 78 ,7; ,7< ,7=B8

For illustration simplicity, lets assume our desired parameter # is a function of just two measured
quantities, % and :

?# ?#
#6 # % 6 % + 6
? % 7;
? 78

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III. PROPAGATION OF ERROR: UNCERTAINTY
If we square both sides and sum over all measurements, then we can replace the difference terms by
variances ( ). How many terms are there on RHS?
9
?# 2 ?# ?# ?#
D = 78 + 5 % 6 % 6 + 7;
? % 7;
41 ? % 7;
? 78
? 78
6:%

=0

Here we usually assume that the two variable errors are not related -- that they are statistically
independent. This is the most common situation. If a large enough sample set is then taken, any
covariance term will be zero: 9

5 7= 7E = 0
%

Thus only two RHS terms will remain. With the assumption of independence our estimate of the
variance of the derived result is then:

?# ?# ?# ?#
D = 78 + 7; = +
? % ? D 78
? % 7;
?

But what about calculated parameters that are a function of more than two measurements?

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III. PROPAGATION OF ERROR: UNCERTAINTY
In fact, it can be shown that for a desired parameter that is a function of $ number of measured
quantities:
# = ( %, , ', ))

that all the cross terms will cancel and the total uncertainty of parameter # can then be derived from
the following relation:

Partial derivatives of calculated parameter # with respect to individual measured parameter while
holding other measured parameters constant under assumption of statistical independence

?# ?# ?# ?#
General Form for
D = 78 + 7; + 7< + + 7=
the Expression of
? % ? ? ' ? ) Uncertainty

Error in Error in Error in Error in

measurement measurement measurement measurement
of % of of ' of )

Lets apply this to a couple of examples...

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III. PROPAGATION OF ERROR: UNCERTAINTY
Example 2: Measurement of Density (1/2)

We want to determine the density of room air, which is very difficult to measure directly. We recall
the ideal gas law:
G
G = HIJ H=
IJ
As we are working with air, we know that:

I = IK)6L /(MW) = 8.3145 N-m/(mol K)/0.029 kg/mol = 287.0 (N-m)/(kg-K).

We take turns reading the thermometer and find an average value for room J of 298 K, with a
standard deviation of M = 2 K.

We also use a pressure transducer to measure the ambient condition, and after repeating this many
times find an average value of G = 101000 N/m2 with a standard deviation of N = 100 N/m2.

G 101000
H= = = 1.18 kg/m3
IJ (287.0)(298)

We now want to estimate how far we probably are from this value owing to the imprecision of our
measurements (we hope we have eliminated systematic errors and that we are only dealing with
random errors -- we checked the thermometer and pressure transducer for proper calibration.)

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III. PROPAGATION OF ERROR: UNCERTAINTY
Example 2: Measurement of Density (2/2)
We have only two measurements in calculating H (pressure, G, and temperature, J). Using the
derived general form for the expression of uncertainty (Slide 15) we obtain:
?H ?H
V = M + N
?J ?G
The partial differentials of each measured quantity while holding the other measure quantity as
constant are:
?H 1 G ?H 1
= =
?J 2 IJ ?G IJ
Substituting these relations into our relation for uncertainty:

1 G 1
V = M + N
2 IJ IJ

Adding our measured values and working through we obtain:

1 101000 1 =4.13(10)-3 kg/m3

V = 2 + (100) V
2 287.0(298) 287.0(298)

or H = 1.18 4.13 10 3 kg/m3

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III. PROPAGATION OF ERROR: UNCERTAINTY
Example 3: Pitot Probe Measurement (1/3)
The Bernoulli principle is a very useful concept in fluid dynamics because it is easy to use and can give
great insight into the balance between pressure, velocity and elevation. Simply stated, at any point
along a streamline of fluid flow, the summation of pressure, dynamic pressure, and head pressure will
be constant. 1
G + HY + HZ[ = constant
2
This is the key relation in extracting fluid velocity from an instrument called a Pitot probe.

