A Review of Solar Energy
A Review of Solar Energy
A Review of Solar Energy
art ic l e i nf o a b s t r a c t
Article history: Solar energy is one of the cleanest forms of energy sources and considered as a green source of energy.
Received 4 April 2014 Solar energy benet ranges from low carbon emission, no fossil fuel requirement, long term solar
Received in revised form resources, less payback time and other. However like other power generation sources, solar energy has
11 August 2014
also some Safety, Health and Environmental (SHE) concerns. This paper presents the overview of solar
Accepted 31 August 2014
Available online 3 October 2014
energy technologies and addresses the SHE impact of solar energy technologies to the sustainability of
human activities. This paper will also recommend the possible ways to reduce the effect of potential
Keywords: hazards of widespread use of solar energy technologies.
Solar energy technology & 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Photo voltaic
Life Cycle Assessment
Contents
1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1191
2. Solar technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1192
2.1. Photovoltaic (PV) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1192
2.2. Concentrating solar power (CSP) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1193
3. Life Cycle Assessment for harmonization in technology comparison . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1194
3.1. Carbon footprints. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1194
3.2. Energy payback ratio (EPR) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1194
3.3. Energy payback time (EPT) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1195
3.4. Life-cycle and land-use (LCLU) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1195
3.5. Levelized cost of electricity (LCOE) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1196
4. Solar energy impacts on Safety, Health and Environment (SHE) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1196
4.1. Positive impacts of solar energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1197
4.1.1. Saving in natural energy resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1197
4.1.2. Water consumption reduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1197
4.1.3. Land transformation/land use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1198
4.1.4. Reduction of carbon dioxide emission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1198
4.1.5. Noise and visual impacts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1199
4.2. Negative impacts of solar energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1199
4.2.1. Cost of land . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1200
4.2.2. Toxic chemical content in solar panel manufacturing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1200
4.2.3. Ecological impacts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1200
4.2.4. Decommissioning and recycling of solar panels. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1201
5. Recommendations for a clean solar industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1201
6. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1201
n
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: mohsinaman@gmail.com (M.M. Aman).
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2014.08.086
1364-0321/& 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
M.M. Aman et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 41 (2015) 11901204 1191
Acknowledgment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1201
Appendix A. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1201
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1202
1. Introduction around 1700 TW and solar has a potential of 6500 TW. However,
currently 0.02 TW of wind and 0.008 TW of solar is being utilized
Due to current economic reforms and enormous technological [2]. Global environmental concerns and the escalating demand for
developments around the world, the energy consumption is energy have also accelerated worldwide attention on green
increasing exponentially. In 20112012, the energy consumption energy. Solar energy potential is largest among the natural energy
was increased by 2.1% and in between 2000 and 2012, the energy resources. Solar energy is obtained from the thermal radiation
consumption increase rate was 2.4% [1]. Total world energy use is emitted by the sun. At ground level, solar irradiance is attenuated
also expected to rise by 56% in between 2010 and 2040 from 524 by the atmosphere to about 1000 W/m2 in clear sky conditions
quadrillion British thermal units (Btu) in 2010 to 820 quadrillion within a few hours of noon a condition called full sun. Solar
Btu in 2040 [2]. Presently the maximum power consumption energy's potential estimates in the range from 1575 to 49,837
around the world at any given moment is 12.5 TW and it is EJ/year, which is roughly 3100 times the world's primary energy
expected by 2030, the world will require 16.9 TW [3]. According consumption in 2008 [9,10]. Nowadays, about 46 countries are
to the International Energy Agency (IEA) statistics, 32.8% of actively promoting solar energy systems. The worldwide solar
generation is based on oil, 27.2% based on coal, 20.9% is based on photovoltaic (PV) generation capacity continues to increase and
natural gas and the remaining 19.1% based on nuclear, hydro and has become a rapidly growing industry [11]. IEA has estimated the
others [4,5]. To fulll the current projection of 16.9 TW by 2030, future growth of other renewable energy potential as shown in
13,000 large new coal power plants will be needed [2,6]. Heavily Fig. 1. By 2030 it is expected, that the renewable energy will
reliance on fossil fuel will also increase the CO2 emission and the contribute 450 billion kWh/year. However solar contribution will
largest emission is coming from the electricity sector. In US, be less in comparison to wind and bio-mass due to low efciency
electricity generators consumed 36% of country energy from fossil and other Safety, Health and Environmental issues. IEA has
fuels and emitted 41% of the CO2 from fossil fuel combustion in estimated that by 2050, electricity generation from PV will reach
2011. Heavy rely on coal for electricity combustion is also among 4572 TWh (11% of global electricity production) and thus 2.3 Gt of
the reason for such high CO2 emission. In 2011, 42% of electricity is CO2 emissions per year will be achieved [1214]. Here it is also a
produced from coal in US and accounted for 95% of coal consumed need to mention that the capacity factor of solar and wind based
for energy [7]. power plant is smallest among all renewable and non-renewable
The current need is to shift from conventional fossil fuel plants sources. Capacity factor is a measure of how often an electric
to mix clean source of energy. The promotion of alternative generator runs for a specic period of time. The capacity factor of
environmental friendly fuels can play a vital role to mitigate the solar PV based plant is 0.16, CSP based plant is 0.43 and wind has
CO2 emission and favor economic growth. However to cut down only a capacity factor of 0.40 [15]. Thus the efciency of such
the world CO2 emissions from 42 Gt to 39 Gt, the worldwide power plants needs to maximize to get the maximum output.
