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ec ronlc
ensors or e
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ec ronlc
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TOM PETRUZZELLIS

McGraw-Hill
New York C hicago Sa n Francisco Lisbon
London Madrid Mexico City Milan New Delhi
San Juan Seoul Singapore Sydney Toronto
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Contents ::s
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Introduction -IX Fluid Sensor 91 rt
Humidi ty Monitor 96 (j)
Chapl er 1 Sound Ene rgy 1
Sound En ergy
,- 1 pH Mcte r 99
Types of to.1icroph ones 3 Strea m Stage Water-Level
Amplifying Sounds-
Measurem e nt 103
Th e Aud io A mpli fie r ) Chapt er 5 Gas Sensing 111
E lect ro nic Ste thoscope 7 A ir Pressure Switch III
Unde rwa te r H ydropho ne 10 E lectronic Sniffe r 114
U ltra sonic Liste ne r 16 8 argra ph Press ure Sensor 11 8
lnfrasonics 19 Pel listor Combustible Gas Sensor 123
Chapter 2 Li ght D etection a nd Electronic Barometer 127
Measurement C hapter 6 Vibration Sensin g 135
Light Detection Devices 26 Vibra tio n Ho ur Meter 135
Listening to Li ght-Us ing an Seismic Vibratio n A la rm 137
O plo-Liste ne r 28 Piezo Se ismic D e tector 140
Measuring the So lar ConSla nt-
Resea rch Seismograph 144
Usi ng a Radio me te r 32
AS- l Specifi ca tio ns 158
A Basic Rad iomete r Circuit 36
Measuring Ultra violet Rays- C hapter 7 Detecting Magne tic Fields 161
Us in g a n Ultra vio le t Radi ome te r 39 Historical Review 161
Measuring O zone-Using a n Tra nsfonn e r Actio n 162
Ozone Meter 44 The Radiatio n Fi eld a nd the
Se nsiti ve Optical Tachome te r 48 Induction Field 163
Turbidity 51 The Magnetic Fie ld 163
Cha pter 3 Heat D etection 57 111e E lectronic Fi eld 163
Infra red Fl a me Se nsor Switch 57 Magnetic D c tecto rs 164

Freezing Temperature Alarm 59 The Barkhause n E ffec t 169

Ovcrte mpe rature A la rm 61 Two-Inch Diame te r Pic kup Coil and
A pplications 170
A nalog Da ta Logge r Syste m 64
E LF Monitor 173
LC D Thermome te r 69
Shie lding 175
Night Scope Project 74
E lectronic Compass 178
infrared Motion Detec tor 79
Sudde n Ionosphe ric Disturbance
C ha pter 4 Liquid Sensing 89 Receiver IS2
Rain DetecLOr 89 Ea rth Field Magne to mete r 187

Contents vii
 Toroid al-Core Flux-Ga te Sensor 188 The Jupite r Rad io Te lescope A nt enn a 243
Th e Flux-Gate Se nso r 189 Cha pter 10 Radiation SenSing 247
Flux-Gate M agneto me ter 190 Space Radiation 247
Chapter 8 Sensing Electric Fields 195 Radiati on Sources
Electrosta tic Fundame ntals 195 on Eart h 248
Bui ld ing a Classic E lectroscope 200 Fun with a Cloud C ha mber 248
Bui ld in g a Leyde n Jar 201 Low-Cost Ion C hambe r 251
Building a Static Tube 202 Low-Cost Ion C hambe r Radi a tio n
Detector 252
Sim ple E lectronic Electroscope 203
Advanced Ion C hambe r Rad ia tion
Io n D e tecto r 204
D e tec tor 254
At mosphe ric Electricit y MonilOr 205
Experim e nting with a Geige r Counte r 258
Advanced E lectrometer 206
Appendix A
C loud C harge Monit or 209
Helpful Contact Information 267
E lectrical Fie ld Disturbance Moni tor 2 12
Appendix n Data Sheets 271
Chapter 9 Radio Proj ects 221
Index 323
Rad io Hi sto ry 221
De tec ti ng Lightening 224
Ligh tn ing De tec tor 225
ELFN LF Radio or Na ture's Radio 227
Shortwave R adi o 234
Freque ncy Calibra tion 237
Jllpite r Radio Te lescope 238

• • •
V~~~ Ele ct ronic Sensors for the Ev il Genius
 H
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Introduction rt
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Electrollic Sel/sors for the £1';1 Genills: 54 Elecrrifvil1g ta bles. and diagrams. The append ix provides paris rt
Projecl.~ was created as a voyage of discovery fo r chil- suppl iers and p roject kits sources. 1-"
dren. adults., science buffs. a nd for those Cur iO lIS at
o
heart of aU ages. This book was d esigned to provide a
spark for the curiosi ty seeker. as well as to inspir e
::s
curious children. stude nts, a nd ad ul lS alike toward Chapter I-Sound Energy
experimentat ion and explonn ion o f the sigh ts.
sounds. and smells of the na lural world. which may Sound energy is a vc ry exciti ng start ing poin t for
not be detectable by OUf lim ited range of human exploring and observing na tural phe nomena all
senses.. lbis book was also writlcn fo r electron ics aro u nd us. The sound waves h uma ns hear with ou r
hobbyists. as well as for electronics technicia ns and ears are but a ve ry limited range of the audio spcc-
engineers who wish to b uild and expe rimen t wilb trum. Our perce p tion of sound a llows us to ··hear"·
electronics se nsing and only a narrow slice of energy bctween 20 Hz to 15
detection circui ts. KHz. In facl a who le range of aud io exists both above
Electronic Sensors for the EI'il Gel/illS: 54 Electrify- and below our range. which we canno t perceive at a ll
illg Projects will introd uce the reader to how to sense. but are in fact ve ry interesting to explore.
detect. and monitor sound. light , heat. a nd gas as well In this chapte r we will explore the inte resting
as 10 vibration, magnetic. electric. radio, a nd rad ia- worlds of audible. ultrasonic. a nd infrasonic sound s.
tion . In this book we will see what few may sec. hear You will investigate how to listen to high-freque ncy
what few have heard. and sense what few have sounds of animals and re mo te conversations and how
scnsed.lbe book sho uld prove to be extre mely help- to track down noise a nd macbine fau lts with a n e lec-
ful in aiding the reader to unde rsta nd a nd ap precia te tro nic stethoscope. You will discover a who le new
some of the unseen and u nheard e ne rgies all around universe o f unde rwater sound s a ft e r building a
us. as well as to help the reader se nse a nd monitor hydropho ne a nd a n aud io am pli fier. You will lea rn
these c nergies.1l1 is book is writte n so that the in te r- that a lo ngitudi nal mechanical wave whose freq uency
ested reader can read ily b uild. test. and explore the is below the audible ra nge is called an infrasollic
fascinating and often mysterious world of natural wave (illfrareli light wa\·cs are waves be low red
phenomena. We will introduce tbe reader to many light). and one whose freq uency is above th e a udible
different types of se nsors., detectors. and transd ucers. range is called a n ultrasonic wave (1IItrtlL'iolet waves
which convert one form of e ne rgy to a not he r. a rc above viole t lig ht). 111e longest waveleng th sound
Our hope is Ihut Eteclr(Jllic Sel/sors for the EI'jf waves that can affect the nomml huma n ear (20 Hz)
Gelliw,': 54 Electri/rillg Projects will inspire a student a re a thousand times as lo ng as the shortest waves to
to construct a science fai r project or two o r pe rhaps which the ca r is se nsitive (20.000 Hz).
send the inquisitive reader on a lifelong q uest to In this chapter you will construct un ultruso nic lis ·
in\'esliga le the natu ra l world thro ugh electronics te ner. which you ca n use to liSlen to insect and o ther
sensing and d etect io n. sounds that are ll bove the human hearing range. We
Electronic Sensors for the E I'it Gel/illS: 54 Electrify- will also explore infrasonic waves. which are usua lly
illg Projects p rovides extensive photos. schematics.. ge ne ra tcd by la rge sources. such as barome tric o r
weather fro n ts o r by cart hq uakes. You learn how to

Introduction ix
construct your own microbarograph. which will allow delect and measure water poll ution in water using
you to detect these very long sou nd pressure waves the optical turbidity meter.
produced by barometric changes lmd approaching
storms.

Chapter 3-Heat Detection

Chapter 2 Light Detection Heal is transferred f.rom one place to another in
three ways: via conduction. coO\'eclion. or rad iation.
and Measurement ConductiOIl is the process of transferring heat from
molecule to molecule in a substance. When one end
A lthough a bout ten million shades o f color can be
of an iron rod is placed in a fire. the other end soon
ident ified by the human eye in the visible spectrum
gelS hot because Ihe heat is transferred from one end
of ligl1l. the light that produces those colors spans
of the iron to the ot her end by conduction ((rom mol-
onl y a narrow spread o f wave lengths. TIlis frequ ency
ecule to molecule). COl/vce/ioll is the process of
density is comparable 10 crowding all the world's
transmiuing heat by means of the movement of
human-made radio freque ncies into a narrow fre -
heated matter (rom one place to another. Convect ion
quency range (rom 550 KHz 10 880 KHz in the stan-
thus takes plnce in liquids and gases. A room is
dard A1'.<\ radio broadcast band. The eye is indeed an
heated by means of convection by circulating waml
amazing electromagnetic receiver: consider thai if
air through the room. This brings us to mdillliOIl. In
you glance at a ye llow dress fo r just one second. the
both conduction and cOll'!ection, heat is transmitted.
electrons in the retinas o( your eyes must vibrate
or transported. by moving panicles (e.g.. molecules or
a bout 5 X lOIS times during the inte r"alto receive the
air). Howe\'er heat can also tra"el where matter does
yellow. If you we re to count all the waves that beat
not exist. For example. the beat from the sun reaches
upon all the shores on Earth. you would have to
the eart h across the 93 millions of miles of space.
coun t for ten million years in order to count the
When a cloud passes between the sun and a poinl on
same number as thAt o f the oscillations in one second
of yellow light . Earth. the heat at that point is dim inished or cut of[
This is d ue 10 Ihe fac t that heat is transmitted or radi-
In this chapler we will take a closer look at light ated by waves.
sensors such as photocells and solar cells and how we
Heat waves and light waves are of the same
ca n use them to delect ligh t or the absence of light.
nature; they arc both electromagnetic radiations that
You will learn how to measure the solar constant.
d iffer o nly in wavelength. hea t waves being longer
how to measure ultraviolet light, and how to detect
th an light. Heat waves ncar the rad io portion of the
ozone in the atmosphere. You will also use light sen-
speclrum arc called infrared.
sors fo r optical listening. lhal is. listen to the sound
that light mak es when modulated by movement. You In this interesting cha pter. you will construct an
can do this by listening with the car. a transducer. and infrared name detector. which can sense a match or
an a udio amplifier in the ampl itude domain of Light. fla me up to 3 feel away.l1le reader will also learn
rather th an by looking Ihrough the frequency domain how to const ruct a freeze alann. which could be used
wi th light received by the eye. Afler building the to alen you of icy driving conditions. You will con-
oplo-listener. you wi ll be able to listen to electronic struct an ovcrlemperature monitor. which you could
displays. "singing" automotive headlamps. burning utilize (0 warn you of an overheating condition in a
(James. and lightn ing. You will be able 10 listen to just machine o r in your refrigerator. You will also read
a bou t any light source to "see" whal it sounds like. In about an analog data-logger for sending temperature
addi tion. you will learn how to measure the speed of data remotely via rad io link: or you could use the sys-
objects using light. by constructing your own optical tem to record readings in the fi eld and transport the
tachometer. Finally. you will look at how you can data back to your laboratory. More advanced projects
include an LC D thennometer, a night vision viewer,
and an infrared mOl ion detector. which can sense Ihe

x Electronic Sensors for the Evil Genius

body heal of an intruder up to 50 fect away. The A nd weather e nthusiasts will be eager to construct
H
infrared motion detector could be uscd to c reate the electronic ba rometer project. which can be used
your own homc alarm system. as the basis of a weather station.
:3
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Chapter Ll- Fluid Sensing Chapter 6-Vibration p..
Sensing ~
Tn this chapter you will explore liquid se nsors. o
a nother very inte resting and important aspect of
Vibration se nsing is an exciting aspect of sensing rt
sensing. Your fi rst project in this chapte r is a simple
yet useful rain de tector. which can de tect the earliest
technology. Seismology is the study of vibration and .....
signs of rain drops a nd will allow you a few precious
is primarily used for detecting a nd monitoring o
moments 10 roll up your car windows or bring in your
ground \'ibrations or earthquakes. Seismology is also :3
used to study bomb blasts to de te rmine signatures
laundry. When used as pa rt of a wea ther data collec·
and locations. to verify nuclear test ban t realies (in
tion system. the exact ti me of a showe r can be
othe r words. for kee pi ng tabs on othe r countries a nd
recorded. ln this chapter, you will also learn how to
their bomb detonations).
build a fluid or liquid se nsor as we U as fluid level
indicator. which can be used to ind icate how m uch Vibration sensing can be used also 10 solve indus-
fuel or water is left in a container or tank. Weather trial problems a nd to detect eanhquakes deep in the
fans will also learn how to construct a humidity moni· earth. Did you know that vibration sensing can be
tor to measure humidi ty around your home or shop. used to detect e ngine or motor vibra tion problems.
Junior scientists will learn about pH and how to bui ld which can be monitored ove r time in studying
and use a pH me te r using easy·to·locate. low·cost developing machine proble ms? In the fi rst project
components. Nature· and ecology·minded readers in this cbapter. you will build a \'ibration hour me te r.
will learn about how to build and utilize a stream· This simple yet unique circuit will pemlit recording
gauge wate r levcl monitor for studying river and the length of lime a machine or na tural event
stream flow and runoff. occurs. using an off-the·shelf hour me te r. As long
as the vi bra tion persists the hour me te r will record
the e \'ent.
Your ne xt project is a vibration alann. which can
Chapter 5-Gas SenSing notify you of intruding persons o r a nimals. This proj·
ect uses a commonly a"ailable a udio speaker as a
Air and gas sensing always seems so e phe meral. sensor to de tect vibration. The vibra tion ala rm proj·
because air a nd many gases cannot be seen and often ect cou ld also be used to scare away pesky animals
cannot be smelled . But once again mode m electron· from your garde n or to warn you o f approaching
ics comes to our assistance in helping us to sense both intruders. O ur ne xt project. the piezo seismic alann
air and various gases in the air and atmosphere. In sensor, uses a gas barbeque pieza spa rker mechanism
this chapte r you will learn how to bui ld a n air pres· as the se ismic sensor. The vibration alarm , or the
sure sensing switch. wh ich can be utilized to detect piezo seismic alarm, might be a n inte resting science
doors moving or \'e hicles approaching. Your next fair project for the budding scientist. Our advanced
project is an electronic sniffer. which can de tect a project. the AS· l seismograph. is capable of detecting
numbe r of diffe rent gasses and sound a n ala rm. With earthquakes all around the world. This seismograph
the bargraph pressure sensor. you can monitor wate r can be used for serious amate ur research and obser·
or air pressure changes and display the level on a n vations. Many schools across the country are cur-
LED bargraph display. ll1is chapte r also imroduces remly using the AS-I for seismic research and
the new Pe Uistor combust ible gas sensors. You will display. Qualified schools can act ually receive an
learn how to operatc a nd construct a toxic gas sensor. AS·l for free.

Introduction xi
 cry of electrical aHraction principles. electrical waves.
Chapter 7-Detecting and laler the basis for electronics as we know it
loday. In this chapter you will discover and learn
Fields about e lectrostatic fu ndame ntals. e lectric fie lds. and
electromagnetic fi elds. When a magne tic fi e ld is
Magne tic fields are a ll around us. but our normal enjo ine d at 90 degrees with an e lectric field an e lec-
senses can no t de tect the presence o f these fields. O ur tromagnetic fi eld is produced.
senses m ust be e xte nded or enha nced in o rde r to
In this chapte r you will icarn thaI all e lectromag-
sense o r detect these magne tic fi elds. A transduce r. o r
netic energy. regardless of its frequency. has certain
sensor. usually some type of coil. can be used wi th an
ca mmon propert ies. Two things magically bind elec-
amplifie r to de tect the presence of a magnetic fi e ld.
tric and magne tic e ne rgy IOge lhc r into e lectromag-
You will learn that a magnetic fie ld radia tes on its
ne tic radiation : Ihe travel ing e lect ric and magne tic
own. a limited dista nce. but ca n a lso jo in with an elec-
fie lds are (1) always at right angles to each ot her ilod
tric fi e ld to fo rm an electromagne tic field. A mag-
a lways at right angles to the d irection of propagation .
ne tic fi e ld becomes a com pleme nt to a n e lectrica l
a nd (2) they arc a lways becoming weaker with the
fi e ld whe n the twO a re at 90 degre es. to form a com-
distance they travel.
plex tim e-o rie nted wave called an e lectromagne tic
wave. E lectromagne tic waves rad ia te out into space You will d iscover applicatio ns for the classical
as rad io Wflves. e lectroscope. the l eyden jar. the sta tic tube, as we ll as
how to build a nd use a cloud cha mbe r to detect alpha
In this c hapter you will read abou t diffe re nt types
particles. Practical projects include an ion de tecto r.
o f m agne tic senso rs. from the sma ll ind uction pickup
a n e lectronic e lectroscope. and a n atmosphe ric e lec-
coil. which can be used in conjunctio n with Ihe mag-
tricity mo nitor. A d va nced projects presented for jun-
ear projCClto liste n to tele pho ne conve rsatio ns or \0
io r scie ntists include a n ad vanced electronic
loca te hidden e lectrical condui ts a nd hidden me la l, to
e lectroscope and a cloud charge mo nito r, which can
large r coil detectors that can be used to detect mag-
de tect a nd display the charges fro m clouds trave ling
ne tic fi e lds produced by moving cars and trai ns. In
o verhead. The final project of this chapte r is an e lec-
this ehapler yo u a lso learn how to construct a n e lec-
tric fi e ld-disturbance monitor, which can be used to
Iron ic co mpass. called an ELF radiation mo nitor.
de tect human bodies in an electrical field a nd sound
which ca n be used to survey you r ho me e lectronics
a n alarm . The e lectric fi eld-distu rbance monitor
a nd a ppliances for poten tia lly da ngerous low-
could be used fo r serio us electric fi e ld research or
freque ncy m agnetic fie lds. In this chapter you will
co uld form the basis for a home or camping a larm
d iscove r. how a sudde n io nosphe ric disturbance
syste m.
receive r can be used for radio propaga tio n studies:
you will also learn how to build and utilize one. Yo ur
fi na l projeci is a n Ea rth-field magne to meter, which
can be used to de tect solar magne tic sto rms origina t-
ing frolll the sun .
Chapter 9-Radio Projects
E lectro mag netic e nergy e nco mpasses an extremely
wide freq uency ra nge. A classic example of a natural
broadband transmitte r of e lectro magnetic ene rgy is a
Chapter 8 Sensing lightning ll ash or streak . A lightning nash exhibits a
Electronic Fields fa ntastic amo unt of e nergy be ing radiatcd into space
as it generates a n e lectromagne tic signal. This signa l
The e arliest study of nature's wonders be gan wjlh the typically covers frequencies from a few hertz up
o bse rvntio ns re lating to sta tic e lectricity or e lectro- thro ugh the broadcast band, whe re we can hear static
statics. MclllY early o bse rvations of static electricity on the Al\t1 radio. Natural wide band radio frequ e ncy
in vol ved animal skins a nd hair lind glass or sto ne storms. o n Jupite r for example, can be detected a nd
objects. These early observatio ns lead to the d iscov- o bserved in the shortwave freque ncy bands.

xii Electronic Sensors for the Ev il Genius

 In this chapter you look a t radio freque ncy energy. wave le ngths lik e he,ll nnd radio. ·Ole bulk of the
H
both natural rad io e ne rgy created by lightning and e ne rgy from the sun is in this ra nge. We usc this light
planetary storms as well as radio rrequencics gene r- to sec. grow plants. and to power solar cells.
::l
ated by humans for te levision. communications. and TIle second type of radiation is called io nization
rt
radar. Radio frequency energy covers a broad ra nge 11
from the low end o f the radio spectrum (10 to 25
radiation. Ionizing radia tio n is usually tho ught of as
high-ene rgy and high-speed pa rticles. though some- o
KHz) used by high-power navy stations that commu- times as ve l)' short wavele ngth waves. The particles P-
Ilkllte with submerged nuclear submarines. to the can be photons. e lectrons. protons, and io nized cle- C
fam iliar A~ I broadcast band from 550 to 1.600 KHz. ments. such as he lium and iro n. The io nized elements o
to the shortwa,·e bands from 2.000 K Hz to 30.000 have been stripped of their electro ns. rt
KHz. on up to the very high-frequency televisio n
Whe n thcse high-speed particles pass through
,....
channels covering 5-1 to 216 MHz. th rough the ve ry
popular freq uency modulation HilI band from SS to
mane r.they can do dnmage. possibly dee p inside the o
lOS r...1Hz. on through the rndar Crequency band of
matter. A s they pass through. they leave a trail of ion- ::l
ized (m issing some e lectrons) particles be hind them.
1.000 to 15.000 M Hz. and extending through approxi-
The number of ionized pa rt icles pe r ce ntime ter of
mately 300 G J-lz. The radio-frequency spectrum actu-
path de pe nds on the type of pa rt icle a nd its velocity.
ally ex tends almost up to the lower limit of visible
A bigge r a nd highe r speed part icle will do more
light freq ue ncies.
damage.
You will explo re some diffe re nt types of radio
On Earth. radiation ca n come (rom rocks and min-
receivers that •vall can construct a nd usc. Your first
erals and eve n from the soil as radon gas. Narural
project is a n electronic lightning de tector. which can
ionizing radia tio n a lso comes (ro m o ur sun and also
be used to warn of oncoming e lectrical stonns. a g rea t
distan t parts of the uni\'erse. Jnlhis chapte r you will
project for wcat he r e nthusiasts. Your next project is
learn how to const ruct and utilize a clo ud chamber
the ELF nalUral radio. which can be used to listen to
for detec ting low ionizing a lpha particles. You wilJ
those mysterious low-frequency sounds produced by
learn how to detect io nizi ng radiation usin !! the low-
1>.10ther I ature. such as tweeks. pops. the dawn
cost e lectronic io n chambe r. which can be con-
chorus. li S well as whistle rs. ·!llese ascend ing and
structed using fo ur common ly a vailable transistors. A
descending freq ucncy sweeps arc caused by electrical
morc advanced e lectronic io n chambe r will allow you
stonns o n th e ot he r side of the earth. Why not build
to conduct mo re ser ious radiation studies. Finally you
your own short wave recei ver and explore the world
will learn how to build your own battcl)'-powe red
of radio from fo reign broadcasters o n the other sidc
Geige r counter. which can be uti lized for detecting
of the globe. Listen to exciting music and news from
radioactive rock fo rmations. such as uran ium . and for
European and African radio sta tio ns.. llle advanced
radiation fi e ld studies.
project. the Jupi te r Radio te lescope project. will pe r-
mit you to liste n to the stra nge sounds of planetary
stonns on J upiter. 1llis wdio receiver project is n
great starting po int fo r a mate ur research projects in
radio astro nomy.

Chapter lO-Radiation
Sens ing
Thc radiation spectrum is usually broken down into
electromagnetic rad iation and ionizing radiation.
Electromagne tic radiation is visible light and longe r

Introduction xiii
 Chapter One

Sound Energy

Sound energy is a very exciting starti ng poin t fo r

e xploring and obse rving natural phenomena all
a udio amplifie r to increase a udio levels to help us
hear nearby sounds as weU as distan t sou nds more
o::3
around us. The sound waves we hear with Ollr ears
are but a very limited range of the t01a1audio spec·
clearly. o r simply to increase the audio leYei for lis~
te ning to m usic o r a telepho ne conversation. We wi ll
ro
trum . OUf perception of sound allows us to "hear" use the principle of am plifica tion in most of the proj-
only the narrow slice of energy between 20 H z and 15 ects in this chapte r. but le t"s start with the basics of I
KHz on this spectrum. in fact a whole mnge of audio sou nd energy.
exists bOlh above and below the range of what we
can pe rceive. which is in fact very inte resting to
explore.
In this chaple r we will explore the inte resting Sound Energy
world of soun d. We will investigate a udio sounds in
the range of hu man pe rception as well as those in the Sound waves a re basically longit udinal mechanical
infrasonic and ultrason ic nlnge. which arc a ll a round waves tha t can be propagated in solids. liquids. and
us but we are rarely aware of. You will disco\"er how gases. H owever unlike electro magnetic waves. they
10 liste n 10 the high·frcque ncy sounds of a nima ls and
cannot trave l in a vaCllum .
re mote conversatio ns and how to track down noise
with an electro nic s tethoscope. We will a lso learn
how to explore a whole new universe of undenvute r Sound in Rir
sounds using a hydro phone and an audio a mplifie r.
Figure 1~1 illustrates a sound wave traveling to thc
The keys to o ur explorations will be cente red
arollnd various types of m.icrophones and a udio righ t (Iollg ho rizon ta l arrow dissecti ng \'ertical
a mplifiers and how you might be able to usc them \0
waves).111c air particles mO\'c back and forth
liste n to both nat ural and man ~m ad e sounds. (shorter a rrows above vertical waves) to a ite rnnte ly
comprcss the surrounding a ir on a fo rwa rd move-
An audio a mplifier is an electronic circuit tha t is
me nt a nd rarify the ai r 011 a backward movement.
used to incrcase the le\'e! of sound. The input of the
The air transmits these d istu rbances outward fro m
amplifier takes a small or 10w~l e\'cI signal and a mpli-
the sound as a wave.
fies it so we c,m comfonably hea r it. We might use an

--
COMPRESSION RAREFACT ION
~.~~.~ - - - MOVEMENT OF PARTICLES

- - - - - WAVELENGTH - - -- -I DIRECTION OF
PROPAGATION
l ongitudinal sound wave traveling to the right from the source on the left.

Figure I-I LOl/gill/dinlll sound Il'{lI'e /rI1I'ding fO lite right from (J source 01/ Iile lefl

1
 Sound waves are confined (Q the [requene}' range not e ven twice as lo ng as the shortest light waves visi-
that can stimu late the human e ar and brain to the ble to the eye (violet). TIle car, however. has a range
sensatio n of hearing. We de (ine the a udible hearing of 10 10 12 octaves; the eye range is but o ne octave.
range as the range from 20 10 about 20.000 Hz. (TIle interval between two freque ncies. o ne of which
altho ugh huma ns can seldo m hear so unds as high as has twice the frequency of the other. is an octave- in
20.000 Hz. A s one becomes older, o ne can hear less this case, 400 fu to SOO Hz.)
a nd less at the high e nd of the range. This range is Infrason ic waves of special in terest a re usually
a lso the exact range to which the a \'crage high- ge ne rated by large so urces, such as an earthquake.
fid e lit), or ste reo amplifier is tailore d. Without resorting to such upheaval as an e arthquake,
you can sense these kinds of waves while driving
be hind a la rge trailer truck o n a highway, The large
Ultrasonic Waves fro ntal surface area of the truck (which ofte n is flat )
buffe ts the wind a nd sets up infrasonic waves. which
A very inte resti ng world of so und waves e xists above are impressed on the ears as a " feeling" sensation
the human hearing range. in the ra nge be tween 20 ra the r tha n a sound sensatio n. This bu[feting a lso
KHz and 50 KHz. Insects a nd animals such as ba ts makes steering the car ma rc difficult. A tmosphe ric
create ma ny unique sounds that canno t be heard by wa\'e fro nts and meteors u aveling though the atmos-
our ears. Gas and chemical leaks as well as many phere a lso create infrasonic waves that ca n be
mach ine sq ueaks and grinds are all silent to huma ns. de tected .
but they go o n a ll a round us continuously. witho ut us If you want to " he ar"" a n extre me ly low-freque ncy
knowing it. U ltrasonic waves are a lso crea ted by wave. take a trip in a fast e levato r in a tall building.
intrusion de tectors. These devices [load a room or You will be going from a positio n of high air pressure
area with "sile nt sound" in order to sense an intrude r (on the ground floor) to a posi tion of low air pressure
by de tccting ""beats" of the moving object a nd the (a t the rughes! floor reached) in perhaps 30 to 60 sec-
o rigina l signa l. They norm ally ope rate a t 40 KHz and ODds. D oubli ng this time to get a full wave length of a
cannot be heard by the human ear. Most people are complete cycle. o r pe riod. of the wave is 60 to 120 sec-
fam il iar with these ultrasonic waves that ex ist just onds. Frequency is re la ted to period by the
above the human hearing range. but m any people are •
e xpre ssIon:
not fami liar wi th sound waves fa r be low Ihe human
f= liT
hearing range ca lled illfrasollics.
whe re l is the freq uency in hertz. a nd T is the pe riod
in seconds.
Infrasonic Waves We fmd that lhe frequ e ncy is lfro second. o r 0.0166
cycles per second. This is the same as one cycle every

I A lo ngitudinal mecha nical wave whose [requency is

below the audible ra nge is called a n infrasonic wave
1 to 2 minutes, which is way belo w the threshold of
hearing. W hen you a re rising ra pidly in the e leva tor
(I) (in/rared lig ht waves a re waves bc low red light). The (or in an aircraft), you sho uld swallow or clear your

c:: wavc whose freque ncy is a bove the a udible range is throat every so oft e n to eq ualize the pressure inside

o called an ultrasonic wave (ultraviolet waves are above

viole t light).
with that outside your ears. When a weather front
passes through your area, you may have " heard "" an
TIle lo ngest-waveleng th sound waves tha t ca n inuasonic signal whose pe riod is 3 ho urs! Watch a
a[fect the no rmal human ca r (20 Hz) are a thousand ba romete r to note this ""ra pid"" change of atmospheric
limes as long as the shortest waves a udible to the pressurc. The physical process is the same for
human ear (20,000 Hz). A s we ha ve observed. the weather pressure changes and sound. 11 is just much
longest light waves (red) tha t can a ITect the eye a rc slowe r fo r weathe r.

2 Electronic Sensors for the Evil Genius

 the reference pressure, Prr does·not affect the diffe r-
Temperature and Sound ence so long as the same re fe rence pressure is used in
both expressions of the two levels.
AI a temperat ure ar 70-F, the speed of sound in air at
TIle pressure level of Po = 0.0002 microbar has
sea level is 1,130 feet pe r second. Because te mpe ra-
been adopted as a sta ndard reference pressure
ture affects the speed of sound, at high tempera tures
because it is close to the lowest level the human
tbe molecules transmining the sound (for example,
observe r can bear when the sound is a 1.000 Hz tone.
air or me w I) move faste r, and the speed of sound is
Sound a t a level of140 dB above Ihe 0 d B level is
increased. The speed o f sound is 1,088 feet per second
threshold o f pain, as we might observe if we were
at 32T (the fre ezing point o f wate r) because the mol-
ecules are slowed down .
coming [rom a nearby jet aircraft without having on
ear protecto rs. The 0 dB leve l is a lso conside red [Q be
o::l
the level of a wh isper or quie t footste ps. A sound that
is 140 dB above threshold is 10 million times stronger
ro
So und Pressure than the weakest sound tha t can be heard. From this.
we can see that the nomlal e ar has a fa ntastic signal- I
Sounds are pressure waves that vary around the n O f- le,rel bandling capability. However, in o rder to re tain
mal air pressure of 15 pounds per square inch . There-
this hearing capability as long as possible as we age,
fore, the amplitu de measured as an average pressure very strong sound levcls sho uld be avoid ed unless
does not convey a ny meaning. Instead. the roor- hearing protectors o r earplugs are lL~ed.
m eal/-square (Ri\'IS) pressure is usually used to
describe the magnirude of a sound . Because we can
hear sounds over an e xtremely wide range of sound
pressures (fro m aboul 0.0001 10 1.000 microbars), il is
Types of Microphones
customary to work wilh SOl/lid presSl/re level (SPL)
instead of using the value o f sound directly. SPL is Microphones are cOllversion d evices. NUcropho nes
defmed by the expression: are also known as frallsdll cers. as they com'crt
L = 20 log (PI Po) mechanical waves to e lectrical waves. Once con-

where L is the sou nd pressure level of sound pressure

verted to e lectrical waves. these waves can be ampli-
P I' and Po is a refere nce pressure. SPL is often used in fied. Microphones are available in many d iffe re nt
defining the performance o f a high-fidelity, higb- types and styles:
power speake r. • Carbon microphone A microphone using a
Oexible dia p h ragm, which movcs in respon se
to sound waves and applies a varying pressu re
The Decibel [ 0 a container filled with carbon gra nules.

causing the resistance o f the microphone to

The unit of sound pressure level is the llecibel (dB) . vary correspondingly.
The dB is a re lati ve uni t a nd refers to a ratio of sou nd
pressure (for example. PI to P2)' Th Us. we say tha t the • Piezoelectric microphone A microphone in
difference between two sound pressure levels L, and which defom mtiol1 of a piezoelectric bar by
L2 is: th e action of sound waves ge nerates an output
L~ - L I = Ih log ( P';Po) - 20 log (PI Po) voltage be tween the facc s of the bar; also
= 20 log (P';P1 ) kno wn as cry.~ta' micropholle.

H ere we have assumed that rhe sound level P! is

greater. or stronger, than sound le vel PI' Note that

Chapter One So und Energ y 3

 • Magnetic microphone A microphone very seiecli\'c and the sound pickup paucm is vcry
employing a diaphragm acted upon by sound narrow (only a few degrees). Often when these
waves and connected 10 an arma ture, which microphones are used the" must scan an area until
varies the re luctance in a magnetic field sur- the desired sounds are heard.
rounded by a coil. Applications include mi nia-
ture microphones for hea ring aids and gui tar
pickups. S imple Microphone
• Dynamic microphone A conductor (usua lly Conversion
a coil a ttached to d iaphragm or ribbon) [Jex.i-
In orde r to improve the directional characte ristics of
hi)' suspended in the field of a fixed magnet is
vibrated by sound waves. TIlis ind uces in the an o mnidirect ion al microphone. a simple ada ptalion
conductor an AC voltage Ihm va ries in step
can be made that greatly improves the direction abi li -
ties of the microphone. "n lis adaptation can be made
with the sound waves.
by doing the following. Cut OUI the small end of a dis-
• E lectrostatic microphone A nexible posable paper coffee cup (the kind that fits in a plas-
tic holder). The small end of the cup is just the right
-
diaphragm and a fi xed electrode togethe r
form a two-pla te air capacilOr whose capaci- size to fit over the small microphone. Another a lter-
tance varies in step with the sound waves that native is to fi nd a large funnel and place it in front of
vibrate the diaphragm. TIlis is also known as a a small sensitive electre t microphone. Next. use black
capllcitor microphon e or condenser micro- e lectrical tape to secure the cup to the microphone
phollE'. With electret m icrophones. on e of the a nd also to prevent sound from getting into the
electrodes carnes a pemHlne nl cha rge. microphone except through the wide funnel end .l11':
microphone with the new shield is small e nough to
Microphones can also have directiollal or lIoII(li-
swing around a t various sounds. TIle directio nal
rectional characteristics. r>.<tost micropbones are sim-
pickup panern will have approximalely a 6O-degree
ple, nondirectionaltypes. which pick up sounds fro m width.TIlis pattern will exclude sounds arriving from
all d irections equally. TIlese microphones are called the back and sides of the microphone. It is helpful
ol1midirecfiollol. Directio na l microphones are avail-
whcn listcning for bird calls and other sounds thai
able in a few major classifications. CardiOll micro-
migh t be as much as 50 to 75 feet away.
phon(,s arc one type of directional micropho ne. This
type of microphone has a he<l rt ~sh<lped sound accept-
ance pattern. These microphones are used by e nter-
tainers to pick up their own voice. but to reduce
The High-Gain Parabolic
sounds Erom ot her directions. Shot-gun microphones Microphone
I are highly directio na l micropho nes. which arc nsed
by bird ent husiasts to listen to distant bird sounds Almost everyone is famil iar with TV broadcasts of
and by private investigators to hear conversations football games where they use parabolic reflectors to
Q)
pick up crowd noises. band music. and play calls from
c from a disllInce. Movie stud ios often use shot-gun
tbe quarterback. A high-direction parabolic micro-
o microphones witb long booms to pick up conversa~
lions of two people talking on a movie set. H ighly phone is shown Figure 1-2. The parabolic rellector is
made of plastic wi th a focal point about 6 inches in
directional microphones arc also known as parabolic
microphones. Parabolic micropho nes nrc vcr)' sensi- front of the center of the parabolic dish. -nlis dish will
tive and highly di rectional. They are designed to pick provide greatly increased sensitivity when the micro-
up sounds very far away a nd amplify them through phone is placed at the focal point. facing inward
an e lectronic am plifier. Parabolic microphones are toward the center o f the dish. These parabolic units

4 Electr o nic Sensor s f o r th e Evil Ge niu s

 Amplifying Sounds-The
Audio Amplifier
A microphone and an amplifier can be used outdoors
to listen to the sounds of birds. autos. trains.
countryside sounds, and peoplc.An amplifier used
along with a tape recorder will aUow you to record
unusual outdoor sounds. It can aid in hunting by
amplifying the sounds of approaching animals or o::s
game. By placing several microphones many hun-
dreds of feet away from a hunting shelter or blind. ro
you could listen for game approaching from unob-
Figure 1-2 PlIrabolic microphone

arc ge nerally light enough to carry into the fi eld for

served directions. I
The diagram shown in Figure 1-3 illustrates a
listening 10 spon or wildlife activity, such as tracking microphone pre-amplifie r. This audio amplifier uti- Cf)
game. or for listening to distant voice conversations. lizes a TL084 op-amp to amplify the microphone sig- o
Thc unit is panicu larly effecti ve when listening across nal. The op-amp amplifier has an over all gain of 27
c
water such as lakes or ponds bec."l.use water absorbs
liu le of the sound energy. allowing the microphone to
dB. Potentiometer R6 in the feedback pa th provides
a gai n control. This microphone pre-am plifier was
::s
p..
pick il up easi ly. The dish has almost a penci l beam designed for an electret microphone. and a bias resis-
pauern. much like a flas hlight. so you should scan tor R1 is used if you utilize an electret microphone. If
slowly for sounds (rom a distance. you choose to use a dynamic microphone, elimi nate
this resistor. The micropho ne pre-amp circuit is pow-
e red from a 9-volt transistor radio battery through

Rl

R4

- -
-----------------------------------------------
Figure 1-3 Microphone pre-amplifier cirCllit
-------------------------------------------------------------------------

Chapter One Sound Energy 5

 + 12VDC

81

-
------------------.--------------------------.-------------.----------------_.
Fig ure ].\. 1 High-poll'er audio ampliper circilil
"." -- ---.--------------------_ . . . ----

switch S1. TIle output clI pacitor at C4 is used to cau- volt battery at pi n 5 of the LM 386 amplifier Ie. Note
pie the pre-amp circuit to 11 high-power audio ampli- for high output a he utsink should be mOllnted on the
fie r. A shielded microphone cable should be used to Lr.-B86 amplifier. Microphone prc-amplifier shown
connect the microphone pre-amp to the power previously can be combined with the audio power
amplifier (for example. if the microphone is used in a amplifier to form a powerful audio amplification sys-
prabl; configuration and the circui ts are separated by tem. which can be used with many different lYpes of
any distance). U bOlh circuits are placed on the same microphones to aid in listening to distant sou nds.
circuit board then no cable is required. A simple but interesting application for both pre-
A high-power aud io amplifier is depicted in Figure amplifier and power amplifier described previously is
1-4. This audio amplifier ut ilizes a high-output inte- to construct a "rai n" microphone. Locate a small. 8-
grated circuit amplifi er shown at U I. The a udio input to 100inch plastic bucket. About halfway down inside
I signal is fed to the input potentiometer at R 1.1l1e
potentiometer is coupled to the input of the amplifier
the bucket mount the electret microphone on a
round sheet of plywood o r plastic. so that the micro·
Q) through pin 3. Pin 2 of the a udio amplifier is phone points to the closed end of the bucket. Tum

c grounded. The gain of the a udio amplifier can be wlr- the bucket upside down and cut a slot at the bottom

o ied from 20 to 200 by adding the network formed by

R2 and Cl. A bypass capacitor can be added from
for the microphone wire to exit. Finally. mount the
upside down bucket on the ground or on your roof
ground to pin 7 on the Ie if desired and is optional. top and run a length of shielded ca ble from the
Output sound shapi ng is performed by the network microphone to the prc-amplifier inside your house.
of C3 and R3. The output of the a udio amplifier is You will now be a ble to hear rain drops as they begin
coupled to an 8-ohm speaker via a 2.700 uF elec- to fa ll on the bucket placed outside. so you will know
trolytic capacitor. The circuit is powered by a 9- to 12- immediately when it begins to rain. day o r night.

6 Electronic Sensors for the Evil Genius

Electret Microphone Pre- Electronic Stethoscope
Rmplifier Part List
Stethoscopes are 001 useful only for doclors.. but for
RI, R2 10K ohm, 1/4 -
watt, 5% r esistor
home mechaoics. eXlerm ioalors, spies. and any num-
ber of othc r applications. Standard stethoscopes pro-
R3 IK ohm, 1 /4 -watt ,
5 % resis to r vide no amplification . which limits their usc. Our fi rsl
R4, RS l OOK ohm. 1 / 4- exciti ng project uses the ubiquitous op-amp to
watt , 5% re sisto r greatly amplify a standard stethoscope. and the cir-
R6 l-megOhm poten -
tiometer
cuit shown also incorporates a low-pass filter to o
C1 , C3 1 uF, 35-volt
remove background noise.
::l
tantalum capacito r Herc's an old mechanic's trick for findin g the (l)
Ul TLOB 4 op-amp ( Te~a s
source of a funny noise in a car's engine. By using a

Ml
In struments)
d ynami c o r e lect ret
length of ga rden hose. mo\'e one end of the hose
around unde r the hood until you pinpoint the noise.
I
microphone ( see te~tl which is directed through the bose so that the sound
51 SPST toggle switch coming in travels through the hose to the ear of the
81 9-volt battery mechanic. It 's probably the simplest diagnostic tool
Miscellaneous PC cir- used with modern cars. bu t often the most effect ive
cu it board , wire ,
for situations such as isolating a knocking valve.
shi el ded wire c able ,
etc. A garden hose would be too large for findin g a
problem with a smaiJ part, but a soda straw cut down
to 3 inches in length works quite well. To design a
High-Power Rudio Rmplifier somewhat efficieut diagnostic tool or listening device.
you need to amplify the sound. So we need a way to
Parts List couple a soda straw or small rube to an electronic
R1 1 0K potenti ometer amplifier.
R2 1 . 5x ohm. 1/4- wat t, TIle electrollic sre,IIoscope schematic diagram is
5 \ resi sto r shown in Figure I-S. 1lle electronic stethoscope
R3 1 0 o hm , 1/ 4- watt , 5 % begins with the sensith'e electret microphone. which
rl!: s i sto r
is biased with resistor R 1. The audio from the micro·
Cl 2.2 uF, 35 - vo lt phone is fed through capacitor C2 and R2 and then
e lect rolyti c c apa c it o r
sent to the minus (-) input of up-amp Vl. The out-
C2 10 uF , 35 - vo lt el ec-
t r olyti c c apacitor put [rom the first o p-amp amplifier is then coupled to
C3 0.0 1 uF, 35- volt the next o p-amp at U2 through resistor R5 and R6.
disc c apacito r Op-amp U2 is directly coupled to the final op-amp
C4 0, 05 uF, 35- volt amplifier section at U3. The output of V2 is also fed
disc c a pacito r to a le\'c] meter consisting of the op-amp stage at U4.
cS 22 0 uFo 35-volt which is used to d rive a bicolor !igh,·emil/illg diode
elect r o ly t i c c apacito r
(LED) at Ol. The audio output at U3 is se nt to the
Ul LM386 audio ampli -
final amplification stage al US. through the volume
fier Ie (National)
control at R I L The volume control is coupled to U5
51 SPST toggle switch
via a 0.01 uF capacitor at CS.111e fi nal amplification
SPKR a-ohm spe aker
stage of the electronic stethoscope is made of an

Chapter One Sound Energy 7

8 Electronic Sensors for the Evil Genius
LM386 power amplifier integrated circui t. The gain Once the circuit has been built. usc a small me tal
of the fin a l a mplifier can be adj usted [rom 20 to 200 box to ho use the circuit a nd ba tte ries. The three
by switching in the resistor capacitor ne t work switches. LED. and a small speaker were a ll mounted
composed of R14 and C6. using switch 5 1. The output on the top o[ the enclosure. whereas the o utput jack
£rom the LM386 amplifier is [mally sent to an 8-ohm for the hendphone was mo unted a t the rear of the
speaker or headphone via capacitor CS. A head- chassis pane l. Some builders may e lect to omit the
phone jack is provided aI J2. Switch 52 is uscd to speaker all toget he r. if desired. Because the micro-
switch in the spea ke r in addition to the headphone. if phone needs 10 be re mo te from the chassis e nclosure.
desired. This added leve l of a mplificatio n should be you can clcct to insta ll a microphone jack on the
used only [or signals that a rc extremely small. Gene r-
ally [or tro ubleshooting and detective purposes.
£ro nt pa ne l. as shown a t J I. or simply run a shielded
wire [rom the circuit to the microphone. De pe nding
o:::3
headphone operation is desirable. but in certain upo n you r application. you may want to co nstruct a
insta nces a speake r can be preferred. 4- to 8-foO{ shielded m icropho ne cable leading back
ro
Because this circui t uses op-amps. you will notice to the chassis enclosure.
that the circuit requi res bot h plus and min us powe r llle most di [ficuit task in constructin g the elec- I
supplies. Two 9-"011 ba tte ries are connected togethe r tronic ste tho!;cope is mo un ting a soda straw o r small
as shown and are con nected 10 the circuit through length of plastic o r nylo n tubing to the micro phone.
DPST switch at S3. Two plastic ballery holders we re You will need to devise a me thod to reduce o r
used to hold the balleries in place. e nlarge the diameter of the tubing to match the size
Constructio n of the e lectro nic ste thoscope is of the sma ll e lectret micro phone.
pre tt), straightforward. It can be constructed on a Whe n you build this project. you may discover
small perf-board o r circui t as desired. Tlle circuit uti- that it wails when the speake r is brought close to the
lizcs the ubiquitous LM 741. eight-pin op-a mp. It is micropho ne or when you disconnect the pote ntiome-
recommended that integrated circui t socke ts be used te r's connection to ground. lbis is caused by positi,'e
for this project. in the eve nt o f a circui t fa ilure at a feedback in which the o utput £rom the speake r is
later date. You will be able to repair the circuit much picked up by the m icropho ne and passed to the
more easily if a socke t is used. Whe n installing the a mplifier. Positi" e fee dback should be a"oided whe n-
integra ted ci rcuils.. be sure to orient them correctly in eve r possible.lbis is a secondary re ason [or using the
order to avoid damage ti t powe r- up. Gene ra lly ime- soda straw with the microphone : it he lps keep sound
gra ted circuits have some sort o f markings to indicate that is not directly in fron t of the microphone £rom
Ihe correct orien ta tio n. The Ie package will have be ing picked up and a mplified.
e ither a small inden ted eircle ncar pin I o r a small "Ib e electronic stethoscope is a fun project with
rectangu lar cutout o n the top cente r of the IC pack- man y applica tions. -Ibis project can se rve many needs.
age. If you see a small inde nted circle o r a cutou t on including detecting noises.. vibralio ns. a nd leaks by
the top of the Ie. the n pin I will be just to the left. using tubing co upled to the microphone. By changing
Note that the electrolytic capacitors have polari ty the micropho ne configura tio n £rom a tube to a
a nd m USI be installed wil h respecl lO th e polarity. parabola. you could use this project to eavesdrop on
lliese components will have ei the r <l small minus or re mote conversat ions, listen to dista nt bird o r anima l
plus marking on the m. calls. or he lp you to track deer or o the r a nima ls in the
woods.

Chapter One S o und En er g y 9

 uS LM386 power ampli-
Electronic Stethoscope fier
Mi sce llaneous PC c ir-
Parts List c uit b oa rd . Ie soc k-
et s, battery c lips,
Rl 10K-ohm . 1 / 4- wa tt wire , hard ware , etc.
r e si s tor
R2 . R3 . R9 2.2K-ohm .
1 / 4-watt resi s tor
R4 47K- ohm. 1 / 4-watt
resi s tor Underw ater Hydrophone
RS, R6 , R7 33K-ohm .
1 / 4-watt resi s tor How would you like to listen to underwalcr sounds
RS 56K-ohm. 1 /4 -watt that you ha\"e never heard before? Not just the usual
resi s tor
sounds that you might hear while swimming. but truly
RI O 4 .7K-ohm, 1 / 4-watt
unusual underwater sounds made by creatures of the
resi s to r
aq uatic world. We will explore the use of the
RII 10K potentiome t e r
hydrophone and the sounds you ca n expect to hea r in
Rl2 330K-ohm, 1 /4-wa tt
re.sistor many places where water is found.
Rl 3 lK- ohm , 1 / 4- watt The hydroph olle is an unde rwate r liste ning device.
resi .s tor microphone. or elcclroacouslic receiving transducer.
Rl 4 1 . 5K-ohm, 1 / 4-watt designcd speci ficall y for cont inued use in fresh or sa lt
resistor
wate r. It operntes in wate r in much the same manne r
Rl5 3 . 9-ohm, 1 / 4-watt
tha t an o rdinary microphone operates in air. It con·
re si.sto r
ve rts a udio sound waves in wate r into analog electri-
Cl 47 0 uF el e ctro lyti c
c apacitor , 35 volts cal signa ls. which a re the n a mplified by your audio
C2 , C3, C4 0.0 47 uF amplifier to a levcl where you can hear them. You
disc c apa c itor, 35 can usc this devicc 10 listen to ampl ified sounds. or
volts you can tape record undenvale r sounds of all types.
C5 0.05 uF c a p a c itor ,
35 volts
C6 10 uF elect r o lYtic
c apa c itor, 35 volts Water Sounds You [an Hear
C7 0. 01 uF c apa c itor ,
35 v o lt s You can use your hydrophone almost anywhere you
CS 220 uF electrolytic go-home. on vacat ion a t the seashore. aboa rd shi p.
capacitor, 35 volt s a t the lake. almost a nyplace. You \ViII be a ble to listen
I Dl bi c olor LED
51 , 52 5P5T toggle
to the sounds of the sea. lakes. ponds. streams. pools.
creeks. a nd rive rs. A number of extremely un usual
s wit ch
Q) a nd unknown sounds can be heard when listening
53 DP5T toggle Switch
r::: unde n vater. You'll hear the clicks. squiggles. and

o JI , J2 l IS - inc h mini

MI
phone j a ck
electret mi c r ophone
m usical sounds made by fish. shrimp. crabs. whales.
porpoises. and othe r ma rine life talking back and
fort h.1lle hydrophone will pick up sounds made by
5PK a-ohm Speaker
the propelle rs or turning screws of passing ships.
81 , 82 9 - volt tr an si s-
tor ra dio batteri es motor boats. a nd submarines. You will be a ble to hear
Ul , U2 , U3 , U4 LM7.1 the sounds of people diving and swi nmling in your
op-amp swimmi ng pool. Then when you listen to your home

10 El ec t roni c Se ns o r s fo r th e Ev il Geniu s
fi sh aquarium. you can try to ide ntify the minUie used in conj unctio n with the 10K -ohm pote ntiomete r
sounds your guppies make. You m ight e ven find at RS. TIle electre t microphone e lectronics can be
yourse lf listening to the siagnant pool of water in mounted on a small circuit boa rd . Re member to
your back yard to see if you ca n hear the so unds of observc the correct polarit), when insta lling capaci-
mosqui to la rva. tors a nd the op-amp. to e nsure that the circuit will
ope rate properly when power is applied .
llie tra nsd ucer o r pre-amp board lind tbe ampli-
Hydrophone Listener fier board a re connected via a length o f call.'\: cable.
Now. you will need to d e term ine the le ngth of cable
" n e hydrophone listening syste m is composed of Iwo
pa rts. a hydrophone or microphone p re -amplifier
you wi ll need be tween the m icrophone transduce r
a nd the amplifier board tha t will best suit your partic-
o::3
assembly and an electronic a mplifie r assembly linked
together by coaxial cable. Figures 1-6 and 1-7 illLL'i-
ular application. You m ight wish to start with a 15- to
20·(00t cable length between the transducer a nd
ro
tnll e how the hydrophone or sendi ng unit is assem- ampl ifier boa rds. Next. you will need a small plastic
bled. An electre t microphone p re-amplifier film canister: d rill a hold to pass the coax ca ble I
e lectro nics circuit is shown in Figure 1-8. It is thro ugh the lOp of the mill can. De s ure to drill the
mounted in a small soft plaslic film canister. The eIec- hole for the call.'\: cable unde rsized , so it will be a tigbt
tre tlllicrophone is LL'ied as the hyd rophone micro- fit. Pass the transducer e nd of the coax through the
phone and can be purchased in your local Radio
Shack storc. Powe r is applied 10 the e lectre t micro--
phone by thc bias resistor at R I. -Ille audio output
frollllhc electre t microphone is then coupled to Cable to surface
capacitor CL The out pu t of C l is fed to a network
consisting of two 17k inpu t rcsisto rs a t R2 a nd R3.
which act as a high-pa!iS filte r.1l1is network couples
the microphone audio to the op-amp at Ul . a Texas
Instrume nts TL072. A fe ed-back loop a t the minus Audio cable, 2-conductor with shield,
Radio Shack pn 278·513 or equi\l
input o f the op-amp consists o f a 27K a nd a 1.5K-
o hm rcsistor. along witb a 10 uF capacitor. The capac-
itor a t C2 reduces the D C gain to avoid excessive Hal melt glue 10 seaVcanisler
offset problems. Capacitor C3 and resis to r R4 set the joint (both s ides 01 lid)
high-frequenc), rolloff at the o u tp ut. Capacitor C4 at
Silicone RTV blob over end of
the output blocks D C: it fo rms a high-pass ftlter when
cable acls as a walerblock to
keep oil from squishing up
inside althe cable as waler
pressure increases with deplh

Interior filled with vegetable oil

:::-_- - Heal-shrink over solder joints
_ - - - Piezo microphone
_ and pre-amplifier assembly

~--- PlasUc film canister

--Figure
------------------------------------------------------
1-6 Assembling fhe hydropholl e o r sending Figure 1-7 Assembling fhe hytlropllOlle or sendillg
III lif /fll if

Chapter One S ound Energy 11

 R6
R7

C2

Figure 1· 8 Hydrophone pre-(lmplifier circuit

top of the film canister (refer again to Figures 1·6 and a mp 10 the mai n amplifi e r input. Term inal C is the
1-7). Next. solder the cable 10 the transducer or syste m ground connection between the microphone
sender board. and then secure the electronics board p re-amp a nd the main amplifie r. The a ud io o utput
in the fil m can so that it docs not rattle around inside fro m the pre-amplifier board is fed to the main a udio
the can. Fill the canister wi th light mineral oil ncarly amplifi e r through capacitor CI. The o utpu t from C I
to the lOp o f the container. Locate so me silicone is immediate ly coupled to a 50K-ohm potentiome ter.
sealant or room-femperatllre \l1//c(lIIizillg (RTV) which is secondly coupled to the op-amp through
sealant and run a bead all around the coax cable on capacitor C2. a 2.2 u F e lectrolytic capacitor. The
both sides of the film can lOp cover. Place the top o f outpu t of the audio a mp lifie r is conditioned by the
the fil m can ove r the film can and secure it 10 the can. resistive and capacitor network of R3 and C4. The 8-
And fina lly. run a bead of silicone all around the top ohm speaker is coup led to the a mplifier through
cover of the canister. capacitor CS.
AI the opposite end o f the transducer cable. you Note. tha t the hydrophone is powe red by the coax
I will want to attach some Iype of connector such as a
lIs -inch mini a ud io connector that will mate to a
cable from the Il-voh battery through switch Sl:a.
-The remote audio power a mplifier is also powered by
(l) p hone jack on the e lectronics a mp lifie r ch assis box. the 12-\'011 battery. Pins 3.4. 5. 7. 10. 11. and 12 arc all

s:: The hydropho ne main amplifier board shown in tied to ground on the circ uit board. Construction o f

o Figure 1-9 centers arollnd the LM380 , a 2.S-watt

audio powe r a mp lifier. The sh ie lded cable fro m the
the ma in hydropho ne a mp lifie r is const ructed o n a
small glass e poxy circuit board. You could a lso e lect
micropho ne pre -a mp co n nects to a screw te rmina l to construct the circuit o n a perf-board if desired.
strip. Actua lly, a ny three te rmina l connectors set may Whe n assembling the mai n hydrophone amplifier,
be used instead. Te rminal A is the 12-voit bias to (1)' a nd locate a n in tegrated circui t socke t for the
powe r the e lectret microphone. Te rminal B is the LM380 amplifier. Be careful to observe the correct
actual a ud io o utput signal fro m the micropho ne pre- pola rit), o f a ll o f the capacitors d uring installa tion .