Assuming the two measurement points (1 and 2) are at the same elevation ([% [ ):
1 1
G% + H% Y% = G + H Y
2 2
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III. PROPAGATION OF ERROR: UNCERTAINTY
Example 3: Pitot Probe Measurement (2/3)

At the static pressure port (location 1), the velocity is normally taken to be 0 as this measurement is
perpendicular to the flow direction (ergo no dynamic pressure):
1 1
G% + H% Y% = G + H Y
2 2
0
Solving for velocity at measurement point 2:

(G% G )
Y = 2
H

It is common practice to measure a pressure

difference rather than the two pressure values,
thus:

2G
Y =
H

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III. PROPAGATION OF ERROR: UNCERTAINTY
Example 3: Pitot Probe Measurement (3/3)
We have only two measurements in calculating H. Using the derived general form for the expression
of uncertainty (Slide 15) for two variables:

?# ?# ?Y ?Y
D = 78 + 7; K; = N + V;
? % ? ?G ?H

2G ?Y 1 2 ?Y 1 2G
Y = = and =
H ?G 2 H G ?H 2 H '

1 2 1 2G
K; = N + V;
2 H G 2 H '

Well leave the derivation here as is. But what

would happen if we were to insert the ideal
1 2G gas law for density as described in the
K; = N + V;
2H G H ' previous example? Would the we arrive at the
same uncertainty?

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IV. PARAMETER SENSITIVITY
Parameter sensitivity by differentiation:
In our density calculation from Example 2 recall that:
G
H=
IJ
To find the pressure sensitivity, we differentiate the expression w.r.t. G, keeping J constant, and
then w.r.t. to J keeping G constant.

?H 1 G 1 H ?H G G 1 H
= = = = = =
?G M
IJ IJ G G ?J N
IJ IJ J J

Replacing the partial terms with the full differential, we can rearrange the two relations into more
convenient, intuitive forms:
]H ]G ]H ]J
= =
H G H J

These relations express the fractional change in density caused by a fractional change in the two
independent variables, G and J. These express the non-dimensional sensitivities of density to the
two variables.

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IV. PARAMETER SENSITIVITY
Parameter sensitivity by differentiation:

Now going back to Example 2 again our general relation for density depending on BOTH temperature
and pressure is:
?H ?H
V = M + N
?J ?G

Using the partial differentials from the previous slide and if we let:
V = ]H N = ]G M = ]J

We then arrive at:

H H
]H = ]J + ]G
J G

Dividing both sides by density squared yields the following:

]H ]G ]J
= +
H G J

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IV. PARAMETER SENSITIVITY
Parameter sensitivity by differentiation:

G ]H ]G ]J
H= = +
IJ H G J

Note:
1. The dependence on the temperature and pressure uncertainties is linear in each case
2. The contributions sum as squares and there is no cross term (we assume that pressure and
temperature are independent of each other)
3. Using the fractional representation of the variance keeps dimensions out of the relation, and
makes it a general result

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IV. PARAMETER SENSITIVITY
Parameter sensitivity by logarithmic differentiation:
Another approach provides a short cut for differentiation. We take the natural log of both sides of
the expression:
G
H= ln H = ln G ln I ln J
IJ

We then differentiate term-by-term, and this produces the fractional variances directly, with the
proper sensitivity scaling.
]H ]G ]J
=
H G J

We now square both sides, and assume that the cross term is zero (recall the assumption of
independent measurements of the separate parameters, G and J). This yields the same result as
the formal approach:
0

]H ]G ]G ]J ]J ]H ]G ]J
= 2 + = +
H G G J J H G J

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V. PRESENTATION OF SCIENTIFIC DATA
Measurements are normally displayed and represented in Tables or Graphs.
Units of each listed value must be included.
180 Water Heater
Time Temperature Temperature
160 [s] [C] 3 [C] 10
30 17 120
140
60 18 123
120 90 20 125
Temperautre [C]