investment in renewable energy sector assets need to be raised Solar energy benet ranges from low carbon emission, no fossil
from $100 billion to $500 billion during 20102030 [8]. Thus, in fuel requirement, long term solar resources, less payback time and
addition to heavy investment in clean energy services, the power other. However like other power generation sources, solar energy
consumption should also be decreased by introducing energy has also some Safety, Health and Environmental (SHE) concerns,
efcient devices in the market to sustain the mixed clean energy which needs to be addressed. For example in PV solar cells
source. manufacturing, some highly toxic materials like cadmium, lead,
Renewable energy and nuclear power are the world's fastest- nickel and other compounds are used, which have been restricted
growing energy sources; each of them is increasing by 2.5% per by the global environmental protection agencies [10,1621]. Use of
year [4,5]. Study has shown that, the wind has a total potential of such materials on mass scale is highly unhealthy for the local
habitat. In addition, like other sources of power generation, PV into wafers roughly 0.2 mm thick before the wafers are chemically
modules also generate CO2 and other GHG at some stages in their treated and electrical contacts are made. They are cut from single
life. Pure silicon metal (Simet) is used in PV panel manufacturing. crystals to become highly efcient. These modules convert up to
Simet is produced in electric arc furnaces from quartz reacting at 15% of the energy from the sun into electricity, and test models
very high temperatures with reduction elements like coal, coke, over 20% [34]. Polycrystalline (also known as multi-crystalline)
charcoal, wood chips and the furnace graphite electrodes. The modules are made from cells containing lots of small silicon
basic carbo-thermic reduction reaction for production of Simet is crystals [35]. This makes them the production cost cheaper but
stated in Eq. (1). also slightly less efcient than mono-crystalline modules. Many
small crystals provide polycrystalline modules a frosted look.
SiO2 2C-Simet 2CO 1
While the 0.2 mm wafers in crystalline cells are already incre-
The products of the process are silicon alloy, condensed silica dibly thin, the layers making the thin-lm modules are of just
fumes and recoverable heat energy. Until the last nish product in 2 m which is about 40 times thinner than a strand human hair
solar cell manufacturing, number of chemicals are used and (a micron is one-millionth of a meter). The layers can be deposited
different GHG emitted in different chemical processes are elabo- on glass forming a panel similar to the crystalline modules, but
rated elsewhere [2224]. Carbon emission is highest in solar PV many other materials can also be used and even exible panels can
cells in comparison to other solar energy approach. Solar plants be made. Although the efciency of thin-lm panels is only about
scrap also needs careful handling in recycling process. Solar 10%, they use less material and are cheaper than crystalline
garbage comes under the electronic-waste (e-waste), thus careful modules [33,3638].
handling is necessary in recycling process. This paper highlights The efciency and share of the basic PV technologies is given in
the SHE issues related to the solar technology. Table 1 [11]. Solar cells based on silicon (Si) semiconductors
account for nearly 90% of 2011 sales of photovoltaic (PV) products.
In 2011, annual production of Si-based PV has reached more than
2. Solar technology 15 GW [39]. There are also other emerging technologies, including
concentrating photo-voltaic (CPV) and organic solar cells [11,40].
In general, solar technology has two major categories, i.e. solar Generally stated, PV module has an overall efciency of 10% with
photo-voltaic (PV) modules and concentrating solar power (CSP). the manufacturing cost of $1 per electrical Watt [19,28]. However
PV cells convert sunlight energy into electrical energy by absorb- there has been a wide variation in cost, based on the type of
ing photons from the light and thus atoms move from the lower materials.
orbit to higher orbit and nally leave the parent atoms. CSP uses Electricity production from solar photovoltaic (PV) has contin-
reective surfaces to focus sunlight into a beam to heat a working ued its remarkable growth trend in 2011, even in the midst of a
uid in a receiver. The steam produced from the heat is used to nancial and economic crisis [41]. In the past decade 20002011,
drive the turbine and subsequently the generator is run to produce the enormous growth of PV markets was observed around the
power [5,2528]. world and particularly in Europe. The average global PV module
price has also been dropped from about 22 USD/W in 1980 to less
2.1. Photovoltaic (PV) than 4 USD/W in 2009, while for the larger grid connected
applications the prices have dropped down to roughly 2 USD/W
The basic building block of the PV devices is a semiconductor in 2009 [42]. R&D work is also being carried for further improve-
element known as PV cell. It converts solar energy into direct ment in efciency and reduction in manufacturing cost of PV
current electricity. When number of cells are interconnected, PV modules. IEA has also made 2050 roadmap for improvement in
module is formed. The PV modules are integrated with a number solar technology efciency and reduction in cost. It is targeted to
of additional components, for example inverters, batteries, elec- achieve up to 25% and 15% efciency in crystalline and thin lm
trical components, and mounting systems to form a PV system. PV technology respectively [12]. However on the other hand, produc-
systems can be linked together to provide power ranging from a tion of these panels consumes substantial amounts of energy and
few Watts to 100 kW [11,29,30]. PV modules are classied on the produces waste water and hazardous by-products which are
basis of PV cells semiconductor materials. PV cell materials may released to the air during the manufacturing process [43,44].