12 Electronic Sensors for the Evil Genius

 12 Volt n
::r
+
PI
'1:1
B1
rt"
ro
t;
S 1:a S1 :b

0
14 + ::s
A
C2
C6 ro
6 10
B 11
C
+ 12
8
+
C5
S2
I
U1

+
2 5 + en
2
4
C4
J1 0
C1 1 Speaker ~
+
::s
p...
R1 C3 R3

Figure 1-9 Hydroplwl/{' amplifier cirellil

\\'he n installing the integra ted circuit. you must be provide a decent a mo unt of c urre nt to powe r the eir-
sure 10 inser! the part correctly to avoid damage to cuit for a reasona ble period of time.
the circuit. lntegra ted c ircuits arc always marked with The hyd ro phone muy be used as a fi sh find e r by
either a sma ll indented c ircle to the right of pin 1 or moun ting it o n a pole o r ha ndle so you cu n hold it
wilh a rectangular cutou t a t the top ce nte r of the Ie o ver the edge of a sllla ll bO<lt o r seawall. A piece of
package. Afte r installing all of the componc nts o n the e lectrical cond uit o r a ba mboo pole ca n be used. Fl at-
circuit board. be sure to look for cold solder join ls. te n th e condui t o n the end to go int o the water so you
shorts. a nd SlnlV wire leads left o n the board after can mo unt and tape the unit to it. Be sure not to
trimming compo ne nl le ads. cover the nat surface of the un it with tape to assure
The main hydrophone a mplifie r ci rcui t is hOLL<;ed maximum se nsitivity to so und while in Ihe wate r. Use
in it j x 7 x ? -inch aluminulll chassis box. The IWO a hose clamp. lacing twine. or electricallape to allach
toggle switches SI and S1. the vo lume co nlrol . a nd the hydropho ne to the pole. If you want to run yo ur
the input jack a l J I are a ll moullIed on the front hydro phone do wn to gre ate r depths. 50 to 300 feet or
panel of the chassis box. The head pho ne jack at J 2 is so. be sure 10 use shie lded cable the whole length of
mo unted on the rear panel of the enclosure. In orde r the run to avoid picking up 10 0 much hum from a ny
10 supply power to the hydrophone circui ls. it is local powe r lines. Solde r all e lect rical connectio ns
<ldvisable to usc J four-ce ll AA plastic ballery hold- you ma ke and a pply sufficient silicon e rubber a nd
e rs. which can be mounted to the lOp co ve r of the elect rical tape to all connections to assure lasting
a luminum chassis box. The e ight AA b<ltte ries will wate rproof conneclions and splices.

Chapter One Sound Energ y 13

 OpE!ration HomE! Rquariums
After you arrive a t a n area of interest, plug the TIle home aquarium is another inlcresling place to
hydrophone into the a mplifier. lurn the unit on . a nd start your underwater listening. You will be surprised
adjust the volume to a point where you can hear a al the musical sounds. chirps. and beeps Ihat your
slight rap as you tap the surface of th e hydrophone. small fish make. With experience. you will be able to
1l1is wilil CUyou that the unit and hydrophone arc tell which species of fish makes the most unusual
operating properly before you attempt to use it. sounds. which ones don·t say anything, when they arc
Whe n you drop the unit into wate r, you will hear a most active. and so on.
very short and loud click as the unit contacts the sur- If you wou ld like 10 try some experimenting. wit h
face of the wa ter. Yo u can also use Ihis sound to tell if your fa\'orite little guppy, place a radio near the
the uni t is up to snuff; if you don't hear trus loud aquarium so its loudspeaker is as close 10 the tank as
dick. you should begin to suspect tbat the ballery possible. You want the sound from the spea ker to
voltage is dropping. tha t you have a loose connection vibrate the aquarium so the (ish wilt be a ble 10 hear
to the hydrophone. o r that the volume is not turned the sounds in the water. Vou might then mo\'e your
up high enough. a udio amplifier into the other room while you Iislen
to any sounds your (ish make as a result of your pilly-
ing music for them . With small fish as you have in
Swimming Pool RIE!rt your aq uarium. you sbould be able to hea r them
when they are about 6 inches to I foot away from the
You will hear th is click each lime the hydrophone hydrophone. As the)' get closer to the pickup unit.
con tacts the surface of the water, no man er bow their sounds will get lo uder. You will be simply
many times it has been dipped in. This contact noise amazed at tlte sounds you will hear. And all along,
appears to be rela ted to Sialic electricity accumula- you thought you had silent fi sh!
tion on the unit. which is rapidly discharged upon
conlact with the water surface. Vou can adapt this
noise to a useful fu nClion as a splas" mOllifo r in LakE!s, Ponds, and StrE!ams
swimming pools by suspending the hydrophone a few
inches above the surface level of the pool. The ampli- TIIC sounds you hear in the counl ry nt hikes. ponds.
fi er outpu t will be silenl umilthe surfnce of the pool and streams will be di[ferent from what you might
is disturbed by a swimmer or object falling into the hear at home in your fis h tank. A running stream will
pool. You will then hear a series of clicks as the water be bubbling and gurgl ing there by masking some of
is splashed aga inst the hydrophone. llie amplifier can the sounds of aquatic life. But listen anyway for this is
be placed in the ho use where it can be monitored by
I an adult. A lo ng, shie lded cable is then run to Ihe
the way ),ou leam lhings. Vou may observe phenom-
ena never before observed. and the only way you can
hydrophone. The amplifier can be left on all the lime tell is to listen and become an expert at what you do.
Q) as a pool safcty device if the amplifi er unil is pow-
c ered by a 9-voll balleT)' charger operated from 120
Lakes. ponds. and stagnan t pools of water usually

o VAC. These chargers arc available at any local a udio

supply housc for a nomi nal fc c. Commercial pool
have some live activity that you should be a ble to
hear. If ),ou can ge t close enough to see some of the
aquatic life from a boat o r from the shore. you will be
alarms such as this cost over S100.
a ble to tcll if crayfish. shrimp. or minnows make
sounds. which you can begi n to rccognize as belong-
ing to that species. Do the fi sh and crayfish make the

Elect ronic Sensors for the Ev il Genius

same amount of noise when it rai ns, o r do n't they sounds of the sea. A small rowboat is also ideal for
care? Do lobsters a nd oysters make so unds you can moving out away from shore so you ca n drift into dif-
recognize? As you lis ten and become expe rie nced. fe rent locations without making noises that would
make audio tape recordings on a battery-opera ted fright en off schools of fi sh. Listening-from a large
cassette tape recorder. study the sounds you hear seagoing vesse l will pose diffe rent problems because
from the different fish. and you may become an of the distance from your position down to the wate r
expert in your own right. Your project will add yet and because of the speed of the ship. The hydrophone
anothe r reason why you should go to the lake 10 would be pulled alo ng by the water and this would
rela...; over the weekend. l f s all in the interest of put a strain on the cable. Sh ip noises such as the
.
sCIence. engine and totaling scrcws might mask a ny sea noises
you arc hoping to hear.
o::3
Seasides and Oceans
ro
Hy drophon e Transducer and
A pier a t the seasho re is a perfect place to drop your
Pre -Rmpl ifier Unit Parts List
I
hydrophone into deep wate r to do your listc ning.A t
the seashore with the sound of breaking waves and Rl 10K ohm , 1 /4- wa tt
the wind blowing. it may be difficult to hear th e reS istor
sounds of life with your amplific r. In this case. use a R2, R3. R1 21K ohm.
1 / 4-watt re S istor
battery-powered ta pe recordcr to reco rd the sounds
R4 33K ohm. 1 / 4-watt
from your amplifier so you can listen to them later
re S i stor
when it is not so noisy. A tape recorder a mplifie r will
RS 100 ohm . l /4 -watt
Dot have sufficielll a udio gain to record the fishy r esisto r
sounds directly so it will be necessary to feed your R6 1.SK ohm. 1 / 4-watt
audio amplifier o utpUl into the tape recorde r input. re s istor

To assure prope r lone recordi ng, use an imped- R8 10K potentiometer

( l og-tape r)
ance matching transformer. This circuit ma tches the
CI . C4 2 . 2 uF o 3S-volt
low impedance of the loudspeaker OUlput (4 10 8 capacito r
ohms) to lhe high inpul impedance of the tape C2 100 uF o 35-volt
recorder (nominal 1.000 o hms). e l ect rolyti c c apa c itor
An alternate recording method is to take a n C3 3 pF . 35 - volt d i sc
c apa c itor
induction pickup coil and simply place it over the
loudspeaker of the amplifier and then connect it to C5 50 uF, 35 - volt elec -
trolyti c capacito r
the input of a tape recorde r input. This will e limina te
Ul TL072 op- a mp (TeXa s
any matching tra nsfonners. and audio sounds will be Instruments)
picked up as if you used a microphone fo r recording. Ml electret mi c rOph o ne
Miscellaneou s PC b o ard .
film c an, RTV com-
Li stening from a Boat poun d, wire. s hielded
wire , et c.

A motorboat or cruiser is an ideal platform from

which to listen. You can movc to different locations.
shut off the engine or motor. dro p your hydropbone
ovcr the side. and liste n in lotal quietness 10 the

Chapter One Sound En erg y lS

 Hydrophone Power Rmplifier
Unit Parts List
Rl SOK ohm pote n -
tiome t e r
R2 47K o hm , 1 / 4-ww4tt
re s i s t o r
R3 2 . 7K o hm . 1 / 4-watt
re s i s to r
Cl , C2 . C3 2 . 2 uF , 35 -
vo l t c a p acitor
C4 0 . 1 uF o 3S-vo lt
c a p a citor
CS , C6 4 70 u F , 35 -vo lt
elect r o lytic c a p a c ito r
Ul LM3BO audio amp l i -
fi e r Ie
-- ---_ .. _-_. ._--------_._--- ------ --------- -_. ---_.. -
Fi gure 1-10 Ullrasoll;c listeller
Jl l iB-i n c h mini jac k s
51 OPST toggl e s wi tch
mer n ight. the sound s thaI can be heard a re re mark-
52 SPST toggle sw i t c h able. as bats and small insects perform a cacophony
SPKR a- o hm speak e r o f na ture's own orchestra nt its besl: lbc ha ndheld
81 12-vo lt ba tt e ry ultrasonic listener can easil y detect a nd locnte these
Mi sce llaneo u s PC c ir- h igh-freque ncy sounds..
c u i t boa r d, wire, ba t-
t ery h olde r s , sc r ew The additio n of a parabolic refl ector further
t e rm i nal s tri p e nhances the perfo rmance o f this project. Because
u ltrasonic freq uency spectru ms a re beyo nd o ur hear-
ing ra nge. they can be listened to on ly by ind irect
means. such as freq uency heterodyning. Frequellcy
Ultrasonic Listener heterodynillg is a me thod widely used in modern
radio rece ivers. In an ultrasonic receiver with fre-
Tu nc in 10 the fascinating world of ultrasound with q ue ncy heterodyning. a loclIl oscililllor (LO) is used
Ihis ultrasonic liste ner-rece iver. You will be a ble to \0 genc ralc a squa re wave. llle o utpUI from lhe LO is
hear sounds that are \ 00 high in frequency to be from 20 to 100 KH z. The incoming signal. o r fre-
heard by hu man ears. such as glass breaking and q uellcy illpllt (FI). is firs! p icked u p by an ullT<lsonic
electric arcing (see Figure 1·1 O). l u is project will transducer a nd then am p lified by a three·stage a mpli-
I enable ,\'ou to liSlen to a world of sound tha t few peo- fi er. The inp ut signal is then m i:xed by the m ixer sec-
p ie e\'en k now exists.. Numerous possib le ap p lica tions tio n to p roduce a su m (LO + FI) of the frequencies
Q) exist for the ultrasonic liste ner. from the detection of and a di [fe re nce of frequencies (LO - Fl) al the
t:: le aking gases a nd liq uids. to the mechanical wear o f m ixer OUlpU l. Because the sum o f freq uency (LO +
o bearings o r ro tatio nal and reci procating devices. to
ekctricalleakage on powe r-li ne insula tors. A whole
FI) is 100 h igh to be heard . it is fil lered out. The dif-
fe re nce in freq uency (LO - FI) is just within Ihe
world o f sounds coming fro m living creatures is also a udio range of frequencies: therefore afte r amplifica-
audible. Si mple e ve nts like a cat walking across wet tio n. it can be heard (rom a loudspeaker or head-
grass. lhe ra ttling o f key cha ins. a nd even a colla psin!!. phones. A system block diagram is shown in
p lastic bag can a ll be heard clearly. On a W,l m l sum-
-
Fi gu re \-11.

16 Ele c tr o ni c Sen s or s for t he Ev il Genius

 A special piezoelecrrie u ltrasonic transducer acls C D 14069 illlegr(lf{'t/ circuit (Ie) Ht UI :a . a hex
,IS a microphone and is used to detect the high- in wrtcr Ie. This d igital lC ope rates in the. linear
frequency ultrasound waves.. \Vhc nevcr sound pres- modc by connecting feedback resistors R2. R3. and
sure is applied to the transducer. it wi ll produce a R5 from the inn"!rlers' outpu ts back \0 thei r inputs..
smaU voltage al its output te rminal. The frequency The weak signal from the transducer goes through
response of this transd ucer peaks arou nd 40 K H z b ut three stages of amplificat ion a t U I :d. U I :e. and U 1:f.
wlll work from 20 to 100 K H z. lltis weak signal from The signal is then rectified and cou pled \0 the mi xer
the transd ucer is passed to input pin 9 of the by C7. as shown in Figure 1-12.

Mixer
o;:3
r - - ro
3 - stage , Audio amp
--.J
Speaker
Amplification
I
I
_L

I
I I
I-
Sensa
I ~
--
Osil1ator

'.
--
---- - --- ---------------- -- -
Figure I-II Ultrasonic lisrening block diagram

c, "'
c;
•
I , I I C12

c, n

Ul :0 7 Ul:E "' Ul :F _ _ _ 4
- "1- -
D c, "'
Ul :8
cn
, , , , , , U, c"
- •
,
Ul:A Ul :C
-•
SPKR
"' "n C"
C14
"" "
Figure 1-12 Ulrrason;c fisrcncr cirelli/

Chapter One So und Energy 17

 illlcgralcd circuits U l:a and U l :b are connected
together (0 fonn an astable oscillator. Its frequency
of oscillation is delc mlincd by R9. VR2. and CiO.
lllis frequency can be varied from 20 KH z to 100
KHz by va riable resistor VR2. The square wave gen-
c ra ted bv, U I :(1 and U l :b is buffered bv, U l:c and is
coupled to the mixer circui t via Cli.
In the mixer circuil.lhc amplified incoming signal
(FI) [rom C 7. and the signal of the local oscillatOr
( LO) from ell arc mi.I;cd by diodes D I a nd 0 2 a nd
the surn of frequencies ( LO + FI). TIley a re filtered
bv. OJ. as shown in Fi e:ure \-12. 'Ilte dirfcrence of fre-
~

qucncies ( LO - FI) aTe am plified by an a udio ampli- --- -

Figure 1-13 UI/rasollic lis/mer circlli/ board
fier <It U2 and the LM 386 power amplifier Ie. The
L~'I386 amplifie r can provide up to I wall of OUlpUl pin I. Some in tegrated circuits have a small circle or
to an 8-ohm speake r. VR I is a volume control. which dot placed ncar pin I. i\!la ke SUfe yOll orient the IC
is used to control the output of the sound le\'c! from correct ly and double-check your wi ring. before apply-
the power amplifier. ing power to the circuil.
Low-frequency insta bility is prevented by C5. R6. A rear panel contains the on-off a nd volume. the
and el 2 in the power supply section. H igh -frequ e ncy lUning control poten tiometer. a nd the headphone
• stabili!\'. of U2 is enhanced bv. C13 a nd R IO. The jack. 111C front of the unit contains the directional
ultrasonic lis te ner is powered from a standard 9-\'011 receiving transducer. Th e ha ndle houses the balleries.
I transistor radio buttery. 11le ultrasonic liste ne r is The addition of an optional parabolic reflector
enhanced for .liste ning to the high-frequency sounds greatly e nhances the de vice's performance. provid ing
I made by bats. super-hi!!h ga in a nd directivity.
tr 111e ultrasonic listener is constructed on a small An exce lle nt demonstration of this ultrasonic
glass epoxy circuit board. measu ring 2 ~ x l'l! inches. microphone ill\'oh'es Dopple r shifts. Doppler shift is
The compact circuit boa rd houses all the components when an observcr movin!! loward a source of sound
~

including the potentiome ters.. integra ted circuits. experiences an increasing freq uenc),. This is easy to
,, capacitors. a nd diodes. The ultrasonic transduce r is visualize when you realize tha t sound propagates as a
mounted off board: to the side of a small plastic longitudinal wave a t a relatively constallt \'elocity. As
enclosure afte r small sound input holes have been the observer moves towa rd the direct ion o f the sound
drilled into the plastic case (sec Figure 1-13). source. he or she intercepts more Wa\'cs in a shorter
The original circuit was modified to aid the experi- period of time. thus hearing a sound tha t seems 10 be
me nt e r in liste ning to the high-frequency sounds of shorter in wavelength or higher in freque ncy. A [un
bats. These changes indude elimina ting resistor R I game for both chi ldre n and adu lts is 10 hide a small
and addi ng a capacitor a t Cx between UI:d pin 8 a nd test oscillator and ha" c your opponent atte mpt to
I U I:c pin 7 as shown. locatc it in a minimal allloull t of time.
< Whe n installing the components on the printed
circu it board. be ca reful to obscr.'e the polari ty of the
ca pacitors and especially the two diodes and the inte- Applications
( grated circuits. If possible usc integrated circuit sock-
e ts for the IWO ICs. in the e\'ent of trouble at a la ter - -
One of the most in terest in !! sources of hi\!h-
frequency sound is the many species of insects e mit-
date. The integrated circu its ha\'c a notch a t the top
of the package and usually to the left of the notch is ting the ir Olming and warning caUs. A whole new

18 El ec t ro nic S en s or s for th e Ev il Geniu s

world of natural sound awaits the use r, day a nd night. VR2 200K ohm
~ I any man-made devices also gene ra te high-fre-
potentiometer

quency sounds easi ly detected by the device. '1l1e fol- Dl . 02 IN4H8 silicon
diode
100\ing list represents only a small fraction of the
Cl , C2 , C7 0.0 1 uF, 2 5-
potential sources of high-frequency sounds that you v o lt c e r amic c apacitor
can explore with the ultrasonic listcner: C4 , C II 20 pF , 25-volt
c eramic capacitor
• Leaki ng gases and rushing air
C5 2 00 u F o I S-vo l t
elect r o lyt ic ca pacitor
•

•
Water from sprinklcrs or leaks

High-voltage corona leakage. spa rking

C6 , C13 0.04 u F o 2S-
volt ce ramic capacitor o
j
C3. ca, C9 0.022 uF ,
dcvices. or light lig htning 2S - volt ceramic CD
capacitor
• Fires and che mical reactions C1 0 100 pF , 2 5-vo l t
ce r amic c a pacito r I
• Animals wa lki ng in we t g rass or in the brush C l 2 1 00 uF , 16-vo l t
ele ct rolyt ic capa cito r
(a n excellent aid for hu nte rs or track e rs)
C14 1 0 uF , 2 5-vo l t
el ect r olytic c apacitor
• Pets moving in the darkness a t nigh t (good for
CIS 47 uF , 16 - v olt
finding lost PCts)
electrolytic capacitor
Cx 10 0 p F . 25-vo1t
• Chattering insects and bats c apacitor
Ul CD4 0 69 IC
• High-frequency oscilla tors in computer moni-
IOrs. T V se ts
U2 LM386 au d io ampli-
fi e r IC en
• Mechanica l bearings
SPKR 8-ohm Speake r o
BT 9-vo1t t ran sisto r ~
• Dcfects tha t arc de\'e loping in automobiles
YI
r ad i O b atte ry
ultrasonic
::l
(shakes. ratt les. and squeaks) t r ansdu c er P.
Mi sc ell aneous PC b Oard,
wire , sockets. hard-
wa r e, c oax c able, con-
Ultrasonic Listener Parts List nector s, battery c li p,
plasti C enc l osu re .
Rl. R9 10K ohm, l / ~­ e tc.
wa tt resistor
R2, R3 , R5 1 me g Ohm,
1 / 4- watt r esisto r
R4 l OO K ohm, 1 / 4- watt
re sistor
Infrasonics
R6 470 ohm. 1 / 4- wa tt
re sisto r Most everybody has hea rd about ultrasound. sounds
R7, R8 470K ohm, that are too high pi tched to hea r unless you're a dog
1 / 4-watt re sisto r o r a bal.lllfrasollllli. on the o the r hand. is sound that
RIO 10 ohm. 1 / 4- watt is too low to hear. Human ears can registe r sound
r es i sto r down to 3boU1 20 Hz.the deepest bass note. Infrason-
VR1 10K ohm ics are ge nera lly the domain of scientists and
FOtentiometer
researchers who a re inlCrested in so unds JO Hz a nd

Chapter One So und Energ y

 be low. all the way down 10 O,(XH Hz. In fact. this fre-
quency range is the same one that seismographs usc Infrasonic Microbarograph
for monitoring earthq uakes. Some peculiar things go
on down there. Eanhq uakcs. as you migh t expect. The world 's greatest ocean is the atmosphere. which
shake the air at the same time they shake the ground, e ncompasses all hu man life and co ntains extraord i-
crea ting seismic infrasound that can travel far from narily powe rful waves. Like the ir oceangoing CO UD -
the epicenter. Volcanoes make some pretty impres- terpa rts, a tmospheric waves arc nomla lly generated
sive infrasound.
-
by e ne rgetic storms. But thev can also arise a nd
spread. ljke ripples o n a qu ie t pond. when a meteor
Like waves from a rock thrown in a lake. infra -
o r volcanic explosion violently shocks the air. Ye t
sonic signals move around the planet in concenl ric
even the la rgest atmospheric ts una mis a rc q uite diffi-
circles. They are b ig, slow, an d long last ing. The infra-
cult to d e tect.1l1e pressure excursio ns that be tray
sound wave from the nuclea r explosion from a lest in
the ir passage a re typically just a few milliban; (thou-
China can take more than 6 hours 10 g e l [0 Alaska.
sandths of one atmosphere). and these tiny undula-
The wave registered again 37 hours later as it com-
tio ns ofte n take tens o f min utes. and sometimes even
pleted ano ther lap aro und Ea rth.
hou rs. to pass.
Big SlomlS at sea generate waves in the air. called
I nstruments tha t can monitor such sub tle signals
m icrobaroms. fro m the water waves benea th. r>.1icro-
arc called microbarogmphs and can cost tho usands o f
b a ro ms a re particularly tro ub li ng to the D e partme n t
d o Uars. Any amateur scientist o r expe rime nter can
of D e fe nse a nd they befuddle e lectronic equipme nt
now build a microbarograph and observe these
because the ir frequency is close to tha t of nuclear
e phe mera l in frasonic waves for about $50.
explosions. M icrobaroms are so preva le nt in winte r
that scie ntists have been a ble to trnck the move me nt This clever microbarograph project was designed
of a s to rm in the G ulf of Alaska.llle at mosphere by Paul Neher. a gi fted ama te ur scientisl. 1l1e key to
itself m akes in frasound as bodies of air move o ver this m icroba rogra pb is the manome te r (in this case. a
mo untain ra nges. This is like the sound you make by V-shaped tube a nd sensor). which is used to bal ance
blowing ove r yo ur teeth. only about 10.000 times the barome tric pressure aga inst the a ir p ressure
lower in pi tch. Tornad oes a nd turb ulence in the uppe r tra pped inside an aluminu m bottle that is ke pI a b it
a ir p roduce infrnsound. A nd so m ight sprires. those wamler tha n Ihe su rro unding ai r (see Figure 1-1 -').
mysterious upside-down light nin g strikes high above Beca use the pressure of an isola ted gas varies wilh
la rge thunders torms. Other infrasound comes from tempera ture. any shift in external pressure can be
space. AUrorns make sounds in the 0.1 100.01 Hz matched by changin g the temperature of the air
ra nge tha t can tr<wel l.OOO kilo me ters. fvlcleors inside the bottle. Nehe r's instrumelll senses exte rnal
ma ke infraso nic booms. 100. and the liste n ing stations p re!iSure n uctuations by mon ito ring the height of a
he ar the m . liq uid in the mano me ter. A rise in ex ternal pressure
I Researchers ha\·e compe lling practical reasons for
presses the liquid d own into the ma nomete r a nd trig-
gers a heating coil that warms the bOll te. If the p res-
studying infrasonics. The U.S. Air Fo rce has used
(j) sure d rops. the level of the liquid rises. a nd the heater
infrasou nd moni tors to detect othe r natio ns· a bove-
is kept off. thus a llowing the bottle 10 cool a lillIe to
~ ground n uclear blasts as well li S rocket launches and
o supersonic je ts. With the recently signed Compre hen-
sive Test Ban Treaty. a ne w worldwide ne twork of
compe nsate. Mo nitoring the te mpe rature changes
with the c ircuit shown in Fig ure 1-14 reveals minus-
c ule sh ifts in ai r pressure. The aluminum bottle or
in frnso u nd sta tions is be ing b u ill.
con taine r is made [ro m a completelv drained. 32-
ounce (abou t I lite r) tire innator bottle that has had

-
its crimped-o n cap replaced with a sinele-hole rubber
stopper. The manom ete r is fashioned from a piece of

20 Electronic Sensors for the Evil Genius

 FlEXIBLE PLASTIC TUBING 16 SlNCLE-HOLE
STOPPER
CAUlK
CLEAR ,
RIGID
~::::X::;'~8~onLE
FOAM
INSUlATION
OPTI CAl
LEVEL ELECTRICAL
IAPE
o:3
(l)

PLAST IC
TUBIN(';
TEM PERATURE SENSOR
(ClUEO LIGHTLY TO BOTTOM)
C wrtuy (Of Scientific Am eric 9J\
._._-----------------------_...... _--------
Figure 1-14 Microbnrogral'h willi 1IU/llOmeIer

glass lubing, which is bent lifter henting with a 1- 15). Aft e r electrically insul ati ng the bottle with a
propanc lorch. But you ca n link \ WO clear. rigid. plas- laye r of e name l paint. wrap lO e ve nly spaced turns
tic tubes with a short. flexible plas tic hose. You'lI a lo ng the le ngth of the bott le a nd sec ur~ Ihe m with
need to fill this assembly about one-third full with a e lectrical tape. Surrou nd the wrapped bott le with a
liquid Ihal has a low viscosilYlind does not evapo- few inches (about 10 centime te rs) o f a n insulating
ratc. Try to loca le some DOT 3 clear brake fl uid. mate rial such as foam rubbe r o r a spray insulatio n
which works quite well for the manome te r. (which you can purchase at a hardwa re slOre ). Whe n
The instrument senses changes in the nuid level by operating. the circuit he ats the bott le slightly e ve ry 10
using the transparent liq uid to focu s Ihe light fro m an seconds or so. replacing the ti ny a mou nt o f he,ll that
infrared light-emit/illg diode (LED) o nto a photo- leaches th rough the insulation. the re by keeping the
transistor. When the liquid drops be low the sct point. level of the nuid stable. llle LM335AZ chip is a sen-
the de focused light becomes too diffuse to de tect. sitive solid-state the rmome te r tha t "aries its o utput
This change ca uses the circuit 311ached to the pho to- voltage by lO milli"olts fo r e ach de gree Celsius
transisto r to send an electric current through the cha nge in te mpe rature. Th is ma n 'e l ca n m easure te m-
heater. Nehe r e mployed "be ading wire:' obta ined peratu res to Clbo ut O.OI "e. which correspo nds to a n
from a craft sto re. as the heating filam e nt. ulli m,lIe pressure resolutio n approaching 20 micro-
bars:l1la t's a scant ?O m illionths of one a tmosphere.
Hobbyists often usc this beadi ng wire. a 30-gauge
(1f4·miJlimete r) steel wire. to make necklaces. II has a To begin your obse r'o'Clt ions. disconnect the tube
res istance of about I ohm per foot (about 3 ohms per tha t links the manome ter to the a luminum bottle.
meter). which is ideal for this application (sec Figure the n heat the bOllle about lOoC (1 8°F) abQ\'e room
te mpe ra ture by blocking the light from reaching the

Chapter One Sound Energy 21

 Figure 1-15 Mic:rob{/rograp" hellier cirmir

phototransislor. Reconnect the tube and altow the to move. mount the assembly on a small piece of per-
circuit to stabilize the b01l1e HI th is Cie\'a led tempe ra- forated circuit board wil h a hole in the middle that is
ture. It "s casy \ 0 know if your instrument is working: la rge e no ugh to leI the manome te r lUbe slip through:
• just lift it. h should register the lOO-microbar drop in a small cable from the photolnlllsistor assembly is
pressure that results when you raise it about I yard wired to the amplifier circuit shown in Figure 1-1 6.
(I meter). You can read the OUlput of the microbarograph
You will want 10 cali brate the microba rograph circuil with a digital \'oltmetc r or record the data con-
O\"er a larger range than you can easi ly generate by tinuously using your computer and an analog-to-
•
h shifting its height. The solution is q uite sim ple: move
the LE O-pholotransistor pair up or down a bit on the
digital converter. '1l1ese \'ersa lilc devices. ollce too
pricey for amateur budgets. arc now quite affordable.
manomete r colu mn. The circuit will then adjust the Both ~\<I ac i nlosh a nd PC aficionados should check
tempCnl lUre inside the boule to raise or lower the OUl lhc Serial Box Interface. which is available for
liquid between the LED and phototransistor to $99 from Vernier Software. PC users might also con-
match.lllis manipula tio n causes the nuid levcllQ sider buying a similar unit for $100 fro m Radio Shack
become uneven. with the weight of the unbalanced (part number 1191(86). Anothe r al te rnative is to
liquid being supported by the pressure difference check with DATAQ Instruments for their DI -19..J RS
between the atmosphere a nd the a ir inside the bOil Ie. $? ..J chart recorder hardware/software combination at
TIlC speci fic gravity of D OT 3 brake flu id. which is the ir We b site www.dataq.com.Anyofthese combi-
wide ly available in the U.S.. is 1.05. For this value. nat ions will tum your home compu te r into a sophisti·
I
each inch (centimete r) differe nce in the lc \'el of the ca ted data-collection sta tion. TIlis sensit ive
C liquid corresponds to a pressu re d ifference of2.62 microbarograph will allow you to detect the infra-
millibars (1.03 millibars).l11is fact allows you to set sonic waves created by atmospheric storms Ihat con-
the dcvice 10 a number of known pressure diffe r- st antly hlo\\' through our li,'cs da ily.
ences while measuring the corresponding outpUt
,·ollages. To ma ke the LED phototransislor pai r easy

..c::
c.
22 Elec tronic Sensors f o r the Ev il Genius
 S 1:a

c
w V out

Dl

- 15V
- 15V Cl
o::s
III
C R6
N R7 RB
R4 I

S1:8

---- ------------------------
Figure 1-16
--- ----------------- --- ---------------- -- ------
Microbflrortlph 011,,)111 circllir
-

R7 1 0K ohm, 1 / 4- watt,
Microbarograph Heater 1 \ re s i stor
R8 lK ohm, 1 / 4-wat t , 1 \
Circuit Parts List r esisto r

Rl lK pote nti omete r RI O l SK ohm. 1 / 4-watt ,

S \ relli s t o r
R2 750- ohm r e ll i ll t o r
CLIO u F o 2 5-volt elec -
R3 39K ohm r ell i sto r trolytic c apa c itor
01 12-vo l t Ze ner d iode 01 LM33SAZ temp e ra ture
Ql !RF- S20 Pow er M05FET senso r
DC- I H23LOI op toco upler 02 , 03 LM3 36 Z v o ltage
reference
LI h eat er c oil ( see
text ) U1 OP -0 7eN p r e c ision
op-amp
81 12 - v o lt auto battery
o r 12 - vo1t AC adapter U2 LM79 l S I S-volt minus
v o l tage r egu lato r
U3 LM7B l S IS- volt p l us
v o l tage r egu la to r
Microbarograph Output 81 , 82 , 8 3, 84 9-volt
batteri es (or re p lac e
Circuit Parts List batterie s with po wer
supp lY )
R1 , R3 10K o hm , 1 /4-
watt, S\ r es i s tor Jl 2 RCA o utput jac k s

R2 , R4, R9 1 me gohm, 51 OPDT t09g1e s witch

1 / 4-watt , 1 \ r ellisto r (po we r )

RS 10K po tentiomete r 52 t hr ee - po s ition

(10 turn) r o tary switch {gain }
Mi scellaneous wi r e .
R6 l OOK ohm , 1 / 4-watt ,
1 \ r esisto r termina l s, c hassis b o x

Chapter One Sound Energy 23

 2 pieces of fl exible
Rdditional Microbarograph p lasti c tubing
2 pieces o f c lear rigid
Parts List plastic tubing

a!wminwm ti re inflator foam insulation

bottle, painted with electrical tap e
enamel paint
silicone calk
16 single - hole rubber
d uct tape
stOpper
small c ircuit hoard used
3D -gallon wire (beading
to house Optical sen-
wire), 1 ohm/pe r foot
sor (OC- l assembly )
reSistanc e
DOT 3 b r ake fluid (see
2 wood hoards used for
text)
c omponent mounting
wood bloc k to hold plas-
tic tubing (manometer
assembl y )

I
<lI
~
o

24 Electroni c Sen so r s f or the Evi l Ge niu s

 Chapter Two

Light Detection and Measurement

Early humans knew about the light fom1 we now call ence be tween aboUl te n million s.hades of colar.light
e1ectrom aglletic ellergy many tens of thousands of has a rather narrow spread of wa vele ngths. 111is por-
years before they knew about the radio form of elec- lion tha i is visible by humans is packed into 1.6 pe r-
tromagne tic ene rgy. Allhaugh our eyes a rc se nsili\'c ce nt of the e ntire electromagne tic spectrum. This
- .
to li ght. we ha \'c no wav to d\!tect radio cner2\,:
-. we frequency density is compa rable to crowding all the
necd a receh·cr. Eons ago. people could see the sta rs world ·s human-made radio frequcncio:s into a narrow
and make conjectures as to what they were. On the frequency range from 550 K Hz to 880 KH z in the
other ha nd. radio. as we know i1.l races its infanc" sta ndard Al\'l radio broadcas.t band. The eye is indeed
only \0 the latc lBOOs. an amazing electromagne tic receive r. Consider that if •
Light is defined as those wavelengths of electro- you glance at a yellow dress for just one second.lhe
magnc tic e nergy thaI are visible to Ihe hUnlan eye. electrons in the re tinas of .\'our e .ves vibra te aboul 5
The response of the human eye thus defUlcs the fre- x 1015 times during the inte rval. Next consider th at if
que ncy limits for ligill. as the human ear docs for you we re 10 cou nt all the waves that bea t upon all the
shores on Ea rth .you would ha ve to count for le n mil-
sound. Light covers a vcry narrow band of frequen-
cies. as we can see from Figure 2· J. lion years in order 10 reach the same number of oscil-
:::J
lations of yellow Hgill in 1 second.
D
Whe n we look a t light. or "sec lil!ht"· a nd ··Iook at a t
scene:· we are seeing or observing light in the (re- 111e freque ncy un its common ly used fo r describing
audio waves would be astronomically la rge if the y
D
que ncy domain. tha t is. in diffe re nt colors. Although
the eye has the unique capability of seeing the differ- were used 10 describe light w"ves. so n diffe re nt se t of l
~ ..
t

o
::l
gamma ultraviolet infrared
X-rays radar FM TV shortwav AM
rays rays rays

~
~

-
-
10·" 10- 12 10-'~ 10< 10< 10~ 10-2 I 10' 10'
~
~

--
Wavelength (meters)
~
~
Visible Ught

400 500 600 700

Wavelength (nanometers)

Figure 2-1 1Iisi ble light ,,·m ·e/ellgfh)]·

- -- -

25
 units has been defin ed . If we defin e the limits o f the conducto r device whose e lectrica l resista nce. o r COII -
wuve lcnglhs o f light as that where Ihe sensitivity of ductivity. is a functio n of the a mount of light striking
the eye has dropped to I percent o f that at itS maxi- ils surface. The photocond uctive cell is also called a
mum se nsitivity. then light covers the wave le ngt hs pholOresislor. The photoemissive cell has a high
from 430 to 690 nanometers (nm).And a nanometer impeda nce. and il readily couples into high-
is eq ual 10 10- 9 me Ie r. im pedance circui t.
In lhis chapte r. we willaake a closer look a t light llle se le nium solar ccll is a vcry se nsitive a nd reli-
sensors such as pho lOccl1s ,IUd sola r cells a nd how able so lid-Sla te device tha i caD readily be llsed in cir-
you can use them 10 detect light or the absence of cuit designs requiring de tection o f electromagnetic
light. how you can measure the solar constant. as well e ne rgy in the infrared. visible. ilnd UV freq uency
as how you can measure Ilitral'iolef (UV) light and ranges. The selen ium sola r ceUcan be purchased [rom
detect ozone in the atmosphere. We will also utilize any neighborhood rad io supply SlOre for less than $2.
light se nsors for o ptj calli s te ning~ l hat is. we will lis- With it. you ca n easily perform a l1lhe e xpe riments
len to the sound that light makes. We can do this by descri bed in this chaplcr. The silicon solar cell will
listening with the ear in the amplitude domain of a lso functio n extre mely weI! in these tests and
light ra the r than by looking Ihro ugh Ihe [req uency demonstra tions.

r domain where tight is received by the eye. After The solar cell is very simple in construction and
o bu ild ing Ihe oplo-listener. you will be able to liSle n to
electronic displays. 10 "singing" a utomo ti\'e head-
fa irly simple in operatio n. It is a fairly rugged device
and consists of a mela l base pla te on which muhiple
•
la mps. to burning fla mes. a nd to lightning. You will be coalS of selenium compo unds and precious metals
+- able 10 listen to j ust a bo ut a ny lighl source to "see" are deposited . The me ta l base plate can be steel or
u wha l it sounds like. In add ition. you will learn how to alum in um. The sele nium layer o n the base pla te is
Q) measu re the speed of o bjects using light by construct- covered with a barrier layer and a tra nspa ren t fronl
+-
Q)
ing your own opt ical tachometer. Fina lly, we will loo k
a t how you can de leet and measure pollution in water
electrode. TIle se le nium layer a nd ba rrier layer are
very thin. bei ng of mo lecular thickness. The selenium
o using the oplicalt urbidity meter. layer is the thicker of the two. being only 0.002 to
0.003 inches thick. The ove ra ll cell is coated with a
thermosetting proteclive resin, which provides a
rugged. sha tte rproof case that is imm une to shock
Light Detection Devices a nd vibra tio n. Like most so lid-state devices that a re
rugged . a sola r cell can survive a fall to the sidewalk
A number of names are used to descri be the photo- a nd still perform. Such a fa ll would q uickly d ispatch a
eieclric cell. popularly known as the solar cell. Some vacuum lUbe of years past.
of thcse names are photocell. electric eye. and pho-
When ligh t fa lls o n the cell. it pene trates the trans-
/oeiemelll. H owe\'er, lhe de" ice is mo re pro pe rly
pare nt front elect rode and causes Ihe se lenium layer
called a phorOl'olUlic cell. Two Iypes o f pho tovoha ic
to relcase e lectrons. which travel across the barrier
cells are available: the se le nium photocell and the sili-
layer. TIle e lcclro ns arc trapped. or collected. on the
con pho tocell. Photovoltaic ceUs are d ifferent fro m
fro nt e lectrode 10 fonn a negative charge. TIley can-
ol her pho tose nsit ive (ligh t sensiti,'e) o r pho toelectric
not re lUm 10 the sele nium layer because of the uni-
cells because they havc the charaClerislic o f generat-
lateral (one-way) cond uctivity properties of the
ing a \'ollage when light slrikes the ir sensitive surface.
barrie r layer.TIle collector strip. or ri ng, which col-
TIlis seif-gencr<Hed vo ltage (up 100.58 volts) will
lects the electrons. becomes the negative te rminal of
cause a curre nt to flow inlO an externally connected
the cell a nd Ihe metal base plate becomes the posi-
circuit such as a motor or a bailer),.
ti\'c terminal of the ce ll . TIle negative lead. connected
O the r photoelectric cells a re p/iOtoCOIllIIICril'l! and to the wh ite strip that runs around Ihe edge of the
plwwl!missiw cells. A pho locond ucth'e cell is a semi- cell. is black, and the positive lead fro m lhe base plate

26 El ec t r onic Sensors for th e Evi l Genius

 is red. Tl1e solar cell is the voh age source. and the The e lectric fie ld and the barrier act as a d iode: e lec-
Io.,d is often a bancry. which is to be charged. trons cnn mow from the n-type p late to Ihe p-type
A silicon solar ceU. o ne of the most common t"pes plate easily due to Ihe electric fi eld. b ut the rcwrse is
of photo\'ollaic cells. is a de\'ice thm uses t he photo-
electric e ffect 10 generme e lectrici ty from ligill. thus
difficult.
' 11e simp lest ty pe of solar cell is a silicon diode.
,
generating solar power. or e ne rgy. but rese<lrch is cOlllinuing in to more exo tic malerials rt
'Ille mai n componelll of a solar cell is silicon with gre:lle r efficiencies. Mode rn solar cells <Ire ro
"doped" wilh trace amounts of impu rities. In pure sil- e nca psulated in glass-fronted plastic sheels. They are '1
icon. each mom is fLwd in a crystallallice a nd designed with lifetimes that e,'(ceed 40 years. Sunlight
bonded 10 o lhe r silicon a toms co\'ale mly. sharing th e p rovides about I kilow.llt per square meter at the
four \'alence electro ns in thei r ou ter she lls with them . earth's surface. a nd most solar cells are be tween 8
Therefore few free electrons or positive charge carri-
ers are available 10 carry a cha rge. and pu re silicon is
and 12 pe rcent e fficient, In desert ureas. they can
operate fo r an a \'erage of 6 hours per day when
o
thus a bad conductor. mou nted in nomotating bracke ts.
In doped si licon. atoms wi th th ree or five vale nce Sola r panels come in four varieties.I\'lost common
I
are rigid mo nocrystalline and po lycrystalline silico n
.,
electrons are in troduced 10 the la ltice. Arsenic or
phosphorus. fo r example. ha\'e fi\'e valence e lectrons. sheets. J\fol/ocrysrallilll! silicon p rovides the highest
Because silicon a toms req uire only fou r of those elec- efficiency of all four types but is also the mosl expen-
trons to form stable bonds. there will be one free sive. Polycrysrallilll! silicon is less expe nsi\'e but lower
electron that can move and thus earn' -
. cha rge. And in e ffici e ncv. Also availa ble arc fllllorpholis silicon
solar cells. which can be ap pl ied to a variety of sub-
because so many free e lectrons in sil icon a re doped
\\ith arsenic o r phosphorus (compared to pure sili- stra tes including n exible ones. like metal foil or p las-
con). this sort o f silicon is called I /-tYl)1! silicol/. tic foiJ. ' 11C mai n ad vantage of a morphous silico n
o
If the silicon is d oped with bo ron. which has three solar ce lls is that they shou ld e ve ntually be a ble to be
ma n ufactured a t a much lower cost than crysta lline
ro
\'alence elect rons. it will be short o ne e lectron when it
solar cells. NlIllucryswllille silicon has a lso bee n used
rt
bonds with silicon. This " ho le" is a lso free to move.
As so Illany posilive ly-charged holes in silicon a re in the same processing systems as for a mo rphous sili- ro
con. a nd it shows slightly h igher e (ficie ncy due to the ")
doped with boron. this sort of silicon is called
p-Iype silicoll. increased absorptio n in the longer wa\'elengt hs.
Experime ntal nonsil icon solar panels arc made of
..,
rt
In a solar cell. a plate of p-type silicon is p laced
next 10 a pla te o f n-type silicon. At the j unctio n
carbOIl 1/{1II0fltbe.\' or qflllllrum dOI.~ e mbedded ill a o
between the two. electro ns in the IHype p la le will
specia l p lastic. These ha\'e on ly one-te nlh the effi- :l
cie ncy of sil icon pane ls but could be man ufactured in
migrate to the p-type p late. and vice-versa for the
ordinary facto ries. nOi clean rooms. which sho uld
holes in the p-type p la te. Afte r n while. e no ug h holes
lowe r the cost. Solar cells can be used to p o wer m.my
and electrons would have combined to fo rm a barrier
kinds o f equi p ment. in cluding satellites. calcula tors..
at the junction. prevenli ng furth e r flow of holes a nd
re mo te radiotelepho nes. a nd ad\'e rtising sign s.. Most
electro ns.
often. many cells are linked logelhe r to fonn a solar
An electric field has now fornled across the p-n panel with increased voltage and/or curre nt. Solar
junction. The barrier is posi tive on the n-type silicon cc lls produce dirl!cl CIIm:1Il (D C). wh ich can be used
plate because thc e lectrons ha\'e crossed over and direc tly. stored in a bau er)'. or convc rted from DC 10
created an excess of p rotons. which do nOt hm'e cor- AC to dir ectly power com mon househo ld devices or
responding electro ns. and the barrie r is nega ti \'e on fed into the utili ty grid. This DC to AC conversio n is
the p-type silicon p lale. because the re verse occurs. done bv means of an inverter.
•

Chapter Two Light Detection and Measu r emen t 27

,
 through the solUlion. One of the coinvcnlors of the
Historical Review lra nSislor. Walle r H. Bra n ain , published a description
of a semiconductor- liquid junction in 1955. followi ng
TIle firs t photoelectric effect was not iced by the development of the silicon solar cell.
E. Bequcrel. a Fre nch scientist. in 1838. Then. in 1873.
K. Smith discovered the change in eleclrical resist-
ance of se lenium when il was exposed 10 light: the
pliolOcolU/llctin' effect. H. Hertz obse rved the pho- Lis tening to Li ght'-Using
tocmissivc effe ct during his experiments wi th electro-
magnetic W<lves in the ISSOs. Early phololubes were an Opto-Listener
built with alkali metal cathodes and we re a result of
He rtz's work. In 1880 A lexander Graham Be ll was ' lhro ug h the use of the solar cell and the o pto-
Ihe firs t to comm unicate by means of a beam of light listener. we arc able to o bse rve light in the a mplitude
when he se nt his voice over a sunbeam, using home- do main. We will bu ild a nd experime nt with a sensi·
made se le nium cells as detectors. tive light de tector combined wi th a high-gain a ud io
amplifier called a n opto-l istener.
The ma n credited with the in ven tio n of the sola r
cell -An tho ny 1-1 , Lamb in 1931 -was threatened The opto-listener can be used to liste n to elec·
I- with dismissal from work if he persisted in promo ting tronic displays such as "singing" automo tive head-
o it. $0 he turned it into the well-k nown Weston ligh t la mps. Point you r oplO-liste ne r a l a n TR reruolC
• me te r. A pioneer in night nying and guided missiles. control or a t a camera e leclronic fla sh a nd you can
Lamb_a t the age of 72. took OU I his 200tl1 pate nt ! The "hear"' what these lights sources sound like. You can
inven tion o f the solar cell mav we ll be one of the listen to just about a ny light source to "see" what it
more im portant im'c ntions of the last 100 ,vears sounds like. Let's get started.
because of its capabi lity to cxtract lig.ht e nergy from TIle opto-liste ner is a high-gain audio amplifier
the sun and convert it directly to e leclricity. This is of circuit. which can be used to investigate pulsating.
utmost importance a t the prese nt time as we seek 10 nickering. or mod ulating light. The circuit is easy to
develo p a lternate e ne rgy sources to suppla nt oil bui ld and is shown in Figure 2·2. The opto-listener
products. circuit cenlers on its light sensor. The light sensor fo r
The las t phOioe leclTic de\-ice to be de"e loped was this circuit is a photovolta ic sola r cell at Dl. 'Ibe sig-
the silicon solar cel l in 1914. This work was done by nal (TOm the sensor is coupled to the fi rst high-gain
Be ll Tele phone Labora tories. Be ll researc hers are amplifi er at U I. via capacitor Cl. llle op-amp a t U I
also working o n the de\'e lo pment of a liq uid-junction is an LM 741. but it can be replaced with a nothe r
pho lOvoJtaic solar ccU. which may pro\'e to be less newer low-noise op-amp if desired. A gain resistor is
expensive and easie r 10 produce than an a ll sol id- connected across the input and output pins of the o p-
amp a t R I.A coupling capaciwr a t C2 is used to con-
I sta te ce ll. In a Liquid cell. electricity is fomled at the
junction between a solid e lectrode and a water-based nect the o m put o f the first amplifier w the audio
solution. In an aU·solid solar cell. production must amplifier a t U2. The integrated circuit at U2 is an
e nsure the uiignmen l of the di(fe re nt crysla llayers LM386 a udio ampl ifier. The potentiome ter at R2 is
for lhe ce lls to ope rate prope rly. I-Io we,'er. because used as audio gain o r volume con trol fo r the circuit.
the liquid conforms easily to the eleClrodes.the align- a t the input of U2. The o utput of the audio amplifier
men t cost is avoided with liq uid-junction cells. Pres- a t pin 5 is coupled to the 8-ohm speake r via capaci tor
e nt research is be ing cond ucted with one e lect rode C4. a 100 uF capacitor. TIIC opt a-listener can be pow-
made o f a sem iconductor and another made of car· c red fro m a single 9-\'olt transistor radio batieI')' so
bon o r a range of commo n metals. Both e lectrodes that the circuit can be made very po n able.
are then immersed in a solution of polysu lfidcs a nd TIle o pto-Liste ner can be fabri cated on a perf-
wate r. Whe n ligh t strikes the semiconductor e lec· board o r on a primed circuit board. Beca use the ci r-
trode, curre nt flows from o ne electrode to Ihe other cuit is in the audio freque ncy range. the circ uit wiri ng

28 Ele c troni c S en sor s fo r th e Ev il Ge n ius

 +9V DC
e1 +
--+-
~
R1
S1
3 2
-
+ -
4 U1 7

+
6 e3
I
I-
e2

R2 3 6
+
U2 >5
~ - 4 +
V _ _ e4
o
ro
SPKR rT
ro
o
rT
- .....
Figure 2·2
..
Op/O·/isrt'//CT ciTCilit
. . .. ... -- ..............
o
~
is nOI \'ery critical. However wire leads between com- Generally a small square cutout cun be fo und ut the
ponents should be kept short if possible. You can top of the IC or a small indented circle can be found
build this circuit in less than an hou r. and it will pro- ncar pin one of the Ie; these markings help you to
vide many hours of interesting im'cst igation into the locate which pin is number onc. Connect up a 9·voit
mysterics of lighl and sou nd. battery power clip's positive lead in se ries with one of
As you build the opto-listener be sure to take the po\. . er switch leads and conncct the remaining
ex tra time to obse rve the correct polari ty of the switch lead to the plus teoninal of the circuit at O .
capacitors and the so lar ceU if used. The use o f inte· Once the circu it has been built, you will need to dou·

-
2rated circuit sockets is hi2hlv recom mended in the
- -
event that one of the op·amp fa ils at a later date.
ble·check your wiring before applying power 10 the
circuit to avoid burning up the ci rcuit upon power· up.
Note that the iIllegratcd ci rcui ts witl have a locator or l.nspect the circuit board for stray cut component
positioning mark to denote lhe number one pin . leads and bare wires that may have adhered to the
which is usually at the top left of the IC package. circuit board during conslfuction.