120 22 128
100 150 24 132
180 25 120
80 210 24 142
Water Temperature 240 22 135
60
Heater Temperature 270 18 141
40 300 16 145
330 20 147
20 360 22 154
390 244 152
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 420 211 157
Time [s]
Graphs: Tables:
Both axes must include measurement label Each column must include a header
and unit measurement label and unit
Error bars for each representative data point Error can either be represented in the
must be graphically illustrated column header (if universal)
If more than one data record is being If error is not universal the value must be
represented, an appropriate legend must be represented for each data point
used.
Scale axes accordingly to represent what you
are trying to illustrate with your graph

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Introduction to Experimental Practice
V. PRESENTATION OF SCIENTIFIC DATA
Measurements are normally displayed and represented in Tables or Graphs.
Units of each listed value must be included.
180 Water Heater
Time Temperature Temperature
160 [s] [C] 3 [C] 10
30 17 120
140
60 18 123
120 90 20 125
Temperautre [C]

120 22 128
100 150 24 132
180 25 120
80 210 24 142
Water Temperature 240 22 135
60
Heater Temperature 270 18 141
40 300 16 145
330 20 147
20 360 22 154
390 244 152
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 420 211 157
Time [s]
Graphs: Tables:
Both axes must include measurement label Each column must include a header
and unit measurement label and unit
Error bars for each representative data point Error can either be represented in the
must be graphically illustrated column header (if universal)
If more than one data record is being If error is not universal the value must be
represented, an appropriate legend must be represented for each data point
used.
Scale axes accordingly to represent what you
are trying to illustrate with your graph

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GLOSSARY OF TERMS

Accuracy (of measurement) Closeness of agreement between a measured value and a true value. The term "precision" should not be
used for "accuracy".
Decimal places -the number of digits to the right of the decimal point.
Discrepancy - A significant difference between two measured values of the same quantity.
Error (of measurement) The inevitable uncertainty inherent in measurements
Illegitimate error- mistake or blunder - a procedural error that should be avoided by careful
Law of propagation of uncertainty - shows how the uncertainties (not the errors) of the input quantities combine
Precision - The degree of refinement with which an operation is performed or a measurement stated [Webster].
Random error -Statistical fluctuations (in either direction) in the measured data due to the precision limitations of the measurement
device.
Relative error- Error of measurement divided by a true value of the measurement. Relative error is often reported as a percentage.
Significant figures - all digits between and including the first non-zero digit from the left, through the last digit .
Systematic error -A reproducible inaccuracy introduced by faulty equipment, calibration, or technique. Unlike random errors,
systematic errors cannot be reduced by increasing the number of observations nor do they follow random errors statistical trend.
True value (of a quantity) The value that is approached by averaging an increasing number of measurements with no systematic
errors.
Uncertainty (of measurement) Associated with the result of a measurement, that characterizes the dispersion of the values that could
reasonably be attributed to the measurand. The uncertainty generally includes many components which may be evaluated from
experimental standard deviations based on repeated observations.
Absolute uncertainty The total uncertainty of a value.
Relative (fractional) uncertainty - the absolute uncertainty divided by the measured value, often expressed as a
percentage.

MORE TO COME

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 REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING

1) T. Arts, H. Boerrigter, J.-M. Buchlin, M. Carbonaro, G. Degrez, R. Denos, D. Fletcher, D. Olivari, M. L.

Riethmuller, and R. A. van den Braembussche, Measurement Techniques in Fluid Dynamics, von Karman
Institute for Fluid Dynamics, 2nd Revised Edition.

2) E. O. Doebelin, Measurement Systems: Application and Design, McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1983, New
York

3) H. H. Ku, Notes on the use of propagation of error of formulas, Journal of Research of the National Bureau
of Standards, 70C (4):262

4) P. R. Bevington, Data Reduction and Error Analysis for the Physical Sciences,

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Introduction to Experimental Practice