differ based on their crystallinity, band gap, absorption, and Recycling technologies for reusing silicon from the solar cells are
manufacturing complexity. Each material has a unique strength still not commercially in place but it has been proven that making
and characteristic that inuence its suitability for the specic a solar panel from recycled components require 1/3 of the energy
applications [31,32]. than that of producing panels from the scratch. The total composi-
There are three general families of photovoltaic (PV) modules tion of various solar module is represented in Table 2 [45],
in the market today. They are mono-crystalline silicon, polycrystal- however by considering weight, the solar cell materials are only
line silicon, and thin lm [33]. The cells in a mono-crystalline 4% of the total weight [46]. The point of concern in the manu-
module are made from a single silicon crystal. This crystal is cut facture of solar panels is that the silver used in the module is
Table 1
The efciency and share of the basic PV technologies [12].
leftover and is considered a dangerous waste. Production of these (1) Trough systems use large, U-shaped (parabolic) reectors
panels in high quantities could also lead to the depletion of silver (focusing mirrors) which have oil-lled pipes running along
resources. Research and development initiatives are taking place their center, or focal point, as shown in Fig. 2(a). The mirrored
to recover key materials such as silicon glass, ethylene vinyl reectors are tilted toward the sun, and focused the sunlight
acetate (EVA) foil and aluminum from existing panels which can on the pipes to heat the oil inside as much as 750 1F. The hot
be recycled and used to make new panels [43,47]. Research and oil is then used to boil water, which makes steam to run
development initiatives are taking place to recover key materials conventional steam turbines and generators [50,52,53].
such as silicon glass, EVA foil and aluminum from existing panels (2) Power tower systems also called central receivers, used in
which can then be recycled and used to make new panels. many large, at heliostats (mirrors) to track the sun and focus
its rays onto a receiver. As shown in Fig. 2(b), the receiver sits
2.2. Concentrating solar power (CSP) on top of a tall tower in which concentrated sunlight heats a
uid, such as molten salt which can be as hot as 1050 1F. The
CSP technologies produce electricity by concentrating the sun's hot uid can be used immediately to make steam for elec-
rays to heat a medium that is used either directly or indirectly to tricity generation or stored for later use [48,49].
heat a uid in engine process (e.g., a steam turbine) which is used (3) Dish/engine systems use mirrored dishes (about 10 times
to drive an electrical generator. In current commercial designs of larger than a backyard satellite dish) to focus and concentrate
heat-collection element in CSP, a heat transfer oil is circulated sunlight onto a receiver as shown in Fig. 2(c). In dish/engine
through the steel pipe where it is heated (to nearly 400 1C), but system, the receiver is mounted at the focal point of the dish.
systems using other heat transfer materials such as circulating To capture the maximum amount of solar energy, the dish
molten salt or direct steam are currently being used [10]. Molten assembly tracks the sun across the sky. The receiver is
salt retains heat efciently, so it can be stored for days before integrated into a high-efciency external combustion engine.
being converted into electricity. That means electricity can be The receiver, engine, and generator composed a single, inte-
produced during the periods of peak in the cloudy days or even grated assembly mounted at the focus of the mirrored dish
several hours after sunset [48,49]. [48,54,55].
In general, CSP technology utilizes three alternative technolo-
gical approaches to heat the medium: trough systems; power CSP has reached a cumulative installed capacity of about
tower systems; and dish/engine systems as shown in Fig. 2 and 0.7 GW, with another 1.5 GW under construction. The capacity
described below [50,51]. factors for a number of these CSP plants are expected to range
from 25% to 75% and it can be higher than PV because CSP plants
contain the opportunity to add thermal storage where there is a
commensurate need to overbuild the collector eld to charge the
thermal storage [10]. Projects are now under development or
Table 2 under construction in many countries including China, India,
Composition of c-Si and thin lm modules from PV cycle study-2007 [45].
Morocco, Spain and the United States and are expected to produce
Proportion c-Si a-Si CIS (copper CdTe electricity a total of 15 GW [56]. US DoE has focused on developing
in % (crystalline (amorphous indium (cadmium the CSP technologies to achieve the technical and economic
silicon cells) silicon cells) diselenide cells) telluride cells) targets. The SunShot Initiative program of US DoE goal is to reduce
the levelized cost of electricity generated by CSP to $0.06/kWh or
Glass 74 90 85 95
Aluminium 10 10 12 o 0.01 less, without any subsidy, by the year 2020. The DOE SunShot
Silicon Approx. 3 0.1 Initiative is a national collaborative effort to make solar energy
Polymers Approx.6.5 10 6 3.5 cost-competitive with other forms of electricity by the end of the
Zinc 0.12 o 0.1 0.12 0.01 decade [52,57]. CSP has several advantages over other technolo-
Lead o 0.1 o 0.1 o 0.1 o 0.01
Copper 0.6 0.85 1.0
gies, like one advantage of CSP plants is that they are often located
(cables) in areas with limited amenity or esthetic value. Desert land for
Indium 0.02 solar plants could be in many ways better than agricultural land
Selenium 0.03 for biomass energy [58]. Greenhouse gas emissions for CSP plants
Tellurium 0.07
are estimated to be in the range of 1520 g of CO2-equivalent/kWh,
Cadmium 0.07
Silver o 0.01 which is much lower than CO2 emissions from fossil-red plants
which are 4001000 g CO2-eq/kWh [58].