Chapter Two Light Detection and Measurement 29

I Locate a small metal chassis box to house the U2 LM386 audio ampli-
Q) oplo-listener ci rcuit. A -l x 5 x 1~ inch box is used fier Ie

E for the prototype. You can CiccI 10 modify the basic 51

SPK
SPST toggle switch
a - ohm mi nispcake r
Q) circuit by adding a headphone jack and switchi ng Olll
the speaker if you desire. You will need to decide if Mi sce llaneous PC board.
I c ha SS is box, wire,
you wish to h,we the sensor mounted directly on lOp
jacks, sockets, etc .
-
of the chassis box or if .vall want to have the li2ht sen-
sor as a probe that can be remote from the chassis Once your aplo-listener has bee n completed we
can begin exploring the "sounds" of light !
box. If you elcct the latte r light probe a pproach. you
might W(l n l 10 consider llsing a mini jack at the input
of the ci rcuit to allow a remote sensor probe. A
length of smal l RG-74U coax could be used frOm the Listening to In cand escen t
solar cell probe back to the oplo-lislener circ uit. The Lamps
power switch and headphone jack arc mounted on
the fron t side of Ihe chassis box. and Ihe circuit boa rd Plug the solar cell probe into the opto-listener and
is mounted inside lhe chassis box. Once the wiri ng tu rn up the audio gain until a strong hum is heard.
hand mounting has been completed. you can apply With the lights on at nigh!. the hum is coming from
~ power to the circuit and begin your in\'estigations
o into listening to light. You can furl her experiment by
any nearby lamp. The frequency you will hear is PO
H z. or twice the 60 Hz power-line frequency. You
•I
placing a magnifying lens in front of the solar cell or should nOI ha\'e to !Urn the gain of the apia-listener
phototransistor 10 increase the oplo-listener's detec- up \'ery high. as the solar cell will put out up 100.5
tion range. "o[t under strong sunlight or under a bright lamp.
111e human eye has <I persistence of vision of When you turn off all the lamps. the opto-listener
about .02 seconds. Therefore a light that Dashes o n should become quiet as there is no longer any light
and off more than about 50 Hz appears to be contin- striking the solar cell. With the lamp on. the 120 Hz
uously on. The human car is much fas ter and hum should decrease considerably when you cover
responds to sound with a freq uency from about 20 to up Ihe sol:lr cell with you r hand.
20.000 Hz. The opto-listener ca n lransfornl the pul-
- -
sa tine and nickering ligh
- t thtH the eve
. cannot disce rn
into sounds that the ear can easily hear. Listening to Fluoresce nt
Lamps
Dpto-Listener Parts List A fluorescenl lamp will also cause a I ?O Hz hum in
the 0plo-listener [rom Ihe 60 Hz power line. but it
Rl I megohm II<1 watt
r Bsisto r will not be as soft as from the incandescem lamp.
Note Ihilt both lamps put OUI light on either half
o R2 10k potenti ometer
(chassis mount) cycle of the 60 Hz supply \'oltage. producing the 120
C l , C2. C3 0.1 uFo 35- Hz hum you hear. Because the incandesce nt lamp is
volt disc c a pacito r hot and cannot completely turn off (cool off between
C~ 100 uF, 35-volt each cycle of the input Voltage). its light output is
electrolytic capacitor
more constant thanlhe fluore sce nt lamp. which com-
Ql FPT- I OO p h otot r an -
pletely fl ashes on and orf e uch half cycle.
sisto I' or Radio Shack
(216- 1 30)
01 silicon solar ce ll
Ul LM,~1 op - amp

30 El ectronic Se n sors for t h e Evil Genius

 cult (Q notice the difference. BUI when you cover the ")
Listening to Television Set solar cell wi th your hand. the hiss will decrease or dis-
'1'
Cathode-Ray Tubes appear eOl irely because il is due to the candle.
~
When you blow softly on the candle or dap your
I
)'ourTV screen is a good subject for liste ning to hands 10 cause a n air wave.lhe rapidly moving fla me
"t-
changing light conditions that you can't sec. The will cause a rustle of sound heard through the opto-
sound you will hear primarily is a 30 Hz buzz. as this listene r. "1l1e air movemen t is. in e frec\. modulating O
is the U.S. picmre frequency (or frame rate) .The field
-
the candle lie.ht beam a nd is detected 1)\' . the solar cell. 1
freque ncy is 60 Hz. and it takes IWO fields to make up 111is is a form of wind I1IQI/"fmi(nI or lIir-w-ligfll
a picture ( fram c).l berefore. the horizonlalline fre- lrallsllliss;0I1S!
quency is 15.75 KHz (515 lines X 30 pictures). The
sound at 15.75 KHz. is not as strong as the sound at 30
Hz. as the response of the oplo-listener is down con- Listening to Lightning
o
siderably. In addition. our heari ng ability is lowered
considerably at 15.75 KHz. As you place the sol ar cell When a thunderstoml wi th a fair amount of lighten-
I
over or ncar diffe rent portions of the T V scree n. you in", is in the local area. .your solar cell will pick up
will hear the buzz change slight ly as the piclUre scene
changes. Numbers and lcucrs cause a particularly
many light ning fl ashes. even when the cell is not
a imed in the direction of the flashes. l 11is is because
,.
- -
strom! sie.nal buzz.
-
the lie.htnine. illuminates the whole area. including the
-
background. ground. sidewalks. a nd so on. Because
ligh ting flas hes last for only a hundred microseconds.
Listening to Burning Objects the flashes you hear win sound like sharp clicks. At

TIle rc are some interesti ng sounds to be heard (rom

night in a place where the re are no man-made ligh ts.
the effect will be most vivid as this is when the back- ='
(1)
burning objects. We will discuss matches. sparks. and ground is totally dark except for the flashes of light. ,-t
candles. Listening to the sound that the light of a As the storm ccn ler moves off and local flashes (1)
burning match makes is rarher impressi\·e. Da rken decrease in intensity and frequency. you wiU still
the room as much as possible and strike the match.t notice occasional dicks and rei your eye may not
l
to 6 inches away from the solar cell . You will hear a t
observe any lightning. This is because lighminu. invisi-
rapid. popping signal. which crackles a bit a nd then ble to the eye. can be observed by the solar cell. Clicks •
becomes quiet except for a slight hiss. which can be
heard in Ihe background. TIle popping sound is the
can be heard e\'en whcn the storm is 5 to 10 miles
away. "Illese clicks can be heard c \'en when ligh lning is
, )

rapid burning of the match-strik ing material before behind clouds and cannot be sec n visua llv.
the wood or paper of Ihe ma lch starts burning. Gilce
a sleady light is o utput f.rom the match. the main
sound produced is the hiss of the lighl. The lighting
Listening to Moisture
::s
sound lasts for 1 to 2 seconds. but the hiss from Ihe
l..
light ene rgy lasts fo r as long as the Ill,Hch emits lighl.
A selenium solar cell can be used as a water moisture
A lighted candle is another interesti ng subject to de tector when it is cDrm ccled di rect ly across the
study with the apIa-liste ne r. Pillce the cell about a ile input of a high-gain audio a mplifier. The solar cell
foot away from the candle wi th the audio gain SCI to will produce broad band wh ite no ise at the output of
medium on the oplo-lisle ne r. After the candle is IiI. il the a mplifier whe n the cell becomes wet wi th mo is-
will cause a steady hiss d ue 10 the sleady light output ture. 'llie hissing noise tapers off gradually as the
from the candle. Because the hiss (or white no ise) moist ure evaporates from the seleni um surface. The
from the lighl is the same as ampl ifier hiss. it is d iffi - no ise decay ra te will wpcr off in less tha n iO seconds

Chapter Two Light Detection and Mea s urement 3l

+-l
I when Ihe humidi l\'• is low. The dec,1\'• rate will of intensity: Ihe ol he r represents lhe thickness of the
l course be slowe r whe n the humidity is high. at mosphere through wh ich the mcasurcmellis wcre
P 111e wet solar cd l produces most noise whe n it is made. If the atm osphere remained stable Q\'er the
pe riod. the points on the gra ph should fall along a
in darkness. I f you nre opera ting in light. part of the
I noise output will be due to the light generalinu a vo\t+ straight li nc. Exte nding this line to a n atmosphe ric
age output from the cell. which will mask the noise thickness of zero gh'cs the imensily of lhe sunlight
that is due to the presc nce of moisture. individua l outside the at mosphere (sec Figure 2-3).
wate r drops hill ing Ihe solar cell can also be heard For best results. the detector in your radiometer
wilh the a udio amplifier. The area tha t produces the should have a linea r response 10 the changing intensi-
greatest ,Illlount of noise is along the negat h'e \'oltage ties o f light. Also. the detector shou ld be fined with a
pickup lead of the solar cell surface. filt e r thai Iransmi ts a narrow band of sunlight. These
requirements can be mel by many differem kinds of
mdiomclc rs that you can construct.

Measuring the Solar

Bouguers's Law
, Constant Using a
Radiometer The principle behind the method we will usc to meas·
(
or ure the sun's radiation outside the at mosphere is
The atmosphe re is \'cry transpare nt to certain wave- known as the expoll elllillllllll' of lIbsorprioll. or
le ngths of sunlight. If you measure the intensity of Bouguer's law. It was firs t defined in 1729 by Pie rre
the sunlighl a t one of these wa\'clcngths ove r 12 Bougue r. a French professor. who explained how suc-
hours. you can dete mline the sola r consta nt. The ccssivc layers of a unifom light-absorbing medium
solllr COl/SIll/II is the inte nsil), of sunlight al the top of absorb a n equal fraction of light passing through the
the a tlllosphere. emire medium.

'- 111e inte nsilYo f the light [rom Ihe sun va ries only
slightly over the course of a SIfI/Sp or cycle. An entire
-
Assume .vou have a red slab of gelatin dese rt in
front of you and a light source is ove r your head. If
sunspot cycle is 22 years. with a number of sunspols
reaching a maximum e \'ery II years. You can meas-
ure the a pproximnte inte nsity uf sunlight outside the
atmosphe re by us ing H light me te r known as a
or
radiome te r 10 make a series o f meas ure me nts O\'cr
12 hours.
lllOUgh this me thod is simple. it ca n yield surpris-
ingly good result s. 'nlis same method is used by both
ama te ur a nd professional astronomers to measure
( Ihe inte nsity of light from planets a nd sta rs. It is also
used to calibra te instrumcnts lhatmeasure amounts
of ozone. wate r \'apor. and oxygen present in a \'e rti-
cal column through the atmosphe re.

I 11le basic principle of this measurement technique

o 1 3 4 5
is disarmingly simplc. Afte r you make a se ries of A IR MASS
measure me nlS of the inte nsity of sunlight over half a
day. you Ihe n plOl the results on a graph . One axis of
the graph re presents the logarithm of Ihe sunliuht's Figure 2 -3 LOl/gley graph
-
t
,J
t
32 Ele c tronic Sensors for the Evil Genius
the gelatin absorbs 10 pe rce nt of a be am of whitc If the atmosphe re is substituted for the gelatin and
light of 10 milliwall5. the in te nsity of the liuht after the light so urce is the sun or a sta r. the same relation-
passing through the gelatin is 90 pe rcent. or 9 m i ll i ~ ship holds. lf the sun is stra ight ove r a point at sea
walls. Lfyo u stack a second laycr of gelatin over the leyel as shown in Figure 2- t its light passes through
flflit. the intensity of the light a ft e r it passe s through one thickness of atmosphe re o r. as it is commonly
the second laye r is 90 percen t of9 O1illiwatt5. or S.l m known. one air mass, If the sun sits at 30 degrees
milliwalls. iJ you stack a third layer O\'er the second. above Ihe ho rizon as shown in Figure 2-5.l he n its
the inte nsit), of the light is 90 pe rcent of 8. 1 O1illi- Light passes thro ugh approximately a double thick-
walls. or 0.73 milliwalls. a nd so forth . ness of atillosphe re or a pproximately two air masses.
If you plo t a linear graph of the intensities of light In ot he r words. the air mass through which the sun's
transmitted thro ugh the various layers of the gelatin. radiation tra\'els is approximate ly the secant of the
the line thai results will be curved. If you plol Ihe sun's a ngle above the horizoll, Not ice tha t the re la-
intensities on a logarithmic graph. a straight line tionship is approxi mate a nd nOl exact. The exact
results. Such a gra ph is known as a Bouguer graph. computation of air mass must take into accoum the
CU f\'tllllTe of the earth and the nonuniformit), of the I
atmosphere. ·nl is topic is covered in detail in a IlUI1l -
be r of o the r resources.
Beer's LaLU
A refin eme nt in Bo ugue r 's law was com ributed a
century late r by August Beer. a Ge mlan physicist.
AIR MASS
Beer's law conside red the e ffect of the concentration
of a light-absorbing substance within the med ium
-
through which the light passes. Bougue r's law a nd SUN
o
Beer's law e xplain the tra nsmission of light at differ-
ro
- -
ent ane:les throul!.h the same medium,
rt
Assume there is a n imaginary slab of purple gela-
tin in front of you . If the absorption of a beam of light
ro
()
is measured afte r it passes through the gelatin at tbe
rt
nom131 (pe rpendicular) angle. Bouguer·s and Beer's
laws can be used to calculate how much of the bea m ....
-
\\ill be transmitted whe n the ee latin is tilted HI a ATMOSPHERE o
known angle with respect to the be am of light. ::3
Le t's agree tha t a slab of purple ge latin transmits
80 percent (or 0.8) of a be am of white light. Now Lilt A IR MASS ::: 1
the dish so that a beam of light e nte rs Ihe gela tin a t
an angle of 30 degrees. If the ge la tin docsn·t slide 0[[
the dish, the path of the lig ht through the slab forms
the hypotenuse of a triangle in which the base is the
boltom of the ge latin and the opposite side is a ven i-
cal line through the gela tin. 'Ille length of the
hypotenuse of this triangle is the secallt (11sin) o f 30
AIR MASS (m) ::: "SI:~-::-
:' 90'" EARTH

degrees. Because the secant of 30 degrees is 2, then m ::: 1

the light beam passes through the e quivalem of two
Fi gure 2-l.j
-- A ir mass
- ------ ----
slabs of gelatin, and (H perce nt (SO percent o f 80 per-
celli) of the ligh t is transmilled.

Chapter Two Light Detection and Measurement 33

+-l
r:: 1.656
OZONE
<l) OXYGEN

e:
<l) AIR
~u~
-E 1.325
...E .,.,
0 J 1 WATER
VAPOR
~
H -
x
J
::sCJ) ~
~"
.662

"0
~
~
.33'

(\j
<l)
Ib
'" 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100
WAVE LENGTH (nm)
~ -------. -----
EARTH Figure 2-6 Solnr spec/m ill absorption b(llids

1
S""C:::CC
AIR MASS (m) '" "' ' - through the a tmosphe re relati,'ely unimpeded. A
IN 3O
vcry simpl e way \0 avoid the affect o f wale r vapor
and ozone on sunlight mcasuremenlS is 10 monitor
---_." - ----- ------- ------------ o ne or more wavelengths \\~thi n one of these win-
Figure 2-S Double air /IIOSS
dows. While this wi ll not give you lhe total radiation
Sam ue l Pie rpo nt Langley of the Smithsonian Jnsti- from the sun. it will allow YOll \0 keep track of the
tutio n pioneere d in the measuremem of the sun's sun"s inte nsity at a specifi c wavelength. If you do this
inte nsity. He a lso invented instrumen ts fo r measuring over an exte nded period. YOll wi ll learn much about
solar radiatio n. In hono r of his work. Boug ue r graphs the effect o f d ouds. dust. smoke. a nd aerosols on
o f the imensit)' of sunlight received through a ra nge sunli ght.
o f a ir m asses a re oft e n re fe rred 10 as 8 Qllguer·
L tlllgley graphs o r sometimes simply LlIngley graphs.
Althoug h the Bo uguer me thod of me asuring the The Rtmosphere versus
extra te rrestrial sola r consta nt seems simple enough.
Sunlight
it has seve ral d rawbacks. Assume fo r e xa mple. you
use 11 de tector that responds equa lly well to a ll the D uring its passage thro ugh the atmosphe re. the light
UV. visible. a nd infra red wavelengths in a ray of sun-
£ro m the sun is scaHe red a nd a bsorbed by molecules
light. Unfortu na te ly. this does no t mean you ca n of gas. particles of d ust. a nd clo uds of water \'ap0r.
measure the total inte nsity o f all these wavele ngths Some wavelengths o f light are less affected (th at is.
outside the a tmosphe re by ma king measure ments absorbed less) than o thers are.
fro m the surface of the eartb. Wa te r vapor. the most
Ce rta in detectors that morutor the UV radiation
I importa nt of alltbe greenhouse gases. strongly
absorbs many infrared wavelengths. And ozo ne
from the sun are designed to look 3tlhe e ntire sky.
1llese de tectors are sa id to have a global fie ld of view.
a bsorbs virtually a ll the UV radia tio n having a wave-
The\' are used because air molecu les scatter UV lieht
le ngth less than approxima tely 295 na nom ete rs. Vari- ~ ~

so we ll that up to half o r even more of the UV that

a tio ns in the to ta l water vapor and ozone in the
strik es yo ur skin on a sunny day comes [rom the sky.
a tmosphere [rom day to day and eve n oye r the
course o f a day can cause serious measurem ent For best results when making u mgley plots. how-
e rrors. Carbon dioxide. oxygen. a nd many o ther gases cver. ,\'Our ligh t detector should stare onlv. at the sun
~

a lso a bsorb various wave le ngths o f sunlight. but the ir and not a t the surrounding sky. O t he ",~sc. when
affects are usually conside ra bly less vari able than a rc smoke. haze. and d ust a re in the a tmosphere. they \\~ ll
those of wale r vapor and ozo ne. seaHer sunlight toward your detector a Dd in nate your
readings. Dctecto rs that stare only at the sun a rc said
The gra ph in Figure 2-6 shows that the re a re
to have a direct fi eld of view. TIle simplest wny \0
severa l spectral windows whe re sunlight passes

34 Ele ct ronic Sensors for t he Ev il Genius

restrict your detector·s fie ld of view is to place it a t one
end of a Ilarrow tube. Such tubes are known as colli- Detectors
lJ1(J/ors.l be sun subtends an angle in the sky of just
owr half a degree. A suitable collimator tube can eas- J\'la ny d ifferem kinds of light detectors can be used to
ily reslrict your detector field of view to a few degrees make Langley plots. For now I recommend that you
or so. Although this isn't perfect. it's much bettcr than use silicon photodiodes. They lire cheap. readily avail-
able and sturdy_ a nd they ge ne ra te a curre nt that is
allowinl! the detector to look a t the e nt ire sky.
linear with respect 10 the light tha t strikes them. 0 0
not use a pho totransistor beca use its o ut put CUTTe nt is
not linear.
Filters
Si licon photodiodes lire livailable [rom various
t\lany kinds of filters can be used to make Langley electronics suppl iers. Oigi-Key sells Cla irex's C L056
plots of the sun 's intensity. If your budget is limited. nat-window photodiode for around $J.lS. You can
you can start with inexpensive colored glass or plas tic a lso use a small sil icon solar cell. You could a lso use
filters. You can make your own from colored glass or Claire~"s C L07L a m ini.t1ure solar ce ll moumed on a I
plastic available [rom arts and crafts shops or glass ceramic substrate. 1l1is diode is available from Oigi-
and plastic dealers. Or you can use colored camera Key for around S? .00.
fit ters.A much better approach is to usc an ill/erfer- Another possibility is the H o neywell S 0 34? 1-002.
ellcefilter. This kind of fi lte r is made from many very 1l1is Oat -window photodiode is available from
thin layers of re necting materials deposited on a glass Newark Electronics for arou nd $3.7S. Some of the
or silica substrate. A lthough a colo red glass fi lte r ot her parts for the radiome te r are a lso available from
transmits a band of light a hundred or mo re na nome- Newark Electronics (call or write for a free catalog).
ters wide, an interfe re nce fi lter tra nsmits a band typi-
cally o nly to nano meters or even less in width .
Because Newark has a $7S m inimum o rder requ ire-
ment . you may want to try to t:ind the components o(l)
Because of the many carefully cOillrolled steps locally.
required to make the m . interference fi lters are m uch Avoid using a detector encapsu lated ill a clear
rt
(l)
more expensive than colored glass and plastic fil ters. plastic p:tckage like those lIsed for LEOs. 111e do med
A good supplier for the novice is Edmund Scie ntific end of the package will act like a lens and co mplica te o
Compan)'. Edmund Scientific currently stocks filters the al ignment of the detector wi th respect to the sun . rt
that transmit to-nanome ter bands of ligh t at points Instead. use a detector housed in a miniature me ta l .....
all across the visible light and near-infrared spectrum . package with a Oat glass window. lfyou cannot fi nd o
A O.S-inch (12.S-millimeter) diameter visible lig ht fil-
ter costs $38.00 plus shipping. Ncar-infrared and UV
o r afford a detector enclosed in a met al package, you
can use a plastic encapsulated one if you first grind
::s
filters are $78.00 plus shippi ng. away the lens e nd o f the domed package wit h a lile
~
Interfe rence filters are also available from M icro-
Coatings and Twardy Technology, Inc. All these COIll-
or sandpaper. Po lish the e nd of the na u e ned package
with very fi ne sandpape r. ::s
panics supply transmission cun'es wi th their fi lters. If An even better approach is to purchase a detector
p..
the prices for in terference fi lters arc too high for your
budget, you can sometimes find surplus interference
filters for bargain prices. J-o r example. most helium-
wit h a built-in interference filte r. E G&G J udson sells
a line of such deteclors designated as OF-xxx>:. where
xxxx is the fi lter 's tra nsmissio n wavelengt h in
s::
(l)
neon lasers em it a beam of red h!!ht with a wave- Angstrom units. (Te n A ngslrom units is o ne ~
length of 632.8 nanometers. Surplus inte rfe rence manometer.) For example. a DF-5000 delector is des- en
filters at this wavelength can be purchased for as little
as $5 o r $10. Whatever filt er you select. those that are
ignated to detecl lighl with a wavelength of SOO
nanometers. E G & G a lso sells photodiodes witho ut
c::
t;
0.5 inch (12.5 millimeters) in diamete r are easiest to fi lters. l 11e DF-x.xxx detectors with built -in filt ers cost (l)
mount. Your budget may determine what wavelength
you select.
$95 . Wh ile Ihis may seem high. you don 't have to go
to the trouble of moun ting a fil ter on a detector. a
(l)
::s
Chapter Two Li ght Dete c tion and Measurement 35
rt
 EG&G will supply a calibrated detector for an addi - o ther words. the signal from the pholodiode is ;! mpli-
tional $75. fi ed in direct proportion 10 its amplitude. The le\'el of
Lf you cannol afford a calibrated de tector. use the amplification equals the resistance in ohms of Rl.lhe
spectral B gra ph speci fi ed by the manufact urer.1llis feed back resistor connected belween the op-amp's
gra ph will be wililin 10 percent or so o f the delector"s output a nd its input.
actual sensi tivity. You will the n need to accou nt fo r The op-amp used in Ihis basic radiomete r is a
the absorption of the filter. This is why iI's importan t Texas Instrume nts TLC271. -nlis amplifie r comes in
to req uest a transmission curve whe n you order a fi l- several \·e rsionS. lhe best being the T LC271 BCt>: the
te r. Typical interfe rence fi lters Inmslltit from 20 1050 ACt> and C P versions will also work. TLC271 op-
percent of the light a t their pass ba nd. umps are available from Newark Electronics for less
In any case. having a ca libra ted detector is less tha n $1 each. Ma ny ol he r op-amps wi th a yellow
importa nt than having a dc \cclOr thai provides input bias curren t can also be used. but they may
re peatable measu re ments. Al though you mlly not h.we diffe re nt pin connections.
know the exact value of the inle nsil), ofth e ligh t your Because many different kinds of detectors will
de tector receives. you will know that the tre nds and work with this ci rcuil. you will have to dctennine the
changes it mon ilOrs arc linear with respect to one optimum resistance for R I by simply expe rimenting.
s:: anot he r. Too small a resista nce will make readings difficult
o
.... whe n the sun is low in the sky. If the resiSl<lnce is too
high. fu ll sunlight will overload the amplifier. One
way to find a good ,'alue for R l is 10 assemble the cir-
..j..l
R Bas ic Radiometer Circuit cuit on a plastic solderlcss breadboard. You can then
u Iry differe nt resistances until the circuit gives an out-
Q) -nle diagram in Figure 2-7 illustra tes a simple put of se\'e rai \"olts when the detector is exposed 10
..j..l
Q)
radiometer Ihat is well suited for making measure- -
till;' noon sun on a clear bright da\'.
~

me nts of solar radiation. Th is radiometer uses a pho- Anothe r way is to usc a I-megohm (1.000.000
o 10voltaic solar cell a nd an operlltiol1a/ {/111/J/ifier (or
op-amp) to increase the lewl o f the signal from the
ohms) pote nt iomc te r for the resistor. Adjust the
potentiometer for the optimum reading when the sun
de tector so thaI it CHn be read by a digital voltme te r. is high in the sky a t or near local noon.I\·lcasure the
l lle op-amp is connected as a linear amplifier. In potentiometer's resislance wi1h a muhimeter. a nd

C1

R1
F1 D1----. DIGITAL VOLTM ETER
I ~,
liGHT
Q) 1111I1
-0 0
J1

R2

C2 R4

------_.--------- ---------- ._------ ._----

Figure 2-7 Basic rariiomeler eireltil
._----- ------- ------ -----_.

36 Electronic Sensors for the Evil Genius

substilUte a fixed resisto r with the nea rest equivalent
value. Or you can leave the potentio me te r in the cir~ 0.0. :;-d" brass lube.
90 I11I1l long
cuil permanently. Jus t be care fu l to avoid changing its
sening,so your readi ngs will a lways be compa ra ble. H
• Flal black pamt
you choose 10 iea\'e the pote ntiome te r in the circ uit,
i(s a good idea 10 mount it inside the radio meter's
housing and away from curious fingers.
Radio Shack sells fixed resistors and a sta nda rd-
size I-megohm potent io meter (R adio Shack part
I ~ ?"~'""" j.
number 271-2(1). They a lso sell a s ta n dard~size - __ Corrical c ap

IOO.<XXl--ohm potentiometer suitable for use as R2.

~ liniature. multiple-t urn . scrcw-driver-adjustable
trimmer resistors are much be ller choices than s tan~ - o tf:l g

dard-sizc potcntiomcters. ~'I any differen t ki nds are -:> --- If.!" UV
available from Newark Electronics a nd other elec~
J _-- ( 12.5 111m) filter
shiny Side up
I
tronies parts dealers. 0) _
-- - 0 ring
The output of the op-amp U I at pin 6 is fed
directly to the digital \'o ltme te r or digital mu ltimc ler
set on the 2-volt voltnge scale.lbe radio me te r circuit 3,a" brass unton
___ (discard compression
is powered from a standard 9~voh tmnsistor radio rmg)
ballery. The radiometer circuit can be assembled ou a
small piece of breadboard or ci rcuit board wit h the
leads kept short. When assembling the circuit. make
sure thai you install the integrated circu it correctly to Detector
o(l)
(!TI::.ulalO leads
avoid damaging the Ie. Ie packages will have e ither
a small inden t circle at one end or a sma ll recta ngular
l'/lth tape o r cT
pla3ltc. tubing) (l)
cutout 31 one edge of the plaslic package. Pin I will
always be to the left of either the inde nted circle or o
cT
the plastic cutout. Using an integrated circuit is good
practice. in the c\'e m of a later circuit fai lu re.
o ring to
.....
The radiometer circuit can be installed in a small
- hold phone o
metal enclosure with two temlinal p osts fo r connec- plug In place ::l
tion to a multimeter or d igital voltmeter. TIle power
"".

switch at Sl is used to apply power to the radiometer

1 d' pnoll€: pill']
circuit. A mini 1/$~in ch phone jack is used to connect
the sensor to the input of the radiometer circuit as
Threaded car
shown in Figure 2·7.

Figure 2-8 Filler delector assembly

Filter-Detector RssemblY
a ll available from a hardware store. which ho ld both
Unless you have access to a machine shop. mating the
the detector and fi lter. This moun ting method works
deteclOr \\~th a suitable filter is probably the most
only \\~ th O.5-inch ( 12.5-millimeter) fil te rs and detec-
difficult part o f building a radiometer. Afte r trying
tors that are small e no ugh to fit inside the hole in tbe
many approaches that d on't req uire m e t a l ~working
union. You will need to check the d ime nsions of the
tools, the final resu lt is shown in Figure 2-8. It consists
union and detector you p lan to usc because tbe
of a I/: -inch brass union coup ling and some O-rings.
dime nsions o f both vary.

Chapter Two Light Detection and Mea s urement 37

 -
In the arran£!.cme nt shown in Fi gure 2-9. the delee-
-
tor is soldered 10 a lis-inch phone pl ug. I prefer this
switch in place of the rLxed resistor a t R I . which is
across pins 2 and 6 of the op-amp.lllis will permit
arrangement beca use it perm its several detectors to
be used with the same rad iometer. I always solder the
. - - -
\'O U to casi l" change the radiometer's gain in fixed

steps. Yo u can increase the gain by one decade (X 10)

diodes cathode lead to the te rminal connected \0 the for each switch positio n. from a minimum of 1,000 to
lip of the phone plug. This is because some o f my maxim um of 1.000.000. A four-position rotary switch
radiometers with mult iple detector jacks arc housed and four resistors (I K. 10K. lOOK. a nd I megOhm
in meta l enclosures. which automatically interconnect resistors) could be swi tched in place. one at a time. If
all the anode tcmli naIs of the phone jacks to ground. you plan to assemble the instrument in a pocket-size
Im er! the plug into a uni on end cap and hold it in e nclosure. you will need to usc a miniature rotary
place by forcing a rubber O-ri ng between its threads switch. rvliniatu re rotary switches are available new
a nd the threads inside the end cap. Ifyoll can't find a from Newark Electronics and o the r electronics dis-
sui table O- ring, a thin bead of black silicone selilanl tri butors for around $8.00 each.
m iuht work. Just be sure not to ge t a ny of the sea lant
o n the threads inside the c nd cap. A fter the plug is
seated in the end cap. place a n insulating slee\'e of Using a Solar Radiometer
thin plastic (hea t-shrinka ble tubi ng or a soda st raw)
o\'e r the photodiode. inserl it into the hole in the ~" aki n gmeusuremenlS with a solar radiometer is rel-
unio n. and secure it in place by rota ting the e nd cap. atively straightforwlI rd. To align your radiomete r with
•I
TIle insulator is required been use the metal case of respect to the sun. simply adjust its position until the
some photodiodes is connected to o ne of the diode's shadow cast by the collimator tube d isappears. llle
te rmina ls. dcteclOr sho uld then be stari ng di rectly at the solar
Ca refully clean the fi ller and install it between two disc. You can now read the \'oltage (or current) from
-4J thin O-rings with ils shiny side faci ng away from the lhe digital mete r to which the radiometer is COIl-

,
( detector. Some filte rs are thicker than others. If the
O-ring a nd filler sandwich is so thick that the end cap
cannot be screwed on . you may have to replace one
neCled. If you plan to make measurements with se\,-
eral detectors. you might wish to usc a tape recorder
to record your data. You can even ,lUtomate your sys-
or bot h O-ri ngs with a ring of paper or tape. In any te m wi th the hel p of a chart recorde r or a computer
case. be carefu l not to apply too much pressure when data acquisition system.
you screw on the end cap o r you Illay chip or crack The acquisition of data Cor La ngley graphs
the fi lter. requires that the sun be totally open and unblocked
•I
"nle filler end cap sho uld be fi lled with a collima- by clouds. A lways wear good-quality UV-blocking
tor lUbe wi th an ou tside diamete r o f approximmely sunglasses whe n monitoring the sun. If clouds arc
Ih inch (6.55 mi lli meters). A tube with a lengt h of prese nt. avoid the temptation to peek a l the sun to
around I '/~ inches (abo ut-l5 m illime ters) will pro- see if a cloud is in the way. If you mUSl be sure. you
vide a fie ld of view of a few degrees or so. Al uminum
a nd brass lUbing available fro m hobby and craft
-
can look at the sun throu2.h a number l-l welder's
glass. available from a welding supply store for sev-
stores works well. Use a calion swab 10 coat the eral dollars. Never obser\'e the sun through a filter
inside of the tube with flat. black pai nt. Anach the thaI is more tra nspare nl lhan a numbe r l -l fil ter.
rube to the end cap with a fasl-selling glue such as
cvanoacn 'l:lle adhesive.
~ ~

Perform ing Measurements

Rn Adjustable Radiometer The object of a measuring program is 10 measure the

sun's output Oil a daily basis (wemher condit ions per-
The radiometer can be made m uch more versatile bv mi n ing). It is a good idea 10 measure the sun's radia-
adding additional feed back resistors and a selector lion at several wa\'elengths. The purpose of these

38 Electroni c Sensors for the Evil Gen ius

measurements is to build up a base of data about the ciaUy important to describc the sky near the sun. It's
Ic\'cl of the sun's UV rays and the a bundance of the also a good idea to record the barome tric pressure.
total water vapor. alOne. and oxygen in a column hum idi ty. and tcmpe rature when yo u are recording
throug.h the atmosphere. Langley plots can be used to your solar o bscf\'ations.
check the calibration of the detector. Yo u shou ld try
to make measurements at local apparent noon, the
lime when the sun is at its h ighest position in the sky. Basic Rad iometer Parts List
You can COll\'ert standa rd time to Cl pparell t time by
adding 4 minutes for each degree of longitude west o f Rl see text
your standa rd meridian. In the United States. the R2 lOOK ohm potentiome -
te r (trimpot)
standard meridians for E astern. Central. Mountain.
and Pacific time are. respectively 75°. 9()0. 105° . a nd R3, R4 I - megOhm , 1 / 4-
watt , 5\ r esisto r
1200 weSL
Cl 10 0 p F , 35-volt
The equation of time explains how sola r noon Mylar c apa c itor
arri\·es as much as some 16 minutes earl y or 14 min- CZ 0 .0 1 uF , 35-volt I
utes late. Therefore. if you p lan to make measure - ce rami c disc c apacit o r
ments at apparent noon. you will need an Dl photodiode (see
text)
equat io n-of-time chart or diagram. For a precise
81 9 - volt tran s i s tor
knowledge of solar nOOIl. consult any standa rd refer-
radio battery
ence o n astronomv or sundial construction available
51 5P5T toggle switch
al most libraries.
Jl l I B- inch mini two-
The peak read ing you measure will not necessa rily c ircuit phone jac k
occur precisely at apparent noon. Instead.lhe signal
\\;11 fluctuate constant ly as tbe radiation is attenuated
pI l IB- inc h mini two -
ci rc ui t phone plug
o(1)
and scattered by the a tmosphere a nd its constituent FI fil te r ( see text)
gas and aerosols. Fo r th is reason I usually a llow sev- Misc ellaneous PC board,
rt
IC socket , enclosure, (1)
eral minutes to make a measure mcnLl\'lak ing meas-
uremeniS a t apparent noon is not as important as the
wire , terminals, col-
limator , voltmeter ,
o
exact lime recorded, so be su re to calibrate your etc. rt
watch e"ery few days using WWV (from radio sta tion .....
WWV) or Natiolltli /nstirllle of SUllldtlrlls tllIll Tech· o
1I010gy (N IST ) time ca libration on the Lnterne L :;:I
Equally impon am is knowing the angle of the sun Measuring Ultraviolet
above the horizon. You can meas ure the sun 's a ngle Rays Using an Ultraviolet
\\;th the help of a bubble level a nd a small L-bracket
mounted on lhe e nclosure in which you mount the Radiometer
radiometer. The bracke t fu nctions like the gIlOIllOIl.
Most UV radiatio n that bombards the earth is barred
or pointer. of a sundia l, Align the bracket so lhat its
from reaching the planers surface because of a thick.
shadow falls along a millimete r scale cemen ted to the
vacuous blanke t of b lue toxic gas known as ozone.
enclosure. Then care full y adjust the position of the
Were it not for Ihis chemical sh ield. UV rays wou ld
radiometer until it is perfectly le"e l. and no te the
strike o rgan isms wi th such in te nsity that most organ-
point o n the scale whe re the shadow ends. The height
isms would perish. As h uman and natural activities
of the angle bracke t divided by the length of the
such as \'olcanic e ruptions alle r the composition o f
shadow is the tangent of the sun's a ngle.
the atmosphere. it would b e wise to m o nitor the
Besides the d ale. time, an d sun a nglc, yo u should
ozone layer and UV radiation to obser\'e possib le
also note the weather and sky conditions. It·s cspe·
changes.

Chapter Two Light Detection and Measurement 39

 Thanks to many ground slat ions and sc,'e ral sa tel- the unprediclablc na ture of clo uds and the presence
lites. workers ha\'e lea rned much about the density of such barrie rs as buildi ngs a nd trees. me asure me nts
and dislribUlion of the ozone in the a tmosphe re. Yel of d irect rctdi atio n are preferred \0 global ones for
ill\'estiga tors lack iI comparable ne twork to observe comparing the e ffects of air pollution on Ihe relativc
the portion of UV radiation that seeps through the magnitude of U Y-B a t two or more locations. An
ozone layer. Aside from instru me nts operated by the UY-8 radiome ter re quires a de tector and a mcans
Smi thsonian Insti tut e a nd seve rnl other onwniza- for se lecting the wave le nglh to be de tected. Tlle
lions. the only ne twork moni toring stations in the de tector sign al is a mplifie d a nd transmits to a digita l
Uni ted Slates comprises fewe r than two dOlen ,·o llmele r. an analo!! chan recorde r. o r a compute r-
Robcrslon- Berge r meters. ( Robertson- Berger meters ized dala acquisition syste m.
measure globa l ultraviolet-B.) Wave le ngth ca n be selected e ither with a mono-
lllCSC devices a rc designed to de tect the wave- chroma tor o r a n o ptical inte rfe re nce filte r. A 1110110-
lengths of U V radia tion that cause er t/i(,lJIfl. or red- d /roll/l/Ior provides a conven ie nt but e xpe nsive way
de ning of the skin a nd c"c nlllal sunburn . En he ma to me asure U Y-D across a wide range of d iscre le
develops most rapidly when the skin is exposed [0 wuve le ngths. A n op tical illlerferellt'(, filter offers a
UV radiation wi th a wa\'e length near 300 nano me- much cheape r and more co mpuct me thod of selecting
te rs. 111is wawlength falls within the 1I11rado11'l-8 a reaso nably na rrow band of U Y-(l wavelengths.
I (UV-B) speclmm . \\ hich extends from )80 to 320 Inte rfe rence filt e rs a lso allow conside ra bly more
(
na nome ters. Since 1974 the ave rage flux of UV-D has radiation to reach the delecto r,
•
been measured wilh a ne twork of l!iglll Robertson- UY-B illlerfe re nce filters. ho we \·er.lfllllsmit a
Berge r me te rs. From 1974 to 1985 the a,'erage flux slightly wide r band of wa"ele ngths tha n do mo no-
fe ll some 0.7 pe rcent pe r ye ar. Because stratospheric chro ma tOTS. /I.'lorco ver. inte rfere nce filt ers tra nsmit
o zone o" e r the netwo rk decreased a hom 0.3 pe rce nt low bUI detectnble le vels of radiation o utside their
pe r yc ar from 1978 to 1985. a n incrcase in UV- B specified bands. which can calise significant e rro rs in
would ha\'e been e xp~ clcd. measuremeili. An UY detecto r that e limina tes a fi l-
With a li llie e ffo rt. Y O U can construct a n U Y-8 te r's s ~condar\' bands is said to be solllr blilld,
radioille ler to record dail\' the flux of radiation. Com- The UV-B radio meter shown ill Fig ure 2-9 is
pari ng your o bsen 'a tions with Ihose of others from bllsed all glllliulII pllosfJllitll' dio(II'.~ . 'Ibese dCleclors.
diffe re nt regions would provide imponanl informa- unlike silicon photodiodes. do no t respond to red
tio n aboul how a ir pollution a ffecls UV-B. light and thus provide true solilr-blind ope ra tio n. G a l-
Be fo re building a UV-B rad iome le r for this pur- lillln phosphide d iodes are made by Hama mats u Cor-
pose. you will need to unden;Jand how UV- D radia - ponllion. The GI96 1 (aboul $28 plus shipping) is
lion lrave ls Ihroughout the atmosphe re. Some UY-B hOllsed in a TO - IS package and has an e ffccti\'e sur-
rays sca lie r because of air mo lccules: the re ma inde r fa ce urea of 1.0 square millime te r. l1lt! G 1962 (S35) is
pcnetrales directly throug h the a tmosphe re. The sum housed in a larger TO-5 package a nd has a surface
of scatl e red lmd direct UV radiation is ca lled global area o f 5.2 square millime ters. Hama mtsu also
c mr/iflliOIl. offe rs a G 1962 calibrate d at 300 nanomele rs for an
G lo bal radiation is of high ilu e rest in studies of the additional cos\.
de le te rious e ffects of UV radiation on both living The photodiode is co upled d irectly to a Texas
sysle ms and mate rials such as paints a nd plas lics, InSlrume nlS T LC27 1CP ope ralional a mplifie r. which
Me asuremen ts of global radiut io n a re also helpful in can be purchased from major e lectronics distributo rs
dete nnining how clouds affecl U Y-B. Measure ments such as Mouser or Digi-Key e lectronics. 111e
of direct U Y radiatio n yield valua ble informa tio n TLC27I CP can be damaged by sla tic eJc-clricity. so
about the presence and e[fecI of abso rbing a nd scal- you will need ( 0 be care ful whe n handling the de"ice
ICring agen ts in the earth 's atmosphere. Because of a nd use ant istatic handling procedures.

40 Ele ctronic Sensors for the Ev il Geniu s

 Cl
, - - - II
I ,- II
I I DSP-1
I Rl
I ,-
g
I , -
I S2
I DPD
I I
I --
I ,- -
I I R2
POl
I I
DPl
I . I~ _
I
'2 6 IN+
10[1
I Pl Jl 3
+ \i\ 8 7

~
Collimator 1 \
5
Fl 4

L. ..L S3
) HOLD I
R3

+5V

C2
'" 0 1
02

R4 R5 03
'V'
a
- ,
ro
I I I +
40
Sl
IN -
rt
ro
Bl
9 ND
()
rt
-
....
---
Figure 2-9 Ulmn';olet rluliol1lC'/t'r eirel/it o
'Ib e UV-B radiome ter has two gain scltings. l 11C megohms works: the n 32 megohms will work but
='
gain path is set up by using two resistors ut R I and wit h red uced gain.
R2. \\hich is elected I'ia switch 52. R l a nd R2 arc two
very-high-resistance fe edback resistors that arc not
Thc best val ues can be selected bv -
. inse rtinu each
of sc\'c ral resistors in to the circuit te mporarily while
widely available and whose values ca n be specified moni toring the readout. with the fi lte red de tector
only approximately because of varia tions in the sig- pointed a t the sUIl.llle selected resista nce sho uld
nals transmi ncd by different fi lters aI various wave- cause the readout 10 display perhaps 80 pe rcell t or so
lengths. You can use IWO resistors to g il'c two gain of its full range for bright. noon sun with low ozone
levels. Only one is needed if you pla n to make meas- conditio ns.
urements near noon througho ut the year. -ille opti-
Resistors of more than 22 megoh ms a re ha rd to
mum resistance will probably be betwee n 30 and 100
fin d a nd e xpensive. You can make your own by sol-
megohms.l11e exact value is nOI cri tical if -I..J
de ring togethe r sc"eral IO· a nd 22-mcgohm resistors

Chapter Two Light Detection and Measurement

 available fro m electronics parts stores. POIc ntiomctcr A metal chassis box is used to house the ultravio-
R3 is the zero adjust control. which biases pin 5 of the let radiometer circuit. You will have 10 punch oul a
op-amp. A voltage divider is fonned by resistors RJ large hole in the chassis [ronl panel 10 accept the liq-
( and R4. which applies a voltage to pin 8. A 9-\'011 bat- uid cryswl display (LCD). You can mark the dimen-
I tery powers the rad iometer and powe r is applied to sions of the panel meter onto the chassis panel and
, the circuil via switch Sl . drill small holes all around the inside dimension of
The O P-650 +200-milli volt d igital panel meters your mar king. The object is \0 undersize the panel
U)
meter hole, cut the sect ions between each hole. a nd
ro from Acculex is avail able (or approximate ly $60 each
plus shippi ng. A n important advantage of the then ftle the htrge hole sq uare 10 accept the panel
<I) meter. The circuit board can next be aligned with the
Accu lex OP-650 me ters is that the data in the display
can be saved simply by pressing a pushbutton switch lOp of the chassis and a hole can be drilled for switch
that connects pin II to pin 1 (+ 5 volts). A new read- S? to protrude up throU!!h the top fronl of the chassis
ing cnn be mnde when the switch is opened. "llie box. Stando[fs can be used to secu re the cir cu it boa rd
three diodes 0 1 through 03 are used to drop the to the lOp [ront panel of the enclosure. Switches S1.
voltage for the display down to 5 volts. Switches S3 S3. and S4 can be mou nted as desired on lhe top
a nd S4 are used to control the display's reado ut. An fronl panel as layout permi ts. An llg-inch two-circuit

s:: impon a lll advalllage of th e UV-B radiometer is thnt mini jack for the input sensor is finally mounted a t
the top of the enclosure. A 9-voh transistor radio bat-
o
.o-i
it is powered by a single 9-vol1 batte ry. it consumes
litt le curre nt. and the circuit easily fits inside a CO Ill- tery holder is secured to the bOll om of the chassis to
pact housing. hold the baUer'll. Once the circuit has been installed
+.1 and the chassis secu red. you can allach your sensor
U assembly a nd begin your UV-B measurements.
<I) Construction The most expensive component of the UV-B
+.1 sola r- blind rad iometer is the optical filler. High-
<I) Build ing the UV radiometer is pretty straightfor- qua lity filters are made by Barr Associates. Barr

o ward.TIle circuit can be constructed on a small circui t

board. Use an integrated circui t socket on the lC: in
makes fillcrs on a custom basis only. TIlcrefore. unless
you are connected with an institution that can afford
lhe event of a circuit fail ure at a later dnle. you will to pl ace a custom o rder. you will need to go else-
be able to repair the circuit much easier if a socket is where.
used. Integrated circuits ha"e some form of identifi- r-.·licroCoatings makes a 12.5-millime ter diameter
cntion rega rding their orientation . "Ine IC will have fi lte r that transmits 300-nanomcter radiation and has
either a small indented circle or a small rectangular a band pass of 10 nanomelCrs (catalogue 1lI1mber
cu tout on the plastic package. Pin I of the Ie wi ll ML3-300). TwardyTechnology. Inc. sells a 25-milli-
always be to the immed ia te left of the indent circle or meter-diameter filter with the same specifications
I the plastic CUtout. Pay attention to the orientation of
the diodes when installing them at 0 1. O? and 0 3.
for $? 10.
i\'lost importa nt in building the ultraviolet
Note that there are two gain resistors across IC pins ? rad iometer is to install the detector and the filter in a
and 6. A gain switch switches either of these two light-t igh t housing. U you have access to a machine
resistors into the gain path. so leads should be kept liS shop. you can make one. Or you can install a 12.5-
short as possible to avoid unstable operation o r cir- millimeter filter and detector in a brass compression
cuit oscillation. Switch S2 could be mounted on the fitti ng or union coupl ing (see Figure 2-8). Note that
circuit board to keep leads short. Because the UV-B the basic radiometer and ultraviolet radiometer filter
solar-blind radiometer includes a separate detector, assemblies are almost exactly the same. except thai
filter, and amplifie r. it is more difficult to assemble the filters are di[fe rent for each project. The coupling
tha n an instrument in which these components are and the required O-rings are available from hard-
combined in a single package.

42 Electronic Sensors for the Evil Geni us

 ware stores. A two-conductor pho ne plug is inse n ed
imo one of the unio n's caps and secu red in place with UV-8 Measurements
a rubber a·ring. '1l1e leads of the detector arc
inserted into an LED socket solde red to the plug's Regularly measuring direct solar UV-8 with e ithe r a
terminals. You can. however. so lder the delCctor ca libra ted or an uncali brated detecto r can yield sig-
directly to the tc nninals. 111e cathode Icad should be nificant data. Always try to take a measure mem at
soldered to the terminal tha t is common to the tip of sola r noon. Fo r mo re info nnation about de te nnining
the plug. In eithe r case, some coupl ings will accept solar nooll. consult a ny sla ndard reference on astron-
only detectors in mini ature TO-I S packnges. o my or sund ia l construction .
The fi lter. protected by a pair of O-ri ngs. is Ra rely does the pe ak UV-B readi ng occur pre -
installed in the second end cap. A conical cap works cisely at solar noon. Inste ad the signal nuc tuates as
best but may be hard to find. If the filter a nd a-rings the 300-nanometer radiation is a lte n uated and scat-
do not lea\'e su(ficicnt space for the e nd cap's threads te red by the a tmosphe re and its co nsti tuenl gases. For
to engage those of the union. replace one of the 0- this reason , a llow at least 5 min utes to make a sin " Ie
rings with a paper spacer. Screw the end Cli p down so measure me nt. Virtua lly every day fo r 2 years. J ha\'e "
that it slays in place but does not apply pressure to me asured Ih e di rect sola r nlLX a t four U V- B wave ~
the filter. lf necessll ry, ceme nt the e nd cap in place
with a drop of removable glue. Be sure the filter
-
le ng ths and si...; llddiliollal wavele nl!.lhs. 1 have found
that direct sola r irradiance a t 300 na no me te rs is siu-
H
...
remains clean during the inslalla lion procedure. nifican tly a lte nua ted by fog. haze. clo uds. and airc;',ft
Depending on Ihe detector's dimensio ns. a conical cont ra ils. The passage of a cold fronl. wh ich raises
end cap wall will give a field of vie w of a rou nd 10 barometric pressure, is more often tha n not fo llowed
degrees. You should the refore allach a coll imator by a red uction in UV- B. e"en when the mmosphe re is
tube to the opening in the e nd cap to reduce the field
of\;ew 10 -t degrees or less. Bmss tubing can be sol-
exceptio na lly dear and dry. Low bllrOme tric pressure
is typically accompanied by a decrease in ozone. ,
dered or cemented to the openi ng in the e nd cup. 111e assembled radiomete r is simple to o pe rate. tl
Coal the inside of the lUbe with nat . black paint. Fi r:st. look down the collimator lUbe. If you sec a 't'
Because Ihe radio me ter is designed to measure re neclion of the pupil of your eye. the de tector is per- :l
the direct radiation from the sun, a colli mato r is fectly centered. If 1I0t. rea lign the tube. Afte r the volt- )
required 10 reslrict the detector's fi e ld of \·jew. Thin-
walled brass IUbing from a hobby shop works well. A
tube wilh un outside d iame te r of I centimele r should
meter is connected a nd the radiome te r'S power
switch is toggled on, block the opening o f the collima-
tor tube and a djust the potenliome te r unti l the o ut-
..
t

)
slip Q\'er the de lector. Wrap a layer of ta pe a ro und put voJtClge is ze ro. ( Re peat this procl!du re before
e ach me asure me nt session.) 111c n po int the tube oJ
the detector if it fi ts lOa loose ly in the lu be. Coat the
inside of the lUbe wi th nat. black e namel. A tubc
around 90 millime ters long will pro\'ide a fi e ld o f
toward the s un a nd a lign the tube until its sha dow
d isappears. 111e de tector will now be a ime d d irectl v a l
,,
the sun. Record the voltage and make ano ther me~­
\'iew of approxima te h' -
. -t d e!;!.recs when the tu be is
urement. You will soon discove r thilt evcn on a clear
pushed all the way to the de tector's base.
day the signal level nuctua tes.some times conside r-
Before in!ilalling the coll ima tor. you shou ld clean
Ihe surface of the de tecto r's filter because dust and
:tbly especially aro und noon time and whe nevcr the
's::
oil absorb UV-B. Re move fin gerprin ts by swabbing
at mosphere is o bscured by clouds. smoke. o r dust.
Your readings will include an e rro r fac tor because
ro
Ihe surface of the filt e r with e thyl alcohol and wiping II
away the residue with lens cleaning paper. Blow a\\'lIY
dust wilh clean. compressed air. .
the detector responds to the red light that leaks
through its fil te r. You ca n e liminate the e rro r simply
by following each rcadi ng with a second one durin u
.
IJ

which you block the U V rays by placi ng a fi lter o\'~r

III
3
(1)
:::s
Chapter Two Light Detection and Measurement 43
rt
 the entrance of the collimator lube. A n U V filter Cl 100 pF, 35- v o lt
intended for a camera works well and so does a Mylar c apacitor

WG-345 clea r glass filter. C2 0.0 1 uF , 35- v o lt

ce rami c d is c capacito r
If yO ll have an uncati b rated d e tector, su bt ra ct the POI Ga P p hotodiode
second reading (8 ) from the (irst (A) to gel a voltage (see text)
that will be correct with respect to measurements you 01 , 01 , 03 lN9 0 l si li-
make al other times. If you have a calibrated de tec- co n diodes
tor. you can compute the absolute spectral rad iance 81 9 - volt tran sistor
r adio battery
at 300 nanometers in lemlS of watts per square
5 1 , 54 5P5T toggle
meier. UV blocking filt ers lypicalJy re fl eci a bo ut 8
switch
percent of the incident non-UV radiation. The non-
52 5POT toggle switch
UV radiation without the filte r is therefore approxi- (gain)
mately equal 10 the B reading d ivided by 92 percent. 53 normallY-Open push-
Because the active area of the DFA-3000 is about 9.9 butto n switc h
square millimeters. the detector signal must be mul ti- (display)

plied by 101.000 10 find the sig nal per square me te r. 05P-l Accu lex DP-650
digital p anel meter
c: Ibe formu la that results is
Jl l I S-inch mini t wo -
o
001
"A-..-('OB'o
RI X D,
f.",92~) X
101 ,000
F PI
c irc uit phone jack
l I S-inch mini two -
c ircu it phone p l ug
+..l 1.50 - (.116/.92) 10 1,000 Fl filter (see text)
U 30.000.000 X .04 X lOA = .Oll wan per sq uare
Mi sce llaneous PC board ,
Q) meier per nanometer IC s o c ket , enclosu r e ,
wi r e , t e~ini!l.l s, col -
+..l where D, is the detector's calibra ted res ponsivity. and
Ilmator, etc .
Q) F i5t he filt e r's band pass. (The band pass is the n um-

o ber o f nano meters between the two points whe re the

ftl te r's transmission fa ils to half the ma.ximum .) The
ide al filt e r should have a band pass of less than a
na no mete r. Real fill eTS have a wid e band pass.
Measuring Ozone -Using
Read ings at noon o n a clea r August day arc typi- an Ozone Meter
cally 1.5 (A) a nd 0.1 16 volt (B). inse rting these values
into the p re vious form ula yie lds 0.011 wall per The to ta l amoun t of ozo ne in a column through the
square mete r per nanome ter. Remember. this is atmosphe re can be d e te rmined by simultaneously
direct UV. The diffuse contribution from radial io n measuring two wave le ngths of the UV rad iation

I scattered by molecules in the atmosphere adds a t

least 30 percent to this value a t my latitude.
e mit ted by the sun .Ad\'anced experime nters will find
a this p roject to be both fun and challenging.
Ozone strongly absorbs UV rad iation from th e
sun with a wavelength below about 330 nanometers.
Digital Ultraviolet Radiometer 1llis absorptio n is so e fficien t thai under normal con-
Parts List ditions practically no radiation wi th a wave le ngth
be low 295 nano meters reaches the ground. Ozone
Rl ( see text) absorbs sho rter wave le ngths of UV much more e((j-
R2 ( s ee t ext ) cient ly than it does lo nger wavelengths. There fo re.
R3 l OOK ohm potentiome- the amo unt of ozone ca n be measured by a met hod
te r (t ri mpot)
known as rli recllI'tlvelellgrll absorption specrrOSCOfJY.
R4 , RS I -megohm , 1/4 -
This met hod is. in p rinciple. ve ry simple. An ozone
watt , 5\ re sistor

Electroni c Sensors for the Ev il Genius

measuring instrument. for e xample. is simply a pair of Table 2-1
UV radiome ters insta lled in a single ho using. The dif- So lar Wavelengths
ficult part of measuri ng ozone is the various form ulas
W(lI'elel/gfll (11m) Spectrulll Aligml/ellf
that transform a pair of UV measurements into the
297 ultr.wioJct- B and Olone absorp tion
amount of ozone.
300 ultra\';olet-B and Olone absorption

ullra\'iolet-E! ilnd ozone reference

Oz one -Met er 312 ultraviolet- B and Olone absorption

320 ultraviolet-S and ozone rcferenre

To make a n ozone observa tion. an ozone instrumen t
is pointed directly at the sun. Ultraviole t radiation 590 ozone nbsorpt ion

passing. through the filte rs strikes the two de tectors. ozone absorption
which arc two-terminal photodiodes that convert 630 ozone reference
light into a n electrical CUrTe nt. The signal from each
detector is amplified and sent to a miniature digital
700 ozon.: reference
I
readout. A Itho ugh advanced experimen te rs should 760 oxygen absorption
be a ble to assemble a tool ozone portable speclrora- 7SO oxygen reference
diometer (TOPS) instrumenl. a calibrated instrume nt
850 water \'apor reference
for measuring ozone. it is important to unde rsta nd
water vapor absorption
that the necessary pairs of UV fi lters. photodiodes.
and high resistance resistors a re not readi ly available. 998 wate r vapor reference
-----------------------
Se lecting the Filters A bel1er pair o f wavele ngth ranges for locations I::'
abm'c 350"' north wou ld be 305 to 310 na no me ters for (1)
The most impo rta nt and expensive componcnL'i of an
the short wa\'e length and 325 to 330 na no me ters for rT
ozone-measuring instrument arc the two UV filters.
the lo ng wa\·e le ngth. lllc di sadvantage o f these wa\'c- (1)
le ngths is that aerosols in the atmosphe re may cause (1
Most exisling filter ozone-meters respo nd to a pair of
mo re e rror tha n wit h more closely spaced wave-
wavelengths separated by about 20 nanome ters. but rT
le ngths.. ~.
this means e rrors can be introduced by aerosols in
tbe atmosphere. I minimize this proble m by using For best resulls. the bandpass o f fi llers used to
o
wa\'elengths on ly 6 nanometers a part. To make sure
the re is ample difference in the ozone absorption al
de tect ozone must be less than the 10 nanometers.
wh ich is sta ndard for most. If you can no t fin d fi lte rs
::s
two wavelengths this close together. it's necessa ry to wi th a 5 nanome ters or less bandpass. you can reduce
use wavele ngths close 10 the point at which all UV Ihe bandpass of a 10 nanometers fi lte r by stacking
radiation is bl ocked bv ozone beca use th at's where rwo ofthc m.
the differencc in absorption is most dramatic. Ultra- Fillers are com mo nly sold in di ame le rs of 1?.5 and
violet filt e r wavelengths of 300 a nd 306 nanometers 25 na nome ters (0.5 and I inch). Smalle r filte rs a re
were chosen for this project. These wave le nglhs work chea pe r and e asie r 10 mount. Stock UV itllc rfe re nce
well at nl\'. la titudc:29 35 ' north. but they
. will not fil ters cost 5100 or more e ach. a nd cus to m fil ters are
work well at higher lat itudes d uring winler and spring considcrubly more expensive. ~...lanu filclU re rs who
becausc of the lower a ngle of the sun a nd the Slack filt ers include TwardyTech nology. lnc.. Micro-
increased amou!ll of ozone (see Table 2-1). Coatings. a nd Andover Corpora lio n.Addi tio na l man·
ufaclU rers advenise in trade magazines for the optics
a nd lase r industries.