3. Life Cycle Assessment for harmonization in technology with CCS which will have carbon foot prints ranging from 160 to
comparison 280 gCO2eq/kWh [31,64]. In case of renewable energy sources, such
plants do not generate GHG during operation, most of the emissions
Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) is a tool for sustainability analysis come during the construction phase and the production of fuels
of renewable and conventional energy technologies [21]. LCA aims (where applicable). For generators based on ambient energy ows,
at evaluating all environmental impacts associated with a given such as solar energy, the local energy resource also has an important
product or service at all stages of its lifetime from cradle to grave inuence on the carbon footprint values. This is because higher
such as from resource extraction and processing, through con- electricity outputs cause lower footprints, as total emissions are
struction, manufacturing and retail, distribution and use, repair spread over a greater amount of electricity [31,64]. Similarly location
and maintenance, disposal/decommissioning and reuse/recycling has also an important effect on the carbon footprint. For example in
[59,60]. The goal of the LCA is to bring harmonization in technol- case of wind generation, gures from one UK study indicate that a
ogy to reduce the uncertainty for environmental impacts of micro-wind turbine would have a carbon footprint of around
renewable and make the information useful to decision-makers 38 gCO2eq/kWh for locations with an average annual wind speed
in the near term [61]. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate of 4.5 m/s. This is the minimum wind speed recommended for small
Change (IPCC) special report on renewable energy sources and wind systems by the industry trade body. The same study indicates
climate change mitigation provides a comprehensive review con- that locations with an average wind speeds of 6 m/s would give
cerning these sources and technologies, the relevant costs and footprints of 20 gCO2eq/kWh, while locations having 3 m/s wind
benets, and their potential role in a portfolio of mitigation speed would give 96 gCO2eq/kWh [31,64]. In general fossil fueled
options [5,62]. Four terminologies are commonly used in compar- electricity generation has the largest carbon footprint (above
ing different technologies (for example, among solar technologies) 1000 gCO2eq/kWh) and renewable technologies have low carbon
and power generation sources (conventional and renewable). footprints (o100 gCO2eq/kWh). Future carbon footprints can be
reduced for all electricity generation technologies if the high CO2
(1) Carbon footprints emission phases are fueled by low carbon energy sources [64].
(2) Energy pay back ratio (EPR)
(3) Energy pay back time (EPT)
(4) Life cycle land use (LCLU) 3.2. Energy payback ratio (EPR)
(5) Levelized cost of electricity (LCOE)
Energy payback ratio (EPR) is the ratio of total energy produced
during a system's normal lifespan, divided by the energy required
3.1. Carbon footprints to build, maintain and fuel it. If a system has a low payback ratio, it
means that much energy is required to maintain it and this energy
Carbon footprint is used to nd the amount of CO2 that enters to is likely to produce many environmental impacts. A high ratio
the atmosphere over the full life cycle (from cradle to grave) of a indicates good environmental performance. If a system has a
process or product. It is expressed as grams of CO2 equivalent per payback ratio between 1 and 1.5, it consumes nearly as much
kilowatt hour of generation (gCO2eq/kWh) [63]. Carbon footprints energy as it generates, so it should never be developed. For fossil
are sensitive to various factors including operating conditions and fuels, it means environmental impacts at extraction, transporta-
country of its manufacture. Renewable energy sources also have a tion and processing of fuels. For renewable sources, it means
carbon footprint value because they also emit greenhouse gases environmental impacts at building the facility [66]. If the ratio is
particularly during construction phase. Fig. 3 shows comparison of close to unity, it means it consumes as much energy as it produces,
the carbon foot prints values for conventional and renewable energy so it should never be developed. Thus the value of EPR should be
based power plants. The carbon emission from fossil fuel based as large as possible to generate favorable economics. However the
conventional power plants is signicantly high as comparison with amount of pollutants emitted per kWh of electricity generation
and renewable energy based power plants. In case of fossil fuels, should be as low as possible [6769]. The EPR for conventional and
carbon capture and storage (CCS) technologies have the potential to renewable energy resources is shown in Fig. 4.
reduce emissions from fuel combustion considerably, but are yet to Fig. 4 shows that renewable energies have large variations, due
be proven feasible at full scale. Modeling shows coal-red generators to variable site-specic conditions. Hydropower clearly has the
Fig. 3. Summary of life-cycle GHG emissions for selected power plants [65].
M.M. Aman et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 41 (2015) 11901204 1195
Fig. 4. Energy payback ratio (EPR) for conventional and renewable energy resources [10].
highest performance, with EPR of 205 and 267 compared to fossil Table 3
fuel systems with typical ratios of 57. Wind power also has a very Energy payback time of electricity generating technologies [10].
good performance (ratio of 80). However, this ratio is overesti-
Technology Energy payback time (EPT) Most commonly
mated because the calculations did not consider the need for stated life (years)
backup capacity to compensate for wind uctuations [66]. Low value High value
3.3. Energy payback time (EPT) Brown coal new subcritical 1.9 3.7 30
Black coal new subcritical 0.5 3.6 30
Black coal new subcritical 1.0 2.6 30
Energy payback time (EPT) is the time required for a generation Natural gas (open cycle) 1.9 3.9 30
technology to generate the amount of energy that was required to Natural gas (combined cycle) 1.2 3.6 30
build, fuel, maintain and decommission it. The EPT is closely linked Heavy water reactors 2.4 2.6 40
to the energy payback ratio and depends on assumptions made on Light water reactors 0.8 3.0 40
Photo-voltaic 0.2 8.0 25
the lifetime of a technology [59,7073]. EPT also exists as a Concentrating solar 0.7 7.5 25
criterion for LCA analysis of different technologies. Table 3 lists Geo thermal 0.6 3.6 30
the EPT of different power system technologies [10]. Wind turbines 0.1 1.5 25
The main reasons for variation in EPT values in Table 3 are fuel Hydro electricity 0.1 3.5 70
characteristics (e.g. moisture content), cooling method, ambient and
cooling water; temperatures and load uctuations (coal and gas),
uranium ore grades and enrichment technology (nuclear), crystal-
line or amorphous silicon materials (PV solar cells), economies of 3.4. Life-cycle and land-use (LCLU)
scale in terms of power rating (wind) and storage capacity and
design (concentrating solar). For some renewable energy sources, Different critics consider different criteria for nding out the
for example wind and PV, energy payback times have decreased land usage in Life Cycle Assessment. Many critics consider that
because of economies of scale and technological progress [59]. renewable energy resources occupy more land as compared to
However, the locationspecic capacity factor has a major inuence conventional resources [7678]. However, some authors did not
on the energy payback time in particular for intermittent renewable include the land transformation (land use change) and land
energy sources. In the case of fossil fuel and nuclear power occupation (land use for a certain period) while comparing
technologies, the impact of fuel extraction and procession may technologies [79]. The land transformation indicates the area of
increase in parallel with the decline in conventional fuel and rise in land altered from a reference state (unit: m2), while the land
unconventional fuel. Fig. 5 shows the EPT for silicon and CdTe PV transformation occupation denotes the area of land occupied and
modules [74]. The payback period for thin lms based solar cell is the duration of the occupation (unit: m2 year). Fig. 6 represents
less than the wafer based Si. For example, EPBT for CdTe material the total land-area transformation for different electricity genera-
plants is 1.1 years compared to 1.7, 2.2, and 2.7 years for ribbon, tion sources [8083]. Table 4 shows the overall land use for
multi-, and mono-Si technology respectively [75]. renewable energy plant to supply electricity.
1196 M.M. Aman et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 41 (2015) 11901204
3
Module
2.5 Frame
2 BOS
Years
1.5
1
0.5
0
CdTe, 8% European
European production
CdTe, 9% US
European production
European production
European production
European production
Ribbon-Si, 11.5%
production
Mono-Si, 14.0%
Multi-Si, 13.2%
Multi-Si, 13.2%
Multi-Si, 14.0%
Slurry recycling
Slurry recycling
production
Fig. 5. Energy payback time for silicon and CdTe PV modules [74].
enlisted as, low carbon emission, no fossil fuel requirement, long solar market, needs proper planning to handle the future solar
term solar resources, less payback time and others. However it has garbage. Otherwise it will become difcult to handle tons of wastes.
been seen that every form of generation source has carbon emission For example, a 10 MW electricity generation plant consumes
at some stages. In the manufacturing of PV solar cells, some highly 2000 tons of thin-lm solar panels needed [91]. These issues are
toxic materials like cadmium, lead, arsenic, nickel and others are discussed in detail in subsequent sections.
used, those have been restricted by global environmental policies
[10,17]. For example in thin-lm cadmium-telluride (CdTe) PV 4.1. Positive impacts of solar energy
modules, restricted e-product cadmium is used which is also known
as human carcinogen [12,90]. Such material use on mass scale is Solar energy is one of the cleanest forms of energy, with
highly harmful from the SHE point of view. Solar plants scrap also remarkable solar potential available all over the world. Benets
needs careful handling in recycling process. Solar garbage comes of solar energy lies with the minimization of utilization of natural
under the e-waste. Consistent annual growth and high production in resources particularly those diminishing very fast (like oil, coal and
others), reduction in emission of CO2 and consumption of water
and the availability of huge amount of Si semiconductor materials
availability for solar panel constructions. These advantages are
discussed in detail in this paper.
Table 7
Energy production and consumption (in million tonnes oil equivalent) [92].