Chapter Two Light Detection and Measurement 4S

 assemble your owo instrument wilh these figures as a
Building the Ozone-Meter guide. The prototype ozone-meIer was installed in
U ...IB CR-53\ Crown Royal aluminum cases Clv£li l-
As mentioned earlier the ozone-meie r consists of two able from various electronics distribUlors a nd
iden tical UV- B radiometers in a o nc complete pack- Mouse r Electronics. Squeezing all the componenls
age. Figure 2-9 depicls the o riginal UV-13 rad io me te r into the C R-531 case requires careful planning. Or
ci rcuit. The dia!"Tam shown in fi gure 2-10 shows how you can simpli fy assembly by using a la rger cabi ne t if
both UV-B radiometer circui ts a re installed in an al u- you are not skilled aI dense packagim':. Y Oll must.
mi n um e nclosure. llle picture in Fi1!.ure 2-11 il lus- however. make sure no light can lea k between the fil-
trates three research ozone-meters. packaged for a te r and delector. Be sure also that the detecror views
fie ld trip. If you have previo us experie nce building a narrow cone with an angle of less than 2 degrees.
min ia ture electronic circuits. "au should be able \0

UPPER
ALIGNMENT
- 5 mm DIA HOLE

c A,\ /
VANE

o ,
.... \
\
c c )
@
@
o
/
+J
U
Q) DISPLAY #1
+J
Q)
o o
DISPLAY # 2

o
- 300 nm FILTER
306nm
FILTER - ~::::::'_~d....JI:::::,~~~
YOKE HOLDS

I - FILTER DETECTOR
ASSEMBLY

CIRCUIT 1m:!: '\ PHONE JACK

BOARD

I
r===r=p: or_ ZERO ADJUST

0\ \ LOWER
0\ + - ALIGNMENT
/
~T---------L:==::J VANE
/
PHONE JACK

Figure 2-\0 O zone-meier

46 El ectro n ic Sensors f or the Evil Gen i us

 d ued light o r by blocking th e a pertures. If eithe r
re adom indicu tes more than O. open the case and
adjust the appropria te ze ro potentiomete r (R2). Go
outdoors and point the instrument toward the sun
while watching Ihe shadow the upper alignmeOl vane
casts all the lowe r \'anc. Whe n you sec the spot of
sunlight o n the lower "ane. a lign the instrume nt un til
the spot of sunlight is cente red over the a lign me nt
mark. Hold the instrume nt securely and. assuming
the instrument incorporates readouts with a hold fea-
----_._--. __ ._ .. -..-.--_.--- -- ---------- ._-- ---- ture. press the reado ut Hold button to save the data.
Figure 2-11 O:Olle-meter
Noon measure ments arc importa nt because thaI'S
whe n the level of solar U V is highest.Nlake alleast
Testing an d Rlignlng the three obscn'ations per session. Record them in a

Ozone-Meter notebook or read them into a tape recorde r und tran- I

scribe them at a la te r time. Be sure to record the stan-
dard time. Later. you can usc the standard ti me to
After you assemble the inst rume nt. carefully check
the wiring. It"s especially important that the battery
detenninc the correct local a pparent time. ••
connections to the digital readoUls a nd the a mplifie r Afte r a measure ment session. store the instrume nt

-
be correct. If evef'.'thin\!
. .
is in order. install a batten' in in a clean. d ust-free spot because dust and de posits
from cooking fumes will block UV. Never leave the
the batten' holder and switch on the inst rument.
8 0th readouts should display digits. Block both pho-
todiodes and adjust the lri mme r potentiome te r R2
o zone-mete r instrument inside a closed \'ehicle. The
photodiode window and both faces of both filters
must be ke pt me ticulously clean. D ust must be blown
,
until the two readou ts read 0 valls. A pair o f a lu- (l)
away with clean compressed air. Especially diTty
minum vanes (sec Figure 2· 11 ) provides a means for
filt ers can be cleaned with a drop of ca mera
rt
optically aligning TOPS. Bore a small. 1 to 2 millime- (l)
le ns cleaner.
ter hole near the eenle,r a t the upper \'ane. With tbe
cabinet open. point the instrume nt at tbe sun and Several methods can be used to cal ibra te ozone
o
align it until sunlight slrikes bo th filte rs. 111en place a instrume nts. The simplest is to compare your o bser-
rt
small mark where sunlight from the uppe r vane vations with those made by a near by instrument. In
......
strikes the lower vane. U your fillers are recessed. you the United Sta tes. many locat io ns have Dobson Spec- o
can see when sunlight is striking them by placing a trophotome ters to which you can compare your read- ~
glass microscope slide ove r them . If you then til t the ings. If you nre not near one of these inst rume nts.
slide at a 45 degree angle. you will see the filt ers a no ther met hod is to com pure your readings with
reflected in the slide. those made by sate llite. NASA operates <I compm e r
Web site from the Godda rd Space Flight Center that
gi\'es worldwide measure ments of ozone.
Using the Ozone-Meter

-
Before usio!! the inslrUmen l. be sure the cabinet is Computing the Rmount of
closed and that no light leaks th rough a ny openings.
If necessary_ use black paper to shield the detecto rs
Ozone
from lighlleaks. You can also insert tubes over the
Detennining the amount of ozone in the atmosphere
detector filter assemblies. In either case. be sure tha t
ove rhead requires several steps. First you have to find
nothing blocks the sunlight reaching the de tector.
the locallllt!lIIl rillle.this is not noon o r 12:00. To fi nd
To use the instrument. first make sure bOlh ampli- your local mC;1Il time. fi rst Fi nd the numbe r o f
fiers ar.:= zeroed by switching on the power in sub-

Chapter Two Light Detection and Measurement 47

 degrees bel\veen your longimde and your tillle hI and b! are the R ayleigh scattering coeffi-
meridian. MU ltiply the number of degrees by four \0 cients for air at rhe two waveJenglhs
obtain the correct ion fo r your location. If you are 11/ is the air mass (approxi ma tely l/sin c.
east of the lime meridi an. add the correction 10 the whe re c is the a ngle of the sun above
standa rd lime for your area . If you are west of the the horizon)
meridian. subtract Ihe correction from the siandard
p is the mean barometric pressure of the
time.1ll e result is what is known as your local
observat ion s ite in milli bars (in ches of me r-
",eOIl IIIne.
cu ry limes 33.864 gives pressure in millibars)
O ver the course of a year. E arth's orbi t causes the
sun \0 run either ahead or behind the local mean time L]A IL/ .the rat io orthe signal at the wave-
1\\'0

by as much as 16 minUles.·nle actual diffe rence le ngths above Eanh's at mosphere_ is known as the
belween local mean time and Ihe actual o r a ppare nt eXfmferre.Hria/ C01l.Wllllt . You will need 10 measure this
lime is called the eq/latioll a/time. wlue from the ground by making a Langley graph on
Second you will have to determine the angle of Ihe a very clear. dry day when Ihe ozone a mount remains
sun abO\'e the horizon to compute the a ir mass and fairlv constan t.
thus the ozone amount O\'erhe ad. If you measure the Record L ] and L: and the lime as often as possible
s:: angle ma nua]] v, be sure to do it immcdiateh' afler
~. . fo r a few hours. e nding or beginning al solar noon.
o mnking your measurements. Yo u ca n insta ll a bubble Plot the log of the ratio L tf L2 against air mass (III. the
..... level on vour ozone-meier. Hold the unit on its side
with the upper alignment \'ane pointed toward the
reciprocal of the sine of the sun's angle above the
horizon) o n a graph. If you ex te nd the plot to 0 air
~
o sun : when the bubble is cen te red . measure the length
of the shadow cast by the npper vane.
mass. YOli will find the approximate ex traterrestrial
consta nt. L ,IL ! can be the ratio of the UV measure-
(l) men IS in watts per sq uare meter or simply Ihe num-
TIle ta ngent of the sun's angle above the horizon is
~ the length of Ihe uppe r vane divided by Ihe length of bers read [rom the readouts. Because the ralio of the
(l) the vane's shadow. It·s impo n ant that you record the two signa ls is bein g measured. iI's not necessary to
o exact tillle of your mea<;urements. this time in form a-
tion wilt permit you to calculate the sun 's angle elec-
know the cali bration of the photodiodes. The ozone
absorpt ion and Ra le igh scallering coefficients can be
tronicallv, a l a late r time if .vou e lect to do so. Vario us
found in published la bles.
computer programs are available tha t give the a ngle
of the Sll n for a llY location on Earth.

Sensitive Optical
The Total Ozone Equation Tachometer
I The tota l ozone equa tion is given as follows A optical tachometer will pe rmit you 10 measure the
0 , = log (L ]I L!' ) ~ log(L ]IL!) ~ (b ]- h:) limes speed of rOiating objects such as wheels and motors.
(pl inK's mll .013) di\'ided by «(II - {/~) limes m disks. and flywheels. By a llaching a small mirror to a
rotating o bject and shining a light on the mirro r. you
where
can use a photOiachometer to measure the speed of
L 1 ' and L ~' are the intensities of the two that rotating o bject as shown in Fi gure ?-P. You can
wavelengths o utside the a tmosphe re build a sensitive phototllchometer quite easily. The
L ] a nd L~
are the inlCnsities of the two wave- phototachometer shown in Figure 2- 13 uses a phOlo-
le ngths during a measureme nt lransislor sensor a nd IWO op-amps a nd fir/rl effect
fmllsislOr (FET) along with a n analog meter to meas-
a nd fl : are the absorption coefficie nts for
fl l
ure rotating objects a t speeds up to 50.000 rpm.
ozone at the two wavelengths

48 Electronic Sensors for the Ev il Genius

 LIGHT
r - WHEEL SOURCE

- MIRROR
, "' - '

,,

,,
,, I
,,
,,
,,
,,
,, PHOTO TACHOMETER
,,
,,
,,
,,

FIgure 2-12 M emwrillg speNt willi (I pholOllIc!wmclcr

Ught pulses strikim:: the phololransistor Q I pro- The opticallachomcler Ciln be constructed on a
duce voltage pulses at the inp ut of the op-amp V I. 3Y.!: X 6 inch ci rcuit board. When d csigni ng the circui t
which is connected as a schm itl trigger. (A schmitt board. it is recommend ed that the pholotransislor be
trigger is a logic gate that red uces the p roblem of moun ted at one e nd of thc ci rcuil board so that when ••
unwamed slate changes ncar the voltage threshold . II the ci rcu it board is insta lled in an e nclosure. the pho-
prevents nois)' signals from triggeri ng a cireui!.) -Ille lotra nsislor will"look" oUlside thc edge of Ihe box.
OUtput pulses from U1 nrc then di fferentiated by IntcgnHed circuit sockc ts are high ly recommended
C4/R7.gh'ing voltage spikes thaI are then applied to for the tWO integra ted circui ts. in the eve nt of a circuit
the timer"s (U2) trigger inp ut. "Ille aUipu l from the fail u re at a latc r date. II is much easie r to replace
one-shot logic circuit passes th ro ugh d iode 0 I a nd componen ts if socke ts are used. Whe n insta lling inte-
energiles the FET/ R15 constant-currcn l source 10 grated ci rcuits. you must observc the correct orienta-
produce pulses with conslalll amplitude across R 16. tion of the Ie before insta lling it in its socket.
"hich are averaged by the meter at M I. Capacitor Integm ted circuit packages will gene ra lly ha\'c c ither
ell is added to dampen the meier pointer vibratio n a sma ll indc lHed circle o n one side of the package or
at low rpm ranges. The photot<lchomctc r can be oper- a small cutout o n the top of the Ie package. Pin I of
ated using a 9-voll transistor radio batte ry at B I. the Ie will a lwa\'s be to the le ft of e ithe r Ihe cmom
Power is appl ied 10 the phototacho mcle r via the or the small inde n ted circle. Wh e n insl<llling compo-
JXIwerswitch a t S2. ne nts on the circuit be carefu l to observe Ihe pola rity
of the capacitors and diodes. There a re five e lec-

Chapter Two Light Detection and Measurement 49

 X 1000 RPM

2.5 5 W so
>-0

A" A13
.9V A' A9 AW An

r. • C7
•
.9V 3
, C9
A'
.9V ~b
~AC2 , Sl :a
" 5

C
A2
P -w A'
8

U2
, C
,,
,,
,
,
;t;;i>-', f--fr
A"
C,
2
,, Tca
~, , ~I A7
7 ,,
,, -
0'
-
A3 ~
C5 , 3 ,,
A'
AS
D'
f' ,,
,,
,,
c -..
A" ,
~
,
o 9~~ 02 0 n
0 .9V ,
,,
..... TO
CIRCUIT •
• 9V
0
S2
•
A"
53
TEST

,~ Sl .'b

+J •
9V -:- 61
A"
• S,
.0-
t'J -, '1' A .~ 0,
'{
Q)
.0-
A" :-I SOUA CW
M'
3
• cn
+J
{'
o
..l.
I
----------.-
Figure 2-13 Phototm:hollleler circuit

trolytic c:lpat itors (C!. CS. e9. CW. and e ll ). Note 51. and for the RUllffest switch III 53. Yo u will also
the plus mnrking on each capacitor and ils orie nta- have to use a chassis punch to CUI out a hole for the 0
tion with respect to the schematic diagram. A single to 50 uA me ie r. Rnnlly. you will have to drill a ~inch
diode is used in the circuit al O l: the band al one end hole so that the phototransistor can look ( 0 the out~
of the diode is the cathode. and il should be fa cing side world o ut Ihe side of the chassis box.
the drain pin on 0 2. TIle photOlransislor al OJ will In the initial tacho metcr prototype. the power
have its collector connected to Cl. wrule its cmin er is switch 52. the speed switch at 51. and the Runffest
connected to ground . 'IllC FET at Q7 has its ga le con- switch a t 53 were all mounted o n the top frol1l of the
( neeled to the junct ion of R15/ R 16. while its d rain chassis box along with the me tcr. l 11e ci rcuit board
lead is connected to diode D I. Tlle source lead of the was mounted atop fou r lA-inch plastic sta ndoffs " ith
r ET is connected to o ne end of potentiome te r R 15. :Y~- inch -1-40 machine screws. 111e circuit board was
Also notc that the me te r must be insta lled with its oriented so the phototransisto r will face the M·inch
plus or positive lead connected toward thc ro tary hole that was drilled so that the phototransistor can
1-1 switch at 51. look OU t the chassis box. A 9-volt battery holder was
(
Locate a 6 x 8 x 2 Y: metal chassis box in wh ich 10 mounted on the bOHom of the chassis box.
+J house Ihe phototachomctcr. Yo u will need to d rill a To ca libra te Ihe tachometer. R 15 a nd R1 7 arc fiTS!
0.. few holes in the chassis: for the sens itivi ty control a t set to midposition . a nd the range swi tch is sel to 2,500
I R2. fo r the speed switch a t 5 I. fo r the powe r switch a l rpm. A DC voltme ter is thcn connected across R16.
,J
U
so El e c t r on i c Senso r s f o r the Ev il Ge n i us
After disconnecting the wirc be twec n points C and 0 Rla 2 00K ohm, l / ~-watt,
5 \ reSi s tor
in the diagram. R1 5 is adjus ted so that the voltme te r
reads I \·olt. This wire is rc connec ted at the rangc Cl 0.002 uF o 35-volt
ceramic disc cap a c itor
s\\ilch and is sel 10 10.000 rpm. A 3-\'011 peak. 120 Hz
C2 0.05 uF , 35-volt
sine wa\'C is applied b e twee n poi n ts A and B: this is c erami c disc c apac itor
equl\'alent 10 applying 7.200 rpm.
C3 , C5 0. 1 u F , 3S-volt
Fmally check for thc rejection of low-Ie\'el. 120 Hz c eramic disc c apacitor
modulation of incandesccn t lighl sources by a imin!! C4 0.001 uF, 35- v o lt
c eramic d isc c apacitor
the phOIOtransistor aI a 50- to 75-\\,<111 la m p whi le
C6 0.068 uF, 3S-vo lt
\<U)·ing the sensith'ity control R1 over ils ra nge. If Ibe
c eramic dis c c apacitor
meter does nOi remain at ze ro unde r all conditions.
C7, ca. ClO 20 uF , 35-
the input hysteresis is increased by incrcasing R4 10 volt electrolyti c
to kilo-ohms. The phototachome lc r is now ready for c apa c it o r
experimen tatio n. eg, Cll 100 uF o 35-volt
elec t rolyti c ca pacitor I
Dl IN9l4 si licon diode
Ql phototranSi stor
Sensitive Phototachometer ECG-30Jl
Parts List Q2 FET transisto r ECG
3 12/451
Rl 3.9K ohm. 1 / 4- watt . Ul LM7 41 op-amp
5 \ r esistor
U2 LM55S timer IC
R2 lOOK ohm potentiome -
Ml 50 uA mic o ramete r

RJ
te r (panel mount)
15 0K ohm, 1 / 4- watt ,
5 % re s i:nor
51 two-p o le five -
position r otary switch
oCl)
52 5P5T toggle (power ("T
R4 5.1K o hm, 1 / 4- watt ,
5\ resi s tor switch)
53 5PDT t o ggl e switc h
Cl)
R5 , R8 l OO k ohm , l /~­
watt , 5 \ resistor
(run /tes t) ()
Miscellaneous PC boa r d, ("T
R6 , R7 47k ohm, 1 /4 -
watt . 5 \ resistor
wire , IC sockets,
hardware, etc.
.....
R9 SOK ohm, 1 / 4-watt .
o
5 \ re s i s t o r
RI O 25K ohm, 1 /4- watt, ::s
5 % r e s i s tor
Rli 10K ohm . 1 / 4- watt , Turbidity
5 % resist o r
Rl2 5K ohm , l/q - watt , Turbidity wa te r is caused by the presence of vcry fin e
5 % re s istor
suspended matter such as clay. silt. o rganic a nd inor-
R13 , R14 3.9K ohm . 1 / 4- ganic matter. soluble colored o rgan ic compounds.
watt , 5 \ resistor
plankto n. <lnd othc r m icroscopic o rganisms. Turbidi ty
R15 5K ohm c alibration
potenti oml! te r measu re me nts rc lat e to the optical prope rty of wate r
(trimp o t) Iha l causes light to be scattered and absorbed ra ther
R16 lK ohm, 1 / 4-watt. Ihan transmitted in slraightlines th ro ugh the sample.
5 % re sistor 111e common unit of measureme nt o f turbidity is the
R17 10K o hm c alibration Nephelometric turbidity IInit (NT U).
potenti omet er
(trirnpot)

[hapt~r Two Light D~t~ction and M~asurement 51

 In generai lerms.lhc turbidi ty o f a Ouid sam ple is a can a lso lead to a concentra tio n of hea\'\'. mew l ions
measure of how clear or cloudy Ihe sa mple is. lhe a nd biocides in tur bid wa te rs. Turbidit vcan interfere
degree of d oudiness being a function o f the co n cc n~ with d isinfection processes and the mai ntenance of a
m u ion o f suspe nded solids in Ihe liquid. In this p roj ~ chlorine residua l: dependi ng o n the composition of
eel. a me thod Ihal measures the exte nt to which the the tur bid ity-causing material. interfe re nce wi th dis-
sam ple sca tte rs light wiU be used. infectio n ca n range from negligible to severe. Turbid-
Clarity o f wate r is imporlum in prod ucing prod- ity has also been related ( 0 lri/w/omerlume fo nnation
ucts desti ned for human consumption and in many in chlori na ted wat e r. GUl breaks of disease traced to
man ufaclUri ng operations. Beverage prod ucers. food ch lo ri nated water supplies have been associated \\~ t h
processo rs. a nd potable water trealment pl am s d raw- high turbid it y. TIle occurrence a nd persistence of
ing [rom a surface waler source commonly rely on - .
microor!!anisms within distribut ion S\'stems have
nuid- pa rliclc sepa rat ion processes such as sedimen- been correl ated \\~t h m rbiditv •
and other facto rs. The
tati on and fill ra tion to increase cla rily a nd e nsure a n effect of turbidi tv. on d isinfection e([iciencv
. ma\'. be
ncccpta ble prodUCl. llu! clarity of a natu ral body of fre que ntly re lated to the type a nd nature of the par-
W<l le r is a n im porta nt determ inan t of its cond ition ticula tes. Surface Water sources in pa rticular ma\' be
and productivity. susceptible to organic substances a nd undesired

c Corre lation of turbidity with the weigh t or particle

o rganisms that can impede disin fection or othen\;§('

o n umber concentrat ion of suspended ma ile r is d iffi-

cu lt beca use the size. shape. a nd re fracti\'c index of
cause d ri nk ing wllier q ua lity problems.
A ppropria te technology is a\'ailable to treat and
"' the particles affect the ligh t-sca tte ring properties of mo nitor tur bid ity to low len.. ls. Provision of treated
the suspensio n. Whe n present. insigni[icnllt co nccn- water a t o r be low this limit will minimize the intro-
trations of part icles consist ing o f light-absorbing d uct io n of unfavorable particulates a nd bio logical
materials suc h as activated carbon ca use a negati\'e matter into the d istribution S\'ste
. m and thereby. ren-
inte rfe re nce. In low concenlratio ns these particles der better d isi nfection o pportunity. effectiyeness. and
te nd to have a positive innuc ncc. beclluse they COIl - maintenance. Special site-specific problems may
tribute to turbidi ty. TIle presence of d issoln:d. colo r- req uire mo rc rigorous anemion fo r the production of
ca usi ng substnnces tha t absorb light may cause a low-tur bidi ty water. A ny sudden increase in the !Ur-
negati\'e interference. Some comme rcia l instruments bidit), of unfin ished water indicates dete riorating
may have the ca pability of e ither correcting fo r a q uality of the raw water o r loss of cont rol in the
sligh t color inte rfe rence o r optica lly blanking out the wate r treatmen t process. Ce rtain water supplies. such
color e ffect. as groundwate r. may contai n non-organic-based tur-
"'I- Instruments that mcasure tur bid it\' a rc called IfIr- bidity. which may not serio usly hinder disinfect ion.
bi(IiE)' 1IU!lers. TIICY ran l!e in complexit" and cost (ro m . value for turhidi!\'. in water
Ther efore. a less strim!ent
en te ring a distribut ion system may be penniw:d ifit
ba lleT!'-powered handheld units to continuo us o nline
is demo nstrated that the system has a history of
monito ring syste ms. Excessi\'c m rbidity detract.s from
acceplllb1e microbiological q uality and that a higher
the ap pearance of trea ted water and hliS o ft en been
( tu rbidi ty va lue wi ll nOi com promise d isinfection .
associated with unaccepta ble tastes a nd odors. Tur-
bidi ty ca n sef\'e as a source of n utrie nts for wa tl;! r-
borne bacteria. viruses. and protozoa. which can be
embedded in o r adhere to pa rticles in the raw wate r Electronic Turbidity Meter
or become trapped wi thin flQ(, formed durin!! wate r
treatme nt: turbidity ca n thus interfe re with the e nu- The electronic turbidity meier in this project is a sin-
(
-
me ra tio n of m icroorc.a nisms in fin ished water. as the gle -beam transmissio n type turbid ity me te r. \\ hic11 is

- .
microoreanism may not be detectable o r rna\'. be ideal fo r a scie nce fai r project. TIle turbidity meter
ci rcuit shown in Figure 2-1 4. revolves around the
grossly underestimated by cUrre ll! detection met h-
ods. The adsorpt ive properties of suspended particles clear plastic or glass nat-surfaced test cell or sample

52 Electronic Sensors for the Evil Gen i u s

r---- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ACCULEX
I TE5T I R2 DP -654
WATER I
/ SH[ELDED
I CELL ' ) SAMPLE I
I CABLE
I
I
I ~ I
10K OPO
I
I ///// I
I +12V DPl
I 01 V -,////1 I Ul
1,--
I ,/ Ii I
~ , : /\ 7 D[G[TAL
D[SPLAY
-
: -:It''-f"' .-' I
I : I 2 6

: //
I
\
I
I
I
\
~
I
I
I
I
I I 3
LM741

1 54
[N(+)

\ I \ I 3 •
I I \1 5
I
\ I 4 I '0-
I I
1 51 53 HOLD
I I
---------- -- - - - - - R3 10K '0.- ,
81
+5V
I
- 12V
9-1 2VDC

IN(-)

51 - 12VDC +12VDC
--
ri:
---":-
6ND

U2 - DS-l
1 0
6I 6 LM7805

5
2,A rj - - ---- --- S2:B _I UF
+IOUF

Cl C2 I:'
(l)
12V 12V
-
I' ~=-
it
- II + •I + - (l)
82
-
83 IJ
-------------------_. -- -- ------- - --_. --- -. ._----- t
Figure 2-14 Oplical flI rbidif)" sellsor J.

)
chamber. which is housed in a "dark" light box. A pu t of the op-a mp at pin 6 is fed di rectly to a Accu lex j
light source such as a small incandescen t la m p or a DP-654 LCD display module. which will provide a
high-outplll or superbright LED is allowed to shine good stable o u tput reading for the turbidity mete r.
through the water sample in the test cell o nto a sili- TIle output of the op-a mp is coupled to the plus (+)
con solar cell. The lamp is a li gned \\~lh the solar cell input pin on the LC D display. 'Ille minus ( - ) lead o f
in a straight beam pat h where a small light tube is the L C D me te r is connected to th e display ground as
placed in front of the lamp to d irect the light to the well as to the circu it ground . TIl e display hold
solar cell. switchcs S3 a nd S4 allow eithe r mo mentary hold
The electronics of the circuit consists o f a n LM 74 1 function or a more pe rmanent ho ld fe a ture. The hold
op-amp as the electronic amplifier. The silicon solar switches are wired directly to the 5-\'01t powe r
cell is connected directly 10 the op-amp as shown. sourcc. as is the power supply lead for the LC D
with the plus (+) lead fro m the solar cell connected meter. A 5-volt regula tor a t U2 is used to ste p down
directly to the plus (+) pin o f the op-map at p in 3. the 12-\'olt power source to 5 volts fo r the display.
The minus lead ( - ) o r the solar cell is connected to Note thai the circuit uses 1WO 12-\'olt bilHeries or 12-
the minus input ( - ) o f the op-amp at p in 2. The OUI- \'olt power supplies to power the turbidity meter. TIle

Chapter Two Light Dete c tion and Measurement 53

 op-amp requires both a + 12-voit supply a nd a (rom a block of wood a nd small circ uit boa rd i<; used
~ 12-voll power supply to operate correctly. NOIe also to mo unt the LE D about -4 inches fro m the basement
that the IWO ballerics are wired in such a way as to of the da rk cha mber. A second fixture made of
con nect one of the plus terminals to one of the minus wood is made to hold the so lar ce ll in perfect align-
terminals to form a com mon ground. Power switch ment with the lamp in the dark chamber e nclosure.
S? is a DPST toggle switch. which is used to sepa- The rectangular plastic fl a t sided test ce ll is pl aced
ralCly swi tch in bOlh the plus and minus powe r in be tween the lamp and the silicon solar ce ll
sources. Inc liglll circuit shown althe left of the assemblies.
diagram uses a superhrighl while LED as the light The dark chamber thai houses the lamp assembly.
source placed in se ries with a 1K ohm resistor the leSI ce ll . and the solar cell asscmblv ca n be fabri-
through a power swi tch to a 9- to 12-\'olt power ca ted from wood. cardboa rd. or e \'en st\'rofoam. It is
source such as a 9-volt bailer\,. most importa nt that the five -sided da rk chamber
The electronic wrbidit y circui t can be readily con- docs not leak light and can be ke pt as dark as possi-
strut ted on perf-board o r on a prototype circu it ble by taping the edges of the corners or by fillin g in
board or. if you desire. on a sma ll printed c ircuit the cracks or painting the comers. You will need to
boa rd. An inlcg raled circuit socket is recomme nded make an i\'.' a small nOich or hole for the silicon solar
for the o p-amp. a nd will sa\'e you much grief in the cells le ads to come out of the dark chamber box.
!:.
o event of a future fai lure. W hen inslaUing the hue -
grate d circuit you must pay particular a Hcntion to the
Once the circuit is assembled. the so lar cell is con-
nec ted. and lhe lamp assembly is set up in the dark
.r-i
orie ntal ion of the op-a mp to avoid da ma!?!! 10 the IC chamber. you will o nly ha ve to ca librale the turbidity
+-l Most ICs have e ither a squ are cutOU I on the tOP of mete r before vou can lise it.
t., the Ie. wi th pin I be ing to the left of the cutout. or to To ca libmte Ihe turbiditv• me ter •\ ' OU will first have
the le C! of the small inde nte d circle ne xt to pin I of to fill the test cell with clear ta p waler o r distilled
+-l the Ie. Take your lime whe n installing the IC to water. With the source lamp off. adjust RJ to give an
Q) avoid d,lInage to the Ie pins. When installing Ihe output o n the LCD of 0.00 volts. Ne xt turn o n the
o e leclrolytic capacitor. you will need 10 orient it so
that the POSili\'c marking is connected to th e plus (+)
source lamp with switch S I a nd adjust R2 to gi\'e an
outpul of I volt o n the LCD voltmeter. f-lnall y insert
output of the regula tor at U2. Aflc r conslfucting the the wate r sample yo u have collected imo the test cell
circuil illake sure to inspect the circuit board to make and record the voital!e o n the LCD \'oitme le r. Th e
sure the re a re no c ut component leads across a ny ci r- turbidi lY meter is now re ndy to assist you in collecl·
cuit wires or PC la nds. ing a nd ana lyzing wate r samples.
The proto type turbidi ty meter is housed in a meta l
chassis box measuring 6 X 6 X -4 inches. The two
powntiome te rs used for calibration we re mounted on Measurement Techniques
I the front of the chassis box. These two potentiome-
te rs should be chassis-Illounted Iypes so that adjust- Determine turbidity as soon as possible afler the
o men ts can be made easily once the ci rcuit is in
operation . The on-o[f switch as well as the LCD
sample is taken. Proper techniques are impo rtant in
minimizing the effect s of instrume nt variables as well
mete r switches and the LC D arc a ll mounted o n the as stray light and air bu bbles. Rega rdless of the
frolll of the chassis box for easv control. Screw temli- inSlrument used. the me asureme nt will be more accu-
nal strips or RCA jacks could be used to connect the rate. precise. and re peata ble if dose attentio n is paid
1-4 circuit to a re mo te power supply of balleries. 10 prope r measureme nt techniques. Measure turbid-
(
TIle silicon solar cell is se para ted from the main ity imme diate ly to prevent tempc ralUre changes and
circuit board e nclosure by a length of shielded cable particle floccul a tio n and scdimenta tion from chang-
to the " dark chambe r" that ho used the lamp circui !. ing smnple characteristics. If flocc ula lion is apparent.
the la mp baue!')'. and the test ce ll. A fixture m ade break lip aggregates by agilation (that is by swirling

54 Electronic Sensors for the Evil Genius

the water around) . Avoid dilution whe neve r possible.
Particles suspended in the o riginal samp le may dis~ Optical Turbidity
solve or otherwise change characteristics when the Sensor Parts Li s t
temperature changes or when the sa mple is diluted.
Remove air or other e lllrained gases from the sample Rl IK ohm , 1 /4 -watt
resistor
before measurement. Preferably degas even if no
R2 , R3 10K Fotentiome-
bubbles are visible. Degas by a pplying a partial vac~
te r (chas s is mount)
uum. adding a nonfoaming type surfactant. using an
01 Superhright white
ultrasonic bath. or applying heat. In some cases.. two LEO
or more of these techn iques may be com bined fo r SI silicon so lar cel l
moreeffecti\"c bubble re moval. Cl 0. 1 uF, 3S-volt disc
Usc sample cells or tubes of clear. colorless glass c apacitor

or plastic. Keep cells scrupulously clcan. bo th insid e C2 10 uF , 3S - vo1t elec_

t rolyti c ca pacitor
and oul. and discard if scratched or etched. e ver
handle them where the instrument's light beam will
Ul
U2
LM741 op- amp
LM7805 5 - volt
I
strik.e them. Use tubes with sufficient e xtra length or
regulator
with a protcttivc case. so that they may be handled
Sl, S4 SP$T toggle
properly. Fill ceUs with samples and standa rds that swi tch
have been agitated tho ro ughly and allow sufficie nt S2 DPST toggle s witch
time for bubbles to escape. 53 normally Open push-
Clean sample tubes by thoroughly wash ing with button swi tch

laboratory soap inside and o ut followed by multiple B2 , 83 12 gell call

volt battery
rinses with distilled o r de-io nized wate r. Le t ceUs air
OS- l Accu l ex DP654 d ig-
dry Handle sample cells only by the top to avoid d irt ital voltmeter module
and fingerprints within the light path. Ce lls may b e
Miscellaneou s test
mated on the outside with a thin layer o f s ilico ne oi l cel ls, PC board , Ie
to mask. minor impe rfectio ns and scratches tha t may socket, wire , c onnec-
tors, da rk chambe r
contribute to stray light. Use silicone o il with the
mounting assembli e s,
same refracti\'e index as glass. Avoid e xcess o il hardware , e tc.
because it may attract dirt and contam inate the sam-
ple compartment of the instrumen t. Using a soft. lint~
free cloth. spread the oil uniformly a nd wipe o ff
excess. llie cell sho uld a ppear to be nearly dry wi th
litlle or no visible oil. Because sma ll diffe re nces
between sample cells sign ificantly impact me asure-
ment. use either matched pairs of cells or the same
cell for both standardization and sample
measurement.
Gently agitate sample. Wait until air b ubbles dis-
appear and pour sample in to cell. When possi ble.
pour the well-mixed sample into the ce ll and
immerse il in an ultrasonic bath for I to 2 seconds o r
apply the vacuum d egassing techniq ue. causing com-
plete bubble release. Read mrbidilY directly from the
instrument display.

Chapter Two Light Detection and Measurement 55

 Chapter Three

Heat Detection

Heat is transferred from one place to another in one

of three ways: conduction . convection. a nd rad ial ion. Infrared Flame Sensor
Comillcrioll is the process of transfe rring heat from
molecule to molecule in a substance. When one e nd
Switch
of an iron rod is placed in a fire. the other e nd soon ll1e infra red d e tl!ctor switch is a vcry sensitive circuit
gels hOI because heat is transferred from one e nd of th at can be use to de tect the presence of a flame ,
the iron \0 the other end by conduction ([rom mole-
cule to molecule). CO/II"ecrioll is the process of trans-
match. o r a heat so urce. such as a n iron or so ldering I
iron. lip to 3 feet away and then activate a re lay. -1l1C
mitting heal by means of the moveme nt of heated heart of the infrared flam e detector circuit is twO tiny
matter from onc place to anothe r. COin-celio n thus th emlistors. as shown in Figure 3-1. A Ihermisror is a
takes place in liquids and gases. A room is heated by tempe ra ture-sensitive resistor. which cha nges its
means of COI1\,cction by ci.rculating warm air through resistance as the temperature "ories. ·nle resista nce of
the room. This brings us [ 0 radiation. In both conduc- TI is inversely pro po rtio nal to te mpe rature. In other
tion and comreclion. heat is transmitted. or tra ns·
ported, by moving particles.. for e~a mpl e b y
molecules or air. However h eal can a lso \rovel where
words. the resista nce ofT1 increases as tempe ra lUre
decreases. Glass be ad or bu lb thermistors rated at o(1)
15K to 50K ohms a t room tempe rature are recom·
mailer does not exist. For example. dIe heat from the mend ed for th is project. TIle heart o f the infm rcd rt
sun reaches the earlh across the 93 millions of m iles detector switch is t\\'o the mlistors. The nnistor T 1 is (1)
of space. When a cloud passes b e twee n the su n and a used as a he.1I se nso r connecte d 10 the minus (-) ()
point on earth, the heat at that point is diminished o r
cut off. This is due to the fac t that heat is tra nsmiu ed
input o( a n op-amp configured as a compara tor. l ller- rt
mistorT2 acts as a refe re nce resistor a l nOTlllal room ~.
or radiated by wa\·es.
Heat waves and light waves are of the same
temperature a nd is connected to potentiome te r R2.
wh ich is used as a set-point adjustment rcsislOr.
o
nawre: they arc both electromagne t ic radiutions that C ha nges in ambie n t room air temperature cause
::3
differ only in w3\'ele ngth. heat waves being longe r equal changes in TI a nd 1'2. but a n in frare d source
than light waves. !-Ieat waves ne ar the radio portio n such as a flam e or hot iron affects o nly thermistorT \.
of the spectrum are called infrared . The rmislor T I is wired in series with a 33K o hm
In this chapter we will construct an ill(ra rcd Ollnle resistor. whi le 1'2 is wired in series with a SDK o hm
detector. which can sense a match o r flame up to 3 pote ntiome te r. U nder oonnal opera tion. power is
feet awa\,. In this chapter. you will also \carn how to applied to the circuit and the circuit is a llowcd to sta-
construct a frecze alaml. an over-temperature moni- bilize for a few mo ments. Po tc ntiomete r R2 is
tor, and an analog data-logger for sending te mpera- adjusted un tillhe re lay j ust switch es off: this is the
ture data remote ly. More ad vanced projects include switch-poin t th reshold .llle circuit is no rma lly ke pt
an LCD thermomete r. a n igh t visio n viewer. and a n below this th resho ld u ntil the thermistor detects an
infrared motion detector. which can sense the bod" infrared sou rce. Once an infra red source is detected.
heat of an intruder up to 50 feet away. The infrared the o p·amp changes sta le and activates transisto r QJ.
motion detector could be used 10 create you r own which p ulls in the SPOT re lay at RY- I. Because the
home alaml syste m. o p-amp is used in a comparntor configuration. the

57
 , THERMISTOR
+9VDC

FLASHLIGHT 51
/AEFLECTOR

R4

T2

01
R2
R1 NfC
I O
V
lm741 0
D1 t;
I 0
I:::: RY - l NlO
o ------ ------ ._----- ----------------------.------.--------------.------------------------------.---------------------
..... Figu re 3-1 Inf rared fla me sensor swilch circlI it

+l
o e n tire circui t can be powe red fro m a single 9-vo11 pin I. Whe n insta lling the IC be sure to ali1,'1l pin 1 to
Q) transistor radio battery or "wall wart"" power supply. the so cke t p in correspond ing 10 pin 1. The o nly ot her
+l (A wall wart is a small power supply thai can be co mponen t tha t req u ires co rrect o rie n ta tion is the
Q) plugged d irecl l), into the wall : it gOI its na me WlIrt dio de placed at D l. The re lay used in this project is
Q because when plugged into a power str ip, it oft en an SPOT mini re lay: this type o f re lay is used because
blocks more than the onc Spo t if s allo ned.) it allows yo u to be able to use e ithe r a no rmally
l llC infrared switch is so sensiti ve that it will closed set of conlacts or a no rma lly ope n set o f con-
detect a n infra red source mo re thun 3 feel away. In taclS d ep endin g upo n your particula r a pp licatio n.
order \0 achieve Ihis scnsili vily. lbe rmistor Tl is Afte r constructing the circu it b OCl rd, yo u will need to
mounted in the cen ler or a t the focal poin t of a fl ash- inspect the botto m o r foil sid e of the circuit board to
ligh t re fl ecto r. Care must be ta ke n to e nsu re tha t the make sure that no s tray o r loose compo ne nts leads
theffil isto r is accura te ly mo un ted at the foc.1 [ point o f slUck to tbe u ndersid e o f the circuit boa rd. Yo u want
the re fl ector to e nsure maximum sensitivity of the to be sure that the re are no short -circu it pa ths
circuit. be tween circ uit pads. A p plying power to the circuit
with sho rt-circu its may destro y the circuit.
The in fra red switch circuit can be bui lt on a pe rf-
boa rd o r pro to-board o r o n a small printed circuit The infrared switch is p laced in a me tal e nclosure
bo a rd . The pro toty pe circui t is constructed o n a 21/2 in o rd er to pro teci the circu iLA 5 x 7 inch meta l
X 2 inch circu it boa rd . TIle circuit layout is not crit ica l chassis box is used to house the infra red switch cir-
imd can be b uilt in und er a n hour. Use an illlegrared cuit. The on -off switch a t S I an d the pote ntio meter at
circllir ( IC) socke t whe n b u ilding the circuit to e nab le R2 are mou nted on the top front o f the chassis box.
you to repair the circuit if th e need ever arises. ICs Thermisto rTI is mo un ted o n the circuit board.
have markings o n the m to ind icate the pino u ts of the whe reas therm isto r TI is <It the focal poin t o f fl ash-
d evice. ICs ge ne ra Uy will bave a plastic cuto ut in the light re fl ecto r.
lOp cen te r o f the package. If this is the case then pin 1 A s me n tioned earlie r. the thermisto r must be
will be to tbe le ft o f the cutout. Some ICs may h ave a mo unted in the exact cen te r of th e cente r bole of the
small inde nted circle o n the top j usl to the righ t o f re fl ector. In add itio n to be ing mo un ted in the cen ter

58 Electroni c Sensors f o r the Ev il Genius

of the rencctor. the the rmistor must also be mounted R4 41-ohm, 1! 4- watt
in the focal plane of the re nector to be most effective. re.:;istor

A small round piece of plastic or circuit bQ(lro can be 01 lN4002 silicon diode

tullo fit over the cente r hole of the reflector and Ql 2N222 2 tran sistor
then glued in place. Two small holes arc drille d into RY-l 6 - volt SPOT r elaY
the small diameter piece of plastic in the cente r of the U1 LM141 op-amp
reflector to accept the leads from the thermistor TI. 81 9-volt ba tt ery
The thermistor leads can then be slid in o r o ut of the Sl SPST toggle s witc h
holes to adjust them into the focal plane. a nd the n the Mis c ellaneous PC board,
leadsean be glued to the plastic ce nter disk. An over- wire, IC socket, ter-
minal st r ip, battery
.i1£d hole is drilled into the side of the chassis box to holde r , c has sis box ,
accept the nashlight rencctor. '[be [lashlight re flector flashlight refle c tor ,
then is mOllnted at the side of the chassis box. and a etc.

hole is drilled to allow the thermistor wires to be sol-

dered to the circuit boa rd.
The small relay is mounted to the circuit board.
Freezing Temperature I
. -
and the three relay contact leads are broue.h t to a
three·terminal screw te rnlinal strip. which is mounted Alarm
10 the opposite end of the chassis box from the nash·
light reneetor. Two mounting scre ws are used to The freezing te mpera ture alarm can be used in a
secure the tenninal strip to the chassis box. and three \'aric t)' of applications to detect when a ir te mpera·
holes are drilled into the box to a llow the relay leads tu rc fall s below zero degrees C or 32 d egrees E llIe
10 connect to Ihe circuit boa rd . A 9-\"0It transislOr fre eze alann can be used to d etect freezin g ro"d con-
radio battery holder is mounted to the bottom of the ditions. infomling you to slow down or change your
chassis box along with the circuit board. driving habits. TIle freeze a la nn could also be used to I:'
The infrared switch unit is now ready to be tested. te ll you when to sprinkle salt on your steps or to III
Connect up the thermisto r TI . apply powe r to the monitor experi ments th:11 require freezi ng. cT
infrared switch circuit. a nd adjust the pote ntiome te r TIIC heart of the freeze alarm circuit as shown in III
R2 until the relay turns off. "Ille re are ma ny potential Figure 3-2 is the thermistor at TI. A thermistor is a ()
cT
applications for the infrared switch circuit. from tmn-
ing things off when surfaces get 100 hot to your next
te mpe rature-sensitive resistor. which cha nges its
resislance as the te mperature varies. TIle resistance of ....
heat·seeking robot projcct. Your electronic infrared TI is in\'erscly proport io nal to te mpe rature. In other o
detector switch is now ready to " see" the world! words. the resistance of T I increases as tempe rature
d ecreases. The thernlistor is a Ke ystone RL0503-
::s
5536K- I22-!\'IS. TIle thc nnistor produces 361 K ohms
Infrared Flame Sensor SUJitch at 0 degrees C and lOOK ohms at "]5 degrees C.
"Ille thennistor is connected be tween the 5"volt
Parts List
power supply and the minus (-) input of a low-
T l , T2 25K to SOK ohm powcr comparator at U I. TIle threshold set-point of
thermistor (Newark the comparator circui t is de te mlincd by the voltage
Elect r onics)
divider set up by resistors R2 a nd R3. which bridge
Rl 33K ohm, l / ~ - watt
resistor between the power supply and ground as shown. As
the comparator threshold is reached whe n the ther-
R2 SOK potenti ome ter
(chass is mount) mistor reaches 32 degrces E lhe com parator pro·
R3 lK ohm, 1!4-watt duces an output at pin I. TIIC outpu t of U I is
resisto r

Chapter Three Heat Detection

 +SVDC

+9V

R1
R3 + 1 ( BZ
T

3 + 2
01
4
U1
>'
Iv - S J lD
C1= = 01
R2 R4
~'s'
~ -- -- -- --

c
0
.~
+9V +5V
+l
t, IN OUT
Q) U2
Sl
+l + + + C3
Q) GND

!-
9V
c I I C2
-- - -
._ .. _----------- --- _.. _------------------
Figure 3-2 Free:.illg iell/IJ/!r(llllre a/arm cirCII;f

amplified bv Ihe QI. an N-channel e nha ncement The fre eze alann is constructed on a smalJ prOlo-
mode \'cnical DMOS FET. llle thrce-pin N-channel board or expe riments universal board. which is aV3il-
FET then drives a solid-slate beeper at BZ . whe n nble [rom D atak (part # 12-611).The circuit can be
32 degrees F is reached. constructed in unde r an hour. Layout is not critical
The freeze alarm is powe red by a 9-\'011 transislor beca use th is is not II high-freque ncy or RF circuit.
radio battery. The 9-\'0It battery is coupled to Ihe Most components <I re not critical a nd a re easily
obtainable. 'ole. however thaI the resistors are all
I regula tor at U2 through the on-o(( switcb at S1. Nine
volts [rom the battery is IIrst supplied to the buzze r. I % resislOrs for accuracy of the circuit operation. The
Nine volts is also fed to U2 where the voltage is omy caveal in building the circuit is to pay particular
reduced and regula ted down to 5 \'olts DC to power a n e ntion 10 the orientation of the semiconductor
the freeze alHrm. A U of Ihe se miconductor devices devices. Study the pinouts of all the semiconductor
arc low-power small foot print dC\'ices; the compa ra- devices before soldering the m into place on the cir-
tor is a National Sem iconductor device: the FET is a cui t board. After conslrucling the circuit boa rd. be
ZETEX product and the regulator is from Seiko . sure to carefully look ror cold solder joints a nd circuit

..c:
c
60 Electr o nic Sensors for the Evi l Geniu s
bridges between circuit pads. Also look fo r loose
component leads that may have a llached tht.! mseh 'cs Freeze Rlarm Parts List
to the underside of the board. All compo ne nts e xcept
Tl Ke Ys t one t h e r mi stor
forthc thermistor are moun ted o n the circu it board.
(s ee text )
The freeze alarm can be housed in a small me tal Rl 499K ohm, 1/ 4- wa tt,
enclosure if desired. A small ) 1h x 5 inch metal box 1% res i stor
\\"3Schosen to house the pro totype freeze alarm R2 1 megohm, 1 / ~ -watt,
1% r eS i stor
circuit. The buzzer and pOwer switch are mo unted o n
the lOp front side of the enclosure. The circu it board R3 72 0K ohm , 1/ 4-wat t ,
1% r es i sto r
is secured to the bollom of the enclosure alone. wi th
-
the 9-\'olt battery holde r. A two-circu it RCA jack is
Cl O. l u F , 3S- vo l t
ce r am i c c apac i tor
mounted on the side of Ihe box to accommoda te the C2 , C3 10 uf, 3 S-vo l t
remote thermistor. e le ct r o l Yt i c capacito r
Next. you Ilil1 want to prepare a shield ed sensor 01 Z VN ~ 1 06F
N- channe l
enhance ment mode OMOS
cable \Iith an RCA plug a t one e nd and the thermis-
FET (ZETEX )
tor at the OIher e nd. Depend ing upon yuur a pplica -
tion.you rna\' wish \0 house the themlistor in a
Ul LMC7 21 S l ow- power
compa r a to r (Nationa l I
discarded pell. \lith prol'isio ns for the shicJded cable Semi conduc to r )
loe.xilthe lOp of the pen assembly. First. prepare the
thermistor by spraying it and the leads with Crylon o r
U2 S-8 l 2CSOSGY-S SHT-
tYpe r egu l ato r (Sei k o)
::r:(l)
Sl S PST t o ggl e switch
a similar plastic coating to insulale the the rmistor a nd
III
the first 1'. inch of the le:lds. Th e Ihemlistor le ads are 81 9-volt t ra nsisto r
rad i o batte r y rt
usuall~' I'cry small-gilUge wire. so care must be take n
"hen soldering the shield ed cable to the the rmistor.
Heatshrink IUbing shou ld be put o\'er the connection
8Z QMB-1 2 e l ect r onic
beep er (Sta r ) ,
orjunction between the thermistor and the shie lded
Mi s ce ll a n e ous p r inted
ci r c u it boa r d , b atte ry
I>
cable, and some stra in relief should be provided. ho l d e r, wi r e, chassis t
Once the freeze alarm Iws been insta lled in ils
b o x, RCA jack, RCA
p l u g , s t andoffs,
:>
enclosure. and the Ihe rmistor cable attachl!d to the sc r e ws, nuts, e tc. ()
cirruit. you can installthc 9-volt battery. Place the o n- rt
off switch in the off position and install Ih e battery. ~.
To test the circuil. prepare a bowl with a numbe r of
Overtemperature Rlarm
o
ice cubes or crushed ict.! in a small amount of wate r.
You want to creatc an ice bat h or icc slurr\'. \ Vait ='
about a minute for the icc to cool the wate r to near The o\,crtempera tu re alarm circuit is a greal sensing
rreezing.then apply pOller to the freeze a la rm and 1001 a nd will alert you to an o l'crheating cond ition.
immerse the thermistor probe in to the icc slurr\'. and The prototype ol'ertempera ture alarm has a trip
the bUller should start to sound. Next remove the poin t around 150 degrees F. but this can be a lte red
probe from the icc slurry and the buzzer shou ld go fo r 0 1he r opera ting rangcs if desired. lllC overte m-
quiet in j ust a momenl. If the circuit is func tioning peratu re a larm can be used 10 a lert yo u of an ove r-
correctly. you can tum orf the circuit and your freeze heating cond itio n in your com p u ter or a lite r home
alarm is now ready to serve you! appl iance. You can easily substitule the elect ron ic
buzze r with a small relay \0 usc the ci rcuit to activate
a sire n or !lashing beacon jf desired.