Total energy production 9387.00 10,867.20 12,145.60 13,565.80 14,685.11 15,619.62 16,604.65
Total energy consumption 9382.42 10,800.94 12,002.35 13,360.41 14,627.05 15,634.60 16,631.56
1198 M.M. Aman et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 41 (2015) 11901204
Table 8
Proved reserves of fossil fuels (BP statistical review-2011) [60].
n
Reserves-to-production (R/P) ratio.
Table 9
Water requirements for energy production in the world [94,95].
depends on the plant design, plant location, and the type of cooling
system. The water usage for CSP could be signicantly reduced by
using dry cooling approaches. However, the tradeoffs to these water
savings are higher costs and lower efciencies. In addition, dry- no specic land is required for extraction [93,104]. Table 10 shows
cooling technology is signicantly less effective at temperatures the summary of land-use requirements for PV and CSP projects in
above 100 1F [10,101]. the United States [103]. Direct land use represents the disturbed
land due to physical infrastructure or development due to solar and
total area use represents all land enclosed by the site boundary.
4.1.3. Land transformation/land use
Solar like other renewable energy resources has some distinct
features as compared to conventional source of energy. Like con- 4.1.4. Reduction of carbon dioxide emission
ventional power plants, solar energy sources do not need further One of the main advantages of solar energy is zero air pollution
extraction of resources once the infrastructure has been developed. during power generation. This makes the solar energy among the
Moreover the land could be used for other purposes, like plantation cleanest form of energy on earth. Solar energy does not burn oil,
and shading [102]. Direct land-use requirements for small and large thus it does not produce any toxic gases. However some toxic
PV installations range from 2.2 to 12.2 acres/MW, with a capacity- materials are widely used in solar cells manufacturing. These
weighted average of 6.9 acres/MW. Direct land-use intensity for CSP environmental tolls are negligible when compared with the
installations ranges from 2.0 to 13.9 acres/MW, with a capacity- damage inicted by conventional energy sources. The burning of
weighted average of 7.7 acres/MW [103]. On the other hand fossil fossil fuels releases roughly 21.3 billion metric tons of carbon
fuel based plants need lands for their power plant as well as for the dioxide into the atmosphere annually [105,106] stated that a
extraction of resources. Land transformation (primarily for residen- 50 MW parabolic trough power plant can eliminate 80,000 tons
tial or industrial areas) period for fossil fuel based plants is based on of CO2 emissions annually. Fig. 10 shows the carbon foot prints
the amount of extraction per day. Also in case of fossil or nuclear values for renewable energy based power plants.
plants land is marked and left, in search of fuels for future use. On Solar energy although has the largest carbon foot prints value
the other hand, Si material exists in the nature in abundant quantity, in renewable technologies. However future improvements in
M.M. Aman et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 41 (2015) 11901204 1199
cumulative GHG emissions from PV are likely to arise from construction phase and especially for large schemes during the
improvements in module efciency, increased lifetime, less silicon operational phase. Solar panels contain no moving parts and thus
mass per module and lower use of electricity for the production produce no noise. Wind turbines, by contrast, require noisy
process [65]. It is also important to note that solar PV technology is gearboxes and blades. However fossil fuel based plants and
a fast-improving technology and frequent LCA studies are being renewable source of energy (including wind and hydro) have
published in order to keep the pace with the advancements. noise problems [21,60,107,108]. The noise problem from power
plants makes it unsuitable for placement nearer to the population.
Proper sites are marked for their placements. Solar technology is
4.1.5. Noise and visual impacts
changing is very fast. Options for reduction of energy demand
Solar modules do not suffer with the noise problem. Solar
must always be considered along with the assessment of PV
energy is a static source of power generation with no rotating
application. Instead of roof-topped panels, special bricks with
parts. Also, there will be some employment benets during the
integrated special PV modules are also made. Fig. 11 shows such
type of construction giving esthetic look [60,109].
Visual intrusion is highly dependent on the type of the scheme and
the surroundings of the PV systems. It is obvious that, if a PV system is
applied near an area of natural beauty, the visual impact would be
signicantly high. In case of modules integrated into the facade of
buildings, there may be positive esthetic impact on modern buildings
in comparison to historic buildings or buildings with cultural value.
Fig. 11. Solar energy constructed outlook; (a) residential house based on building integrated photovoltaic/thermal technology [110]; (b) Integrated combined solar thermal
and electric generation building [111] at John Molson School of Business, Concordia University. (c) The Solar Ark [112, 113], a sign board in Japan under Sanyo Electric Co., Ltd.
(d) Solar Brick LED Lights.