Chapter Three Heat Detection 6l

 The he an of the O\,CTlc mpera tu re illann is the pulse lags the dock edge when the thermistor is cold.
thennistor at Tl. A thennistor is a tempera ture - and the data pulse leads the clock p ulse edge when
sensi tive resistor that changes its resista nce as the T I is hot. This prod uces a cha nge in the output stage
tempe rat ure varies. The resistance of T 1 is im 'e rse ly of UI: B. -1l1e nip flop" s outpu t <II 0 or pin I3 drives a
proportional to temperature. In other words. the Z \fNLlIOA FET at Q2 when the state changes HIkes
resistance ofTI increases a s temperature d ecreases. place and the set"point threshold is reached. Re fer·
A Kc\,stone RL0503-55. 36 k·122~'I S the nnistor is u ti- ring back to thc diagram . the 1 millisecond pulses are
lized in this project. The thermistor produces 5 seconds "part.. This unique low-power circuit is
17.89K at 150 degr<!es F a nd lOOK a t 77 degrees F. powe red by a 3-voit, 120 mAlhr lithium cell . which
You can se lect other the nniSlor vHlues fo r other tem- williast m,IIlY hours in the stand-by sta te .
peratu re ranges. The ove rtc mpe rat urc a larm cir cuit p rototype is
llle ove rtemperalUre alarm circuit is a rather constructed on a small proto-board or experiments
unique circu it shown in Figure 3·3. which uses both uni\'ersal board. which is available from Dalal.: (part
sectio ns of the C D4013B at UI. "1l1e CD . lOI3B is a #12-6 11). "me layout of the components is not critical.
CMOS dual DoType flip nap Ie. "Ibe fi rst section of and no speciHI parts are required in this circuit. Resis-
the CD40 13 6 acts as a monostable multivibrator o r tors arc a ll l/~ · \\'atl.. 5% types. O .paci tors are Mylar
oscilla tor. producing pulses al a rate of 17 per minute . types except for the electrolytic capaciwr a t Cl.
at the output of l:A at pin I . The oscillator's ue- When conslrueting the ci rcuit pay particula r allen-
quen~' is determined by the timing components tion to the pinouts of the transistors at 01 a nd 0 2.
around RI and C2, The oscilla tor do\'cs a FET tra n- It is advisable to use an Ie sockc t for the CD.J0I3B
sistor at Ql. which se nds the osci llator pulse to the in the event of a componen t fa ilure a t a later date.
second C D4013 B section at U I :B. Note that the data The IC socket \\~lIl1la k e pans substitution easy in the

3VDC T B1

+IL_ T1

-- A3 =?
BZ

C2
UI:B 02
UI :A

CLK 0 I"'-
1MS
->-

- ,
5 SEC

Figure 3·3 Ol'(!TtempertlIllTe a/aTIII eirclIit

- .. -
"
---

62 Electronic Sensors for the Ev il Genius

e\'ent of a failure. When insta lling the Ie be careful as soldering the shie lded cable to the therm istor. Heat-
tothe orientation.ICs eithe r have a squa re cu to ut at shrink tubing should be p ut over the connectio n or
the lOp center of the plastic package. or a smail junclio n between the Ihcmlistor a nd the shielded
indented circle to the ril!;ht of pin 1. If the IC package cable. and some sari of strain relief should be
has a square cutout in the top cente r. the n pin I will p rovided .
be'to the left of the cutout.AJI componen ts except O nce i1thermistor housing has been decided o n
for the thermistor Tl will be solde red 10 the printed a nd bu ill. you can move on 10 test ing and cal ib rating
circuit board. your new oven e mpe rat ure alarm. Connect the ther-
After constructing the circuit board. be sure to mistor to rhe screw terminals on the chassis box
inspect the underside of the PC board fo r cold solder e nclosure. r.,'lake sure the on-off swi tch. S I. is turned
joints and bridges between circuit pads. A lso look for off. the n insta ll the 3-\"Olt lithium battery inlo its
~Iraycomponent leads thai may have slUck to the cir- holder. You are now ready to calibrate the oyertem-
cuil board after cutting. O nce you have completed perature a la rm.
building and inspecting the circuit board you arc To test the ci rcuit. you will need to heal the ther-
read)' 10 install the circuit inlo an enclosu re. mistor to 150 degrees F for the b Uller to sound. One
lhe prototype overlem pe ra ture a larm is insla lled me thod is to ta pe a ca librated glass the rmome ter to
in a 31(j X 5 inch a luminum chassis box. The o n-off the thermistor housed in a metal pe n housing and I
sv.ilCh at Sl. the calibration pOlcntiomc tc r a t R-t and place the assembly next to a gas or e lectric stovc.
the bnuer arc mounted on the top front of the chas- Bring the the nnisto r/thermometer assembly near the
sis box. The circuit board is mo un ted o n standoffs burner. to about 1/4 inch above the surface. Tum on
and placed on the bottom o f the chassis a lo ng \\~th the bu rne r. but make sure that you do no t place the
the 3·voll lithium battery holde r. A two-positio n thermistor/th emlOme te r on the burne r surface.
screwtcrminal strip was mounted at the rear o f the Once the assembly reaches 150 d egree F. the
chassis box to a llow connectio n to the the rmisto r sell- b uzzer alarm should sound and your ove rte mpcra- o
sor. One screw on the lenninal sirip goes to pin I on
Ul.and the second screw on the temlinal strip goes
tu re alarm is calibra ted a nd ready. If the circuit is
fu nctioning correctly. you can tu rn off the c ircuit a nd
ro
("'t
to pin 9 and U L Note that a lwo-circu it jack cannot
be used in this application because both thermistor
your overtemperature alam l is now ready to serve
ro
leads arc active. and neither is ground. llle ovc rtem -
you! Feel free to experiment with diffe ren t applica-
tions and di(fere nt tempera ture ranges if desired. o
("'t
perature alaml could be used for higher or lower
temperature ranges if desired by chung ing the ther· ....
mistor mnge. When selecting a d ifferent Ihennistor.
you will want to try and roughl y ma intai n resistor
Overtemperature Rlarm Parts o
List =='
values thllt arc 110t too far 0[[ the "alue given , 10
ensure that the trip point will be reached. T1 RL05 03-5S . 36k-1 2 2MS
(KeY stone)
Next,You will want to prepare a shie lded sensor
1 7.8 9k@1S0_F/ 1 00 k@77_F
cable \\;Ih timed leads at one end and the the rmistor
R1 4 .7 megohm , 1/ 4- watt
at the other end. Depending upon your a pplication. r esistor
you may wish to house the thennislor in a d iscarded R2 l OOK ohm, 1 / 4- watt
metal pen casing. \\~ Ih provisions for the shielded r eSistor
cable to cxilthe top of the pen assembly. First. pre- R3 22 me g Ohm , 1/4 -watt
pare the thermistor by spraying the the rmisto r and r esi stor

the leads with C~' lon o r a similar plastic coat ing to R4 10K o hm potentiome -
ter (pane l mount)
insulate the themlistor and the fi rs l l/~ inch of the
R5 15K ohm, 1/4- wa tt
thennistor"s leads.. The thermistor leads a re usually reSistor
vcry small·gauge wire, so care m ust be taken when

Chapter Three Heat Detection 63

 Cl ~7 uF, 35 - v olt ele c-
trolyti c c apacitor
C2 0 . 01 uF, 35- v olt
Analog Data Logger
c eramic disc c apa c itor System
C3 O.22uF, 35- v olt
c eramic d i sc c a pac itor
An analog data logger syste m is a simple way to send
C4, CS 470 pF , 3S - volt
or record a voltage readi ng be tween tWO points"! For
mY lar c apac itor
example. you can take tcmpc ra lUrc measure ments in
Ql , Q2 ZVNL11 0A FET
t ransi sto r (ZETEX) one location and transmit or record the data and
Ul CD40l3B ~~S dual obtain the data a nd display it al a re mote location in
D- tYpe flip flop re alt ime o r a l a la te r d ate. The remote a nalog data
(Nati o nal
logger syste m is shown in both Figures 3-4 and 3-5.
Semi c o n duc tor)
-Illis two-part a nalog data logge r can be co nfigured in
BZ ~ffi-Ol elect r onic
I WO diffe re nt ways. In Figure 3 -4. a sensor is shown
buz.z.er (Star )
51 SPST toggle s witc h connected to the voltage -controlle d oscil la to r circuit.
B1 3-vo lt lithium
which in tum is connected 10 a sma ll tape recorder.
battery which records ~'ou r d ata a lone locat ion. in this
Mi sce ll ane ous c i r c uit scheme YO li take the recorder to a second locaJion:
board, wire, termina l YO li conneci Ihe tape record cr to Ihc frcqucncY· lo-
st rip , c hassis box ,
,'ollage circuil connected 10 a vollme.le. r and the n
stando ff s, scr ews,
nuts , e t c . playback Ihe recorded data in fom lalion 10 a digital
volt metcr. Jn Ihe second data logger scheme in figure
3-5. a te mperatu re sensor is connected to a ,'oh age·
controlled o scillator. ·nlC output of the. vol tagc-
cOillrolied o scillator is fe d directly to the audio input

SENSOR
VOLTAGE
CONTROLLED
OSCILLATOR
D TAPE RECORDER

I
DATA TAPE

TAPE RECORDER D >

FREQUENCY
TO
VOLTAGE
VOLT-
METER

-------- ... _- ---------------------------------

Figure 3-4 Allalog dara logger system I

64 Elec tronic Sensors for the Evil Genius

 A NTENNA

VOLTAGE TRANS-
SENSOR CONTROLLED -?
MITTER
OSCILLATOR

ANTENNA

I
FREQUENCY
VOLT-
RECEIV ER TO
METER
VOLTAGE

._......._-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- -----------------
Figure 3-5 Analog data logger sysfem J/
o
of a radio transmitte r- e it her a walkie talkie o r an FM o hm is a 1:1 transfom1cr with bOlh windings 600 ro
broadcasllransmitter. A t the receiving end of the cir- ohms each.) The transfomlcr's output is connected to rt
euil a rccci\'cr audio circuit is fed d irectly into a [re- a coupling capacitor at C3. 111e capacitor a nd remain- ro
quencY-ID--voltage converter. The frequency-to-
voltage converler is then fed illla a digital vall meter.
ing tra nsformer lead is con neCled to a mjni audio
p lug. which couples the oscillator circuit to either a
o
rt
In this data logger scheme. you can send th e data transmi tte r"s audio input or 10 the audio input o f a .....
realtime from one location to anothe r. tape recorde r.
o
The sending or sensor circuit shown in Figu re 3-6
shows a temperature sensor connected between pins
11le receiving or p layback circuitry of the re mote
data logger is shown in Figure 3-7. The hear! o f t he
::s
-t and 7 of an LM555 oscilla tor/timer IC In ope ratio n. freq ue ncy-to-voltage con verter in the d isplay circuit
the L~'1555 oscillates at a frequency d ctenn ined by is the LM331 Ie. The a ud io input circuit to the fre-
the resistance of the tempe rature sensor at T l. As the q uenCY-lo-voltage chip e nten; the circuit at capaci tor
temperature ar T I changes. the resista nce changes. C l. The a ud io is next coupled to a minilransfonne r at
thereby changi ng the frequenc), of Ihe oscillator. Ll . Transforme r L l is a n 8·ohm to I K o hm iTl lerstage
Capacitor Cl has been selected to keep the ma.\:i- matching transfomle r uscd in rad ios. h is readily
mum frequency o f the oscillator within the range of a available a l Hny Radio Shack sto re.11le lK output o f
typicallape recorder. The o ut put of the L M555 at pin the transfo mle r is next coupled to a capacitor at Q.
3 of the IC is fed to a capacito r at 0. which is in tum wh ich is then fed into the freq uency-to-voltage con-
connected to a minitransfomlc r at L I. Transfonner verter chip at p in 6.
Ll is a 6OO·ohm to 6oo-ohm interstage ty pe used to In operation, one o f the inp uts of the Uvf311 is
couple radio circuits together. (A 6OO·ohm to 600- b iased at a voltage d c te nnined b\' R2 a nd R3. When

Chapter Three Heat Detection 65

 T
, 8

TO
7

U,
, C,
•
R'
~"
6

2 '"II~J>
, : ~ I
, 0
C,
~

~ Figure 3-6 Tt.'lIIpen/mre fTal1smirrer circllif

.---.-----.------ ---_. ----- ------------
o
.~

+l C3 ~ +9VDC
o 'I f-i +

Q)
+l
Q)
R1 R2
8 R"
Cl 7 S
* C'
" U1 1
C2 2
DIGITAL MULTI·M ETER

+
OR
C1 R3 CS DIGITAL PANEL M ETER
R' R7
I>--j + i-
8n~1 If::
L1
'- iRiaiRiRiRial
~ 1000 oms
3 • o VOLTS 0
'~ -
~ts
+

--
Figure 3-7 Tell/permuTe recei\ler cirClIif

the amplitude of the incomi ng exceeds that of the Each time the comparator switches. the one-shot trig-
reference voltage provided by R2 and R3. lhc output gers and closes a current switch.1bis allows the output
of tbe comparator changes stale until the input sign al filler capacitor at C5 10 charge for a lime determined
falls below the refere nce voltage. by the time constan t of R6 and C4. Resislor R 7 func-
The output [rom the comparator is connected to a lions as a bleeder resistor that continually discharges
monoslable multivibrator (a one-shot) in the Uv1331 . the charge on capaci tor C5.l here by causing the volt-

66 Elec tronic Sensors fo r the Ev il Genius

age on C5 at allY given instant to correspond to the Once the you have fmished constructing the
<I\'erage charge ava ilable £ro m Ihe currelll source. oscillator sending un it. you will need to carefully
Therefore. the \'ohage across C5 is directly p ropor- inspect the underside of the circuit board to mak e
tionailo the freq uency of the incoming signal. sllre that there are no cold solder jo ints and no
Theouipul from the Li\133 1 should be applied to unwanted sold er bridges be twee n so lder pads. Also
a high-impedance voltmeter or digital panel meter. look for unwanted stray com ponen t leads that m ay
Potentiometer R5 allows vou 10 calibra te the circuit have stuck to the bottom of the circuit board.
fora particular OUlput voltage at a specific inpu t sig- Next. you will want to prepare a shielded sensor
nal frequency. The LM331 hus a linear frequency cable wi th an R CA p lug a t one end a nd the therm is·
response from I 10 10 K Hz. The re motc data logger tor a t the o ther e nd. D epending upon you r applica-
recei\,e-and·display circui t can be powered [rom a tion. you m ay wish to house the thermistor in a
standard 9-\'011 tra nsistor radio batte ry. discarded metal pen casing. with provisions for the
Constructing Ihe remo te data loggcr is prell)' shielded cable to exit the top o f the pen assembly.
mnight forward and can be done in less than 2 hou rs. FirS!. prepare the the mlistor by spraying the themlis-
The sending oscillator circuit is constructed o n a tor and the leads with C ry lon or a simi la r plastic
piece of experime nts proto-board from D alak (part coati n ~ to insulate the therm isto r and the first 1/~ inch
=IU;II). Conside r using an IC sock e t fo r the Li\'1555. of the thermistor's leads. 'Jbe themlistor leads arc I
In the C\'c nt of a circuit failure. it is a simple matter to usually very small-gauge wire. so care must be ta ke n
replace an IC when a socket is used. ICs must be w hen so lderi ng the shield ed cable to the thermistor.
installed correctly in order for the circuit to operate H eatshrink tubing should be put over the connection
correctly. ICs usually have two differelll types of or j u nction between the thennjstor a nd the shie lded
identifiers.. On some 1Cs. a rectangular CUlOUl is cable. and som e sort o f strain rel ief sho uld be pro-
placed on the top of the I e. This cutout is just 10 the vided . Yo u will a lso wan t to make or purchase a 3· to
right of pin I. Othe r l es have a sm all inde nted circle 5· foot cable with a I/I;· inch m ale plug on bot h e nds to
next 10 pin I on the Ie. All components except for connect the oscillator audio outpu t to the input of a
the thermistor a rc mounted on the sm all ci rcui t recorder or transm itter. Place the on·o([ sw itch in the
board. The transfonn e r at Ll is a 600 to 600 ohm off posit ion a nd install the baueI)'.
miniature matching unit. Because the transfomlcr is Construction of the receive/display circuit is a bit
a 1:1 matching transformer wi th the slim e windi ng on more compl icated than the oscillato r/se nd ing unit.
both the primary a nd the secondary. you can install l lle receive/disp lay section call be built o n a proto-
the transfomler without regard to polarity. However board such as the one used in the se nd ing u n it. o r you
note the polarity of the capaci tor at C3.TIle sendi ng can make you r own dedicated p rinted circuit board .
oscillator circuit is powered from a 9-volt transistor A ll componen ts including the tra ns form e r a t Ll a re
rndio battc'1'. and power is supplied thro ugh the on - mounted o n the circuit board. Non e of the com po-
off switch aI S I. ne nts are critical. however. particula r atten tion
'lbesending or oscilhHor circui t was housed in a sho uld be paid to lhe orientatio n of the capacitor at
small met<ll chassis box. 1lle transform er was C5 and the Ie a t Ul. An IC socket for U 1 is highly
mounted to the circuit board along w ith a ll the reco m illended. lCs are usually ident ified in one of
components. TIle circuit board was m o unted o n Ih _ two ways. Som e ICs have a sm a ll inden ted circle
inch standoff and mo u nled to the bottom of the chas- p laced on the top left sid e of the IC near pill I. Other
sis box. Th e 9·\,0!t·bauery holde r was secured to the ICs h,we a small recta ngula r cutout on the top of the
bottom of the circuit board. An RCA jack. an I/s-inch IC j ust to the le ft o f pin 1. When instal ling Ihe Ie. pay
mono earphone jack. and S I a re m oun ted o n the lOp particular attention ( 0 the o rie ntation to avoid
of the chassis box. The RC A jack is insta lled for the destroying the IC when power is supplied.
thcmlistor connection. while the 1/I;-inch p ho ne jack is Cal ibration potentiome te r R5 is a PC board tri m-
used for the a udio output connec tion. pOl. \Vhen install ing the transfomler at L 1. be sure to

Chapter Three Heat Detection 67

idcnlify from the packaging the two windings. which If you plan to ta ke down the decoded \'oltages by
are diffe ren t Ero m each othe r. O ne winding is a n S- hand. it's imporla nt to make sure each data sample is
ohm winding and the other winding is lK ohm s.. Be recorded for at leastS seconds. This will allow the
sure to orie nt the transforme r correctly. volt mete r readout to sellie long enough for you to
O nce you ha\'e completed the receive/display record the reading.
board. you will need to inspect thc underside of the If you plan o n using the a nalog data logging system
circuit board. First check for cold solde r joints. a nd with a tape recorder rather tlum a transmiller a nd
the n look over the circui t foi l side to e nsure tha t rece i\'er setu p. ~'o u wi ll need to create a calibration
there a re no unwanted solder bridges between foil graph for your particular recorder for best rcsulls. In
traces. Fin ally look for stray or unwanted com ponen t order to calibrate your recorder. you will need (0
leads. which mav ha \'e stuck to the underside of the store a knO\m sequence of audio frequ ency tones
PC board. sp,lced uniformly across rhe desired signal range.
The receive/display board is fina lly insta lled in a -
Connect a n a udio siunall!enerator
- direct Iv. to the
inpul o f your tape recorde r. and record 10- to 15-
small metal c hassis box. which measures 41h X 6 X 2
inches. The c ircui t board is mounted atop I/~- i nc h second tone bursts at 100 Hz intervals betwecn 100
plastic standoffs. A 'Is-inch m ini phone jack a nd the Hz and 1.000 Hz. 'm e inpul \'olume to the tape
power switch SI is insta lled on the lOp front side of recorde r should be adjusted to lh of the range to
the chassis box. Our prototype circu it util izes a small assure th:1I the input 10 the tape recorder is not o\'er-
teml inHI strip on the chassis to allow connectio n to driven or distorted, Stop the recordcr and disconnect
a n externa l digital ll1ultimeter. Note that you could the sib'llal gene ra tor. Connect the receive/display
a lso use a recordi ng multimeter \\i th RS-232 o utput. uni" s audio input connection to the output of your
if desi red. A lte rna tively you could mo ulli an inexpen- tape recorder. 'Iller! connect the receiver/display
sive LCD panel voltme ter on the fro nt panel of the unit's outpU I connection to a digital voltme ter. Tum
rece iver/display u nit. if desired. If you usc a n inte rnal on the tape reorder and playback the recorded tape.
pane l me ter. you will need 10 make a two-resistor As the tape is playing. take notes of the \'oitae.c read-
voltage di" ide,r to drop down the voltage to the panel ings for each of the tones recorded on the tape, and
me te r. wh ich is gene ra lly 2 volts maximum. A 9-volt then finally make a plo t on a piece of paper.At l/~­
tra nsistor radio ba llery holde r is mo unted o n the bot- inch inte rvals along the bottom of the graph make
tom of the chassis box, Once you have completed the nota tions of fre q ue ncy. Each ·'/i-inch marking repre-
circu it. turn the power switch to the off posi tio n sents 0.1. 2, 3.4. 5 ... Hz Illultiplied by 100 Hz. So
before insta lling the 9-volt baltery. Finally. you will the firs l marking is I KHz and so on. The \'ertkal
need to ma ke a cable to connect the receiver/display sca le on the graph represents by voltage. starting with
to the a udio source that will be drivi ng the input. 0.1. 2. 3. -J. Clnd 5 volts lit ~/ii intervals \'ertically. Once
Yo ur cable will ha\'e a 'Is-inch mini phone pl ug a t one you have a calibration graph. you a re ready to begin
e nd a nd a connector o f your choice o n the opposite testing your a na log data logging system.
end , de pe nding upon your a pplication and input Connect the themlistor to Ihe oscillator sending
source. uni t. Then con nect the output of the oscillntor send-
Be fore using the a na log data recording system. it ing unit to e ither a tape recorder or to the input of a
is necessa ry to adjus t the se nsor circui l so thaI the transmitte r. and then a pply power to the circuit. If
freq ue ncy of the signal it generate-s fa lls within the you are rccording your readi ngs. you will ha\'e to play
proper range. Li ke wise. it's necessary 10 make su re them back in to the recei\'c r/d isplay unit when you
the freq uency-to-voltage com'e rler is properly re turn to the playback location. If you are using an
a djusted. R F receiver in real time instelld of a tape recorder.
you can connect the input of the receive/display unit

68 Electronic Sensors for the Evi l Genius

to audio o utput of the RF receiver. Now connect the
output of the recei ve r/display unit to a digital multi- Analog Data Log ging S ystem
meter or voltmeter and read tbe incoming signal Rece iver/D isplay Unit Parts
from the oscillato r sending unit. You should begin
seeing a voltage reading on the me ter display. Have a
List
friend go over to the oscillator send ing unit a nd place Rl , R2 10K ohm, 1/4-
the thennistor in a bowl of crushed ice to calibrate watt resistor
the sensor. You sho uld now see the voltage reading R3 68K ohm, 1 / 4-watt
re sis tor
begin to change to a differe nt valuc. Note the reading
\Iohen the thermistor is placed in the c rushed ice: you R4 12K ohm, 1 /4 -watt
resist o r
hove now calibrated your a na log. data loggi ng syste m .
RS SK ohm potentiometer
and it is ready for field dala gathering. (t r impot)
R6 6.8K ohm, 1 / 4-wat t
resist o r
Ana log Data Logging S yste m R7 l OOK ohm, 1 / 4-watt
resistor
Oscillator Send ing Unit Parts
list
Cl 4.7 u F , 35- v olt
e lect r o lytic cap a c itor
I
C2 0.1 uF , 3S- volt
TI the~i$tor (Radio ceramic dis c c apacitor
Shack) C3 10 uF, 3S-volt elec -
Rl 4.7K ohm, 1 /4- watt trolytic capacitor
re Sistor C~ 0.01 uF , 3S-volt
CI 0 . 1 uF, 3S-volt ce rami c d isc capaci tor
ceramic disc capacitor
C2 1 uF, 35-volt elec-
trolytic c apacitor
cS

Ul
1 uF, 3S-volt elec -
trolytic capacitor
LM331 frequency-to-
o(l)
C3 4 . 7 uF , 3S-volt
electrolytic capacitor
voltage convert er IC
(National) rt
Ll lK to 8 - ohm mini
(l)
Ll 600 to 600 ohm mini
matching transformer matching tran s former ()
rt
Ul LM555 timer/oscilla-
tor IC (National)
Miscellaneous PC board ,
wire, IC socket,
st andoffs , sc rews ,
....
Jl
51
RCA chass i s jac k
SPST toggle power
nuts, te~inal strip.
etc.
o
switch !:3
Bl 9-volt transistor
radio battery
Miscellaneous PC board.
wire, IC s ocket , LCD Thermometer
sta ndoff s, s crews,
nuts, etc: . It is often necessary to measure temperalure around
your ho me, shop. or office. a nd one accurate and easy
method to measure tempcm ture is to construct the
digitaJ LCD thermomete r described in this section.
The LCD thermome ter can read and display a wide
range of te mperatures from - 20 degrees C to + 150
de grees C.

Chapter Three Heat Detection 69

 llle hea rt of the LC D the rmometer is a diode backpla ne d rive circuit!),. and the n displays on an
te mperature sensor. the N D co nve rter chip. and a n LCD display. TIle 40-pin D IP 0 co n\'e rter chip can
3 11l-digit LCD display shown in Figure 3-8. A I SI 588 be set up to acce pt e ithe r a +1- 200 m illivolts o r
silicon switching diode is used as the te mperature +1- 2 \'olts D C input voha!!c o n pins 30 and 32.
senso r in this project. The forward voltage o f the sili- The ICL7 136-s a na log section divides the meas-
con d iode cha nges in the coeffi cie nt o f - 2mYr C ure me nt cycle into fo ur phases. First is the (II/(o-::.ero
whe n the te mpe raru re wi th joi nt c hanges. G e ne rally. (A -Z ) phase. the n the signa l illtt'grare ( IJ\,.'T) phase.
the 20~ C forward voh age is abo ut 600 mY. The for- the n the deimeg rare (D E ) phase. a nd fin a lly the ::.ero-
ward voltage becomes abo ut 400 m Y (600m Y - illlegmted (Z I) phase (see Fig ure 3-10). The ICL7136
(2m\WC X l OO"C)) when the te mperature with joint does the measureme nt process in llbout three times
rises by lOO"C and becomes 120"C. A t the the rmo me- d uri ng the I second . o r -WOO clocks/time = ·t(XX) X
te r this time. it is displaying the change of this voltage el4W:fJ Hz) = 0.33 seconds/ti me.
as the tempe ra ture. The te mpera ture range that it can During the a uto-ze ro phase three things happen.
me as ure is within the allowable tempe ra ture of the First. the input high and input low a re disconn ected
diode. D e pe ndi ng on the kind o f diode. it is possible fro m the pins a nd inte rnally shorted to a nalog CO~ I·
from about -20"C lO JSO"c. G e nera lly. a diode is MON. I e xt. the refe rence capaci lOr is cha rged to the
enclosed in packaging of glass o r plastic. So. even if
refe re nce voltage. Third . a feed back loop is d osed
the a mbient te mperature change5. the voltage of the
a rou nd the system to cha rge the auto·zero capacitor
diode doesn't always cha nge immedi ate ly C A Z to co mpe nsate for o ffset \'oltages in the buffer
-me IS I588 silicon diode is a vail able in two diffe r- a mplifi e r. integrator. a nd com pa ra to r.
e nt Iypes of packages: be sure to choose the sma ll Du ring the signa l integrate phase. the a uto·ze ro
dia me te r glass d iode and not the larger molded plas- loop is ope ned . the in ternal short is remove d. and the
tic package diode. which is not suited fo r this project
inte rnal inpUi high a nd lo w are co nnected together to
beca tL<;c it is diffi cult for lhe te mperature cha nge to the e xte rnal pins. The COIl\'e rter the n integrates the
spread q uickly thro ugh the la rger molded package. di ffe re ntial voltage betwee n input high a nd input low
The lead wires o f the d iode a re insulated wi th the
fo r a fixed time. This diffe re nce in voltage can be
heav)' nylon/cloth insula ted tubi ng to prOlect the
within a wide common mode range. At the end of
diode. Shielded wire is used fo r the connection this ph ase. the pola ri ty of the in tegra ted signal is
betwee n the diode sensor and the AlC com'cn e r.
de te rnlincd.
TIle a na log-to-digita l convene r Ulilized in the Ne xt. during the deill legrate phase. the input low
LC D the rmo me tc r is the ubiquito us is internally con nected to a nalog CO MJ\·IO N. and
IC L7136rrC7136 a na log- to-digita l converte r shown
input high is connected across the previo usly charged
in Figure 3-9. Thc ICL7136 C MOS an alog-to-digital
refere nce capacitor. Ci rcuitry within the a nalog-to-
conven e r acce pts a n a na log input voltage and con- digital chip e nsures tha I the capllcito r will be con-
ve rts it to a digita l output. thro ugh a m ultiplexed
neeted with the co rrect pola rity to ca use the
integra tor to re turn to zero.
TIle fin a l phase is the zero-integrator phase. First.
inpul low is sho rted to the a nalog CO NI"M ON. Second.
the refe rence capacitor is cha rged 10 the refere nce
\·olluge. Finally. a feed back loop is d osed around lhe
system to input high to cause the integrator OUtput to
re turn to ze ro.

--Figure
.-. ---- --- -- --- -- ----_. --_ ..- No te that the IC L7 136 has the high a nd low input
te rminals o n pins 3 1 and 30 respective ly. A lso nOle.
3-8 t e D thermometer
the chip has a se para te commo n ground connection

70 Ele ctron ic Sensors for the Evi l Genius

--- --- -----"
- - - - - - - - - -
--- ---
 ,,- ------- ------ - -U1- ----- ----- - - - - ()
,
DSP-l ,, ::r'
,
, R5
ase 1
1000's
Y·minus
K
,, III
"l:!
,, 39
ose2 A1 , rt"
(1)
B1
,
I

,, R3
38
36
OSC3 C1
,
11
R1 01
, 35
REFHI l aO's
, ~
, REFLO
El
,
R2
R4
34
C"REF
Fl
Gl
,, ::r'
11
A2 , (1)
C-REF
,
,, COM
B2
C2
,, (1)
IN HI
01 C3
10's 02
, I
IN LO
E2 E2
, ::c(1)
,
C4 F2
G2
F2
G2
,,
,, R6
A-Z
Al A3 I III
, R5 BUF
Bl B3 I rt"
, C5
Cl
3
C3 ,,
I

,, 'NT
l's 01
B
03
,, 0
E1 E3 (1)
v+
,, F3 , rt"
C6
v- G3 ,, (1)
COM-BP
,, 0
OP3 rt"

- - - ---- ------- ----- ------ -- ...J

"".0
6NO ::I

Bl

------------------------------_ .... ------------------------_.---------------------------_._----_ .. -.---.--------------

Figure 3·9 LCD femperatlfre monitor block diagram

on pin 32. The COi,'1 ground is differe nt from the po te ntiometer R4 is used to adjust the scale factor of
negative power supply connection on pin 26. The the a na log-to·digital"s input.
analog-to-digital con\'erler sam pling is referenced \'Ia The back plane LCD drive r occupies a la rge por-
the clock fomlcd by the oscillator pins 38, 39. and 40. tion of the chip"s output pins as shown" "1l1e Al
The pOIcntiometcr R3 is used as a zero adjustment through G I or the I"s. digit o utput is shown from pins
011 the input of the a nalog-to-digilal chip_ while 2 thro ugh 8" whi le the 10·s digi ts A2 through G2 are

Chapter Three Heat Detection 71

 ,• AUTO ZERO
I PHASE INTEGRATE ,
(COUNTS) : PHASE
2999-1000 I FIXED :
I 1000 COUNTS I I
.~(--~) '~(----7) '~(---------»

Figure 3·10 /megrmor lllllplifier O llfplll wlIn!form

- --

~ found o n p ins 9 through 14 and pin 25_Finally the llle d igital thermomc te r cons umes lillic power
0 leXr s d igits from OA3 thro ugh G 3 a re found on pins and can be powe red from a 9-\'011 transistor radio
.r-i 15 through 24. balle ry fo r about 3 months or mo re. Construction of
+l A 3 11l digital AND brand FE0203 LCD display the LC D the mlOmc te r is pre tty straigh tforward and
U used in th is project is a T N_ or twisted nema tic type. ca n be comp leted in about 2 hours with litt le diffi-
(I) LCD device. llle 40-pin . 3 11l-digit LCD d isplay is culty on a small pri ntc d circui t board. as shown in the
+l powe red by as-vo lt so urce. In o ur p roject we use figure. All the compo nents are mounted on the circuil
(I) o nly the three d igits and the d ecim al poin t to display board including the ana log-to-digital chip. a ll its sup-
porting compone nts. as we ll as the LCD. llle diode
0 te mperature.-Ille pi nouts diagram for the LCD d isplay
is shown in 1:1 ble 3- 1. se nso r is not mo un led o n the PC board. It is highly
advisable to use an IC socke t fo r the -W pin a nHlog~
+l lo-digi tul chip. so in th e event o f later failure. you can
ro Table 3-1 easily re p lace the c hip if need bc.
(I) The input measurcment capacitors are a ll polycsler
AND Brand Model FE0203 LCD Disp lay Pinouts
::t: film typcs. beca usc they can affect the accuracy of Ihe
LCD Pin Rssignments meter.ll1e clock ge ne ra tor capacitor lhat o scillates
I p'III "" Seg. Pin :; Seg. Pill II Seg. Pill II Seg.
near 50 K Hz is a ce ramic capacitor with good high-
frcque ncy cha racterislics.. A multilaye r ceramic
I OP II CI 21 AJ 31 FI
(I) , y OP2 -, GI
capacitor is used for the bypass capacitor at C6. ~ l os t
(I)
J K
"
IJ 1:2
"-,,- F3

GJ
>-

JJ NC
of the capaci tors in this circuit are not pola rity sensi·
live exccp t fo r C6, con nected ncar the baue ry. All the
1-1 res isto rs in the thermometer circuit are 1% so accu-
NC NC
.t:: , " OJ
" 0'
racy of Ihe me ter is ke p t high.
E-! NC 15 CI
" A2 jj NC
Whe n installing the ,malog-to-digital chip. make
6 NC DP) 1'2 36 NC
16
" su re yo u o rie nt thc chip correct ly to avoid da maging
1-1 NC E) G2 NC
(I)
7

8 [) I' I
17

18 DJ
"
28 L
37

JS LO
the chip when powe r is applie d . IC.s ge ne rally have a
marking to assist in orie n ta tion and insta ll ation. The
+l 9 E Il9 19 C2 29 BI 39 X
chip muy have a small cutout a t the top of the pack-
Q.. age. Pin I is to the left of the cutout. Some ICs ha\'c a
ro 10 DI 2. 83 30 AI BP
sma ll inden ted circle just to the righ t of pin I .

.t::
U
72 Electronic Sensors for the Evil Genius
 When installing the LC D. be careful not to a pp ly LC D the rmo me te r circuit indud ing the ba tte ry.
to much pressure to the front or b etween the fro nt If yo u ch oose to mo unt the LC D the nnome te r inside
and the back of the display to avoid d a maging it. If a plastic e ndosure. yo u will want to ma ke pro visio ns
you can locate a socke t for the LC D. it wo uld ad vis- fo r a n 0 0 -0[( switch a nd screw te rminals o r a n RCA-
able to use o ne. Be very careful whe n wiring the type jack for connecti ng the tempe ra ture senso r.
LCD. because many pins need to be wired. and the You'll be surprised just how handy your n ew LCD
possibility for making a mistake is g reat. the rmo mete r will become aro und your ho use or sho p
After soldering a ll the compone n ts in the p rope r o nce yo u '" e b uilt o nc !
place. carefully look o\'e r the unde rside of the ci rcuit
board for shorts or solder brid ges le f! from cut co m- I-i
ponents leads. Also look fo r cold so lder j oints. which
ca.nrome back to haun t you lat e r wit h inte rmi tte nt
LCD Thermometer Parts List ::T
Rl 1 me g ohm, 1 / 4- wat t ,
11
opera tion. (l)
1\ r e s is t o r
Next. you ,,-ill need to make a se nso r cable from (l)
R2 41 0 K o hm , 1 / 4- watt ,
the diode sensor to the a nalo g-to-d igit al circu it ry. 1 , re si stor
First. insulate the diode lead s b y coating the m with
spray-on insulation or rubbe r coating. When yo u a re
R3 lOOK ohm p ote nti ome -
t e r (trimpot ) I
satisfi ed that the board looks d ean a nd re ady. you R4 2 00K o hm p o t entiome-
ca.n solder in a 9-vol1 ba tt ery cl ip. ter (trimpot)
R5 l OOK o hm , 1 / 4- wa tt,
Next. prepare a small d iame te r coax cable. fo r
1 \ r es i s tor
e'(ample an RG-I74. betwee n the sensor and the cir-
R6 39 0K o hm , 1 / 4- wa tt ,
cuit. The coax cable should not be too lo ng or they 1 \ r es i st or
\\il1 prevent erro r signa ls from changing the read ings. CI 41 pF , 35-vo l t po ly-
A 2- or 3-(oo( cab le shou ld work fi ne.
Now tbat the LC D thermome te r is now com ple te. C2
e s ter c a p acitor
0 . 1 uF , 35- v o l t
o(l)
polye s t e r c a p a c ito r
~ ou move on to the ca libration phase . Note. the d iode
C3 , C5 0 . 0 47 uF o 3 5-
rT
~nsor leads must be insulate d fro m the water whe n (l)
v o l t po lyes ter c apa c i -
calibrating the thermo me te r so they won'( d <l mage
the circuit. You must tllke p reca utio ns for insula ting C4
to<
0. 47 uF , 3 5 - vo l t
o
rT
the leads properl y. Spra y insula tion on the leads o r
coat the leads with a rubbe r coati ng. C6
po lyeste r c a p a c i to r
O. l u F , 35- v o l t
.....
ce rami c c apa c ito r o
Fill a sman or med ium-size bowl wi th ice and
water. Allow a few min utes for the ice 10 cool the
UI I CL7136 or TC7 1 3 6
Harri s o r equivalent
::s
water. An alternative is to ca librate by using a can of DSP-I FE0 2 0 3 3 I / 2 - di git
instant freeze. available (rom a local electronics sup- LCD disp lay { ~~ Co.,
available fr om Purd Y
rl)" house. A pply powe r to the circu it and p lace the
Elect r on i c sBl 9- v o lt
diode sensor atop an ice cube o r spray the insta n t tra nS i s tor radi o bat-
freeze across the sensor fo r a min ute. Adjust R4 for a t e ry
O'C reading. Conve rsely. yo u elln instead calibra te the Mi sc ellan e ou s PC b oa r d ,
LCD thennometc r using bo iling wate r by adjusting s o c k ets, wir e , con ne c -
to r s , enclo su r e, a t c .
R3 to l00~C.
You ma\' want to instaJllhc LC D the rmo me te r
inside a plastic box to protect the me te r [ro m d a m-
age. find a suitab le p lastic box in which to ho use the

Chap ter Three Heat Detecti o n 73

 require side packs a nd cables. TIle range and field of
Night Scope Project viewing are de te rmined by the intensity of the inte-
grated infrared source and the viewing angle of the
The intriguing night scope project shown in Figure optics. Readily available and low-cost optics arc
3-1 1 is a device capable of seeing in 10tal darkness. usable. but they may have spherical aberration and
Unlike convenlionai devices requiring Ibe minute o thcr adverse effects. However. using these materials
light from the Slars or ot her ambient background keeps the basic cost down for those not requiring
light. this system contains its own infrared source. actual viewi ng of de tailed scenes. Improved optics
allowing CO\'e fl viewing of the desired subject. will eliminUic these nega ti\·e e[fects and can be
Asse mbly is shown in two parlS. lhc high-vohage obtained a t most video supply houses.
power supply and the final enclosure wi th optics a nd Assembly focuses around common polyvinyl
an illuminator. chloride (PVC) tu bi ng as the ma in housing and a spe·
TIle night scope or infrared viewer project can be dally designed . patenled. miniature power source for
used 10 vicw a subject for recogni tion o r evidence energizing the image tube.llle tube is a readily a\'ail·
gat he ring without any indication 10 the ta rget thai able image conve rtcr bein g used by most m.lnufac-
he or she is unde r surveillance. I I is a n inval uable ture rs of similar devices. This tube establishes the
device when used for detection. the alignment of limits of viewing resolution and is suitable for most
infrared alarms. in visible laser gun sights. and in com- applications but may be limited if one desires video
munications syste ms. This technology can also be perfection .
used to detect diseased \'egetalion in certain types of 11le \'iewing range is de te mlined ma inly by the
crops from the air. to serve as an aid to nighllime inte nsity o f the infrared source a nd can be controlled
varmint hunting. and to view high-tempera ture ther- by varying this parameter. The basic unit is shown uti·
mographic SCenes where heat is used to produce lizing n 2-D cell Oashlight with a n integrated filt er
the image. placed o\'er the le ns to prc \'cnt the subject £rom see·
The night scope viewer project is buill using readily ing the source. This provides a working range of up to
available parts for the enclosure a nd basic optics. TIle 50 feet and can be increased to se\'eral hundred feet
using a more powerful ligh t source such as a 5- or 6-
-
balle ries arc enclosed in the housing and do not
cell nash light. Infrared LEDs or lasers can also be
used as illumin ation sources.
'Ille unit cun also be operated using external
sources such as supe rinte nse Q·beam ha ndheld
lamps with an added filt er cxte nding the range to 400
I to 500 feet a nd providing a wide field of illumination.
Note that vie wing of active infrared sou rces such as
lase rs does not requ ire the internal infrared source,
A subminiature high-voltage power supply
produces approxim ately 15KV a t several hundred
microamps from a 7· to 9·volt rechargeable nickel
cadmium or al kaline ballery (see Figure 3-12). This
\·ollage is a pplied to the infrared viewing tube or
I R J6 with the positivc (+) going to the vie\\ing end
and the negative (. ) to the objective e nd. A focus
.. _--- ----- "ollage is taken (rom n tap in the multiplier circuit
Figure 3·11 Night scope a nd is approximately '/6 of the total potcntial.

El ectronic Sensors for the Evil Genius

 T1 C3 C. C5 C6 C7 C8
I
n
:r
OJ
R1 .". I C3
~I 1 1
~

• • ..
..,:r .J
~ C9 C10 C11 C12 C13 C1.
,, ,,
m 51
C1
01 , I
m l C2
• Optional
-L ~ ... I
- Focus
II I :> R2 I I I I Resistors
m
1 Focus
::;1 ~ 1 1 1 Cathod \

'='
m 81 Objective Eye
m End Piece
End
""n
.....
"" Image
0 Tube HV·lead
:J

,----
.... Figure 3-12 I/iSll-vol/age power .w pply
'"
u01-:+::Ja-:+aa -:+l?aH aa.zq.r. .za-:+dl?q:::>
 An o bjective lens (LE (SI) with a n adjusta ble To test the high~voltage powe r supply circuit. fol·
foca l length gathe rs tbe re fl ected image. illuminated low these steps.. SepaTate higlH'oJtage output leads
by Ibe infra red le ns.. and focuses this image at the upproximate ly 1 inch (ro m each another. Connect 9
objecti,'e e nd of the tube. 'Ille image is displayed on volts to the input. and note the current draw of
the vie wing scree n of the tube in a greenish tinge.llle approxi ma te ly 150 to 200 milliamperes when SI is
vie wing resolutio n is usua lly udequa te to provide pressed . Decrease the se para tio n o f the high-voltage
object identification at u distance o f 50 fe e t or more. leads until a thin. bluish d ischa rge occurs. using a sep-
de pe nding upo n the infrared sou rce as me ntio ned a ra tio n of a pproximately 112 to ll~ of an inch. No te
ea rlier. the curre nt input increasing.llle increased ,'alue
Transisto r QI is connected as a free running reso- depends upon the length of the spark and should not
nam osci llulOr with a freque ncy de te rmined by the exceed 300 milli amperes.. Check the collector tab of
co mbination resonance of ca pacito r C3 and the pri- 01 and add a small heatsink.
mary winding of the step-up transformerTl. This If you are using a scope. it may be interesting to
oscillating voltage is stepped up to several thousand note the wave shape a t the collector tab. Notice this
in the seconda ry winding of TI . Capacitors C4 occurs withou t a ny spark.ing. NOIe also the takeoff
through Cl 5.lllong with diodes 01 through 01 2. point for the focus lead.TIlis point is a pproximately
form a full -wave voltage multiplier whe re the ou tpu t at 116 the o utput voitage. llle unit ma y be powered up
is m ult iplied by six a nd is co nverte d to DC. Output is to 12~I'olfs direct CIIrrelll (VOe) but will positi\'ely
take n betwee n C5 and C 15. as shown. a nd may be require iI he atsink on the tab 01.
either positive or negati,"e depending on the direc- This unit is capable of producing 10 to 20 KV from
tion of the diodes.. The base of 01 is con nected to a a sma ll. standard 9-volt batte ry. It is buill on a printed
feed back winding ofTI. whe re the oscillator voltage circuit board or a small piece of pe rfora ted circui t
is at the pro pe r value to susta in oscillation. Resisto r board and can e asily be ho used or e nclosed. as the
R2 biases the base into cond uction for the init ia l acti- applicatio n requires. Applica tio ns indude powering
vation . Resisto r Rl limits the base current. whe reas image co n" e rte r tubes fo r night vision de \'ices.. igni·
capaci to r C2 speeds up the deact ivation of Ql by tion cir cui ts fo r flam e-t hrowi ng or flam e-prod ucing
supplying high-freque ncy e ne rgy.llle input power is units. capacito r cha rging for e ne rgy storage. e lectric
supplied th rough switch SI via a snap-in battery. shock ing fe nce. inseci eradication . Kirl ian pho togra·
A ssemble the high-voltage powe r supply board. phy. io n propulsio n e lectric fi e ld gene ra tors. olOne
Stan to insert compone nts into the board holes.. Be producing. a nd more.
sure to start and proceed (rom right 10 left. a tte mpt· To begin the assembly of the night sco pe viewer.
ing to obta in the layout as shown. Certai n leads of refer to Figure 3-13 Cl nd fo llow these ste ps. Assume
the actua l co mpone nts will be used for connecti ng the powe r bO<l rd as o mline d is properly operating.
points and circuit runs. Do not cut or trim at this Check for the absence of corona in the high-voltage
time. It is best to te mporarily fold the leads o ve r to section . Use a coating corona do pe to reduce e lectri·
secure the individ ua l pa rIs [rom fa lling out of the c<llie akage if n ece ssa~'. Re move all sharp points and
board holes for now. Note that the solde r joints in the insu late with corona dope und so on.
multiplier section. consisting of Col through C1 S and
Take a window screen a nd place it flu sh against
01 through 01 2. should be globul ar shaped a nd
the objective end of the image tube. TUBl . Auach it
smoOlh to pre ve nt hig h-" olwge le akage and coro na.
wi th a piece of clear scotch ta pe. Secure the lUbe on
The solder glo bs size should be tha I of a BE. Ru n
the be nch with model ing day. a nd tcmporaril)'
your fin gers over the solder glo bs a nd verify the
connect it to the leads from the power board.
absence of sha rp poi nts a nd pro trusions. A lso no te
Observe the proper clearance of the le ads and com·
that TI is lying o n its side a nd uses sho rt pieces of bus
pone nts.. Da rke n the room and place a source of
wire soldered to its pins as extensio ns fo r con nections
infra red fi lte r light pointi ng to wa rd the lUbe. (Use a
10 the circuit board.

76 Electronic Sensors for the Ev il Genius

 "on SWI
C'"'
ruB. ()
- - -- ----- -
c'" ::r'
-- - - - III
"'. lENS2 '1j

-- -- --._-- --- rt
(1)
rn. \ t;
\
\ \
\ ~
\
\ ::r'
".... / t;
Stlpllly \
\
- ....
",,"u
(1)
\ (1)
\
~
C"'"
\
\
\ Battery , /

""" I

--.---------------- ". -.-------------- -------------------.---------

Figure 3-13 Nighl I';S;OIl vie ll'{!r

flashlight preferably with an IR filter.) Note the Fabricatc TUB I (ro m a 31h -inch length of2-inch
greenish glowing of lhe tube and Ihe image on the ill schedule -to P VC tu bing for the objeeti,'c le ns. o(1)
SlTCen appearing either sharp or blu rred. If the image Note th is is o nly 2 inches lo ng when using thc
hgood and sharp. you arc in luck. You may fur ther optional optics a nd C- o r T-mount adapte r filling. rt
improve Ihe focusing by addi ng the JJ megohm resis- (1)
tors. This is usually nol necessary. ()
Fabricate ENI from a 7-inch length of 21th -inch
illSi(11' l!;(Il1ll'ler (ill) schedule -Ul PVC tubi ng. Note ,...
rt
Ihe hole adjacen t 10 the HA I handle for feed ing
high-voltage wires to the lUbe from the power board
o
and 'b-20 threaded holes arc dimensioned in Figure
~
3-14 for securing and cen te ring the image tube. These
holes are located on a 120-d egree radius. Fabricate
the HA l handle from an 8-inch le ngth of I lh -inch lD
-.chedule.m PVC tu bing. nle tu be must be shaped
llnd filled where il fil S to the EN I main enclosu re.
Fabricate the BR K I and 2 brackets [rom a ha lf-
inch·\\ide strip of 22-gilUge a luminum as shown. Note
the holes for;6 x I/~ sheet metal screws for securing
the assembly together.
Figure 3-14 Nigll , lIisioll 1:jell'er fillnl assembly

Chapter Three Heat Detection 77

 In o rder fo r T UB 1 to te lescope into the main brane over the access hole a nd insert the bailer), and
enclosure EN I. suitable cylindrical shims. CA PI and cap CA P I.
CAP3. must be fab ricated. These are the 2'/8 -i nch To complc te the final assc mbly refer to Figure
plast ic caps. CA P2 has its end removed by cUlli ng out 3-14 a nd mo unt the infrared filtered flashlight atop
the center. using the wall of tubing as a guide for the the night scope viewer hous ing. You will ha,·e to seal
knife. CAP3 hilS a smaller section CUI out for LENSI.
This m ethod is cheap a nd works reasonably well. You
-
am'. li2ht leaks using coa.\": seal.Adjust the objective
~

and the n the eyepiecc for the clearest image. The

could subst illllC the pieces wi lh properly fitted paris ni~ht scope viewer unit is shown with a built-in
fabrica ted from aluminum o r plastic if you desire. infrared source consisting of a common. eve ryday
lltis approach is I110rc profcssionallookin1!: but can two·cell fla shlig ht filled with a special infrared filter.
be much Illorc costly.
TIlis approach allows total fl exibili ty in viewing
The lens shown is a simple. uncorrecled convex sources not requ iring infra red illumination. as the
lens that is adequate for most infrared source vicw- light need not be energized o r may even be removed.
ing. It is no t a q ua lit), \,jewing lens such as the You could re place the two D -cell flashl igh t batteries
optional 50 mm wide-angle lens or 75 mm telepholo with a n e ight pack of AA Nicad cells providing a
s:: lens with C-mo uni threads. Whe n using this le ns. you 9-\'01t source 10 power a ba nk of infra red LEDs as an
o
• ,-j
should either create or purchase un adapter ring that
will adapt to the le ns th reads and fit snugly into the
a ltenmtive light source. A suitable lamp may be sub-
stituted. providing se\'eral times Illore illumination .
enclosure. The lamp and battery life will be greatly reduced. as
+l The rR 16 image tube has preco nnected leads. TIle this approach is intended only for inte nnittent usc.
U negative short lead attached to the objective e nd Halogen lamps a re far more intense a nd make excel·
Q)
must have a JO-inch lead spliced to it. Insert the tube lent infrared sources.
+l partway into the enclosure a nd snuke the leads Longe r-range \'ie\\~ng may be accomplished by
Q) through the access hole. Position the tube a nd gent ly using other. more intense sources such as highe r pow·
o screw in the re tainino, screws bv. hand to secure and
cente r it. Connecl the leads from the tu be to the
e red lights.. auto head lamps. a nd so o n. These must be
filled wi th the proper fi lt ers to be usable. A range of
powe r board as shown. several h undred meters may be possible wi th these
Inse rt the power board into the H A I handle. You hig.he r powe red sources. A source capable of allowing
will have to de te nnine the access hole and drill for viewing from up to 500 fe et is re fe re nced in the proj-
the switch 51 once the board is secured in its fina l ect parts list. Obtai ning maximum pe rfomlance and
position. Wires shou ld be long enough for the com- range from your system may require the optional
plete re mova l o f the assembly whe n the ha ndle is le ns specified. The viewing of e,xtc mally illuminated
secured in place via the BRK I brackel.1l1is a llows infrared sources will not require the integral infrared
any prelim inary adjusunem or se rvice. Leads may be source.
shortened once proper operat ion is ,·erified. Connect Yo u should also note tha t this device is excellent
the bane ry to the paWl:.'" boa rd a nd you \\~II not have for ,~ ewin g the output of most solid-state gallium
to readjust the focus ta ps or divider values. Once the
.
arsenide laser svstems. LEOs. or anv. othe r sources of
operatio n is verified. check for any excessive corona infrared c ne r2 \' in the 9.000 A spectrum. No internal
~.

:md el im inate il. Posit io n the boa rd to switch S I adja- infrared so urcc is necessary whc n viewing these
cent to the access hole in the handle. It may be neces- actual sources. Expect to spend S50 to SlOO for this
sary to furt her secure the board in place with foam useful infra red imaging system \\~th all the special-
rubber pieces. a rooll! (emper(ltllre nliClmi:;illg (RTV) ized parts available from www.amazing.com.
adbesive. and so on. Slide a flexible rubber mem-

78 El ectr o n i c Sensors fo r the Evi l Gen i us

 SW6 (6) #6 X 1 / 4-i nc h
Night Scope Proiect Parts List s heat metal screws
Optional Parts
RI 1 .5K ohm, 1/ 4-watt
pePBR p rintB d ci r cu i t
r es i stor
board
R2 15K ohm. 1/ 4- watt
CMTl p r e fab C- mount
re s i sto r
adaptor f or ENl
CLIO uF o 2 S- vo lt elec- enclo s ure
t roly tic capacito r
EPl sma ll eyepiece
C2 0.047 uF, 50-volt
plastiC capacito r
FIL6 6- inch glass
infrared filte r 99 . 9 %
C3 0. 47 uF, lO O-volt da r k
p lasti c c apac itor
HRLI O 200 ,00 0 cand l e
C4 to ClS 27 0 pF , 3 KV power i nfrare d
pl ast ic d isk capa cito r illuminato r
Dl to 012 6 KV , 100 -
nanosecond. high -
vo ltage avalan c he
d i odes
Ql MJE30S5 NPN TO 22 0 Infrared Motion Detector I
case t r anSistor
TI Speci a l transfo~er Infrared radiation exists in the electromagnetic spcc~
info J ZBK077 Irum at a wavelength that is longer than that of visi -
51 pus hbutton s witc h ble light. Infrared radiation cannot be seen. but it can
PSI 51/2 X 11 / 2 inc h be detected. Objects thaI generate heat also generate
pe rf o ra ted board with
0 . 1 X 0. 1 gri d infrared radiation. and those objects incl ude animals
e LI snap batte ry clip
WR 22 24 - i nch l e ngth o f
and the human bodv.