1200 M.M. Aman et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 41 (2015) 11901204
manufacturing process of them involves many toxic materials, which tive (RoHS) [118122]. However the European Union decision highly
is highly harmful from SHE perspective. There are some concerns affected the production of solar panel based on cadmium telluride
after the completion of expected life of panel and in their recycling (CdTe). In November 2010, EU law exempted the solar panel from a
process. These issues will be discussed in this section [115]. ban in order to facilitate the solar manufacturing industry and also to
attain the set targets for renewable energy generation [123]. These
toxic materials have special concerns, particularly for local habitats. In
4.2.1. Cost of land
recent years, September 2011, accidents due to dumping of hazardous
Large-scale solar farms need a big space for their installation.
chemicals into the water supply has led to local protest and nally
Approximately 1 m2 of land produces 200 W of electricity,
resulted the shutdown of the company [124]. PV panels are threat to
depending on the location, efciency and other environmental
the environmental contamination if improperly disposed of upon
conditions [6,116,117]. This problem becomes prominent for those
decommissioning due to the use of toxic materials in their composi-
countries which have already high population density like Singa-
tion [76]. On the other hand, the accidental release of heat transfer
pore, having an area of 697 sq.km [66], with population density
uids (water and oil) from parabolic trough and central receiver
above 7680/sq.km. Finding cheap land in such countries is quite
systems could form a health hazard. The hazard could be substantial
difcult. Also high cost of land will also affect the per unit
in some central tower systems, which use liquid sodium or molten
electricity cost. Land use could be minimized by increasing the
salts as a heat-transfer medium. Indeed a fatal accident has occurred
solar panels efciency or to mount the cells on a rooftop [6]. With
in a system using liquid sodium. These dangers could be avoided by
current efciency of solar panel, the top roof area of houses in USA
moving to volumetric systems that use air as a heat-transfer medium.
will only fulll the 1/10th of total US energy requirement [6].
Central tower systems have the potential to concentrate light to
intensities that could damage eyesight. Under normal operating
4.2.2. Toxic chemical content in solar panel manufacturing conditions this should not pose any danger to operators, but failure
Different chemicals are used in manufacturing of solar panels, of the tracking systems could result in straying beams that might pose
particularly during extraction of solar cell. For example, cadmium (Cd) an occupational safety risk at site [60]. The partial list of toxic materials
is used in cadmium telluride based thin lm solar cells as a used in solar industry, their use and impact on human health, safety
semiconductor material to convert solar energy into electrical energy and environments are presented in Table 11.
which is highly toxic element. National Institute of Occupational Safety
& Health (NIOSH) considers cadmium dust and vapors as carcinogens
(causing cancer). Similarly many hazardous chemicals are used as 4.2.3. Ecological impacts
solvents to clean dust and dirt from the solar panels. European Union Solar energy facilities have direct impacts on local habitats and
has initially banned Cd, Pb, Hg and other toxic compounds as per nearby surroundings. The construction of solar farms on large
the regulations of the Restriction of Hazardous Substances Direc- scale needs clearing of land which adversely affects the native
Table 11
Safety, Health and Environmental (SHE) impact from the toxic compounds [78,80,125127].
Ammonia (NH3) To produce anti-reective coatings for solar PV Skin irritation, eyes irritation, throat problem, lungs problems, mouth and
modules. stomach burns.
Arsenic (As) Used in GaAs solar PV cells, resulted from the Heart beat problems, throat infection, lung cancer, nausea, vomiting, reduced
decomposition of GaAs blood cells, skin darkening, red spot on skin, liver problem, etching in hands
and feet.
Silicon (Si) Used as a PV semiconductor material Crystalline Si causes respiratory problems, irritating skin and eyes, lung and
mucus problems
Lead (Pb) To wire, solder photovoltaic electrical components. Damages nervous system, weakness in bones, can also cause anaemia,high
level exposure resulting in miscarriage for pregnant woman, damages the
brain and kidneys, highly carcinogen element.
Nitric acid (HNO3) To clean wafers and reactors, remove dopants. Potential cause for chemical burns.
Sulfur hexauoride (SF6) Used to etch semiconductors and clean reactors in The most powerful greenhouse gas known.
PV manufacturing.
Cadmium (Cd) Cd is used in cadmium telluride based solar cells as Cd dust and vapours are highly toxic and considered as carcinogens. Also
a semiconductor to convert solar energy into effectthe respiratory system, kidneys and blood cells and can cause prostate,
electricity. diarrhoea, chest tighten and lung cancer.
Hydrogen (H2) Used in manufacturing amorphous-Si solar cells. Highly explosive.
Hexavalent Chromium (Cr-VI) Used in screw, solar chassis board and as a coating Cr is a carcinogenic element, means causes cancer.
material in solar panel to absorb solar radiation.
Polybrominated biphenyls (PBBs) Used in circuit boards and solar panel inverters Recognized as toxic and carcinogenic and are described as endocrine
and brominated diphenylethers disrupters.
(PBDEs)
Acetone These solvents are used to clean microscopic dirt Eyes andnose irritation, throat infection, kidney and liverproblem, nerve
and dust off of chips. damage, birth defects, sexual problems including lowered ability to reproduce
males.
Iso-propanol To clean microscopic dust and dirt from solar chips. Vomiting, Eyes irritation, depression, dermatitis, nausea, unconsciousness,
respiratory failure, death or coma.
Toulene Headaches, hearing loss, confusion, memory loss, pregnancy problems,
retarded growth.
Xylene Skin irritation, eye irritation, nose infection, throat and breathing problems,
pregnancy problems, liver and kidneys infection.
1,1,1-Trichloroethane Dizziness and loss of mind, reduced blood pressure, unconsciousness, stop
heart beating.