-
wa"elem~t h of 9.4 micrometers.
-
, whose radiation is strongest at a
o(1)
12 2 vinyl hookup wire llle infrared body-heat motion-detector project.
WRHV20 l2-inch , 20 KV shown in Figu re 3-15 is designed to detect the 1ll0tiol1
rt"
silicon wire (1)
of a human or animal both in dayligh t and at night
IRl6 i mage converter and to provide a nonnnily open relay output that can ()
tube
be used to activate many Iypes of loads. 1lle motion rt"
ENl 8 X 2-3/8 inch
sche du l e 40 graY PVC detector also has temlinals fo r con necting an .....
tube optional photocell to prevent activation of the load o
TUBI 3 1 / 2-inc h length during daylight . ~
X 2-inch schedule 40
graY PVC
BRKl, BRK2 9 X 1 / 2 inch
thi n a lumin um s tri p
CAPl 2 - inch p la s ti c cap
f o r h and le
CAP2 , CAP3 2 3/8 -inc h
plastic c ap
LENS 1 45 / 63 double
convex gla ss l ens
SW1 , 5W2 (6) 1/4-20 X l-
inch l ong nylo n sc r e ws
Figure 3-15 illfra red body-Itemllloriol/ derector

Chapter Three Heat Detection 79

 The heart of the infrared body-heat motion detcclOr The PIR325 sensor has two se nsing clements
is the pyroelectric sensor, which is made of a crys- connected in a voltage-bucking config uratio n. This
ta lline ma teria l that gene rates a surface e lectric a rrangement ca ncels signals caused by vi bration , tem-
charge when exposed to heat in the fo rm of inuared perature changes.. and sunlighl.A body passing in
rad iation (see Figure 3 -1 6). When the amo unt of md i- front o f the sensor will activate firs t o ne and then the
a t io n striking the crystal cha nges.. the a mo unt of ot he r e le ment. whereas ot hc r sources wilJ affcct bolh
charge also cha nges and can be measured with a sen- e le mcnls simuilaneouslv and be canceled. The radia-
siti ve FET device built into the sensor. The sensor lion source mUSI pass across the sensor in a horizon-
e le ments are sensit ive to radia tion over a wide rane.e.
so a filt e r window is added to the T05 package to
- ta l directio n when scnsor pins 1 and 2 a re on a
horizontal plane so that the e lements arc sequentially
lim it incoming radiation to the 8- to 141l-me ter range. exposed 10 the lR source.
which makes the device most sensitivc to human A Fresnel le ns is a Plano convex le ns that has been
body radiatio n. collapsed on itself. As such it fo rms a nat lens that
Figure 3-17 ill ustrates the IR scnsor. The FET re tains ilS o ptical characteristics but is much smaller
so urce te rminal pin 2 con nects through a pull-down in thickness and therefore has less a bsorption losses
resistor o f a boul 100 K to ground a nd feeds into ,I (see Figu re 3-18}.111e FL65 Fresnel lens is made of
two-slage amplifier having signal cond itio ning cir- an infrared transmin ing materia l discussed in a previ-
c uits. Each of the two cascad ed stages has a gain of o us pa ragraph tha t has an TR transmissio n ra nge of
100 for a total gain o f about 10.000. The amplifier is 8- to 141l-meters tha I is most sensiti\'c 10 h uman bod}'
typically bandwid th limited to below 10 Hz 10 reject rad iation. It is desi!:,.'11cd to ha\'c its grooves facing the
high-frequency noise ,llld is fo llowed by a window IR sensing elemenl. 111is causes the smooth surface 10
comparator that responds to both the positive a nd be presented to the subject side of the lens.. which is
negative transitions of the sensor output signal. A
well-filtered power source o f from 3to 15 volts
should be connected to the FET drai n te r minal pin I.

- ------ ------- -------- ------ - --

Fi gure 3-16 P l'roelf'('fric sensor
---- ------ ---- - ----
Figure 3-18 Fresllelll'lIs (Co/frtesy GloLab Corp)

Fresnel l ens

\ IR Rite ,
Thermal Energy
\
Amplifier Comparator
,
PlR
I
~

----- ... _--

Figure 3-17 PIR S('I/Sor

80 Electroni c Sensors for the Ev il Genius

u..qtally the outside of an enclosure that houses the capacilOT CI 10 shunt any radio-frequency e ne rgy
sensor (sec Figure 3·19). that might be picked up [ro m radio transmillers o r
The FL65 has a focal length of 0.65 inches rrom cell phones. A lOOK load resistor R I is also CO Il-
the lens to the sensing eleme nt. It has bee n nected from pin 2 to ground.
detemlmed by expcrimcni (0 ha\'c a fi e ld of view of
arProximately 10 degrees when used with a PlR325
pyroelectric sensor. Whe n used with a PfR325 sensor
and FL65 Fresnel lens. this circuit can detect Illotion
at adislance of up 10 90 fee l. Figure 3-20 illustrates
/-
the direction and range orthe IR de tection pattern
/' ~
that can be expected wilh the FL65 Fresncllens in
oonjunction with the PIR325 sensor. Note that the
::T
, , 11
distance from the front of the sensi ng clem ents to the ,, (\)
front of the filter window is O'()'.J5 inch (I. J 43 millime-
(\)
tcrs). Mounting can best and m ost easily be done
~ilh strips of Scotchtape. Silicone rubber adhesivc
can also be used to form a more walerproof seal. Fresnel fens
Detecting area
I
Figure }·21 is a circuit diagram of the infrared
body-heat motion detector. Powc r is supplied 10 the Heat source movement
Output signal
cirruil5 and to the relay through a micropo\\'cr 5-voil
regulator U3. The 5 vol lS from the reg ulator is furthe r
filtered through R2 and C2 and then fed to pin I o f
the PIR325 pyroelectric se nsor. The sig nal output a t
---- ---_. ._--
pin 2 of the sensor is bypassed 10 ground by a 100 pf Figure 3-20 D etectiOIl ml/ge
o(\)
Focat length rt
(\)
I· .65"
o
rt
•
•
....
o
• ::s
•
IR Energy •
•
• PIA Sensor

•
• Fresnel
lens
----
Figure 3-19 Fresnel 1t'liS 1Ilid PI R S{'/Isor (Collrtesy GloLnb Corp)
-

Chapter Th ree Heat Detection 81

 Chapter Three Heat Detection
'"
'"

04
1 0 +5V
U3
6- 14 + ell C12 + C13
~
'"ro VDC
n -
'"'-,o
~
~ . A2 A17 A1S Dwell
Delay
n A13 A15 A16 A20
+ C2 A6
1 U2
'"
ro gl\4 A19~-.J
~
C4 C6 1 16
,S
'"o +- 2
-, A7 3
15~
14 I NIO
~ An 01
1 13 C9
'" 2 A4 A10
'~ UI:C -+-7 4 AY
~
PIA 3 + + 5 12 C10
o 13 - 14 + C7
-, 3 1 + C5
6 11 03
A1 UJ : UI:B E6 , La
C1 12 + 7 10 ,
:r
'"' W
0/ V 02 8 9 f-'
ro AS 6 - +-
AS 7 C~, +
1 *3
'"< Q1
~. "
~
~ A1 2 -+ (.
UI:D C
A9 , I
A3
'"ro
~
~.

c
'" -

. . .... _--_._------.------------------_._---------.--.--.-------------------------------------.---------------------------------------------------------------------
Figure 3 -2 1 III/mrl!fllll Ofioll (Ierector (Collrte.\·y GfoLl/b Corp.)
 When motion is detected the sensor will output a input of U l:C at pin 9 is biased by the voltage at the ')
I'cr), small-voll age tra nsition at pin 2_ TIlis volwge junctio n of R6 and R7. so it is about 175 millivo lts
must be amplifi ed many times in order to do useful above the 2.5-volt ou tputlcl'el at pin 14 of U I :B. and
J'"
work_ Two sections of a L!\B24 or cq uivalent quad inverting input pin IOof U1:C is con nected to UI:B
II
operational amplifier arc used 10 provide the neces- at pin 14. UI:C will not tum o n until pin 10 goes
1j
sal)'amplification. Sensor pin 2 feeds into the fi rst more positive than pin 9. The non inve rting inpu t at 1"
stage amplifier UI:A at noninverting inpu t pin 3. TIl is pin :'i of UI :O is biased by the vollllge at the junction ID
is Her), high-impedance input and does nOl load the of RS and R9 to about 175 m illivol ts below the 2.5- 1
sensor. A high-pass filter and feedback network at R4 volt output level at pin 14 of UI :B. and inverting
and Col connects between Ul:A's o utput pin 1 10 input pin 6 of UI: O is connected to U I:B pin 14.
inmting input pin 2.A high-pass fill e r and bias ne t- U I: D will not turn on until pi n 6 goes Illore nega tive
r'
work.C3 and R3. connecls from pi n 2 to ground. than pi n 5.
These networks sct the amplifier gain and operating i
point. They also form a bandpass filter that a mplifies
When motion is detectcd and the voltage transilion
o
only signals above DC and below about 10 Hz. The
a l the o utput of the second·slage amplifier UI: B pin
14 is positive. it musl go more that 175 m ill ivolts
o
pyroelectric se nsor is a the rmal device and its abm'e 2.5 volts. or to 2.675 volts. It must do Ihis in
response time falls wilhin this band of frequencies.
Filtering out signals that are outside its response time
order to tu rn U I:C on so that its output willtransi- I
tio n to a high leve l. If the \'o llage transi tio n at U I:B
eliminates noise from freque ncies th at are not used
anyway and makes the amplifie r mo re stable.
pin 14 is negative. it must go mo rc than 175 milli volts
be low 2.5 volts. or to 2.325 volts. in order to turn
:c1)
The output of the fi rst amplifier stage UI:A is UI:O on so th at its o utput will transition to a high
taken from pin I. 11 then feeds through R5 and C5 Ic\·e l. The windo w comparator there fore provides a
into Ihe in\'ening inpul of the second a mplifier stage 350-milli\"0It dead zone centered around 2.5 \'olts
at pin 13 of UI:B. C5 blocks the now of D C a nd.
together with R5. fomls a high -pass fi lter to reduce
wi thin which it will not respond to voltage-level
changes from the a mplifie r. Any val id motion tha t is o
gain at ,·ery low frequencies. A feed back network sensed will be a mplified e nough to genera te a transi- ID
(RIO. RII.and C6) connects from U I:B output pin tion that will exceed this dead zone and will result in 1"
14 to im'erting input pin 13. a comparator output. Another cha racteristic of the ID
RIO is a potent iomete r that cont rols the amount comparators is thai they each produce a positive ou t- o
put transition whe n Lhey turn o n whether the UI:B 1"
of feedback and therefore the gain of this st age. R II
limits the amount of feedback. The noninverting pin 14 a mplifier o utput goes high o r low. The com·
•
....
input to Ul: B at pin 12 is biased to 112 of the supply
\'oliage or 2.5 volts by the resis tor divider net work at
parator outputs at UI :C pin 8 and U 1: 0 pin 7 feed
into a logic OR circuit consisting of diodes 0 3 a nd
o
R6. R7. RS. and R9. This bias sets the operating point 04 and pulldown R 12. The cathodes of 0 3 a nd Dol
::::I
of the amplifier so thllt its output pin 14 is at 2.5 \'olts that are connected together will go high wh enever
IIhen no motion is being de tected. e ither U I:C o r UI: O turns on. TIlis amplifier a nd
companHor circuit will there fo re respond to both
The output of U I: B pin 14 feed s into a window
positive li nd negat ive tm nsitions from the se nso r.
comparator made of Ul:C and U I :0 . When a n ope r-
ational amplifier is used as a comparator. it is run at A C O-l-538 d ua l single-shot perfomls two built-in
full open·loop gain so that its outpu t switches 10 a full fun ctions and three optio na l fun ctions. The built-in
upordownlel'cl when o ne input isjust a few milli- func tio ns provide both an adjusta ble delay be tween
,·olls higher or lowe r tha n the other. "Ille purpose of load activat ion when mot ion cvents are se nsed and
this comparator is to pro"idc a small \"ollage window an adjustable dwell time to kee p Lhe load active even
or dead zone centered around 2.5 volts Ihat will not after motion stops. Optional fu nctio ns are (1) rc trig-
respond to small voltage transitions caused by noise gering of the delay so that re peat mo tio n e \'e IllS will
or minor fluctuation s from the sensor. TIle inve rt in!! ex te nd the det,ly be tween load lIcti vation. (2) re trig-

Chapter Three Heat Dete c ti o n 83

 gering of the dwell time so that repealing motion will desired. te rnlinals E can bc jumpered togcthe r on lh~
extend the lime that the load remains active, and (3) PC board to cause the circuit to igno re trigger transi-
a day/night fu nction 10 inhibi t activation of a load tio ns tha t occur during its timeout pcriod.
during daylight. The second single SllOl will also no'trigge r if it
Each of the Iwo single-sho t circuits in U2 has both rece i\'es a no ther posili\'c tra nsitio n at its inpu t before
inverting and noninvcning inputs and outputs. When it timcs o ut. howeve r. it can re trigge r o nly if its time-
mOlion is detected. a positive t ransition at the cath- o ut period is adjusted to be lo nger tha n that or the
odes of 01 and D2 feeds into noninverling input pin fi rst single shot and if the first single-shot delay is nOI
4 of U2 and then triggers the fi rst single shot on for a exte nded beyond th at of the second by re triggering_
period determined by lime conSlants RB , R14. and Rc trigger is also the de faul t mode of Ihe second sin-
Cl. 11lc non inverling o utput al pin 6 goes high and gle shOl . lf it is not desired. temlinals W can be
remai ns high during the timeout period. Pin 6 con- jumpe red together onthc PC board so thc circuit \\ill
nects to the nonim-erting input pin 12 of th e second ignore trigger tra nsitio ns tha t occur d uring its time-
si ngle shot. and its positive transition triggers that sin- o ut pcriod.
gle shot on for a period detenn ined by time constants A day/night fun ction that in hibi ts acl ivat ion of a
R1 9. R20. and C9. This pe riod is known as thc dwell load d uring daylight can be added by connect ing a
perio(l . 'Ille nonmverling o utput at pin iO fccds into resistil'e cad mium sulfide photo cell to te rminals C
l\'FET 0 1 and turns il on. which e nergizes re lay RY I o n thc PC board . This type of cell has a high dark
and closcs its contacts. resistance and a low light resistance. In the defauh
Both single shots a re triggered on by a positive mode. reset pin 3 of the firs t single shot is pulled up
transition a nd not by a DC level. Whe n the first single to Vdd by R16. Whc n a pho to cell is connected from
shot is triggered on . its o utput tra nsitio ns to positive pin 3 to ground and its resistance is lowered by light.
a nd triggers the second single sho t. Howevcr. it can- il pulls pin 3 down a nd rescts the circuits so that they
no t trigger the second single shot again until its out- cannot be triggered on. The photocell is nOI polarized
pu t goes low and then high again. The o n time of the and can be connected in cit her d irection. A switch
firs t single sho t thcrdore prod uces a de lay be twecn may bc connected in scries with the photocell for
repea t trigge ring of the second single ShOt. 1l1is is daylight testing.
uscful fo r applications whe re rapid re peat activation O ne e nd of the RY I coil is connected to + 5 volts
of a load is not desired such as whe n motio n is con- .1Ild the o thc r end to the dra in of FET 01 . When Ql
ti nuously be ing detectcd . tum s on, it cond ucts curre nt through the coil of RYI
Whc n the second single shot is trigge red on. to ground and energizes RY I causing its contacts to
it keeps the re lay energized for the dwe ll timeout close. Whcn 0 1 turns ofL th e coll apsing magnelic
I period. 1llis is useful for applications where it is fi c ld of the RY I coil atle mpts to produce a large pos-
desired to ha \'c a load re main act ive for some time it ive \'o ltage spike (a backwa rd eieclrolllOlil'e force,

-
gerable. If the first single shot is triggered o n by a
-
a fte r motion is detected. Both sine.le sho ts are relrie.- o r back B:lF) that wou ld damage 01 if not sup,
pressed. Diode 0 3 clamps Ihm spike and prc\'ents
positivc transition from 01 a nd 0 2. it will stay o n for back B..,JF da mage. The RY J contacts arc normally
its timc constan t period a nd then \Urn off unless it ope n, and they close whe n motion is de tected. 'Ibe
receives .m o ther trigger be fore it times o ut. If it does contacts a re rated for 3 a mpe res at 120 volt s ACor 32
receive a nOlhc r positi\'c transitio n before it times volts D C
OUI. its time constant compone nts will be reset and Curren t th rough voltage regulator U3 changes
the de lay timeout will be e xtended by an additional rapidly from 40 milliamperes (drawn mostly by RY I
delay period. R etrigge r is the default mode. If it is not whcn 01 is on) to only a few microampe res (drawn

84 Electronic Sensors for the Evi l Genius

by the amplifier and si ngle-shot circui ts w hen 0 1 sid e lind a pyr oclectrie in fra red sensor on the othe r
turns off). The current change produces a po sit ive sid e. TIle module sho uld be mounted with the 2.4-
\'OItage spike on the + 5 p owe r sup ply tha t can feed inch d imensio n in the \!ertical position . for maxi m um
back into the amplifier and ca use repeat acti""ltion of scnsi ti \'ity to horizon tal motion. Fou r h o les on thc
RYI. especially when the a m p lifier gain is set high . corners accept #4 mo unt ing scre ws. A Fresnel le ns or
Filtering of the power system 10 com p le tely re move othe r focusing device can bc placed in front of the
such a spike is difficu h withou t using a large capaci- sensor to increase sensing d istance by focusing
tor so an ahernate method of p revent ing feed back is inu ared radia tion o nto the se nsor elements.
used. The reset pin 13 of thc second singlc shot is no r- 'll1e com po ne nt side of the IR motion d e tector has
maUypulled up to Vdd thro ugh R 17. a sensilivil y adj ustment RIO thu t controls ampl ifier
Repeat activalioll of RYI is p rc \'ented by C IO. gain a nd. thcrdore. range (or de tection dis ta nce).
\\hich pulls pin 13 to a down !e\'cl when the gate of Tu rning the adjustmen t clockwise increases sensi tiv-
01 goes low and OllUrns o [f, Pin 13 stays low fo r a ity lmd gives a g reater range. TIle pyroe lectric
period of about I second . de term ined by the time infrared sensor in the lR motion de tector w ill d e lect
constant of ClO and R17. If feedback docs occu r. it a hu man or an imal more e asily a t lower ambie nt tern-
\\ill be ignored by Ihe second single shol while it is in pe ra lU res when a grcater diffe re nce e xists between
a reset state. and all thc circu its will have time to sta- the hu man or a nimal body tempera tu re and sur-
bilize before rese t pin 13 gocs high again. roundi ng objects.
The infrared body-hea t molion d etecto r consists A n o plional external resisli ve p ho tocond uctive
of an etched. drilled. and scree ned p rinted circ uil ce ll (no t sup plied) may be connected to the temlina ls
board. and alllhc boa rd-mou n tcd paris that m usl be marked C to deactiva te the circuit duri ng d ayl igh t.
assembled by mounling the parts on the board a nd By d oing Ih is. a load will be activated on ly at n ight.
soldering them in p lace. 'Ill is is a hi!!h-de nsity PC Th is is useful if the IR 1110lio11 d etector is used 10 tu rn
board thai req uires care fu l usse mbly a nd sold e ri ng. a light on.
Figure 3-22 depicts the front side of the cin:uit board. A sil1!!le·shot circui t controls the amount of time
and Figure 3-23 illustrates the reverse side of the cir- thai elapses be tween motion e ven ts that activate II
cuil board where Ihe P IR I R heal sensor is insta lled. load .l llis is usefu l for applications whe re continued
The 1R motion deteclor is fabricated on a 1.7 X motion might occur and rapid repeat aClivation of a
2,4 inch PC board with circuit components on one load is not desired. for example when someone is
sta nd ing o utside a doo r in view o f the senso r. Delay
can b e varied frolll I second 10 about 90 seconds by
...
adjus ting R I4 .TIle single shot is re triggcra ble so that :>
j

._---- --
FIgure 3·22 From side offhe high·dclISil.\' cirellil Figure 3·23 Back shle ofl he high-dellsilY cirCllil
boflrd (Collrtesy CloLnb Corp) tJO(lrd (Courtesy GloLalJ Co rp)

Chapter Three Heat Detection 85

 continued motion will ex tend the delay. Nonrelrig- A thin plastic Fresnel lens that will extend detec-
gering mode is selected by wiring a jumper across the tion range ca n be purchased separately. mounted in
terminals marked E. an enclosure. and held in place with ta pe or sil icone
rubber. No known adhesive is effective to bond 10 the
-
Anothe r sin e.le-shot ci rcuit conlrols the nmount of
lime thai a load re mains turned on after motio n is Jens m.lIcrial without the danger of damage 10 ils sur-
detected. Tlle on time ca n be varicd from I second to face. Ahhough silicone rubber will nO! bond to the
about 90 seconds by adjusling R 19. This is useful for le ns. it can be applied so it ove rlaps the edge of the
'lpplica lions such as keeping a light on lItH!1 a house lens and form s a captive mount. If a Glolab FL65
is entered. The single shot is relTiggerable so that con- long-range Fresnel lens wi lh 11 focal le ngth of 0.65
linued mo tio n will extend the on time. Nonretrigger- inch is used and mounted againsl the inner surface of
ing mode is selected by wi ring a jumper across the an enclosure. four 'J~-inch (n.22S-millimeter) long
terminals marked W. threaded nylon spncers (Dif!:i-Key product number
pIn 1902GK) will mount the IR motion de tector PC
A 6- to 14.5-voll batte ry will power the circuits.
bonrd so that the. sensor is the correct distance from
Power is connecled to the IR motion detector solder
the le ns.
pads marked ·· PWR. + a nd - :'llle module circuits
d raw Jess than 150 microamperes when no motion is To begin bui lding the IR motion detector. fi rst
de tected and less Ihan 50 milliampc res when mo tio n bend the leads of all diodes and resistors close to the
is detected and the relay is energized. In ave rage usc diode o r res istor body. inse rt them into the PC
with a shan on time. the IR motion deteClor will boards. and bend the leads agai nst the back side of
dmwonly 150 microamperes most of the time. A 9-\'011 Ihe boa rd. CUI the excess leads off shari e nough that
alkaline ballery should power the module for several Ihey do nOl \Ouch othe r connections but long enough
months and possibly evcn much longer. to retain Ihe diode or resistor until it is soldered. Be
-4 power system is reve rse·polarity protected so
l l l i!
sure to insert d iodes with cathode bands in the cor-

,
Q)
that a reversed power source will not damage the cir-
cui ls. A DC walltntnsformer may a lso powe r the IR
rect d ireclion. as shown on the boards. Solder all
diode lind resistor leads. Next. insert each poten-
tiomete r ( R IO. R 14. and R 19) with its wiper temlinal
motion de tector. however most walltransfomlers
(the one thai is different from the other two) in the
output much higher than their rated voltage whe n
hole ma rked by an aITOW on the PC board. Press the
lightly loaded. Tllerefore the transform er o utput
potent iome ter in place a nd solder. Now. insert small
should bc measurcd to bc sure that the 14.5-voll
capacitors CI. C4. C6.C II.and C12. bend their leads.
maximum IR mo tio n deleclor power supply input is
cut excess wi re off. and solder them into place. Then.
no t exceeded.
insert electrolytic capacitors 0. 0. CS. C7. CS. C9.
I Capad tors in the amplifier and timing circuits
req uirc time to charge up 10 the ir nomml operating
ClO.and CI 3 with their long posith'e lead in the hole
marked + o n the PC board. lJe nd the Icads. CUi
\'oltages before the circuil"s will operate correctly. The cxcess wire off. and soldc r. Next. insert transistor 0 1
ci rcuits will not respond \0 mot io n until about I
()
minute a h er power is applied. -
and vol taf!:c regu lutor U3 in the direction indicaled
-
on the PC boards so Ihey stand at least l/~ inch abo\"e
I Connect a power source 10 the PC board powe r the board. Solde r all pins and CU I off the excess leads..
,J pads marked + PWR -. Connect a load 10 the PC Insert UI and U2 socke ts. wi th Iheir nQ(ch as indio
Eo bourd relav• lerminals marked RY.The RY te mlinals cated o n the PC boards. and hold IheOl against the
a re nOI a source of powe r for a load: they simply con- board while soldering a few pins. Solder all rcmaining
nect together through thc relay contacts when pins. Now. inserl relay RYI and solder. Place the
Illation is sensed. A load musl be powered by an O-ring o \'er the leads of the PI R325 sensor. and
c xternal source that will be swi tched off and on by insert the sensor leads into the bOllom side of the
the relay. board. Be nd the leads over. cut off excess wire. and

86 Ele c tronic Sens o rs f o r the Ev il Genius

solder. Do nO( overheat. A pply only as much heat as 01 , D2 , 03 IN914 di ode
necessary for a good solder joint. Next. carefull y Fairc hil d IN914

straightcn the leads of U l and U2 so they extend 04 BAT46 Schot t ky dio d e

straight down and will fit into the sockets. 'Illis can be elIDa p f , SO- v o lt
cerami c dis c
done \\;th a pin straigbter or by resting the Ie on its
C2 , e3 , cS 10 uF , 16 -
side on a flat surface. Gently press o n tbe IC while v o lt e l ectr o l y ti c
rocking it until the leads face straight down [rom the
C4 , e6 , Cll , C12 0. 1
topof lhe Ie. Repeat for the other side. Handle the uF, SO - volt metal i ~ ed
ICs carefully to avoid static discharge damage. film
Finally, insert u I and U2 into their sockets with pin I C7 , C8 , C9 , C13 10 0 uF ,
16-vo lt elec tr o lYti c
ncar the socket notch.
CIa 1 MFD , SO- volt
You are now ready to attach a battery or other e lec tr o lyti c
powcr source to the plus and minus power pads and u 01 2N7000 fiel d effec t
load to the RY pads. Allow about I minute for the transi s tor
circuits to stabilize after power is applied. You can Ul LP324 o r equival e nt
alsoconncct an optional photocell to the C pads for mi c rop o wer quad op-amp

nighl-onJy operation . Clockwise rot ation of poten- U2 CD4S38 CMOS dual

s ingl e shot
I
tiometer RIO increases the amplifier gain: clockwise
U3 Seiko S-812CSOAY- 8 -
rotation of RJ4 increases the delay between motion
mi c ro p o wer v o ltage
detection: and clockwise rotation of R19 increases r e gulato r
thedwcll time when the relay is energized. With the PIR PIR3 2S pyroe lect ri c
gain control RIO set fully clockwise for maximum infrar ed s ens o r (Gl o -
lab PIR32S)
gain and with no lens in front of the sensor. it will
O- ring S pacer Poly-
detect a moving hand at a distance of about I foot
and a human body al about 3 feet.
d ra u li c B~- N s i~e
00 ,
o(l)
RYI SPST no r e lay , 5-
v o lt 40 MA co il IP'8 it"
Infra red Motion Detector Parts T77S1D3- 0S) (l)

List
Mi scellaneous IC soc k -
ets , transi s t o r
o
it"
Rl , Rll lOOK , 1 / 8 - watt ,
s o c ket , wire, c onne c -
t o rs , PC b o ar d ....
S' c arb o n film
R2 , R3 , RS , R13 , R20
Oplional
FL6S long- di s tan c e
o
10K, 1 / 8 - watt , 5 \ c ar-
b o n film
S ingle - eleme nt Fres n e l
l e ns (G l o lab )
='
R4 , R12 , RIS, R16, R17 , CD - l CDS photo c onduc -
R1 8 1 MtG , l / 8-watt, tive c ell for
S, c arbo n film day l night (PDV-P800 1 )
R6 , R9 2 MEG , lIS - watt , Infrared motion - det ec tor
5, c arb o n fillll kit GLMD
R7 , RS ISOK , l I S-watt , IR motion-detec t o r PC
5 , c arb o n film 80ard GLMDPC8
RI O, R14 , R19 1 MtG
p o tentio meter

Chapter Three Heat Detection 87

 Chapter Four

Liquid Sensing

In this chaplcr we wi ll explore liquid sensing. a vcry momen ts to roll up your car windows. bring in your
interesting and importan t aspect o f sensing. Our first la undry. or bring in your possessions. When used as
project in tltis chapler is a simple yet useful rain pa ri of a weat he r-data collectio n syste m. the exact
detector. In this chaplc r yo u will also learn how to time of a shower can be recorded.
build a liquid sensor. a fl uid·level indicator. Weather The di:lgram in shown in Figure 4-1 illustnltes the
fans ....illicam how to construc t a humidiTY monitor
to measure humidit), around your hom e or shop.
sensor portion o f the rain d e tector. consisting o f two
strips o f a lumi num fo il gl ued to a p iece of plastic. A
I
Junior scientists will 1e,I m about p H .md how \0 bui ld single square of foil is g lued to the plastic with two
and use a pH meter 10 dete rmine whether a liquid is lead wires unde rneat h. as shown in the fi g ure. TIle
abase or an acid. Nat ure- a nd ecology-minded read- lead wires arc stri p ped back. so that the foi l makes
C(Sv.illlcam abo ut how to build and utilize a stream good e lectrica l contilct with the conductoffi BUI the
gauge ....mer-Ievel monitor for studying river and bare wire sho uld not protrude. a llowi ng Ihe fo il to
Slream (low and runoff. pro tecl the wire from corrosion. A narrow zigzag is
cuI in the foi l 10 electrically separate the two lead
wires. The raindrops b ridge the gap causing cond uc-

Rain Detector
tion. which is then sensed by the electronic circuit
shown in Figure 4-2.Also note that you could usc a
en
scrap p iece o f circuit board as the sensor. provid ed
ro
The rain detector will en able you to detect the first that yo u Ciln e tch Oul or cui oul the zigzag patte rn ::s
few drops of rain. which will a llow you 1I few p recious (J)
with close separation be tween the p la tes.
.....
::s
\Q
PLASTI C BACKING

- ALUMINIUM FOIL OR CIRCUIT BOARD

,
,
: :14- - BARE WIRE

II' 0/ "/,
'II / Ij
t====~~====fl~~_ INSULATED WIRE LEADS

.••_-------------_ ... _----------------------------------------------------------- ....

Figure L]-l Rt/ ill (/l!fI!ClOr

89
 +
A2
SN - 1
/0 82
0
S1

~
P1 01 +

~
--

A1
A3 /7\
,-- 02
- 91

< "- -
A4

----------------------- .. _.-------.- .. -----. __ .------._.-.-----._-_.--------_.-------------------.--------.------------

Figure 1I-2 Rail! detector eire/tit

Figure 4-2 depicts the electronic circuit port ion of sure to ide ntify the pinouts of the transistor before
the rain de tector. One end of the sensor is con nected installing the m 10 avoid damaging these components.
\0 ground as shown. wh ile the other sensor lead is Once the ra in de tector has been assembled. you
con nected thro ugh a I K ohm resistor. which is fed to can simply test the circuit by shorting the two input
the fir-a transistor al Q1 . TransislOr 01 is a 2N4403 leads (i.e .. connect the free input lead of the l K ohm
PNP tra nsistor. The output of QI is coupled \0 a sec- resisto r to the ground. or minus. of the battery and
ond transistor stage at 0 2. a 2N4401 NPN transistor. the buzze r sho uld sound). lf a ll goes we ll and the cir·
via a 220-ohm resistor. The (oUector of transistor 0 2 cuit works properly, you can then decide how to
is connected \0 the black or (minus) lead of an elec- enclose the circuit board. In the prototype, a plastic
tronic buzzer or sonalcrt. The red o r (Plus) lead of box is used to house the rain detector. A small plastic
the e lectronic buzzer is connected to the positive lead box measuring 4 x 6 x 2 inches is used for this proj·
of the ballc ry supply. llle protolype uses three AA eel. A three-cell AA battery holder is mounted on
cells. but a 9-\'0It ban er), could be used. A 5 PST tog- the inside. along the side of the plastic case. The cir·
gle switch was used al 51 to a ppl)' power to the cuit board was mounted on stand-oIT insulators.

I circui t.
Construc tion o f the rain de tecto r is quite simple
which were used to lifl the board a bove the bollam
o f the plastic case. An R CA-type phone jack is
a nd can be assembled o n a pe rf-board or prototype mou nled on one side of the side of the plastic case.
board. Radio Shack. for exam ple. stocks a few differ- l lle RCA jack is used to connect the circui t to tbe
e nt types of sim ple low-cost protoboa rds Ihat can be se nsor. The cente r lead of the RCA jack is connected
used for this project. 1l1cse boards have coppe r foil to the fre e e nd of the I K ohm resislor. and the
around circu it pads with close separa tion between ground. or o utside lcad. of thc RCA jack is connected
holes. which is ideal for this project. Nothing critical is to the ground of the rain de tecto r circuit at the minus
in this circuit . so tie poim construction could also be lead of the battery. The IOggJe switch is moumed on
used . The components a rc all readily availa ble a nd the side of the case near the R CA input jack.
should be available lhrough you r local R ad io Shack Next. you will need to connect the sensor to a two
or e lectronic outle t. Whe n assembling the ra in detec- conductor lead-in wire that has an R CA plug at the
tor. be sure to ohsen'c the corrcct polari ty when opposite e nd. FinaUy. you will need (0 decide the
installing the Ira nsistors a nd the electronic huzzer. Be le nglh o f the sensor wirc. The sensor itself could be

90 Ele ct ronic Sensors for the Evil Genius

mounted at the top of a woode n rod (or (','e n a SN -I rain s en so r (see
tomato plant stake) <l l1d should be pl aced out in the text )

open on the lawn. Alternate ly the se nsor could be Miscellan eou s proto-
boa r d ci r c uit b oa r d,
-
mounted \\;th velcro on the cd ge of the roof. 'Ille sen-
wr should havc an unobstructed " ie w of the sky. so
battery holder , wi r e,
t ran sistor sock e ts
rain can fall directly upon the sensor for best results.

Rain Detector Parts List Fluid Sensor

Rl, R4 IK ohm, l / ~-watt -l11c flu id sensor proj ect is a variation on a the me of
r esistor
fl uid sensing.lllis project is designed to sense a liq-
R2 l OOK ohm, 1 !4 -watt
uid's leve l ,md the n dose a se t of relav con tacts. The
re sisto r
rclay contaclS can be used to activate a pump or to
R3 220 - ohm, 1!4-watt
re sisto r act'iva te an alarnl syste m to alert you of a fl ood
Ql 2N44 03 PNP co nd ition . I
transisto r The heart of the fl uid se nsor is the actua l sensor
Q2 2N~4 0 1 NPN and the CMOS Quad 2-inpul gates. as shown in Fig-
t ran sistor
ure 4--3. -lne circuit o perates by detecting resistive
BZ el ectron i c bu~~er or
conductio n through the fluid it is scnsing. ·1l1e con-
Sonalert sounde r
ducting flu id decreases the resista nce betwee n thc
51 SPST toggle power
s wi tch scnsor probes at C I and C3. causing the oscillator
61 3 AA batteri es (4 . 5 form ed by U I:A a nd compone nls R I . Q . and C I to
v olts DC) change frequency. A s thc resista nce bel wee n the
pl RCA plug sensing leads decreases Ihe oscillator begi ns sending
Jl RCA jac k U'J
ro
+ 12VDC :::I
CJl
,...,
::s
I.Q

--
FIgure 4-3 Fillid sensor circllit

Chapter Four Liquid Sensing 91

 an AC signa l to the d iodes at 0 I and 02. Diodcs 0 I
and 0 2 arc used [0 rectify the signal. which is used to PLUG

drive the sccond q uad input gate aI U I:b. -n,c DC sig-

LEAO·IN WIRE
nal is next smoothed by capacitor Col and the n senl to
potentiometer R? The pote ntiometer is used [0 set
the sensitiviry of the circuit . 'n,c Quad 2-input gale at PLASTIC PROBE HOLDER
UI:b next d rives transistor Q I. which in turn p ulls in \
/ ~r--
, _ - II
the relay a t RY· I. Diotlc 0 3. anoss the re!:lV. is used
-
to e lim inale transie n ts o r spikes. which can be caused •
• i , 'L _ _ _ _

by the re lay coil. A rese t switch is shown at $1. Note

tha t the u nused input pins 8 . 9. 12. a nd 13 on Ihe quad
two-input gales should be tied to ground to e lim inate PROBE
!/ROBE
fal se triggeri ng. Unused Oillput pins should be left
unconnected.
The fluid sensor circuit Showlllises a sillg/c-poll!.
'"
dOllble-/llrQIt' (SPDT) rcla \': this a llo ws both a nor-
mally closed output and a nomlally open sct of con-
IUctS. which can be used to activate a loud bell. an
., nlaml system , or a telephone di.ller circui t. l 11e flui d
sensor is designed to operate from a 12-\'011 D C WOOD FRAME
1/
source.llle circuit can be operated via a 12-voll bat·
-I
I Icry trickle charged by a 12-\'011 power supply. or you Figure 4-4 Probe lI~ selllbl,'
Q) could elect to usc a l2 ~\'olt. I-amp wall WHrt power
Co supply. installed corrcctly if the circuit is to fun ction. The
The fluid sensor is basically two contacts tha t a re arro w points to Ihe cat hode of Ihe diode: be sure \0
broug h t back 10 the circuit board. Tlle sensor sho uld carefully observe the polarity prior to installation.
, be constructed fro m a corrosion-resistant material Transistors generally haw three leads: a base lead.a
such as stainless stee l. Ch rome-pla ted bicycle spokes collector lead. a nd an e m itter lead. The base lead is
re mo\'ed fro m an o ld bike could be used for the sen- usually shown o n the opposite side from the collector
., sor. The two se nsor probes should be in close proxim- a nd emitte r leads. The emitter lead is usunJl\' associ·
:lIed wit h a pointing arrow, which poin ts ei ther
~

... ity to but separa ted fro m each other. If two sta inless
rods are used. for examplc. a plastic spacer block. IOward the transistor or awa\' fro m the transistor. A
plexiglass block. o r wooden block cou ld be used 10 P NP tra nsistor. as llsed in Ihis circ uit. has the arrow
hold the sensor probes together. Depending upon pointing toward the cen te r of the transistor. When
your particular a ppl icatio n. you m ay wish to d esign a installi ng the IC be sure 10 carefully observe the ori-

••
probe assem bly such as the one shown in Fllwre 44
-
that suspe nds the sensor probes over a flat surface.
e ntation when installing. ICs gene ra lly have either a
cuto ut o r notch at the tOp of Ihe d evice. thus pin I is
( usua lly to the le ft of the c uto u t. Othe r ICs often ha\'e
Construction of Ihe flui d sensor is quill' straight-
a sma ll inden ted circle near pin I. After construction
Il forward. llle ci rcuit can be fabricaled on a d edicated
o f the ci rcuit. check over the circuit board for any
circuit board or a p roto-boa rd or pe rf-boa rd for
quick construction. It is ad visable to use a transisto r stray or c ut com ponent leads that may bc stuck 10 the
sockc l as well as an IC socke t. In the e\'entt hal cir- circuit board. r-,<lake sure no sho rting solde r bridges
a re sti1lleft on Ihe board.
c uit should fa il. it is much easier to fix or re pair a ci r-
c ui l if socke ts a rc used. Re member that diodes.. Once complete. you can a pply a 12-\'011 power
transistors. and ICs all ha\'e particu la r pola rity o r ori· so urce a nd test the circuit for proper ope ration. Place
1\ e ntation. which must be obsen'ed. Diodes must be the circuit board on a n insulated s urface. cormect a
,J...
U
92 Electr o nic Sensors for the Ev il Genius
power source. and then place a j umpe r wire between
capacitors CI and C3 to simulate fluid at the probes. Fluid-Level Indicator
At this lime. you should hea r or see Ihe relay cha nge
Our next p roject is the Quid-level indica tor circuit
state.Uthe relay pulls in. Ihe circuit is working. If the
relay does not pull in. you will need 10 check the cir- shown in Figures -'-5 a nd -'-6. This circuit not a nI}'
ruil once again to make sure the wiring and co mpo- indicates the amoun t o f water present in the ove r-
nents have been insta lled correctly. head tank b u t also sets off an alarm whe n th e ta nk is
fu ll.Ine nuid indicator circu it was des igned to show
The fluid sensor circuil is installed in a small me tal
how much liq uid is re main ing in a ta nk o r containe r.
chassis box. The prototype is buill into a 5 X 6 X 3
inch chassis box. The circuit board is placed o n stand- The bea rt of the ei rcuil is a simple sensor. which
oITsand mounted 10 the botlom of the chassis box. A was built using a scra p piece of circuit board ma te rial
C'Oa.'l:ial power jack used for powe r is moun ted o n the
rear of the chassis. An inpu t jack for the senso r
-
\\~th fi ve etched lines of d iffe re nt le ngths. as shown in

Figure 4-5. TIle prolOlype fluid se nsor is easy to con-

probes is mounted a long \\~th the reset a nd power struct and is bui lt using a I \I.;-inch wide by 5-incll long
5\\itch on the front of the chassis box. Depend ing piece of scrap circuit board ma te ria l. Five coppe r
upon what type of potentiome ter you insta ll. you Illay lines are lefl OLl the board fo r Ihe four diffe re nt fluid I
....'Unt to provide an adjustme nt hole. especially if you
levels. Nole that the re are fo ur sensor lines a nd a
used a circuit board trimme r potentio me te r, If VO li commo n lead. which is placed a l the vcry bottom o f
t-<
used a larger chassis-mounted po te ntiome te r. you the d e tector strip. Squa re or round circle-type copper .....
....ill need to drill a hole for Ihe pote ntiome te r ..0
rontrol shaft. c::
Your fluid sensor is ready 10 prot ect you r ho me or
Copper U nes Scrap Printed Cireut Board
.....
....·orkshop! Build il and have fun ! p..
AD
Fluid Sensor Parts List - - Full
Rl 470K ohm, 1 / 4-watt
re sistor
R2 IS-megohm
-+- - 314
potentiomet er
Cl , C2, C3 , C4 2.2 nF ,
35 - volt c apa c itor
01 , 02 IN4148 si licon
5· 112
diode
Ul MC 1 40938 qu ad two-
inp ut gate integrated
circu i t
03 IN4004 s ilic on r e c -
tifie r diod e
Ql 2N3 906 PN"P 114
transi s tor
RY-l mini 12-vo lt relay Copper Pads
51 normally closed Common
pU Shbutton switch Lead

52 5 p5r toggle powe r

swi t c h
114· _
Misce llaneou s PC board ,
IC sock e t , tran s istor
socket , wire, hard-
ware , conne c tor s
------
Figure 4-5 Fluh/ water semor strip

Chapter Four Liquid Sensing 93

 pads afe placed at the ends of each of the copper sen- ing line inputs. The fluid-le\'e\ indicator uses a single
sor lines: these act as the detection poinL<; for the CivlOS CD-W66 package for sensing. The ends of
fl uid-level sensing. Dependi ng upon your panicu lar e ach of the Cr-..fOS·s internal switch contactS are COIl-
sensing situation. you may wish 10 have shorter or nected to!!:et her a t pins 2_-1_ 9. and I I and <Ire tied to
longer sensing strips. By using PC boards ill this fash- the circuifs common ground connection. The other
ion. il is a simple mailer to construct multiple sensing Cr.." OS swi tch COnt acts at pins 1.3.8. a nd 10 arc each
strips for various sensing aprlical ions. A lso nolC. Ihat con nected to the indicator LE Ds through series resis-
the circu it can be expanded to sense multiple levels tors. as shown. Power is supplied to the O, IOS chip
as the circuil can be scaled for morc sensing IcvcJs if on pin l ot and the ground connection is 011 pin 7.The
desired by adding more 0\'105 swi tches and LEOs. fifth or commOn sense lead at the bottom o f the sens-
ma in circuit fo r the liq uid-level indica tor is
' !llC ing stri p is connected to the common allod!! line of
depicled in Figure 4-6. AI the hClI ft of the electronic the power supply as a reference lead.
nuid-Ic\'el indieator a rc the Cr-.'IOS switches i ll 51 In operation . whe n the water le vel is empty. the
through S~. The circuit uses the widely avai lable wi res in the tank are open circui ted. and the lSOK
C D-l066. bilatera l switch Ci\'IOS IC to display the resistors pull the swi tch low. thereby ope ning the
wa te r leve[ via LE D s. Each o f the sensing lines from switch and leaving the LEOs at th e off position.As
the PC bonrd sensor are fed back to the C~'I OS the water starts fillin g up the tank. the [irst wire in the
switches at pins 5. 6. 12. a nd 13. which act as the sens- tank connected to SI and the plus (+ ) supply arc
.",
01 I 03 04
If2 81
LED \ // LED // LED \ // LED " //
4 BZ
1 2 3
-- •
A1 A2 A3 A4
,-
-
I -
I .,
=
1 U1:c Ul :d
U1 :a Ul :b 3 8 10 14
13 5 6 12
81 82 83 84
,
q 81
,\ \ 7 9
-'
2 4 9 11
AS A6 A7 A8 A9

I
f-
~Q1 ""
-'
-::::
....,
.. '
- --

i16-
I'"
FULL
3/4
116 1/2
114
0 LED 4 - FULL

0 LED 3- 3/4 FULL

0 - GLASS VESSEL 0 LED 2· 112 FULL

Qj- LED 1 • 1/4 FULL

Figure ~-6 Flllid I,'(/fer It' I,e! illdicfltor circllit

--

Electro n ic Senso r s for the Evil Ge n ius

shorted by the water. This closes the switch S 1 and [rom th e LEDs to the circuit board. Installing all the
turns LED Ito on. As the water continues to fi lllhe LEOs o n the PC board mukcs a tid". a nd clean lavoul .
tank, LEDs 2. 3.and 4 light up gradually. The number wit h a minimum of con necting wire running all
oflc\'cls of indication can be increased to e ight if two a round the chassis box. If you e lect to insta ll all the
CD-W66 ICs are used in a simila r fashion. LEOs on the PC board. you will have to precise ly
Whcn the water tank is full. the base of the tnmsis- determine where the mounting holes will a ppear on
tor BCI48 is pulled high by the water. saturating lhe the chassis box enclosure.
transistor. and thus turning on the e lectronic buzzer The prototype flu id indicator is mounted in a
or Sonaler!. lo te that the S PST switch has to be small a luminum chassis box measuring 5 x 6 x 3
opened to turn the bUlle r off once the tank is fill ed inches. The SPST toggle switch and the e lectronic
to the top. buzzer a re mo unted on the to p cove r of the chassis
This circuit is simple and straightfo rward a nd can box. The prototype ci rcuit has all its LEDs mounted
~ adapted to many appl ica tions quite easily. The on the circuit board. so ho les have to be measured
prototype Ouid-Ievel indicator is constructed on a precise ly in order fo r the LEDs to line up wit h the
~mall prototyping boa rd fou nd a t anv R ad io Shack ho les drilled imo the c hassis bo,\: . The n Ihe c ircuit
store. These boards are drilled on .0lD centers with board is mounted on stand-offs, so the LEOs can pro- I
copper leads at each hole. wi th connccting copper trude thro ugh the case whe re the ho les arc drilled. A
lines,some of which form common bus leads. nine-pin RS-232 fe male connector is mo unted a t the
These boards are inexpensive and can be readily rear of the chassis box, which is used to accept a nine-
used for this project. The prototype circuit is quitc pin male RS-232 connector. linking the sensor with
small because only a single Ie. a few resisto rs, a nd a the e lectronics package. The nuid-level ind icator
single transistor are used. Whc n constructing thc cir- o pe ra tes from a 6-\'011 powe r source. there fore two
roit board, be sure to use an Ie sockct for the AA plastic balle!)' holders a re mounted o n the bot-
CMOS chip. tom of the chassis box. Fina lly you can make a legend
o r labe l the LEDs Ih, V!•.I/I. a nd full.
This \\iUgreatly help in the evcnt o f circuit fai lure
down the road. Be sure 10 observe proper pola rity Once the installation of a ll the compone nts and
when installing the Ie as well. ICs usua lly have some circuit is completed. the circuit can be tested to be
fonn of marking to indicate thc pin numbers.. Some sure it ope rates correctly. Wir c up your sensor board
ICs have a cutout or notch a t the top of the Ie pack- with a le ngth o f fi \'c-cond uctor cable a nd place a
age. Other ICs onen have a small round inde nted cir- nine-pin RS-232 male connector at the o pposite e nd
de near pin I of the Ie. When installing the LEOs.. be of the cable. Plug in the sensor connector to the
sure to insert them prope rly, obse rving the correct fe male c hassis connector a nd insert the batte ries into
polarity. LC LEDs are mounted backward. they will the ho lders, a nd you a rc now rc ady to test the liq uid-
usuallysurvi\'e. but installing a n Ie backwa rds is le \'e l indicator circuit. A pply power to the circuit . and
often a sure-fire way to destroy the Ie. slowly insert the sensor strip in a large nonconducting
beaker_cylin der, or bowl and tbe LEDs sho uld begin
FinaUy. when installing the transistor be sure to
light ing u p. E ach LED sho uld ligbt up seque ntially
identify the pin before installing it. Tra nsistors have
and then the a larm buzze r sho uld sou nd le tt ing you
three leads: a base, a collecto r. and a n e mitte r. Tran-
know the containe r is full .
sistors are also very sensitive and can be destroyed by
improper installatio n. D epend ing upo n your particu- Yo ur Quid-level indicator is now ready to serve
lar application. you may wish to install the LEOs on your needs. Your imaginatio n will be the o nly limi t
the circuit board along wilh the other compone nts or to thc applications you may find fo r the circuit.
separately on the chassis box. with wire leads running Have fun!

Chapter Four Liquid Sensing

 111e hum id it)' monitor circuit uses the G-Cllp
Fluid-Level Indicator Parts List humidity sensor to detect humidity changes by \"UT)"-
ing the frequency OUI PUI of a TLC555CP. The CMOS
Rl , R2, RJ, R4 330 ohm,
1/ 4-wa tt r esisto r T LC555CP is SCI up as a siable multivibrator or oscil·
RS, R6, R7, R8 18ak lalar emplo}'ing R3 and SEN-I. which detemline the
ohm, 1/4-watt re Sistor frequency span of the o scillator. As the humidit}'
R9 2 .2k ohm, 1/ 4-watt cha nges. the oscillator frequency changes from abom
resistor 13 to 15 KHz. POie ntiomeler R5 allows the output
01 , 02, 03 , 04 LEOs signal to be adjusted a nd thus allows calibration of
Ql BC148 or equivalent the humidit), monitor. Th e varying frequency output
NPN transist.or
fro m U3 is converted to a DC signal and coupled 10
Ul C04066 CM05 ele c-
a n LM358 o p-am p. which provides a va rying DC oU!-
tronic s wit c h
put from 0 to 5 volts DC based on the humidit}'
BZ Piezo elect r on i c
bu zz er changes from 0 to 100 percent humidity. The minus
51 5PST toggle power ( - ) inpUl of the op-amp is setup as II reference
switch source. whereas the plus (+) input of the op-amp is
Bl 4 AA c elh the val)'ing signal from Ihe h umidity sensor. The OU!·
Miscellaneous PC board, put of the LM358 at pin 1 p roduces a voltage
wi r e, R5-232 mal e an d between 0 and 5 volts DC An Accule.x DP652 LCD
female con nec tors , IC
sock et , transistor pane l meier is used \0 display the O-to 5-voll DC
socket , battery output from the humidity mon itorcircuiL The output
hol d er , etc . of U4:a is fed to a voltage divider that drops the full
scale voltage down IO ? volls for the pand meter
input. 'Ille minus ( - ) input o f the LCD me ter at pinS
is tied to the common . or ground. at pin I. The input
Humidity Monitor voltage from thc humidi ty monitor circui t is sent to
pin 7 of the LCD meter. The LCD panel meter is
Are you interested in monitoring weathe r conditions powered on pin I from the 5-\'011 regulator at U2.
or creating you r own weather station? A numbc r of The decimal points at pins 4. 5. and 6 are selected by
projects in this book can be combined \0 do just thaI. cOlmecting them 10 pin 3. which is the decimal poim
'n lis capacit ive relative humid ity monitor is a good (D P) common pin . but the dccimal points arc not
place to sian as it is easy to construct. low cost. and used in Ihis project a nd a rc left unconnected.
has a good long-term stabil ity a nd re liabili ty.
The humidity monitor circuit is powered from a
I '!lle hean o f the capaci tive humidity mon itor is
the G eneral Easte rn G -Cap 2 relat ive humidit), sen ·
1?-volt balle n•' at B I. 11lc batten' is switched into the
•

ci rcuit via the power switch at 51. The first regulator

sor. which is shown as 5EN- 1 in the c ircuit diagram in at UI converts the 12-\'011 ballen' voltage down to iO
figure 4-7.llle humidity mon itor can monitor re la- volts D C for the op·amp a t U4:a on pin 8. 1lte second
tive humidit), between 0 and 100 percen t. 'Ibe sensing regulator is fed direc tly from the lO-volt output from
e lement consists of a proprietary e lectrode metal liza- the first regulator:n le regulator at U2 is used tQSUP-
tion d eposited over the humidity sensitive polymer. ply 5 volts of D C to power both the re ference voltage
The structure of the sensor allows fo r nlpid diffusion source a t RI O a nd also to power the LC D panel
of water vapor. which speed s up drying a nd makes meter ci rcuit.
reca libration e asy. The properties o f Ihe sensor fi lm
The humidity monitor should be constructed ana
a llow the sensor to survive immeP.iioll in water. "!lIe
p rinted circuit board for best results. but you could
capaci ti ve sensor chllllges capacitance from 148 pF
also ciect to build the circuit on an experimenter'S
at 0 percent rela tive hu midity to 178 pF a t 100 per·
prototype board us ing short length point-Io-point
cent humidit\'.

96 Electroni c Sensors for the Evi l Genius

 -
,,"" DC r
Rl
-
R2 .4 I Cl 51
ADJ Bl
12v
' -<1 0 +
Ul
J 0 1 1'1'1'1.
A
B +SvOC
+ 10v
U2

4
U3
S R6
,
U4:a >>-.. .
1
~
1
02 R3
6
3
r~r
Rll
2 +--f.-1'l
- ... C7
R13

, 7 2 A4 7 t--- I"+-~
L--J[)-, - fa 1
C3
--
1
r)R5 R7
+ R12
R14

,, ,,
.- - - I -
--
C6 +5v DC I
~~-1 -;==7~CL~~SI
1t _ __I ISEN- l
R1 2 IL_ _ --=5~
v I~
RS 1 0 0
+ R9 2 10 VM-l
~
C5

-------
FIgure 4-7 HI/midity 1II01l;lOr cirCllil

wiring. The 2 !I! x 4 inch g lass epoxy circuit board avoid damage to the circ uit when Hpplyi ng powe r to
was used fo r the prototype humidi ty monito r. When the circuit. You will need to adj ust the output of the
designing a circuit board for the hu midity monitor. reg ulator (Q 10 volts DV using the pote ntiomete r at
you \\;11 wanl10 conside r mounting the se nsor SEN-l R I. prior to insta lling the ICs to e nsure tha t U4 has
at one end of the circuit board to a llow the se nsor (Q a lO-voit source. Once ,vou have e nsured tha t the
-look out'" the side of the e nclosure. Yo u m ight also voltage regulators are producing the correct \'o itage.
elecl lo mounllhe se nsor remotely_ but this is not rec- yo u can insen the jumper wire between poin ts A
ommended because the capacilance o f the sensor and B.
and long lead-in wire could adversely effect the cir- The h um idity moni tor circuit prOiOlype is installed
cuit operation. in a small me tal chassis box. Place the circuit board
ICsockets a rc recommended in Ihe c ve lll of cir- inside of the chassis box. a nd align the c irc uit board
cuit problems in the future. Ie sockets cost a few to o lle edge of the ch assis box. Drill a ha lf-inch hole
re nts more at circuit construction time but gil'e you in the chassis b ox to a llow the se nsor to sec o utside
riece of mind for fmure service work if ever needed. the chassis box. You can cover the half-hole la te r with
Be careful to obse rve the polarity of the capacitors p last ic screen material if d esired. D ri ll four holes in
.... hen installing them in to the circu it in o rder to avoid the four comers o f the circuit board . The circuit
damage 10 the circuit u pon power up. The humidity board is the n mo unted on ifI-inch p lastic standoffs.. to
monitor circuit has two diodes. so yo u will need to the bOllo m of the chassis box using ~- i n c h 4-40
pay 311enlion to the po larity o f these devices as well machine screws. Using the templa tc sup plied with lhe
when installing them. Be fo re install ing the two regu- LCD panel me te r. a cuto ut hole is marked o n thc top
lators.idcntify the input p ins from the o utput pi ns to o f the chassis box fo r the meter assc mb!v. You will
"

Chapter Four Liquid S en s ing 97

 then need to CUI o ul an ope ning for the LCD meier. R6, R7 , RI O 30 . IK ohm,
You can do this by drilling small holes all around the 1 / 4-watt , 1\ r eduor

meter cutout, then punch out the ce nler piece that is R8 ls OK o hm, 1/ 4-watt ,
5 \ r esistor
left. and fina Uy usc a fi le to make all the edges
R9 42. 2K ohm, 1/4 -lIatt ,
smooth and straight. A nother option is to purchase a 1\ re s i s tor
nibbler 100110 make the rectangular cutout for the 011 20K ohm. 1/ 4-watt ,
meIer. The power switch Sl is also mounted on the 5% re sistor
top of the chassis box. Two four·cell AA banery hold- 012 845K ohm. 1/ 4 -Wi!l.t.t ,
re s i sto r
ers are mounted on the baltom of the chassis box for
the baHeries. Note thai e ight AA cells will produce 12 013 " 221- ohm, 1/ 4- wa tt ,
r esistor
valls of direct current 10 power the circuit
O nce the humidity monilOr is assembled . you are
"
R14 149- ohm, 1/ 4-lIatt ,
1\ r esisto r
ready to calibrate the humidity meter. loser! batteries C1 1 uF , 3s-volt el ec-
in fO the holders. and switch the power 10 the ci rcuil. trolyti c c apacitor
Usc a multimeter to ensure lllal you have 10 volts C2 , C7 0.1 uF , 3s-volt
ou tput at the firs t regulator and 5 volts at the second tanta l um c apac itor
regulator's output. A t this point you can calibrate the C3 , CS , C6 4. 7 uF , 35-
volt elect r olytic
humidity monitor: this can be done in o ne of two c a pac itor
ways. The humidiry monitor can be placed next to a
C4 270 pF , 35 - volt
pot of boiling water. or the sensor can be taken out- ce r am i c NPO capacitor
side while it is raining. If placed near a pm of boiling 01 , 02 IN4148 silicon
wnter. you'lI want to keep the se nsor just at the edge diode
o f the clo ud o f steam and only for a short time. long 5EN-l G-Cap 2 capaci-
enough to adjusllhe pOientiomeler al R5 fo r full tive humidity sensor
(General Ellstern
sc.de of 5 volts while in the cloud of steam. You can In struments)
also take the sensor outs ide during a rain storm, but U1 LM317 th ree- terminll!
you'll wanl lO keep the sensor protected [:rom the ad j ustabl e r egulator
raindrops. lfyo u or a friend have a calibrated humid- (NlItional)

ity instrument. you could also use it to calibrale th e U2 LM2936Z-S three -

termina l , 5- v o l t
humidit), monitor. positive vo l tllg e
Your relative humidi ty monilor is now ready 10 regu lat o r (Na tional)
serve you and can he used to round out your weather U3 TLCS55CP
time r /osci llato r Ie
moni!Oring instruments if you are a weather (Te xas In s trument s)
I enthusiast.
U4 LM.358 dual Op-atrIp
(Nationa l)
51 5 P5T toggle powe r
Humidity Monitor Parts List switc h
Bl 8 AA cells or a 12-
R1 5K ohm potentiometer vo l t battery
(t r impot) VM- l OP-652 LCD pllnel
R2 240 ohm , 1 / 4-lIlItt , mete r ; +/ -2 vo l ts
5 \ r es istor (Accu lex )
R3 l OOK ohm , 1/4-watt , Mi s~e llan eous printed
5 \ r es istor ci r cu i t bo ard , Ie
socket s, wi r e, 4-4 0
R4 51.1K ohm, 1/4- lIatt, sc r ews and nuts ,
1% r esis tor stando ff s, terminals ,
R5 20K ohm potentiome- jumper, etc: .
t er (t ri mpot)

98 Ele c tron i c Sensors for the Ev il Genius

 Lets go back now to the development of the pH
pH Meter scale. A mo lar solution of hyd rochloric acid is about a
3.6 percent solUl lo n of the acid. Let's assih'll this solu-
If you arc a scientist. chem ist. o r a pool owner. YOli l ion a pi-I oro.A molar sol ution of sodi um hydroxide
areeertain 10 want 10 know the pH of a solu tion o r of (commonly known as lye) is about a -LO percen t solu-
water. So the question is. what is pl-l ? pH is a n umber tion of the base. Let's assign this solution a p H of 14.
that exactly describes the degree of acidity or bask ity If we now d ilute the acid by ad d ing I milliliter o f
ofasolution.A good analogy e,1Il be made wi th the acid 109 milliliters of pure water. we will ha\'c a '110
measurement of temperamre, Wi th temperature, we molar solu tion. Let"s assign th is sol ution a pH of 1. In
ha\'e Ihe terms cold and hot. and we immediately the same way.le t"s dil u te the molar solu tio n of
realize Ihat these arc \'ef)' !!:cncral temlS thai cannOI sodium hydroxide by adding I milliliter to 9 m illi-
be used with any degree of accu racy. A ccordingly. the liters of p u re water. We"1I assign Ihis rcsu ltalll solu-
tcmperalure scale "'<IS deve loped. and now a specific tion a pH of 13.
temperature reading. of say 50~C. mea ns the same 10 Notice that wit h the acid. ou r 'ito dilution
evcryone and is scienlifically accurate. increased the pH from 0 to I. while the same dil ution
In much the sallle w<ly. the pH scale was dc\·e l· orthe base reducellthc p H from 1-' to 13, Now here's I
oped. Centuries ago, humans discovered that certain the significant poilu: Ln both cases. we were goi ng
materials possessed propert ies that we ca lled neil/. toward 7, As we'll see shortly, a pH of 7 is the exact
whereas ot hers possessed different prope rties that we middle of the scale a l which we ha\'e ne ilher add no r
called bases. Between these two was a neu tral a re a in base. but neutra1.
IIhleh the material showed neil her acid nor base Con ti n ue to d ilU(c both Ihe acid and base by o nc -
properties. and we termed this neil/mI. te nth. and each time increase the nu m ber in the case
Now just as in hot and cold. the words aeid lll1d of the add and decrease the number in the case of
btlsedo not gi\'e us ,I scientific value that we can usc. the base, -111e results look like this.
We needed a scale that we all agree on when we dis- FIl'St. a pH probe (which we'll discuss in more en
Cll5S the degree of acidity or basicity. But before we detail short ly) produces a \'oltage that can be d irectly ro
study the scale. let 's take a mome nt 10 find om what
makes one mate rial an acid and a no ther a base: An
related to the p H of the solu tion in which we place
the probe, Secondly, a n electro nic circui t with in the
::s
acid must have ionized (or free) hydrogen ions..
CJl
pH me ter cabine t receives the m lt age from the
~.
H+:a base must lwvc ionized (or free) hydroxyl io ns
OH·. pH is directly related to the ralio of H + 100H .
probe a nd the n p resen ts it 10 the mete r scale. -111 is
voltage deve lo ped at the probe will cause the meier ::s
If the H+ is greater than 01-1·. the mate rial is a n acid. pointer to move, TIle value of the nu mber whe re the IQ
Uthe 0 1-1· is greale r Ihan the J-\ +. the material is a pointer stops is Ihe pH of the solmion.
base. If equal amounts are present. then the mate rial
The p robe can be tho ught of as a batte ry whose
is a neutral salt (see the p H scale in Figu re -'-8).
\'o ltagc changes as the pl-l of the solution ill wh ich il
is inserted changes. It consists o f two pa rts (in fac t
many pl-l measurcments a rc made wil h two separate
p robes): (I) the hydrogen sensiti \'e glass b ulb. and (2)
the rderence electrode. The special glass of the bu lb
has the ability 10 pass H +, TItis abili ty the n a llows the
H + mo lecules insid e the bulb to compa re lhe mselves
wllh Ihose outside the bulb and to d evelo p a \'o ltage
that is related to this d ifference . TIlis bulb then is a
ha lf-cell a nd will nccd a com pa nion refere nce to
func tion.

Figure 4·8 pH s('{/{I!

Chapter Four Liquid Sensing 99

 In Figure 4-9 notice thaI just above the bulb is a polarit),. the meier poi nter would go 10 the right lo a
reference e lectrode tTi!. This is actually a small open- p H reading of 8.00, G enerally, a probe will produce
ing in the glass through which the inside fill e r solu- aboul60 millivolts for each change of I pH unit.
l io D ca n very slowly leak 0 1L1. Now the rela tio nship Thus, a probe voltage of + 300 millivolts would
benveen the reference electrode and the sohllion also cause Ihe me te r to read pH 2,00 (+_'<."/Itl = 5 units.
prod uces a voltage. and th is is the olh er half cell. 7 - 2 = 2).
Together the pH sensiti\'c bu lb and the refere nce Because the pH mete r a nd probe arc bOlh elec·
electrode cO L1sti tu te the complete probe. Ironic de\'ices. you mi!!ht like to ha\'e some slandard
The value o f voltage produced by the probe is for- pH sol ution that you Cll n measure to be sure thnt
tunale!y a li near function of lhe pH . For example. HI eve rything is cal ibrated correctly. l l1ese solutions are
pH 7.00. lhe probe produces 0 valls while at p H 6.00. avai lable and they are called Siandard buffers. You'll
il prod uces +0.06 , rolts o r + 60 l11illi\'Olls. Notice the soon fi nd thaI a buITer is a vital pan of all pH meas·
plus pola rity mark: if the ,'c hage we re o f minus ure mc nts. A buffer is a so lution o f a part icular pH
tha t has the ability (Q resist c hange in pH . (As a side
note. buffers in o ur blood sysle m are wha t keeps us
alive a nd hea lth",)
~~ /' V '1----...... G c nerally pH me ters for commercial use are

" /
rather expe nsive, but it is possible 10 build youro\\n
p H me te r for a small o utlay a nd learn a bout how pH

4 Interconnecting pH
\. / is measured. Using an ultra low input cu rre nt ampli·
fier. a Ct-.'IOS micropower OlHl.mp, a nd a d igital mul·
signal wi res Iime ie r. you clI n construct a use fu l p H meter. A
generalized pH mete r block diagram is shown
Figure 4- 10.
"111e heart of our ""\'olks'· pH me te r circuit is the
low cost siflwl sihw chloride ( AglAg.CI) pH probe at
the input of the ultra low curre nt amplifier shown in
the diagra m in Figure ..I-11. "I"l1e sigllll i from a pH
probe has a typical resista nce between to megohms
Reference cell and 1,000 megohms. Because of this hi!!h \ a lue. it is
typically filled with
a neutral solution \'e ry impo rta nt tba l the amplifie r input currents be as
such as KCI small as possible. The U."IC600I. wi th less than 25 fA
input cu rre nt. is an ideal choice for this pH meier cir-
I cu it. The theoretical output of a standard Ag/AgCI
pH probe is 59, 16 mY/pH a t 25°C with 0 \'oltsout al
Re ference junction
-10H~ a pH of 7,00, This a m pUl is proportional to absolute
lypiCaDy made 01
H porous ceramic or temper'lIurc. To compensate for this. a temperature·
OH ~ OH- H porous teflon
compenslHing resiSlor R l is placed in the feedback
H
H IOOp. '111is cHnce ls thc te m perature dependence of
H Ihe pro be. 'nl is resisto r must be mo unted where it
pH electrode bulb
will be :11 the same temperature as the liquid

/
Probe shown in an acidic
[glass membrane that Is
permeable by H+ lonsl
being measured,
'Ille uh ra low input curre nt a mplifier. the
eO'lironmenl wh ich has
an el(cess of H+ Ions LMC600I. am plifies the probe o utput providing a
scaled \'ollage of + /- 100 mY/p H [rom a pH of7.
Figure Lj. g p H Bulb Q\'e ra ll gain adjustments to the p H meter can be

100 Elec t ronic Se nsor s f or the Ev il Genius

 Glass 1+
Electrode
Mv
R9 AiD
Amplifier
AI Converter

- AI
Micro
Processor

Refe rence
Electrode S Digital
Display

-- --
--.- -----.- --------. - ----- .. _- - -------_._----
FIgure 4-10 p/-l ll/ner block diagram
I
MI- 1
Cl
R3
R2 +
RO
~ 97+5v +5v \ 1 I
2 , \ / II , / /
- R4 2 7
VI " -
Rl

--
3
+
l-- 4
+5v
3
+
V2
>" + "- 0
-5v
R5
4
-5v
- 0 en
-- It>
--
.. .
•- . - ~ ~ Cable
Dl R7 Digital Multimeler ::s(J)
~.
pH -- R8
PR -\ probe ::s
- l.Q
-
-- --------
FIgure 4-11 pH meier l'ircuit
--------- -------------- ------------- ----------- ----

made \"ia potent iomete r R3. Tlle second o p-a mp. a Total cu rre n t consumption of the e ntire pH me ter
micropower LM C6041 . provid es phase inversio n a nd circuit is only a bout 1 mA fo r the whole syste m .llle
offset so that the ou tput is d irectly prop o rtional to pH me ter circui t requires a 5-\'01\ DC power source.
pH,O\'er the full range of the probe. The reference sup plied from the dual plus/minus power supply c ir-
circuit. or offse t ci rcuit. consists o f a zener d iod e. I Wo cuit shown in Figu re 4-12. The dual plus/minus power
resisiors.and the potentiome ter al R8.'Ibe output of supply ut ilizes two 9-\'0It transistor radio batte ries.
U2 can be direct ly coupled 10 a d igit al multime lc r. Battery B 1 supplies a minus (-) voltage to regula tor
IIhich can be calibrated to read pH . You could also U3. a nd B2 supplies a positive (+) voltage to the U·t
elect to purchase a low-cost d igital pa nel voltme ter The two regulators pro \'ide a stable and accun lle 5-
instead of using a nlultimeter. volt power source fo r the IWO o p-amps.

Chapter Four Liquid Sensing 101

 --

+ +
C2 C3

.: ;::: 2.2U F 1UF

,
U3
51:A

6' 9v - -0: Of - - ---I 7905 -5v DC

-
+ ,,,
,
- -
,----0:/0: >-- - --I 7805 +SvDC

62 - 9v 51:8 + +
- U4

+ '-----"
--'r 4.7UF I

-; CS ,
, UF
C4

-
Figure 4 ·1 2 p H meier power supply
--------- .. "-
The pH me ie r circuit can be constructed on a per pads caused by solder blobs or [rom stray dis-
small 2 X 3 inch prim ed circuit board . The layout carded componelll leads.
shou ld be as shorl as possi ble bClwccn lhe two low- Locate a 4 x 6 x ? inch me tal chassis box to house
curren! op-am ps to remove any signal loss. error. or th e pH meter circuit. O btain two 9-\'011 plaslic tran·
noise. llle use of Ie sockets is hjghly recom mended . sistor radio ball e!)' hold ers and mount them to the
in case of a circuil fa ilure at a late r date. ICs a rc bOllom of the chassis box.111e circuit board is then
marked. so you can identi fy the pinoUis of thc device. mounted a top plast ic standoffs to ensure Ihe circuitT)-
G c nc rallv
•
les a re marked wit h eithe r a small does not short out to the metal chassis box. Power
inden ted circle o n the left side o f the Ie package or a switch S I ca n be mo unted on the top side of the chas·
small cu tout on the top of the Ie. Pin I of the Ie is sis. A d ual bammil jack or two single. red and black
always 10 the left of eithe r the cutou t or the indented banan a jacks for the muilime te r connect io ns can be
ci rcle. The pH meie r circuit contains a zener diode. mounled o n tOp of the chassis. You will need to locale
which m ust be insta lled correctly in o rde r fo r the cir- a Illalchi ng conneClOr for the p H probe: it too can be
cu it to work properl y. The black band on the diod e mo u nted o n the top of the c hassis box.
corresponds to the cathode o f the diode. TIle band
l l le p rototype volks p H meter u til izes a low-cost
should be poi nting toward resistor R5 a nd R6. late
FastG lass model T SP6(XXll p H probe purchased from
that capacitor Cl is a non po larized capacitor. and
EyeThink Corporation.111e pH probe is a glass bulb
that the resis t o~ a re 1% values to ell5ure accuracy of
Ag-AgC I-type. which can measure [rom 0 to 14 pH.
the meter.
Once you have the circuit enclosed and the baller-
A fte r constructin g the circ uit board. yo u 'll want to
its con nected. you can begin the setup and calibra-
inspect the foi l side of the boa rd [or a ny possib le
tion. The calibration proces.<; is q u ite simple wilh little
shorts. ei ther between copper pads or between cop-
possibililY of problems or intcraclions.. Firsl.tum on

1 02 Ele c t ro ni c Sensors f o r t he Evi l Ge n ius

the power s\\~ ((: h.th en disconnect the pH probe a nd. Bl , B2 9-volt transis -
,,;th RJ set to aboul midrange and the no ninven ing tor radio batte r y

inpul of the U,,'IC600 1 grounded. adjust R8 until the PR-l Ag / Ag/CI pH p r obe
(£yeThink)
outpUi is 700 mV. Nexl.apply - 414.1 mV to the non-
M! digital multimete r
in\'ening input of Ihe LMC6001. And fi nally adjusl or digital panel mete r
R3 for an output of 1.400 m V.l11is comple tes the cali- module
brnlion.As pH probes may be sligh tly differc nt. Misce llaneous pri n ted
minor gain and o([sel adjustme nls should be made by c irc uit board, IC
socket~, battery
trimming while measuri ng a precision buffe r solution. c l ips, ha r dware

pH Meter Parts List

Rl l OOK, + 3 , 500 ppm/C ·
Stream Stage Water-Level
(s ee note) Measurement
R2 6S.1K ohm, 1 /4 - watt ,
1% resi~to r
Scientists such as hydrologists often have a need to
I
R3 l OOK ohm
measure the de pth of a stream. creek. or rive r during
potentiometer
or aft e r a fl ood or d uring or after spring ru n-o ff. They
R4 9 , lOOK ohm, 1 / 4-
watt, 1\ resist o r need a n accura te way to measu re thc de pth of the
RS 36 .5K ohm, l /4-wa tt , wate r so they can study the fl ow of rive rs and strea ms
1\ r e s istor d ue to nooding o r run-on or to smdy the transport of
R6 6 1 9K ohm, 1 / 4-watt, chemicals or particles in wate r.
1% r e s istor
Water heigh t is measured by pressure. because
R7 97 . 6K ohm, 1/4-watt,
pressure at de pth is a fun ction of watcr height. H ow-
RS
1% r esisto r
10K o hm
e\'e r, the total pressure at a fix ed deplh is a combina- en
potentiometer tion of the water a nd the overlying atmosphere. A CO
01 LM4040D l z , 2 . 5
vo l tage r ef erence
diffe ren tial pressure gauge detects the height of
wate r above the pressure port and isola tes it from the
::s(J)
Cl
(Nat i o nal)
2 . 2 u F , 3S-vo l t non-
overlying pressure from the atmosphere and its day- .....
polBriz ed c apacitor
to-day variability. You can readily measure the depth
of water in a rive r or stream using the stream gauge
::s
C2 2 . 2 uF, 3S-volt
c apacitor system shown in Figures 4-13 and 4-14. IQ
C3, C4 I uF , 3S- volt The heart of the stream gauge water-level meas-
elec trolYtic c apacitor ure me nt system is the Honeywell ASCXOI D N. the 0
cS 4.7 u F , 35~volt to I psi differe ntial pressure se nsor shown in Figure
electrolytic cBpac ito r
4-15."0 Ie sma lle r psi ra ting decreases the maximum
UI LMC6001 ult r a l o w
in put c ur r ent ampli-
wate r depth de tected but increases the sensitivity of
fier (Nationa l ) the measurement. A I psi differen tial pressure gauge
U2 LMC6041 CMOS micro- has a ma.ximum de pth range or 0.72 meters. Assume a
power op-amp \'oltage rangc of 0 to 5 volts spread over an 8-bit data
(Nationa l )
point (restricted to a range of inte gers from 0 to 255)
U3 LM7905 negative 5-
yields a theoretical ma.ximum resolu tion of 0.28 cen-
volt regulator IC
timeters for each logger val ue unit. A 5 psi dHfe ren-
U4 LM7805 positive 5_
volt r e gulator IC tial pressure gauge, howe\'er. has a ma.ximum depth
51 OP5T toggle power range of 3.6 me ters and m inimum theoretical resolu-
~witch tion of2.8 cnt/logger value. H oneywell also makes

Chapter Four Liquid Sensing 103

 I .-
'I FigurE' 4-13 Slre(lm gUllg£' sys/('/11
«

'U)"'
(\)

FigurE' 4-14 Slr('(/1I/ g(lI/gt' SY5/ £,1II

- --------------

«
- .5 psi and lari!cr d ifferential gauges. The Ho neywell
sensor was se lected due to competi tive cost. simplic-
ity_ a nd lineari ty o f its response.
·1l1e differe ntial gnuge actually detects the differ-
e nce be tween the pressure applied to the pressure
port minus the pressure applied to the background
,J
t
104 Electronic Sensors for the Evil Genius
 Signal
Nylon con dilioning
housing ceramic

f
/ Electrical
leads
Aluminum plale Rlj seal /
- - - - - - - /- - - - - - - - - - - - - I
Wire bond Sensor chip , .

I
,
i:- SKGel

!
~
protective
.,L-'::' coa ting
Internal
leads
I t -I I
'--, SX series
Aluminum
base package
RTV
plate seal

"" l/
Pressure pori (A) "'"
Pressure pori (Al
l/
--- -
Figure 1.1 -15 /-Iollc.I' lI'e/l ASCXOI DN pn'sSlire sellSor

pon. ln Ihis project. the aCliv(' pressure pOri 13 is COIl- to a resis to r divid er ne twork tonsisting o f resistors •
n~ed to a length of plastic tube in a ft.xed locat ion R5 a nd R6. The output of the pressure sensor is cou-
UndCIW(lIer. and the background pOri A is connected pled to an ONSET HOBO S·bit data logger for
to!he atlllosphere. via the receiving unit. which i5 r.:cording the pressure sensor VCllucs.
Q
abcwe water. H O BO data loggers an! ;wailable in S-bi! and 12-
The stream gauge water-levcl mo nitoring syste m is bit ' ·crsio ns. The HO BO I-I 08-001-07 is a two-
shown in the on'rall circuit diagra m shown in Fig ure channcl. snmlliow-cost data logger. which is powered
+16. The sensor is powe red from a 1)-'·011 source eon- hy a small button ballery for I year of data collection.
sil.ting of six AA batteries housed in two baue ry T1IC t\\'o·chan nel data logger has a built-in te mpe ra -
holders. ·llIe regulator pro\'kks a constant 5 vOl lS DC tu re ~e n so r a nd a second free porI. which ea n be used
to power the pressure sensor. ·rne 5-\'011 output fWIll to record the pressure sensor rc adi ng. lllc I-I OBO
!he regulator is sent to pin 2 o f the p ressure sensor. series d:lI a loggers come in \\\ 0 input configurations.
The resistor network. consisting of resistors R I a ~ to 20 Illa input and a 0- to 2.5-volt input. Our
!hrough R~. pro\' jdes a ze ro o r balance adjustme nt stream gauge projcct utilizes th ~ 0- to 2.5·voll input
for the pressure se nso r o n pin I of the se nsor. 111C logge r. '1l1e I-Io no data logge rs have a small LED ;II
trimpot should he sc t midpoint when constructing the th e side of the plastic housing that ind icates when the
circuil. Pins 5 and 6 on the p ressure scnsor an: not d a ta logger is collecting d ata. 'Ille extc rnal input con-
Ibed.Thc output of the pressure sensor at pin 3 is fed nector is a 2.5-mi llime te r. 1wo-circuit jack. The data

Chapter Four Liquid Sensing 105

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~
' u.

106 Electronic Sen s ors for the Ev il Geniu s

logger has a serond 1/,· inch. two·circuit jack. which is The pictoria l di agra m shown in Figu re -1-18 illus-
used as the seri,11 output jack. A low..cost 1/8 mini plug trates how the two enclosures are d esigned to accolll-
to a nine·pin RS-232 serial o u tp ut cable is a \'ailable modate the electro nics packages to form the stream
from Onset. 'IlH~ S-bit HOBO data logger is avai lable ~~
gauge mon ito r.l11e press ure se nsor SEN· i . th e regu-
for S59.00. la to r. the zero adjust ci rcuit. and Ihe ou tp u t vollage
The stream gauge measurement system as men- divider circu it a re all mo un ted in the send ing un it's
tioned consiSIS of I"WO un its: a se nd in g uni t a od n P VC- I e nclosure. a IO-inch lone.. 3-inch di ame te r
~

recei\IDI! unit. 'Ille scnduI!!. u nit is laid o n the bottom piece of PVC pipe. The p ress ure sensor and electron-
~ ~

ofa ri"er or stream nnd consists of a 5-\'011 regu la to r. ics a re b ui lt o n a small piece of perf-board and
pressure sensor. sensor o ffset adjustme nt. and output mounted 10 a 3 x 2)1, inch piece of bla nk stock cir-
\oltage di\'ider. as seen in fi gure -1-- 17. 'nle se nsing- cuit board. Circuit bO<lrd guid es are e poxied to the
unit electronics a rc housed in a 3-inch PVC c\'linde r. inside of the 3-inch illsi de dimllf!ler (ID ) PVC pipe. •
1II;lh a three·wi re cable connecti ng the sensing unit to A l o ne e nd of the PVC- l pipe. a Fe rnco 3-inch Q uick •
the receiving/recording unit. The recei"inglrecord ing Cap Q C- I03 rub be r cap is used to wate rproof the
unit is also housed in a 3-inch PVC tu be. and it e nclosure but a llow access to the ci rcuit board if
houses Ihe ONSET data lo(!!!e r and the 9-\'0It ba tte n.'
~-
need ed . Two hole s a rc d riUed a nd ta p ped in a 3-inch I
power supply powering the remote sensor in the PVC na t-end cap to accept two brass fi llings. A ~.
~nsing unit. The three-wire cable betwcen th.: sens· inch olllside dimnclt'r (OD) b rass fi lling is used to
ingand recei,·ing units conlllins the signal wire fro m couple II length o f small-diame te r plastic lubine. frolll ~

thesen~r. a common ground wi re. and a plus 9-"01 1 pon B of Ihe pressure se nsor to the wall o f the PVC
end -cap: the othe r end o f the fi llin g has a brass nip-
power lead. l llis dua l-package system :l lIows the se n-
-ororsending unit to be placed in the stream . wh ilc
thl' receiving/recordi ng unit is housed o n the banks of
pic o n which a le ngth o f sma ll -d ia me te r tu bin g is fit-
led to exte nd into the stream bed . A compre-ssio n
...
the stream or river. allowing easy access to the d a ta hose clam p is placed over the tubing. A second bmss
Ioggl'r to retrie" c data. fi lling is mounted on the Oat-e nd cap and is used 10

PVC - 1 PVC-2
--- - --- - - - - - ...
, ... - - - -
,
, ,
, , """',
, , data
R' SEN-1
, , PL- 1
logger

,, , I,,,,,
R2 OA( , l'"
, , Serial
R'
1 2 g~6 ,, R6 , OU1put

WC
,-- ,
~
NIC
.+:-
',.
,,'
If;::!,
0
c R5 R6 , --}- J: , -L-
-
q",
N
, , B-1 --66
, , - '" DC
f-
, , •
- n
-"
,
- - - - - - -- - - - - " ..... - - - - - - - --- - -
Figure 4-17 Slre(lll/ smge prcssure S('I/!wr

Chapter Four Liquid Sensing 107

 112' tygon lobine
20' - 30'

F"",,,
rubb.. '3132' '3132· 3' PVC
end cap 00 brass 00 brass
nipple nipple '"'"
Sender

°0
°o
0 0 6·10' length
_ 3/S'tygon
tobing
PVC - 2
PVC-I

Sensor J 3"OVC
0'1 DC end cap "'~,
c:
.,..j
b",,'
3' PVC end
~p
114' pvc
00 brass
CJ) nipple
d""""",,

c:Q) Figure 1..1 -1 8 Sm'am sU1ge sel/Jor recorder SYSTem

-.. --- .. ----------
~,

------------'

U)

run a length of lh-inch OD tubing betwee n the PVC- mounted on a 6 x 21h inch piece of blank stock cir-
1 housing and the PVC-2 housing. The If.·inch 00 cui t boa rd. Ci rcuil board guides a rc epoxied to the
diamete r tu bing between PVC- l and PVC-? allows inside o f the PVC-2 enclosure to accept the circuit
the power/signal wires to pass between the sensor boa rd .A 21/1 inch piece of blank ci rcui t board stock is
sendin g unit and data-logge r assembly_ A compres- secu red to the main ci rcuit board as a handle to slide
sion hose clamp is secured ove r the th-inch tubing to the ci rc ui t boa rd into the PVC-2 housing.
secure the tubing \0 the brass nipple. 'n,e 3/8 -inch Yo u will need 10 locale a second 3-i nch ID PVC
I Tygon tubing a lso a llo ws a tmospheric air pressure
fro m the o utside world to enter the PYC-2 enclosure.
Oat·end cap for the PVC-2 e nclosure. D rill and tapll
ho le in the ce nter o f the Oa t-cnd cap for a brass fit-
which in turn is a llowed 10 pass to the PVC I ho using t ing with a !II· inch nipple o n the o utside of the cap.
a nd fo rm the d iffe re ntia l pressure reference to the which will connect the power and signal \\ires and
sensor. The PVC- I housing sits o n the bOllo m of the will a llow a tmosphe ric a ir pressure between the
stream. measures the pressurc. a nd sends it to the PVC- l and the PVC-2 e nclosure. Place some Teflon
PVC-2 enclosure silling above watc r tied to a tree or tape around the brass fi lling a nd secure in the tapped
a ffi xed 10 a stake high 0 11 the sl ream bank 10 a llow hole. Clean the o utside of bOlh pipe ends and then
easy intc rrogatio n of the data logger in ho used in glue the flat·end cap to o nc end of the PVC-2 hollS-
PVC-2.
The HOBO da ta logger a nd the 9-voh ba lle ~l
-
ini!. Next .vou will need 10 locate a 3-inch clean-oUi
cap a nd gl ue it 10 the opposite cnd of the PVC-2
power su pply. consisti ng o f six AA batte ries arc all housing. The clean-out cap will peml it you to slide

108 Ele c tro n ic Sensors for the Ev il Genius

the circuit board containing the balleries and the d e ployment is more exposed to the corrosive effects
data IOl!I!.er
"
into and out of the housing.
,
when interro- of wa te r. a lgae. a nd other underwa ter threats lik e
gating the data logge r. nash (lood s- It is harder to service. because evcry time
The two power wires from the sending u nit at you want to inte rrogate the data logger. you must
PVC-I enter the PVC-2 tube a nd con nect to the six- haul up the en tire stream gauge assembly.
cellA1\ cell holders-TIle signal wire from the pres- We selected option 2 fo r ou r p roject. By d oing so.
sure sensor's mltage di vider a nd ground are rou ted we were able to in te rrogate the data logger on the
to a 2j-millirneter plug. which plugs into the input dry stream bank wi thout ge tting wet or e ntering the
jarl.: on the HOBO data logger. The Y.!-inch Tygon stream. Option 2 allows you to walk up to the above -
tubing between the PVCI and JlVC-2. assembly WHier PVC-2 housing. o pen the clean-out cap. slide
allows the nnmlal at mosphe re p ressure to be used as the data logger out just a bit. and plug the 1/1I-inch
arefercncc to pan A on the pressure sensor. seria l port cable into the d a tn logger. You simply
Remember to attach a compression hose clamp atlach the lIs-inch plug adaptor. thereby cOfl\'erting
around the If.:-inch tubing to secure it to the nipple on 1'",-inch plug to a nine-pin serial plug. a nd then con-
the brass filling. nect the cable to ~'o ur laptop and downlo ad the data.
TIlc n simply restart the logger. close the clean-out I
cap. and begin 10 collect data once again.
Stream Gauge Deployment Onse t supplies a low--cost software package for
about $l . t '11lis software is easy to use. Simply config-
Basicall~'two options a rc available for deploying the ure the serial port to talk to the HOBO. Determine
pressure sensor. Both meet the cri teria of exposing the HOBO data logger tha t you have and select the
the pressure port to a fixed location underw,lIe r and model and "oltage input configuration. The n you will
exposing the atmo spheric port to the atmosp here. need to dete nnine if you want to st art recording
Option I is to place the entire strea m gauge fie ld imlllcdiately o r if you wish to have a d elayed starl ing
housing underwiHer. -1l1at is say. place the sensor clec-
tronics. the dal;l logger. and batteries all in the same
time. You then launch the H OBO bv. down loild ing ,
the ncceSS<.lry pilrameters to the data logger. a nd you
en
enclosure underWlUer. and then route a hose from arc ready to begin recording your data. When you arc
ro
the atmospheric port to the atmosphere. leaving the rectely to interrogate the data loggers. you simpl y ::l
(Jl
pressure pon exposed to the overlying wa te r colu mn.
A hose would come ou t of the stream and be
<llIach a laptop and download the data. Oncc the
data is downloaded. \ ' OU can use the software to .....
attached to a nearby tree or stak e on the st ream bed. a na lyzc the da ta or transport th e data into a program ::l
Option 2. is to plnce the sensor housing underwa te r like Excel to plot your results. Data logging was I.Q
and route n hose from the pressure port to a fi.>.:ed nc"cr so easy.
location with the remote data·loe.e.er
-, housing '
above
water on the stream bank. thus permitti ng the atmos·
pberic pon to be exposed to the atmosphere. Both of Stream Gauge Parts List
these options offer advantages and disadvantages-
Rl, R3 5K ohm, 1/4 - watt
The totally underwater deployment is "out of sight
resistor
and, therefore. out of mind" and less likc1\' to be tam-
R2 SOK potentiometer
pered with or stolen. 11 allows d eployment u nder sur· (t r impot)
face ice during winter and measures water pressure R4 200K ohm, 1/ 4- watt
more accurately because the compression of air r esisto r
inside the hose that connects from the pressurc port RS , R6 10K ohm, 1/4 -
to some depth in the water column is much less sig- watt r esistor
nirICant in the short er hose. H owever. the underwater Cl 50 u F , 35 - v o l t e l ec-
trolytic c apac it o r

Chapter Four Liquid Sensing log

 C2 0.1 uF, 35- v olt Fernco J-ineh rubber
electrolytic eapacitor Qui ck Cap QC-I 03 end
C3 10 uF, 35- v olt elee- caF

trolytic capac i to r fit tings 2 comp ress ion

brass fitting s, 3 /8 -
Ul LM78L05 5-volt
inch barb end. and 1
regulator
comp re ssion bra ss fit-
SEN-l ASCXOID~ 0 to 1 ting 1/4 inch
psi Honeywe ll diffe r-
ential p ressure s ensor
Miscellaneous f our-cell
AA ce ll holder, twO-
81 6 AA cells c ell AA cell holder ,
Pi 2 . 5 mm mini plug PC boards, wire , con-
input nectors, 6-inch X
l IS-i nch TY90n tubinq,
HOBO H08 -00 2- 0 2 data - etc .
l o gge r Onset computer
3/8 10 and 1 / 2 00 Tygon
Hou s ing (2) IO-inc h
tubing from PVC-l to
length s of 3-inc h 10
PVC-2
diameter PVC, thick-
wall pipe
3-inch diameter flat-end
pvc caps ( X2)

11 0 El ectronic Sensors for the Evi l Genius

 Chapter Five

Gas Sens ing

Air and gas sensing generally seems so ephemeral. your own toxic gas sensor. Weather enthusiasts will I-z]
because air and many gases often cannot be seen or be eage r to discover an eleclronic barometer project. 1-"
smelled. BUI once again modem electronics comes to
ourassislance and can help us to sense both ai r and
which can be used (Q bui ld a weather station.
<ro
I"aricus gases in our atmosphere. In Ihis cha pter we
\\111 discuss how to build an air pressure sensing
S\\llch, which ca n be utilized to d e tect doors moving Rir Pressure Switch I
or approaching vchicles. OUf next project is an elec-
tronic sniffer. which can detect a numbe r of different TIle air pressure swi tch is a usefu l project that can be
gasses and then sound an alarm. With the bargraph used to detect unwa nted intruders cntering a private
pressure sensor. yo u can monito r WOl le r or air p res- space. Actu ally this project is a great demonstration
sure changes and disp lay their 1e\'c I5 o n an L E D project for showing how a change in air pressure can
bargraph display. In this chapler you will also learn sel off an alarm. A sensitive diffe rential pressure sen-
about how the new pellisfOT (or pcllilizcd resislor) sor is connected to a long length of 'ii-i nch olllsid e
oombusliblc gas se nso rs operate a nd how to construct llinmeler (00). ~"b- i n c h im;ide diam eter (I D) 'I)'gon

V5

3
,,-------- --- ------ ---------- ------ -- ----- ----- --- ,,
,, ,,
,, ,,
, Thin lilm
,,
,, 2
temperalure , Vout(+)
compre ssion , ,
,,
and ,,
,,
Calibration ,,
circuitry V oul (-)
,,,
'4
I
,,
,,
------- -- -- - ---- -----
1
-- ---- -- --- -- --. __ . _-- ----

\J Ground

_= __________________________________._ ._
FIgure 5 ·1
4 4 . __ • • _____ 4

M P X 2100 press flre J(!lJsor block dingram

_____ 4 . __ 4 4 . __ 4 . 4 _________________ _

111
 (ubing that can be buried in shallow around 10 detect
~ ~
pressure sensor has twO pons. the pressure port al
persons or \'e hicles driving o r walking over the lub- ( PI ) and the vacuum pOri at (1'2).
in!!.ll1 c d iffe re ntial air pressure sensor has I wo input TIle air pressure sensor switch circuit is shown in
pOrls. One porI is used as a re fe re nce pon. and the the diagram in Figure 5-2. 111C pre ssure sensor is a
second pon is actually used for sensing air pressure fou r-wire device. where pin I is con nectl!d to ground,
changes fed (rom the lengt h ofT:vgon tubing placed and pin 3 is connected 10 the 5-vol\ power source.
in or on Ihe grou nd. ' llli5 project could also be used Pins 2 and 4 of the a ir pre ssure se nsor nre connectoo
\ 0 detect wate r p ressure levels and alert you via a
to the input of a two-stage op·amp a mplifier at UI:a
buzzer alarm. and U I :b. The gain path of U l:a is set by resistors R3
The heart of the a ir pressure switch is the and R-I. whereas the gain pat h o f U l:b is formed by
ivlotorola M PX2100DP d i(fe renlial pressu re sensor. R5 a nd R6. The op-amp sect io n al U l:c is configured
as see n in the block diagram in Figure 5-1 . The pressure as a compara tor. '!l,c \·o llage signal from the air pres-
sensor is a silicon piczOfcsis live type. which provides sure se nsor is fed to the minus inpul o f the comparator
a highly accura te a nd line ar o u tpUt \'o lt age that is at pin 9. A resistor " ollage d ivider ne twork consisting
p ro portional to the d ifferentia l p ressure applied . The of R7 and RS provides a re fe re nce voltage to the plus

--
B2
C1 + C2
+
S~ + U2 +
I I 1 a

-= h
- ~ ~
A7
Bl
ALY
N/C
V 0

A1
A4 A6 A11 [>NIO ~
2" AS r----UI·e
. Al a c OUTPUT
6 9 -
A3 8~ ~GND
I
A2
?
3+
UI :A
5 1.1!.. +
v Jl 01 e
_
-
+5V
TP -
I
-

A9
A8

t- 3 -
-
- 4- - - -1
I
I
-- --
SENl 1
I mpx I
I
I _ 2 1000P :
IL _ _ _ -_ _ _ _ .....I

--. --------_._-- ,----------------. --. ---- --< ------- .. --.--<- .. --.----.~- •• -- ••.• .. __ ... -- .. - _.. -.. _- ...----
Fig ure 5-2 Air pressllre sellsor swill'll cirC/lil

112 El ectronic Sensors for the Ev il Genius

input of U I:c.111is network se ts the trip point for the o p-amp will be to the left o f the cu tou l. If the op-amp
romparator. For incre ased range and con trol. you has a small ind e nte d ci rcle to the lap le ft. the n pi n I
could insert a 5K pote ntiome te r be tween resistors R 7 o f t he op-amp will be j ust to the le ft of thc circle .
and RS. The center wipe r o f the poten tiometer would After comple ting Ihe circui t board . care fu lly
then connect to the plus input of the U I:c op-amp. recheck your solde ring a nd look for cold so lder jo ints
The output of the compa rHlor ilt pin S is coupled o n the foil und e rside o f the board. Next. inspect the
to resistor R IO. which in turn is used to d rive the u ndersid e of the boa rd fo r stray co mponc n ts leads
transislOr at Q I. Transistor Q 1 is a re lay driver used that may ha ve stuck to the unde rside o f the boa rd.
1000ntroi the mini re la y at RLY. The re la y prm>idcs a Fina ll y look the board o ver fo r sho rts or b ridges
normally open and nom w lly closed con tacts for con- be tween so lde r pad s.
trolling sirens. buzze ~ o r warning lamps. Now thm your air p ressu re switch circuit has been J.

The air pressure swi tch ci rcuit is powe red by a comple ted . you can move o n to locati ng a chassis box ••
9·\'0It battery sup ply co nsisting of six C ce lls. 111e or e nclosure in which to mounl it. TllC p rOtotype a ir (l)
power switch connccts the batte ry powc r so urce to p ressure switch is moun ted in a ml! ta l chassis box
the 5-\'011 regulator shown at U2. TllC voltagc reg ula- measuring , 5 ~ X 7 X 2 \.1 inches. Tlle circ ui t boa rd
torat U2 is a 7S05 three-pi n 5-\'0 It regulator a nd is was mo un ted at u ne e nd o f the bOllum o f the chassis I
used to supply a stable powe r so u rce to Ihe a ir pres- box.1lle c ircu it boa rd was moun ted o n sta ndo ffs..
SUTcciTcui!. J a te that the battery powe r so urce can usin ,g I inch machi nc screws. lf .vou elect to usc- bat-
be replaced wilh a 9-\'011 wall warl power supply for teries.. you will need to mount th re e C cell ho lde rs on
stationary applica tions. the hOllo m or sid c o f the chassis box . If you plan o n
The air pressure swi tch ci rcuit can bl! cunstructed using a 9-\'011 wall wa rl powcr supply. you will need
on small printed circui! board or on a small e xperi - 10 insta ll a coaxi,, 1 powe r jack on the side o f the
menter prototyping board . A lI lhe co mponen ts chassis box. You will IHl\'e 10 d rill a silla ll ho le o n the
including the press ure sensor arc mounle d on the sid e of the box near the pressu re sensor to a llow the
printed circuit board . Placing. the senso r at one e nd of ' I~' gonlUbin g to connect 10 the p ressure senso r.

the circuit board and the re lay at the opposite e nd is De pend ing u pon whe re you r measuring. p ressure and
g<:nerally a good layout fo r the circ uit.;-\ n 1C socke t vacuu m a re. you will need 10 observe thc pressu re
fortheop-amp at VI amI a transistor sockel for Q I po rt ma rki ngs. In Ihis appl ical io n. as in a n air pres-
are a good idea in the e\'cnt of a c ircu it fai lure do wn sure switch. YOll will want 10 co nnect the "I~'go n tub-
the road. ote that so me I % va lues resistors a re ing to pa n P l. lhe pressu re port.
LISI.>d in this circuil. ot he rwise none of the o the r COIll- 111e powe r switch a nd the b U7.zc r. if used. ca n be
ponents have to meet pa rticula r spec ifications. A fe w mOUllled on the top of the chassis box to provide
dectrol}'tic capacitors nrc used in thc po we r supply c ase o f usc. If desired you could e lim ina te the b uzzer
portion of the circuit. so be sure to o bse rve polari ty and conn ect <l sire n. malo r. o r o the r so und ing d e" ice
\\"hen ill.'a alling the m.l 11e LM 324 q uad op-amp a l VI at the reJay con tacls. Remember if YOli se lect a
and the \'oltage regulato r a t U2 a re easily loca ted. higher volla ge/curre nt load. then the power fo r the
When installing the se micond ucto rs. for e xa mple. the sound ing d evice will ha ve to be provid ed fro m a di f-
transistor and op-amp. be sure 10 carefll lly obserw feren t source.
tbeir orienlations. The transistor has three le ads: Now tha t your ai r pressure switch has bee n con-
a base. a collector. and a n e mitte r le ad. ;"'I<lke sure
~1lU consul! the Iransistor d ata sheet to be su re yo u
. -
structed. VOli can move o n 10 testin2. the circuit. Insert
the batte ries or connect you r exte rnal power supply
are fam iliar with the pinouts be fore inserting it into . and then a pply power by tu rning on the powe r switch
the circuit. Generally op-amps ha \'e eithe r a sma ll
square cutout in the lOp cente r of the package or a
- -
at S I. Ta ke the e nd of the TV2.o n tubing and blow
.
into it: the b uzze r shou ld sound imllled ia tel\'. TIle
small indented circle at Ihe top le ft of the package. If prcssure switch is pre tt y sensitivc a nd will indicate
~OIIr or-amp has a ccn tc r cuto ut . the n pin I o n the 1 psi of pressure.