Hydrochloric acid (HCl) To produce electrical grade silicon, clean and etch Skin problem, eyes and nose infection, respiratory problem, food digestion,
semiconductors mouth and throat infection, respiratory depression.
M.M. Aman et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 41 (2015) 11901204 1201
vegetation, wildlife and loss of habitat. If at the optimum solar site, natural resources, their main advantage is total absence of almost any
trees and bushes exists and blocking the sunrays, it needs to be air emissions or waste products during operation. The current growth
removed [6]. The native drainage and irrigation system also of solar industry is remarkable however the above SHE issues should
disturbed due to solar sites. The presence of cattle animals can not be neglected. Solution of one problem of lack of energy resour-
reduce the efciency of PV modules due to the increased rate of ces for power generation should not result in generation of other
dust and dirt in the surroundings. Special chemicals are used for problems. People are very much concerned about the disposal and
dust suppressants and herbicides cleaning at solar facilities, which hazardous wastes due to solar power plants waste [77]. Following
results in contamination of the surrounding and groundwater recommendations could be adopted to make the solar industry a
[57,128]. Engineering methods can be used to mitigate these clean or nearer to clean industry:
impacts. On the other hand, CSP generates electricity by driving
the heat engines located on the ground. The high temperature of Reduction and step-by-step elimination of hazardous materials
uids or materials is achieved by receiving the energy from optical used in chemical processing of semiconductor materials.
concentrated solar receiver, as shown in Fig. 12. The height of CSP Life time for solar equipment should be improved, in order to
and the reected light beams cause interference with aircraft increase the energy pay back ratio and thus minimizing GHG
operations [83,129]. and CO2 emission.
Efciency of solar panels should be improved in order to minimize
the land use and thus generating minimum ecological impacts.
4.2.4. Decommissioning and recycling of solar panels
Need to carry out a thorough survey to understand the environ-
Solar modules present some SHE concerns after the completion
mental impact of setting solar panels on local habitants.
of their expected life (2030 years). Disposing them on landlls is a
Need to carry out research to nd out eco-friendly semi-
big challenge for local municipal committees due to the use of small
conductor materials and other chemicals used for their
amounts of hazardous materials. Authors in [91] have discussed
treatment.
centralized and decentralized recycling strategies. The current
Strict guidelines should be followed during manufacturing of
growth of solar market is quite large and the time is to do proper
solar panels, for human safety.
planning to handle the future solar garbage, otherwise it will become
Strict guidelines should be followed during disposal of hazar-
difcult to handle tons of wastes. For example, to produce 10 MW
dous wastes, generated in solar panel manufacturing.
electricity there is a need of 2000 t of thin-lm solar panels [91,130].
Generated wastes should be chemically treated before dump-
The proper collection of scrap panels, safe recycling and reduced
ing into the sea, in order to protect the aquatic lives in the sea.
emission procedure should be adopted. The proper guidelines for
On-call systems should be developed for collection of dead-
their handling have been discussed elsewhere [23,91,131134].
solar-panels from houses for their safe disposal.
Non-prot organization has come up in the market for the safe
To minimize the cost of recycling, such modules should be
disposal and recycling of PV modules. PV Cycle, along with the non-
developed, which are easy to disassemble and detach the mate-
prot association is working throughout Europe by targeting the
rials from the glass.
recycling rates of 80% and 85% by 2015 and 2020 respectively [135].
Water based eco-friendly solvent should be developed for
First solar and the leading solar panel manufacturer has started the
cleaning dust and dirt from the solar panels.
recycling of solar panels and continuously looking the ways of
optimizing its recycling program. Approximately 90% of the module
weight is recovered. Estimated recovery of semiconductor materials
(Te and Cd) is 95%, which is quite good sign from SHE point of view, 6. Conclusion
otherwise additional disposal cost will be required for proper
disposal of generated hard used wastes [17,133,136,137]. The poten- This paper has summarized the Safety, Health and Environ-
tial non-air impact of conventional and renewable energy power mental (SHE) impact of solar energy system on local inhabitants.
sources have been summarized in Table A1. The production of solar energy systems in the world has increased
majorly due to enormous amount of untapped solar potential,
eco-friendly characteristics and to overcome possible energy fuel
5. Recommendations for a clean solar industry shortage in near future. Solar energy provides tremendous envir-
onmental benets when compared to the conventional energy
Solar energy provides tremendous environmental benets when sources. However solar systems also generate GHG emission
compared to the conventional energy sources. In addition to preserve particularly in production stages and the waste of solar industry
comes under e-garbage and must be handled carefully. Innovative
production technologies in improving the PV modules module
efciency, increased lifetime, less silicon mass per module, lower
use of electricity for the production process and proper recycling
would help to lower the environmental impacts.
Acknowledgment
Appendix A
Fig. 12. Existing concentrated solar power plants (CSP) [90]. See Table A1.
1202 M.M. Aman et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 41 (2015) 11901204
Table A1
Potential non-air environmental impacts of several conventional power sources [138].
Power source Land use Water consumption Water quality/discharge Solid waste and ground Bio-diversity
contamination
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