Chapter Five Gas Sensing 113

 Experimenting wilh the air pressure swi tch is fun .
For demonSlr:nion purposes.. you can place the Tygon Electronic Sniffer
tubing under a carpet or bury it ,II a place where it
can detcci vehicles. You can also experimem by using The electronic sniffer is a useful and an interesting
Ihe circui l to detect vacu um conditions or insert lhe project with many poten tial applicalions. it can help
-r:ygon tubi ng into water to detect waler levels. Have determine the concentration of various gases in the
fun ! air 10 determine if an area is safe for occupation.The
electronic sniffer can be used to delect combustible
gases.. toxic gases. organic solvents ch/orofllforocar'
Air Pressure Switch Parts List bOils (CFCs) by subslitUling differenl sensor.; mto tM
electronic sn iffer circuit. The photo shown in Figure
Rl 12 . 1K ohm. I •• 1 / 4-
5-3 illustrates the ,'arious gas sensors a"ailable from
watt r es istor
Figa ro Sensors. Inc.
R2 15K ohm . 1 \. 1/4-
watt r esisto r Figaro TGS sensors are a type of low·cosl.thick
R3 20K ohm . 1 \, 1 /4- film metal oxide semiconductor Ihat offer long life
watt resistor and good sensitivity to target gases while using a sim·
R4 , RS lOO-ohm . 1 / 4- pie electrical circuit. The Figaro se nsors use micro-
watt resistor
grains of sinlered fill oxide (SnO~ ) that ha,'e been
R6 20K ohm, 1 /4-wa tt
resis to r
heated to a high tcmperatu fe. lliis causes the ox)'gen
10 be absorbed on the grains and provides a positi\'e
R7 . R8 10K ohm . 1 / 4-
watt re sisto r pOlenlial in Ihe space charge between the molecules.
R9 121-ohm, 1 / 4- watt When a gas such as acetone. alcohol. propane. and
r esisto r carbon dioxide passes over the se nsor. the sensor's
RIO 24 . 3K ohm . 1\. 1 / 4- rcsislance drops.. The resistance is linear logarithmi·
watt r esisto r cally over ranges of a few parts (Jcr million (PPM) to
Rll 4 .75K ohm . 1\, 1 / 4- several 1,000 PPM. The electronic sniffer circuit
watt r es istor
shown in Figure 5-4 is based on the Figaro TGS826
Cl 1 uF, 35- v olt elec-
trolyti c capacito r
toxic gas se nsor (SEN-I) and is sensi tive to carbon
C2 10 uF, 35-v olt elec -
dioxide gas.
trolytic c apacitor
Ql MMBT390UTl
t ra nsistor
Ul LM324 quad op-amp
U2 LM7805 5-volt
regulator
SE:Nl MPX21000P Motorola
differential pressure
sensor
RLY 5 - v olt mini SPOT
relay (Radio Shac k)
8Z 9-volt piezo buzzer
81 6 C ce lls
Tubing 1/4-inch 00,
5 / 16 10 Tygon tubing
Mis c ellaneous printed
c ircuit board, wire,
c onnectors. sc rews , - -- ._---- ------ ------
s tand o ffs , etc. Figure 5-3 Figaro sensors

114 Ele ct ronic Sensors f or the Evil Genius

 A1 01

7 N/C
:@ t37
2
A2
-- 3
1
SEN·'

'- 40. 4,6 / ,\2 + U3

U2 --
'e: ,r 5 4 3 2 1
- I'r:l
/5 -
1,3 1-"
<:
4 8
A6 R7
ro
A3
'-1'+
7 3 + C4
-...::- I
C3 B1
A4 -
6 + .S>
U1 S1
A5
SPK
-==-
-
2
C/)
+
1 5
ro
C1 ::s
[IJ
I ~ +C2 1-'-
- ::s
---------- - - -------------.- - -------- -- - - lQ
Rgure 5-4 Toxic deleCrDr cirCllit
gill'

Most of the Figaro gas sensors have a healer coil to Ihe se nsor serves as a load-dividing. voltage-
thai draws a cu rre nt of about 130 milli amps and must dividi ng ne twork a nd as a sensit ivity control .md it
be powered by a 5-\'011 regulated source. The six-pin has its ce nte r tap connected to the gate of 0 2. Whe n
lotic gas sensor used in this project is powered by a (oxic fumes come in contact with the sensor. d ecreas-
1oII.'-voliagc. drop-out Na tional LP3850 regulator. ing its e lectrical resistance. curren t nows through the
ahich requires the volt age f.rom four D cells to powe r load pOie ntiomete r R 2. The voltage d eveloped across
Ihe regulator. The regulator provides a stable voltage the wipe r o f R2. which is connected to the gate of Oi.
and current source for the gas sensor for it to triggers the silico/l colltrolled rectifier (SCR) into con-
operate correctly. duction. And as conduction occurs. the LED at 0 7
As mentioned previouslY_lhe gas-sensitive semi- lights up 10 indicate that a gas has been d e tected.
conductor :leiS like a variable resistor in the p resence With the SCR now conducting. the inp ut to the
of loxic gas. lhus decreasing ils e lectrical resistance CO-1071 ga te in tu rn ap plies a trigger voltage to the
\/onen gaseous toxins are absorbed from the sensor U vl555 timer/oscilJ<l tor. Once the gas has been
surface. A 25.000-ohm potentiomete r R2 co nnected detected and the trigger signal has been acti vated. the

Chapter Fi ve Ga s SE!nsing 11S

 LM555 oscilla to r begins dri ving the speake r a t SPK. O nce the circuit board has been built. vou will
and the spe aker wi ll corne \0 life ind ica ting the pres- need to recheck you r compone nt placement to make
e nce of a toxic gas. To silence the electr o nic sniffer. a sure the compo ne nts have been installed correctly.
nomlall), closed mo me ntary pushbutto n swi tch is Also take no tice to make sure tha i no previously cut
provided to rese t the ci rcuit. compo ne nts leads could cause a sha n circuil and pos.
Note Ihat il is normal fo r t he sensor 10 have a sibly da mage the circ ui t o nce powered up. Lastly.
large d rop in resistance when it is fi rst turned o n. look for cold solder joi nts. wh ich could prevent the
O nce the heater wa rms u p. lhe unit will fun clion circuit {rom working correctly.
normally, and the sensor \\~ Il begin respond ing wit hin Now tha t the ci rcui t board Iws been built. you are
seconds. The Figaro sensors are quite rugged. however. read y to plnce the circuit into an e nclosure. Our pro-
the sensor cle me n! should no l be exposed 10 water. rotypc e lectronic sn iffer is e nclosed in a small metal
If the sensor does ge l weI, be sure il does not chassis box measuri ng 4 x 5 x 6 inches. The power
frecze. beca use it will allow the sensor 10 crack and switch a t S I. the reset switch at S2. the LED aI 02,
be destroyed. and the speaker are a ll mo unted on the top front of
The e lectronic sniffe r ca n be constTucted o n a the chassis panel fo r easy openllio n.ll1e prototype
small printed circ uit board or a prototype board circ ui t utilizes a pane l-mo unted pOle ntiometer. also
available from Radio Shack. -Ille regulato r a nd se nso r mounted on the front top of the chassis box. The cir·
should be placed nea r each othe r to keep the c urrent cuit board is placed near o ne end of the chassis box
loss be tween the two to a minim um. It is ad visable to so tha t the toxic gas senso r can look OUI the end of
moun t the sensor at o ne ed ge o f the (j rcuit board , so the e nclosure thro ugh a ho le drilled a t the side oftbe
that when the circuit board is placed in a chassis box. box. O ptionally. you could elect to mount a sensor
a hole can be d ri lled in the case to allo w the gas to socket ato p the chassis in o rder to changc sensors on
e nle r the se nsor. The regula to r powe r supply is con- a mome nt's notice:ll:Jt:: circ uit board is mounted to
nected to the he ate r eleme nt at pins 2 and 5. The the chassis on sta ndoffs usi ng Y~- inc h long.t-ID
sensing port io n of the sensor is connected so pi ns 1 machine screws. The two D-cell ho lders are mounted
a nd 3 a re connected back to the plus supply of the to the bOllom covcr of the chassis box so they can be
regula tor. Pins 4 and 6 arc connected to the pOle n- easily re placed.
tiomete r a t R 2. W hen wiring the CD-1071. be sure to You will now need to test your electronic sniffer
keep a ll the unused in put pins tied to grou nd to avoid unil fo r pro pe r operat io n. First. you insert the D cells
fa lse trigger. llle LM555 oscilla to r 's out put freq uency into the ho lders. the n apply power via the power
is co ntrolled by R4 and Ct. a nd this can be changed if s\,~ t c h Sl. Adjust the poten tiomete r to its lowest set·

desired by placing a po te ntio me ter at R4. ting. usually counte rclockwise. When the power is
W he n co nstruCi ing the e lect ronic sniffe r. you \\~ II fi rsl turned 0 11. you may hear the speaker squeaking.
I need to pay particular a tte ntion to the orie ntation of Le t the e lectronic sniffe r warm up for aboutl min-
certain com pone nts such as the diodes. the SCR. the utes (remember the heate r coil). After 2 minutes has
ICs. as we ll as the ca pacitors. D iodes usua lly have an passed and the sensor has stabi lized . next you \,ili
a rrow po inting to a slTllight line thai indicates the need to grad ua lly adj ust the pote ntio meter Rl
cathode. Capacitors. if they a re po la rity sensi tive. are upward or clockwise to its th reshold point. You may
ma rked with a plus or minus sign to he lp with orien- have to depress the reset switch a nd readjust the
tatio n. IC sockets a rc highly recomme nded a nd \\~II trol for best sensit ivity. Your e lectronic sniffer is now
save you a lo t of grie f if yo u have 10 service the circuit ready to assist you in sniffi ng out toxic gases. As melli
at a la te r da te. When installing rCs. you will notice tio ned earlier. this electronic sniffe r can also be used
e ithe r a sq ua re CUlo ut at the !Op center of the pack- to de tect other gases as shown in Table 5-1. Prices of
age o r a sma ll indented ci rcle at the lOp left com e r. the va rious gas sensors ra nge fro m S14.50 for the LP
G e nerally pin 1 is the left of the cutout or to the le ft propane. natural gas. and carbon monoxide sensors.
of the indented circle. to a bo ut S2.t.OO for the CFC sensors. and finally

ll6 Electronic Sensors for the Ev il Geniu s

aboul S50.00 for the hvdrogen
. .
. hvdrogen
~
sulfide. and
~
NOle thai some conditions may exist that truly
ammonia gas sensol3. Most o f these gas sensors o per- must be avoided (such as exposing Ihe TGS sensors
ale in a similar manner. and many of these sensors to silicone vapors lik e adhesives :md hair grooming
can besubslilUtcd for one another wit h only smaU materials). You should also avo id placing the sensors
changes required. This of course opens up a large in highly corrosive environ men Is: hi g h -de n ~ ity expo-
rangeor gas detection o ptions by merely changing sure 10 corrosive matl! rials such as H2S. SO.\: . Cu. He l
the sensors. for extended periods mny cause corrosion or break -
age of the lead wires o r healer material. You should
also ensure that the sensors do not co me in contnct
Table 5· J
Agara Gas Sensors
wit h wate r and that lhe sensors arc not exposed to
freez ing tem pcrat ures: this wou ld crack the sensor ,...
~
Sensor substratc.
<ro
-
Combustible Gases
Ele ctronic Sniffer Parts Li st
LP pslPlopane (SOO-IO.OOO ppm) TGSSI]
R1 470~ohm , 1/ 4- watt
I
-;JlurnJ g , !ethane TGS~2 TOS2611 4
(SOO-IO.ooJ ppm) r esistor
R2 25K ohm
Gtoeral rombuoliblc g~s TGSS I] TGS 26iO*
potentiometer
(500--1 0.000 ppm)
R3 , R4 47K ohm, 1 / 4-
watt r esistor
RS l a - ohm , 1/ 4- watt Cf)
Toxie Gases
Qrbon monoxide (SG--I.OOO ppm ) TGSH26
re s istor
R6 , R7 1 0K o hm , 1/ 4-
ro
A!IIIIIOIIia (3G-JOO ppm) TGS825 wat t re sistor ::s
en
tI~dfO!c n ~u lfidC' (5-100 ppm ) TGSS25
C1 0 .00 5 uF , 35-vo lt
c e r amic d isc c apacitor ,...
-
C2 0. 01 uF , 35- v olt
c e r &mic c ap a c itor ::s
Org,:mic Soh'cnls C3 2 u F , 3S - vo l t t an ta- \Q
AJrobol. lolunc. ~ Iene TGSS22 TGS2620' lum c apacitor
f5iJ...5Jn) ppm) C4 10 uF , 35 - volt tan-
Other '"OIali~ organic '-apof"i TGSS22 ta l um capa c itor
Ul LMSSS timer osc illa-
tor IC

Indoor Pollutants U2 C0 407 1 quad two -

i nput OR gate
C.uboo dio'ti de TGS ~ I 60 TGS4 161·
U3 LP 3875 5-volt
AiJ rontaminants « 10 ppm ) TGSSOO regulator
01 SCR
02 LED
(Fe. (HUCs, HFe,) 51 5 PST power switch
R?? Rll2 ( 100-...(00 ppm) TGSSJO 52 normall y cl o sed
pu s hbut ton swit c h
Rll. R21 (100-3.000 ppm) TGSSJI
B1 4 0 cells
R1J.tJ.. Rll (100-3.000 ppm) TGS&H
SPK 8-ohm mi ni Speaker
SEN-I TGS 826 Figaro
t OXi c g a s s e n s o r
Misc ellaneo u s PC board,
IC soc k ets , wir e , bat -
te r y h old ers, h a r d ware

Chapter Fi ve Ga s Sensing 117

 Table 5-3
Bargraph Pressure Se nsor Bargraph Pres sure Sensor Applicati ons
Monitor Applicmioll Example
Pressure sensing devices are used to measure and Monilor pn."s;;ure drops Food process ing plants.
control ma ny differem func tions in ou r modem li ves. across industrial liquid filters chernic~1 proces~ing planlS,

l\'la ny people may not rea lize in fact thai pressure sewage and fillrmion piau!!

sensing. measurement. a nd control techniques are Monitor pressure drop~ aCTU,S Air condi tioning. gas
fou nd in many devices. appl iances. and machines used indllSlrial gas fil lers sepnnllion. flow rnonilOrin~
hi!!h -vacuum s~slems
in our homes. offices. and factories wiliI out us e\'cn
knowing. Pressure sensing is often little undcrslOod. O lher monitoring applicllIions Fill ra ti on equipment. com·
pUlt:r fiil<,r5. dean rooms.
and measurements revolve around th ree basic Iypes medical instrum ... nts
of pressure sensi ng methods (see Table 5-1).
-Iltis project is based on a se nsilive low-cost differ,
enlial piezo p ressure sensor thai provides an OUlput
Table 5-2 proportional to the appl ied pre-ssure. D ifferential
pressure sensors have I\\'0 pressure pons. allow appli-
Types of Pressure Measurem ent
cation of p ressure to either side of the diaphragm _
Type of Pressllre Descriplioll
and can be used for gauge or differential pre-ssure
AbsolUle pressure Absolute pr<'>sure sensors measu re an
eXlcrnal pressur ... r... lali"e 10 a zero- measu rement. 'nle SenSym (a division of HoneyweU)
pressu re rderenee point (A vacuum) JC pressure sensor is a four~pin basic pressure sensor
seah:d inside Ibe rde rence cham~r of
\\~lhOlIl signal cond i[ionim!.. as shown in Figure 3,S.
the die during manufacture. This co rre-
sponds 10 a (klleelion o f tbe diaphragm 111e two pressure ports can be seen al port PI and PI.
equal 10 ;)pproxim<ltdy 15 psi or I Po rt P I is shown as the high-pressure pon:nlc piezo
almosphere _r. leasuremelll of external
pressure is ilccomplished by 3pplying a sensor has four internal 500-ohm resista nce elements.
re1ali\"{~ negati ,·e pressure to Ih.: pr.:s- which are confil!ured as a \Vheats lOne bridge,
~ ~

sure side of Ih.: senSOT.

Connected across the output of the sensor arc Iwo
D iffer... nlial pressure Differential pressure sensors m",asur.: 550-ohm resistors.
Ihe difference between pressures
ap pli.:u simu1tan~ously 10 opposile 'nle diagram shown in Figure 5-6 illustrates a
si des of Ihe diaphragm. A positive pres- block diagram o f Ihe bargraph pressure sensor Lir-
sure applied 10 Ih.: pr",ssur.: side gener-
alCS the sam ... (positi'",) output as an cuilry. Shown 10 one side of the p ressure sensor is the
e(jual oega live pressure applied to the pressure cali b ration circui trv. a nd at the othe r cnd of
vacuum sid.:.
the sensor is Ihe temperature compensation circuitry.
G auge pressure Gauge pressure readings are ~ spt','ial Pressure is applied 10 the sensor. TIle sensor OUlpUI is

I case of differenti al measurement in

which Ihe pressur... applied to the pres-
su re siu.: is measured against Ihe ambi -
a mplified by the a mplifier section, which is then sellt
on to the display drive r circuitry and finally to the
ent ,umusph.:r.: pressure applied 10 the LED displ ay module at Ihe far right of the diagram.
Q) vacuum side through the ,·.:111 hole in

>
.o-i
the chip of the differential pressure S<'n-
so r ekm.:nts.
The bargra ph pressure sensor circui try shO\\1l in
Figure 5 ~7 begins with the 0 (0 7 psi SenSym SPX30D
senso r. The pressure sensor is powe red from a regu-
~ The bargraph pressure sensor p roject is a fun
lated 5-volt powe r source, followed b)' a series of
project that will demonstrate how \'O U can b uild.
three diodes connected as a span temperature com-
experiment. and me asure pressure changes in the
pensation source to pin 3 of Ihe sensor. Pin 1 of the
environmen ts around •VOll . It can be used as a sensi-
sensor is connected to ground, TIle positive (+) out-
tive d iagnostic device to sense a nd measure a ir pres-
put of the pressu re sensor at pin 1 is connected to
sure. vacuum pressure, or differenti al pressure (see
both a re ference potentiometer ( RS) a nd to the input
Ta ble 5-3 o f potential pressure sensing applications).
of Ihe second op-amp at Ul: J3 on pin 3. The minus

118 Electronic Sensors f or the Ev il Genius

 + vs

P1
r:J ' ] HIGH o
f- f- PRESSURE
PORT soo n
5500 2
+
P2 PI

OUTPUT

I'%j
1) GROUND 3) + V5
2) + OUTPUT 4) -OUTPUT
1
550 0
4
....
_-_ <:
... .. -.... _--------- .. _--------------------- --------._------------------------------------
FIgure 5-S HOlleywell SellSYlll S PX 50D presmre sellSo r
-------------- ...
m
I
OFFSET
CALIBRAT ION

en
~
DISPLAY! LED
PRESSURE PRESSURE
INPUT SENSOR
AMPLI FIER DRIVER DISPLAY m
MODULE OUTPUT
::s
en
....
::s
T EMPERATURE
I.Q
COMPENSATION

FIgure 5-6 S PX 500 pressllre sensur block diagram

(-) output of the pressure se nsor at pin" is coupled adjusting po te ntiomete r R 5. The circu it illustra tes
to the input of the first o p-amp on pin 3. The gai n o f two test points: TPI and TP2. Test point 1 pro vides a
the first op-amp section is SCI up b y the gain resisto rs full-scale outp ut voltage. whe reas test point 2 provid es
R6 and Rp (see Table 54). By changing the input 5 volts. TIle LED at 014 p rovides a power on light
resistors, you can select a pressure range of 0 to 1 psi fo r the syste m. The 10 L EOs are wifed to the display
orOto 10 psi if desired.llle output of the ftrst op- d ri vers on p ins 10 through 18 as we ll as o n pin I.
amp is coupled to the second op-amp stage via the Thc bargraph p ressure sensor circuit is powe red
resistor at R3. The ou tp u t a t U l:B at pin 7 is sent to fro m a 5 -volt reg ulator at U2 . The regulator pro \'ides
tbe input of the display driver. an LM39 14N. on pin 5. 5 volts for the LM 358. the LM39 14N d isplay drive r.
The display drivcr will drive 10 L EOs to a full -scale and the sensor. A 9-volt battery supp lies powe r to
reading of 0 to I psi or 0 to 10 psi. The display driver o pe ra te the regulator through switch 51. You could
bas a full -scale adjustment control at potentiome te r a lso elect to use a wall wa rt powe r supply instead of a
at Rl3. A zero adjustme nt of the display can be set by battery if desired.

Chapter Fi ve Gas Sensing ll9

 I""hapter Five Gas Sensing
....
'"o
9VDC 51 BARGAAPH
5VDC
J± U2 01 09 010 I 02 I 03 1D4 I 05 106 I 07 DB
r~!Ip5( • """
C1T C2
f'1 - C3
.... - t rA ,.trAt,.trAtrAtrAtrA"[rA
ro 011 C4
!1 L
~ Al RS
-, 01 2 + ~
o AG AP
0 13
~.
"
!1
U3 18
1 LED Ii?
Vl A2 GND
I - - - .....
ro , e.
3 Al D Ij}
A7
,,
V> , -2 A3 SIG
1
"o ,
-, 61 7 AHI
V>
7 AEF
, 2 SPX 4 3 4
~
AB I• 51 ADJ
, SOD 10
~
. •- -
o , ~ A12 MOD
, All -L
-, TP1·FUl L
A9 1 -
,,
SCALE OUTPUT
,,
~ _ _ _ _ _ SEN-1
:y -----
ro A13 ~( ~ ) ,
GND
f'1 I-ULl SCALE -=
<
-- -
~. +[ ,
A14 TP2=+5VOC
....
- A15
'"
ro
~.
"c
V> +
014
-
- ____ A_A_A • .- - . _ • • - - - - - - - - - - _ . _ _ _ _ _ . • - . _ . - - - - - ____ e. _______________ - __________ ._._ _ ______ _
-------- . ----. ---- -. -- --_.-- ------------
Figure 5-7 !Jtlrl;rllflll/J/'C,\',\'/II'':' SCI/SO/' dn:llil
 The bargraph pressure senso r proto type is con · sq uare cUtOUl in the plastic at the to p of the package.
structed on a small primed circuit board. as sho wn in If the Ie has a small inde nted ci rcle. pin 1 wi ll be JUSt
Figure 5-8. When layi ng O U1 the circ ui t boa rd design. 10 Ihe left of the circle. If the IC has a sq uare c utout

you should consider mo unt ing the pressure se nso r at on lOp or the package. the n pin I will be 10 the Icfl of
one edge of the circuit board . us sho wn. to a llow the Ihe CUto ut.
pressure ports to exit your e nclosure. The se nsor o ff- Whe n insla Uing the LE Os. pay particul ar ane ntion
set n'.SislOrs R7. RS. and R9 a re a ll 1% resistors. as to the ir pola rity to .woid having to insta ll them twice.
are the amplifie r gain resisto rs. A ll mher resisto rs in The prototype pressure se nso r utilizes a IO-segme nt
the circuit are 5% resistors. The c ircuit e mploys on ly LE D d isplay. which is easie r to mount a nd handle
tru-et capacitors. Capacitors C I a nd C2 are e lectrolytic th a n using separa te LE Os. If you use lhe IO-segme nl I"zj
~Jli!S.an d C3 is a ceramic d isk type. POie mio me tcrs LED d isplay. you can use a n Ie socke l for ease o f 1-"
used in the bargraph pressure sensor are a ll Oluh ilum wiring. The three d iodes at 0 I I. D l2. and D 13 are all
<:
circuit board (lrimpot) types. sma ll signa l diodes and can be ide ntified by thc ba nd
at o ne e nd. This band indicil h!S Ihe d iode ·s cat hode.
m
Check the data sheel for Ihe reg ulator to e nsure that
Table 5·4
you know the differe nce be twee n the inpu t a nd o ut- I
Gas Bargraph-Full-Scale Gain Res istor pu t pins o f the regulator device.
Selection
Once you havc comple lcd so lde ring in a ll thc G1
Press/lre D I'I'ice Il5 compo ne nts. you should care fully inspcci Ihe fo il side PI
Range R6 Rp C!l
o f the ci rcui l board to make sure that no shorts o r
0-1 psi SPX50DN 909 ohms 2K ohms
bridges can be seen between co ppe r pads or lines.
0-10 psi SPX5(}D N 909K ohms 20K ohm s AJso look the board o ve r to e nsure that no co ld solder
(1..15 psi SPX tOO 6.'1K ohms 10K ohms joil1ls exist. Cold so lder joints ca n ca use you ma ny
he adaches late r if nOi caught q uickly. so ta ke the
(l..jOpsi SPX100 6.9K ohm~ 20K ohms
_.. _.. _-- - -- - -- - --- - -- -- - e xtnl time to look for the m befo re powe r is applic d
to the circui t. Fina ll y c heck Ihe ci rcuit board once
When installing the pressure senso r. be sure 10 mo rc to ma ke surc Ihat no CUI compo ne nt le ads a rc
carefully obsen 'e the o rie nla tion of the fo ur pinouls stuck 10 the bo n o m of thc circu it board . which Illay
on the device. It is impon antlo use IC sockets whe n cause short circuits.
building the circuit. in the e ve nt o f a circuit fai lure a t A ft e r inspecting the circuit board. you a re read y 10
some laler point in time. ICs a re se nSili\·c loorie nla- install the circuit boa rd into some sort of chassis box.
tlon so pan icular alie ni io n must be paid to pro pe r You can select e itbe r n me la l or plastic e nclosure fo r
orientation. Each Ie will usua lly have e ither a small this project. You will want to co nside r mo un ting Ihe
indented circle on the (Op of the plastic package o r a circuit bo,lrd a l one end of the chassis to a llo w the
pressure po rts to have e asy access to Ihe ou tside
world . A lso cOElsidcr eie \'a ting Ihe ci rcuit board on
sta ndo ffs. so that you can cut a ho le for a IO-segme nt
LED d isplay at the top o r front of the chassis box. if
you decided to use Ihis I)'pe o f d ispl ay.TIlis mounting
me thod will a llow a clean mo unting scheme. TIle
powe r switch and powe r on ind ica tor can be
mounte d o n the top or fro nt pa ne l of Ihc e nclosurc. If
you arc go ing to powc r the circuit from batt eries. you
can mOllnt a ba tte ry ho lde r at the bollom of the
e nclosure. If you e lect to use a wall wart powe r sup-
-,..•........ _------------_.-_._**- --------- - -- _. _._.- ply. you will wanl 10 mo unt a coaxial powc r jack at
Rgure 5·S 8 nrgraph presslfre sellSor prOlotype Ihe rear of the chassis to allow fo r a power connection.
prinrell eirel/ ir board

Chapter Five Gas Sensing 121

 llle pressure sensor has two por ts. because it"s a inches of H,O 2.5-U» em of HlO
differe nt ial type sensor. You will need to ohlain a inches of H,O 1.86S.J mm of Hg
length of lA-inch 00. 5h6-inch ID diamelerTygon tub-
inches of Hg 0•..1912 P"
ing. Remember that the pressure pOrl P l is the high-
inches of Hg 13.596 inch~sof H;O
pressure porI. Your apptication will determine which
port you will wanl to attach the TygOll tubing to. U inches of Hg 3.)8(H bars or I.:Pa
you want 10 measure fo rce of incoming air pressure. in ches of Hg ]3.864 mbars
a u ach the mbing \0 pon P l: if you want to measure a
inches of H g ) . U32 elll orH~ O
vacuu m. attach the tubing to port P2.
inch~of Hg 25AOO mm of Hg
Calibration of the bargraph pressure sensor is
prelty straigh tforward. Only twO simple noninterac-
---------------------_.
live adjustments are needed to sct the initial offset
and full ~sca lc span. To adjust the offse t. apply zero
differential pressure to {he sensor. then adj ust RRfor
Bargraph Pressure Sensor
ovolts at Vd (i.e.. at the sensor output between pin 4 Parts List
and pin J of the SPX50D T). To adjust the span. apply
Rl , R2. R3 . R4 lO OK
10 psi to the sensor and adjus t Rp until the tenth ohm, 1 / 4- watt , a
LED lights up. That completes the calibration proce- re sistor
du re for the bargraph sensor circuit. The bargraph RS 2 00-ohm potentioml!-
pressure sensor circuitry is now ready to sniff out air te r (trimpot)

or vacuum pressure changes. Table 5-5 lists <l number R6 ( s " Table 5 -~ )
of different pressure sensor conversions {hat you may Rp (see Tabl e 5-4)

encounter in pressure se nsing. Have fun with yo ur R7 24K ohm, 1 / 4- watt ,

1 % r es i sto r
new bargraph pressure sensor.
R8 1 0K ohm potentiOIU-
te r (trimpot.)
R9 1 5K ohm, 1 / 4-watt ,
Table 5-5
1% re s istor
Pressure Conversion Table RI O. Rll lK ohm , 1 / ~­
em/ven from MII/rip/y by COllllenfo watt , 5 \ re sistor

psi-Va 2J feet of wa ter R1 2 1.2K ohm, l / ~-wlt.t

1 \ re sistor
(e et of I'. ater "J.l psi-SG
Rl3 lK p0t.e nt iomete r

"'; .06895 bllrs or kPa (t r impot.)

I bars or kPa O. I~50326 P"

R14 2 . 7K ohm. 1 / 4- watt
1 \ re sis tor
baT$ of kPa 4.0\J7 inches of H, O RIS 470- ohm, 1/4 - wat.t ,
S ill re sist.o r
bars or kPa 0.2953 inch!! ~ of Ilg
Cl 1 uF, 3S-volt , ele t
bars or kPa 10.000 Illhars t r o lyti c c apa c it o r

baTSork Pa \0.)973 em of H,O C2 1 0 uF, 3S-volt eh ~

tr o lytic capac it.o r
bars or kPa 75006 mmof Hg C3 0.1 uF, 3S-volt
inches of H:D 0.036127 psi c e r amic disc c apac::it·
Ul LM3S8 op-amp
inches of H .D 0_073554 inches of Hg ( Na tion a l )
inches of H:D O.2J9\ bars or kPa U2 LM78 0S r egula tor
(National)
inches of H_O 2.J19 mbars
U3 LM3914N diSplaY

122 Electronic Sensors for the Ev il Genius

 d river Ie (National) de\'ices: in this case Ihe cma lYlic slurry is replaced
01 through 01 0 red LEOs with glass. which will nOI oxid ize in com bustible
011. 012, 013 IN9l4 gases. 'Jne second type is used fo r low-power devices:
s ilicon d iodes this type of nonsensitive e le ment sta rts life as a sensi-
014 red LEO th'e element a nd as such is ma nufactu red in exactly
SES - l SPXSOON SenSYm the same way. However. to prevcnt oxidatio n. th e cat-
pressure sensor
alyst is " po isoned " during production using a suitable
81 g - volt battery
substa nce such as potassiu m hydroxide,
S1 SPST toggle s witc h
Pe llistors a rc always manufactu rcd in pairs. The
Miscellaneous p rint ed
ci rcui t boa r d, wire , acti\'e Clll(l /Y::'('(/ dell/em is sup plied with a n e lectri-
socket s, male header cally matched clemen t containing no catalyst and is
conne c tors, battery treated to e nsure no na mmable g;ls will oxidize on its
h o lder , Chassis box .
etc. su rface, This compel/s(l/or ef~II/('/" is used as a refer-
ence resistance to which the se nsor's signal is com-
pared.to re move the e ffects of environme n tal factors
o ther tha n the presence of a fl a mmable, ga s (see fi g- I
Pellistor Combustible Gas ure 5-10) . Pe Uistors' pairs arc conve nien tly moullled
in T04-size hcaders or as complc te fl a meproof !!as
Sensor detection head s for use as fi e ld de vices within fi.-..: ed
gas de tect io n systems. TIle adva ntage of using this
Calalyliccombuslion has been the most wid ely used technique when d etecting namma ble gases is that it
method of de tecting ncumn able gases in industry measu res f1amm 'lb;li t), direct ly.
since the invention of the catalytic pdleli:.ed resistor
(or pellistor) in the mid·1 960s.
A pellistor clemen t is sim ply a pla tinum wire coil.
............
coated \\;th a catalytic slurry o f an ine rt base male rial
/
. ~,..~
O..,~_
, " " 0 _ _ _ ",_-ro.r

(e.g..alumina) and a me tal ca talyst that accele rates

the o:\.;dation react io n. This type of c le me nt is known
as the sell.5itil'e elemem. A number of ca lHlyst materials
area\lailable and the p recise type a nd mix is carefully
thosen to optimize sensor pe rfo rmance. Figure 5·9
- - - - - - -- (;.00.<'0<-...: ... ,..............
shows a cross·sectio n of a Iypical catalytic c le me nt.
In addition 10 the sensitive c le me nt. a IIQIIsem·itir(!
------------ .--_... _- .......... _- .--.~--------------

demellt is manufacture d. Two types of nonsensitive Figure 5-10 Pd/i.wor d,wl Sl'/lSor 1II0UI11
element exist. 'nle first is used primarily in high· power

BEAD
POROUS REFRACTORY
BEAD W ITH CATALYST
SEALING
0'
PLATINUM
WIRE COIL

LEADS l mm
"
_...... .
Agure 5-9
-
Pellistor gas Sl'm'or
"
... -- ---- ------------------------ -_. --- ._ ..... . . ... __ .. _-----------------

Chapter Five Gas Sen s ing 123

 In operalion. a pair o f bca d ~ is always used. and the b ridge out pUi to be set 10 zero. When gas is pres-
this pair comprises a sensitive and a corresponding em.lhe resistance o f the sensitive element rises. callS-
nonsensitive element. D uring manufact ure individua l ing VI to decrease. a nd the ou tput (be ing the
pairs are closely ma tched b~' vohllge a nd current difference between VI and V2) to rise also.'l1le fimc-
requ irements a nd therefore do not Ileed a ny com- tion of the nonsensitive ele ment is to eliminate any
penslItion (i.e .. a trimming resistor) when used effects that environmental conditions may have on
togelher in equipment. This pa ir of elements is th..: resistance of the IWo elements. Any changes \\ill
installed into a Wheatstone bridge. as illustrated in be the same for both the sensitive and nonsensitive
Figure 5-1 1. which heats them to between 400 and clemen ts, and so the bridge vol tage V1 and output
500°C. When no gas is present the resista nces of the voltage remain unchanged .
two clements are bala nced a nd the bridge will pro- Pd listor resistors are optim ized for use either ata
duce a stable baseline signal. Combustible gases are constant vollage or a constant current. COIlSIant cur-
then oxidized a ll the sensitive clement. ca using its rent is predominantly used in h igh-power fixed S}'li-
tempe ra ture 10 rise. Accordingly the resistance of the tems and ensures that the elements are correctly
element also increases.. This results in an out-of-balance powe red . e\'en if the power source is a number of
signal across the bridge a nd a co rre~po n ding change meters away. \ Vherc banery life is a concern. constant
in output vollage. which ca n be measured easily. voltage is preferred. and as such all low-power ele-
The bridge power suppl y is rypica lly 2 to 3.5 volls. me nts a re optimized for constant voltage.
dependin g on the sensor. Voltage VI is set by the llle circui t shown in Figure 5-1 J illustrates a
potential d ivider of the sensitive and nonsensit ive combustible gas sensor using the pellistor sensor
e le me nts. and. when no gas is present. th is is nomi- technology. 'Ille heater powe r supply shown at the
na lly half the bridge supply voltage. Voliage V? is left o f the ci rcu it is ulil ized to supply power 10 the
also half Ihe bridge supply and is predominantly pellistor.> in the Wheatstone bridge circuit. The heater
d e termined by the potent ial d ivider of R I and R2. power supply consists of a 3- to -L5-volt banery
R VI is used to finc-tu ne VI and V2 so that the" are power source that feed s the adjustable \'ol tage regu·
the same value when no gas is present and to enable lator. shown at U 1. via switch SI:a.llle potentiometer
at R2 is used to adj ust the output of the power supply
to Ihe required voltage o f 3 volls. The plus ( + ) OUlput
of the hea te r power supply is coupled 10 the Wheal-
slOne bridge at V2 . whereas the minus ( - ) of ground
SENSITIVE
of the power supply is fed to the Wheatstone bridge
at VI. The Wheatstone bridge consists of four
resis tances. Resistors R3 and R4 a re fixed I K ohm
I -=-. 81
-
RVl V2
values. R 5 is the reference part of the pellistor sensor.
and R6 is the active sensing element of Ihe peilistOf
at SEN!.
TIle output of the Whe atslone bridge al E I and E2
ELEMENT is a \'oltage. which results when the b ridge becomes
un balanced as the sensor element d etects a com-
busti b le gas. 'IDe bridge outpu t at El is cOlUlected to
the cOlllmon ground of the detector portion of the
circuit. 'nle bridge output at E2 is coupled 10 the
minus ( - ) inp ut of Uvl393 op·amp comparator. The
DIGITAL
VOLTMETER plus (+) output of the o p-amp at pin 5 is connected
to feedback circuit consisting of resistors R9 and
Figure 5-11 Pt:/listor gas sensor bridge circllit R IO. P in 5 of the op-map is also connected 10 a

124 Ele ctronic Sens o rs for the Evil Genius

 / - - - -
Y.l 0
JEA SUPPLY / U3
- -r - - I -
82 - +
C3
1-+
T Dl PLY
/ I
V2 + C4 ,
L. +1 Ul 0
R3 = Rll
: :6.
a NR5
I Cl
+ I El RE E2
Rl 6 - 8
ACTIVE c 8Z
C2 I 7 b
Ql
---- U2
SEN1
t:z]
81
R2
I R4
"- -
VI R6
R9
5
+ 4
R1 2
r
-- -- .....
<:
3- 4.5 VDC -- I
ro
- - - - - --'
R7
RIO
--
I
R8 e b c
= ~Q1
--.----- --- ----- ---_. ------ ._--- ----- ------------ ------------ ,--------------- -----------------
FigUrE 5-12 Pelli.wor toxic gas sensor cirellil

poIcntiomelc r a t R8. which is used to adj ust the ref- waml as power is supplied to heat the clemen t a t a ll
erence or sel-point of the comparato r circuit.lllC times. The pe llistor assembly should be mo unted at
OUipUl oflhe comp,lrata r ill pin 7 is coupled to resis- one end o f the circuit board . so tha t the sensor can be
lor R12. \\hich is fed to a PNP transistor al 01. Tran- mo unted n ea r one e nd o f th e chassis box. A n Ie
sistor 01 is used to drive a small SPDT relay. which socket is reconmll:nded in the e vent o f the circui t
can be used to drive a heilv}' load. In Ihis example the fai lure a t some la te r po int in time. The IC must be
relay is used 10 d ri ve a piezo buzze r that sounds whe n o rie nted correctly for the circui t to work properly.
lIle Wheatstone b ridge becomes unba la nced. The Observe the orienta tio n care full y. when installing the
nonnally open contacts of the relay afC wired fTom Ie. ICs usua lly ha ve some form o f marking to d e note
the9·\'oh source through the b uzzer 10 ground. You their orientatio n. On some 1Cs. you may find e ither a
rould use the relay 10 drive a large r load . such as a small indente d circle al the top lefl o f the package o r
pump or siren. The comparator ci rcuit is po wered a squa re cutout at the lOp cente r of the package. If
from 3 9-\"0It power source consisting o f a 9-voll bat- the IC pack age has a sma ll inde n ted circle. pin I o f
ICI}'3nd regulator U3. Switch S l:b applies power to the IC is just to the left of the inde nted circle. If the
the regulator and. in turn . to the comparato r circuit. IC has a square cutout a t the top ce nter of tbe pack-
Nole the load. a buzzer in this e xample. is connected age. pin I is to the le ft of the cuto u t. Capacitors C I.
ahead of the regulator and is su pplied wit h 9 vo lts 0. and C3. C4 a rc all electro lytic types a nd must be
whereas the comparator is po wered [ro m 5 \'olts. installed corre ctly with the positive marking placed
The combustible gas sensor is constructed on a 3 correctly with respect to Ihe plus voltages on the
X 4 inch printed circuit board. No component specifi- powe r supply. Consult with the data sheets for each
cations are crit ical excep t for the matched pair pellis- o f the regul ators to be sure you insta ll the m correctly
tor sensor package. All the compone nts are mo un ted and avoid damage to the circuit. "Jbe transistor a t QI
on the circuit board. including the regulators. Ie. a nd has th.ree pins. m,lrked 1. 2, a nd 3 as shown on the
transistor and relay. Heatsinks sho uld be placed on bottom of the diagram (see Figure 5- 12). Pin 1 o n the
both of the regulator packages. llle pcllistors should transisto r corresponds to the e mitter. whereas pin 2 is
be mounted in a heutsink. because they. will i!:et a bit the base. and pin 3 is the transisto r"s collector pin.
~

Chapter Five Gas Sensing 125

 Afte r installing and sOlderi ng the componentS inlo Table 5·6
the circuit. be sure to carefully recheck the foil side of Pellistor Ga s Sensors- CatalYtic Sensor
the board for shorts and bridges between circui l pads. Re lative Re sponse
Also look for cold solder joints: it's better \0 ide ntify Gas/Vapor Re/mil'e Respome %
cold solder joints before applyi ng power 10 and using Melllnne 100
the circui t. Finally. examine the foil side of the board
107
\0 locale stray compone nt leads 1hal may h,1\"c
attached IhemselYcs to the board after components Elh on", 81
were cut. These s tray leads may act as shon s and Propane 63
could damage the circuil when powe r is supplied if
Bmane 51
nO! removed. Once you have thoroughly inspeCled
the cin;uit board. yo u are now ready to install the cir- Penl:me 50

cuil board into a chassis box. Hexa ne

Locale a su itable chassis box to e nclose the com· Heplane

bustible gas detector. The prototype circuit is installed
O Clanc 3S
in a 5 '/~ X 7 X 2 ~ inch metal chassis box . A NF-inch
Elh y!en ... 81
hole should be p laced o n o ne e nd of the chassis box.
th is should line up wi th the gas se nsor o n the circuit Ml'l hanol
board. The circui t board is moun led a top plastic El h.. nol
sl,mdoffs so that the se nsor can see outside the box.
If you elect 10 use bat te ries at Il l. install three C cell
holders on the boltom of the chassis. YOli could a lso Al'elonc 50

e lect to usc a 6-\'olt. 500 ma wall wart power supply if BUlane·l·onc ( ~1 EK)
desired. llle power source al 8 2 can be supplied by
:-.ttBK
batteries by installing holde rs for three AA or three
Cyelohcxane
C-<:ells. -1l1e batter)' holder can be mounted on the
boltom of the chassis box.
The DPDT powe r switch was mounted along wit h EllI) I Acclatc
the pie7.o buzzer on the top cover of the chassis box.
til Toluene
if you e lected to use a panel-mounted potentiometer
rd for RS. this con trol could also be mounted on the top
Xyl ene 31
(,!) Acclvlcnc
fron t co,'er of the chassis box.
O nce the comb ustible gas de tector has been com-
----------------- - --- ..
I pleted. yOll a re now ready to calibrate the circuit. 'Ille
combus tible gas detector is sensitive to a numbe r of Tah le 5·7
combusti b le gases (see Table 5-6). You will no tice that
Pellistor CatalYtic Sensor Ope ra ting
the se nsor is most sellsiti,'c to methane. hydrogen. Performance
e thylene. and met hanol. To calibrate the d etector for
A uribllle CAT 16 Sl:IIsor CAT 15 Sellsor
a part icular gas. turn on the combustible gas sensor
Model num bo!r 2111 B20t6 2111 B2125
a nd expose the sensor to the gas of imerest: this will
O perJting princi ple CunSlan l currcm ConSlam \'ollJge
adjust the set-point of the circuit using potentiome te r
RS. Each gas will require a slightly different set-point Gas dc ,ceted Mos, combustible Most combustible
gases gase5
for maximum sensitivity. SixthScnse manufactures
two diffe re nt cma lytic pellistor gas sensors: a CAT I6 Measu remen'rangl' 0-100% lower 0-1 00"0 LEL
e \"rlo~i"e lim it
and a CAT2 5 (see Table 5-7).
( LEL )

O peraling ,ollag.: 2.7 "olls + f- 3.3 ,'otts "'f- OJ)!

0.2 "olls \'ohs

126 Electronic Sensors for the Evi l Genius

Optrating ClJ rren t ZOOmA 70m.-\. lator I e

\ Lu poII'<r 5SOmW 230m \\' RLY 6 - volt mini relay

(tmUllIplion SPOT (Radio Shack)
8Z p i ezo buzzer
>12 rn V % >15 rnV %
rnethane met hane Bl 3 C cel l s; 4 to S
volts DC
<10 seconds <IOseconds
"""'" time B2 6 AA c ell s ; 9 volts
..'- 1100:. LEL +1- 110% LEL 51 OPDT toggle s witch
to HIO% LEL to 100% LEL
.. _-------- - --- ---- - ---- Miscellaneous p rin ted
c i r c uit board , wire.
We chose the CAT25 sensor. which requires signif- IC sock ets, standoffs, t'%j
icanlly less currenl consumplion. Two gas exposures screws , nuts , etc .
.....
must be avoided: exposure to hydrogen sulfide and to
llexamcthyl disiloxane. <(1)
Ele ctronic Ba rom eter
Peilistor Com bustibl e Gas I
E veryone is interested in the weather. A nd while we
Detector Parts Li st conslallily Sec weather re pons o n TV and ofte n baro- (j)
Rl 240 - ohm . 1 / 4-watt
metric reading is usua lly specified. to most people. III
resistor th is specific weathe H e la ted parame te r is usua lly (J)
R2 5K ohm potentiometer quite a Illyste£)' to most peo ple. So what is barome tric
(trimpot) pressure?
R3. R4 lK ohm. 1/4 -
CJ)
'nle weigh t of the air tha t makes up our atn1Os-
watt . 1 \ re sistor (1)
phere exerts a prcssure o n the surface of the earth.
R5 reference element
pelli :s tor CAT25 This pressure is known as atmosphe ric pressure. G e n· ::s
(J)
#211182125 (Sixth -
Sense)
e raUy. the more air above a la nd mass. the highe r the
at mosphe ric pressure: th is. in turn. means that a tmos· .....
R6 active element (pel-
listor) CAT25
pheric pressure cha nges with altitude. For e xa mple. ::s
#211182125 (Sixth - atmosphe ric pressure is greater a t sea level tha n o n a I.Q
Sense) mo untaintop. To compe nsate for this differe nce and
R1. R9 . RIO 1 megohm. facili tate comparison between loca tions with diffe rent
l /4 - watt resist o r altitudes. a tmosphe ric pressure is generall y adjusted
R8 SO K pot entiomete r to the equivale nt sea-leve l pressure. This adjusted
(trimpot or panel
mount)
pressure is known as ba rome tric pressure. tn reality.
the weathe r station measures atmospheric pressure.
Rll 3.3K ohm. 1/4-watt
resistor Ba rometric pressure also changes with local
Rl2 lK ohm. 1 /4 - watt weathe r conditions. making barometric pressure a n
re sisto r
extre mely important a nd use ful weather fo recas ting
Cl . C3 1 uf o 35 - volt tool. H igh-pressure zones arc generally associated
elect r ol yti c capac itor
wit h fa ir wea the r. while lo w-pressure zones a re ge n-
C2 . C4 10 u f , 3S-vo 1 t
e l ectrolyti c capacitor erally associa ted with poor wea ther. For the purposes
Ql 2N2222 transistor
of fore casting. ho wever.lhe absolute barome tric
(PNP) pressure value is gene ra lly less importa nt than the
Ul LHll 7 T a djustable cha nge in barometric pressure. tn ge ne ral. rising
r e gulat o r IC barometric pressure indicates improving weat he r
U2 LM393 comparator op- conditions. and fa lling pressure indicates de te riorat-
amp IC
ing weat he r conditions.
U3 LM1809 9 - volt r equ-

Chapter Five Ga s Se n si ng 12 7
 Build ing the electronic baromete r shown in Figure increased resistance. while the olhe r two arc lower
5-13 will help yo u keep track or the baromct ric p res- than no rmal. TIlis produces an u nbalanced bridge
su rc and will easily perform as well or bencr Ihan output between pins 2 and 4 of the scnsor. which rep-
moSI expensive a ne roid barome ters you are likely to rese nts the actual absol ute v;l lue of air pressure (and
b uy. TIle resolution of the digiw i display is 0.01 inches ba rometric readi ng).
of mercury. which is greate r than what could be -m e pressure se nso r is a linear device thaI. in this
o h tnincd from a n a na log baromelc r. circuit. is d ri ven by a 5-vo11 regula ted supply. II dc\-ef-
A barome ler measures absol ute ambient air prcs- ops about 20 milfh'o lts outpu t be twee n pins 2 and 4
sure. usually specified in inches of mercur),. At sea at norma l barometric pressure condi tions. Its sensili\'·
levclunder stnndard conditions set by the World ilY to pressure changes equals abo ut O.67R milli\'ol1S
Me teorological Organizatio n . the acceplcd abso lute per inch of me rcury.
air p ressure is equal 10 29.91216 inches of mercury.
-mis tra nslates to 14.696 pounds pe r sq uare inch
absolute (PS IA) . nle aClUal levd of ai r pressure is Rnalog Rmplifie r
a lways cha nging. and such movements pro\'ide an
excellent method o f predicting the weather. Normal lbe pressure sensor bridge circuit is driven by the
p ressure readings fa ll wi thi n the ranee of 29 to 31 5-\'011 regu lated power source a nd provides a nomi-
inches o f merc ur"\'. nal di fferential output vollage of abou t 20 millivolts..
One importa n t aspect of the barometric reading is which wi ll va rv. bv
. onlv
. 0.678 millivolts for each
the direction of ch::lIlge: that is. rising or fa ll ing. 1lle change of one inch of m e rcur~' barometric pressure.
elec tronic barome te r d escribed he re has 11 hold fea- TIlis minute change in bridge ompul mhage must be
lure. wh ich allows the present reading to be frozen. amplified before it can become useful. This is acrom·
TIlen. at a late r time. a new reading may be taken . plished by U2. a dual operational amplifier.
The change of direction therefore indicates if there U2A and U2B are connected as a diffe rential
the p ressu re is rising or fa lling. nle new reading may a m plifier. The gain of the amplifier is detemlined by
the n be frolen until anothe r c heck of the pressure th e resistance values of R7 through R 13 and is
is made. eq ual 10:
G A IN = 2 x {I + lOOKlRI
where lOOK is the value o f R 9. R 12. and R13. and Ris
Rbout the Circuit
the combined nllue of RIO and RI I connected in
series. Addi tionally R 7 and RS form a voltage di\ider
The heart of the electronic barome ter is an absol ute
Ihat provides I j vollS DC offselto Ihe amplifier, and
pressu re sensor Iha t has a detection ra n!!e of 0 to 15
the resist:lnce pair has a Thevinin cquh'aleOl of lOOK
PSIA. -Ibis piezoe lectric d e vice is com posed of four
10 ma tch R9. R I2.:lIld R 13.
resistors impla nted on a silicon substrate. which acts
as a di ap hragm. One side o f the substra te is ex posed Using the voltage gain fonnul a shown and the
to a cha mbe r Ihm has been totally c\'acuat.::d to an resistor values shown in the schematic diagram. the
almost pe rfeci vacuum.ll1e other side is exposed to gain of the amplifier is I.4S. With a scnsor OUlPUI
ambient ai r pressure.
- -
voltaee swin g of 0.678 m illivolts for each one inch of
mercury cha nge in air pressure. it can be seen tbal me
-lb c fo u r resistOrs connected to the sensor are
o ut put voltage of the amplifie r will change 10 milli·
equa l in value and a re con nected in a Wheatstone
volts for each inch of me rc ury. Tlie aClllal output
b ridge configura tion. The substrale is physically
age of the amplifier will be 1.5 volts as prm'ided by
streSsed by the action of ambient nir p ressure on one
offse t resistors R 7 and R8. plus the bridge
side pushing againsl the zero p ressure chambe r on
output voltage multipli ed by the gain of the
Ihe other. and as a result Iwo of the resistors haVe!
Nomlal Out p UI is about 1.8 volts at pin 7 of U2.

128 Electronic Sensors for the Evil Genius

 ~ ,
:," ~
-c,. , 35
c~I-,; o
-
c !':
.'-""
w, H 34
..~" ~
c
,
~
, ~» ~ m CD II
go C IN , 7
~ " . '-1 ~ ): ~
..
g a ,~
, ~ __ ~ VI l .,j
,~
o
- . 5
~ :t
a c • I 136
"-.~
:n
"a~ '-i 6
~ :n
--. ~
m
n
::r
OJ 35 1 37 '-i 37 I .I I
,,
"-m 33 L..~
~ ~<:+
,,,
,,
i!l~ -l 36
"T1
_. 23 -f- 30
A7 A10 All 32
<
m ,, --J ,-, c' 16 29
,, ~f- :n 2' -f- 11
m I 130 r-,
15 10
18 - 9
,,,
3 A 13 26 17 - 31 . .J _ I
~
, 'If-+-
'"'" A "m 22 -f- 32
,, ) A12 <A, 31 '- 12 tl
VJ iEN- I
ro
,,
U2:A 12 25
, './ :c 24
~ m 11
1 -:-'=- U2,s 34 I
10 15 r
~.
,,,
'" bl U3 9 14
~ A8 13
33 14 ..
, 13 26
l-
"' - - r l b 1 29
25 27
:n Q 21
L1 02 ;:f-" 28 20
s~ (
r' 0, 19
' - - I H 27 18
8 Q 17 -
B'-J;. +. 15 6 1 • 22
-
- Ul
1 I • ,---11 '0 23
Cl 3
+l..C3
_ 2 7 "~
m 39
~ 1 ~ 1 ~ 1 ; 1 ~ 1 ~lwIN I -
... - I.
- 38 8
- -- I
()
1 2,'
~
",
'"'" w

fiu1'suas s-eD aA1'..iI .l'a:+d-eq:)

 Each of the digits of the d isplay is composed of
Rnalog-to-Digital Converter sc\'c n segmen ts. identified by the leiters a through g.
11le key 10 ge nenHing a 2 or a 3 is by examination of
IC V3 a nd ils associated components fo rm a com- Ihe g segment of the second most signific3m digit. If
ple te 3 ~- d i g it voltage measurement system that Iha l segme nt is active because the digi t is 8 or 9. the
drives a liqllid crrsml tlisplay (L CD). Only the three most significant digi t must the refore be a 2. If the sec-
least significam digits are used. -nle half digit I is nOl o nd most sign ifican t d igit is a 0 o r I. ils g segment is
req uired because the ba rometer m ust display eilher a inaClive and thi! most significant digit musl lherefore
2 o r a 3 as its mosl significant d igit. A special dri \'c r be a 3.
circu it (U-I) is used to accomplish this.
The LC D is opera ted by a square-wave backplane
111e a na log voltage input to U3 is appl ied to posi- signal gencfrllcd at U3. pi n 2 1. a nd is applied to the
ti\'C input te rmina l 31 th rough isola tio n resistor R6. common terminal. pin I. of the display. Any segment
111e negat ivc anal og input of U3. terminal 30. is of the displ ay will be eX linguishcd when il is driven
driven by pOIc mio me te r R4. which aCls as a ca libnH- by the backplane waveform and will be activated
ing adj ustme nt. This ta kes into account va riations in whe n il is d riven by the same waveform that has been
pressure sensors and a llows the display to be set 10 inverted by 180 degrees. Ie U4C is used as an
the correct ba rometric pressure reading as deter- inverte r Iha ( activa tes the most significa nt digit seg-
mined fro m a known. accura te source. me nts tha t nre com mo n to a 2 or a 3. These arc a.b,d.
The se nsitivi lYo f thc A ID converter is de te rmined a nd g. 111e invertcd backplane signal a t pin iO of U4C
by the refere ncc voltage appearing between pins 32 is hardwired to pins 3-1. 35. 36. 37. and 12 of the LCD
a nd 36. In this circui l it is necessarv that tbe AID con- to pe rmanently illu minatc those segme nts. plus the
verte r has a full scale (1999) sensitivity of 199.9 (200) decima l point.
milli"oits. 111is is accomplished by using poten tiome- Segment f of the most significant digit is never
ler R2 10 se t Ihc refe rence voltage to 100 m illivolts activated: therefore pin 36 of the LCD is connected
(0. 100 volts). directly to the backpla ne. U-ID simultaneously exam-
With a re fe re nce volLage of 100 millivolts. U3 wi ll ines the g segment of the second most significant
generate a display of 1.()(X) whe n its differential a na- d igit of the display a nd the backplane wa\'eforrn.
log input \'oltage is equal to 100 millivolts. More O\'er When the g segment of the L CD is aClive (for digil8
II positive or negative change of 10 millivolts as o r digil ) Ihe o utput of U4 D pin 11 is high. O therwise,
ca used by a cha nge of one inch inlile barometric it is low for digits 0 and I.
pressure will cause the ge ne rated d isplay to be e ithe r Ie U-IA is used as a cond itional inverter so that ilS
1. 100 or 900. rcspccti, 'e iy. ou tput is iden tical to b,u:kplanc when the second
Barome tric pressure levels m nge [rom 28.00 to most sign ifican t digit is 0 o r 1 and is invcned when
I 31.00 inches in I-inch incre me nts. a nd the three least the digi t is an 8 o r 9. U4A feeds the e segment of the
- -
significam digi ts of thc display will be 8.00. 9.00. 0.00. most significant digi t of the d isplay (pin 5) to illumi-
OJ It will be 1.00 whe n the decimal a nn uncia tor (pin 12) nate part of the 2 digi t, a nd it also feeds one input of
>
. .-i
is ha rd-wired for a display resolUlion of 0.01 inches
of mercury.
inverter VolB. The c segme nt of the most significant
digit is driven by V4B so that il will always be oppo-

tz.4 111e ra nge of the barome te r display has to cover

the range fro m 28.0 inches to 31.99 inches. Therefore.
- -
site to the e see.ment. The lo!!.ic circuit of U4 alwa,'S
generates the COITect most significant digit of the
.

the most significan t digit is required to be e ither a 2 ba ro me lric readi ng.. but it cannol produce any digil
or a 3. A clever o ne-chip q uad exclusi,'e OR circuit other Ihan u 2 or a 3.
(U-I) is used 10 genera te the prope r digil.An exclu-
sive O R ga te produces a logic 1 ou tput o nly when its
inputs arc at opposi te logic levels.

1 30 El ectronic Sensors for the Ev il Genius

 suspect should be redone by removing the old solde r
Memory with a desoldering tool. cleaning the joint. a nd care-
full y applying new solder. It is easier to correct p rob-
updates its reading about th ree limes a lems a t this sta!?e than it would be later if vo u we re to
in response to changes in the differential ana-
- -
d iscover that "our barometer does not work.
fed to pin 31. However it is designed 111e analog circuitry contains a number on % pre-
a hold [eature thai <I llow5 the display fead ing 10 cision mewl fil m resistors to e nsure accuracy a nd sta-
This allows the user to slare the current b ility. Ordi na ry carbon resistors afe not temperature
and update it at any time to provide infomla- stable a nd sh o uld not be substitu ted fo r the metal
regardim! the trend of the barometric pressure: film types wh e re specified. Be very carefu l whe n han- t-z:l
,or falling. TIlis is accompl ished by oper- dling the pressure scnsor. Note tha t p in I is id entified ... '
hold updute switch.
Powertodri,"c the circuil is o b tained from three
by a notch o n the termin al.
Locate an e nclosu re that is la rge e no ugb to ho ld
<ro
AA baneries connected in series \ 0 prm 'ide aboUl -L5 a ll the required components includ ing the solar array.
is a switching regulator chip that is
101"'" wi th an input voltage range of
Cu t a rectangu lar open ing fo r the d isp lay an d secu re
th e boa rds with suitable screws. nuts. and sp acers. '111e
I
i,'eN a regulated output voltage of hold-updatc switch may be mou nted at a ny conven-
pin 6. This milage slays constan t a nd is used ient locatio n o n the enclosure.
G1
' of the barometer. ~
Afte r the barometer is fully assem bled. examine
Ul
th e wiri ng vcry cMefully for sho rts or bridge s lind for
printed circuit assemblies ca lled the ana- proper connections before ap plying powe r to the cir-
and display board . The analog board con- cuit. A m uhimeter o r DVivt is required to test and en
pressure sensor amplifier a nalog-to-d igi ta l calihrate the unit. Before illstallin g the battery. meas- ro
power supply. TIle display board con-
the LCD modulc. -lbe two boards are mo un ted
ure the resista nce between the powe r inp ut termina ls ::s
of the analog board. + 2.4 volts. a nd the gro wld to be Ul
O>id< a suitable enclosure thm has a rcctangular sure no sho rt circuit exists. Nonnal indication. with ... '
cut out for the d isplay module. The balle rics
are secured inside the enclosure_ The o nly operating
the positive lead of the DVM connected to the posi-
tive side of Cl. is essenl ially high resistan ce (i .e ..
::s
oontrol is the hold -update switch. about 10K) . If ze ro low resistance is measure d . exam-
I.Q
The specifications for the circuit wiring a rc not ine the circuit assembly very cardully to locate a nd
aitkal and. if desired. this wiring. may be hardwired corrt!ct the fa ult.
using good construction techniques. Lnstall the balle ries. being \'e~' careful to obse rve
polarized compone nts onto the board. pro pe r pola rit y as indica tcd in the sche ma tic dia-
be sure they arc properly orien ted as shown. J ust one gram. ~'I eas ure the te rm inal \'oltage o f the baltery:
pan placed backward in the circuit may rende r the Normal indication is ..1.5 volts o r mo re. ~'l ake a \'o lt-
barometer inoperative and may cause damage to o nc age measure ment across capacitor C3. No rmal indi-
or more components. Sockets should be used fo r U2. cation is 5 volts DC. If you do not obtain this readi ng.
the display module . To make a socket for discon nect powcr and check UI . 0 2. CI. a nd C3 for
the display. cut a 4O-pin DIP socket in half. The use o f p roper orientation. A lso check L I. Correct the fau lt
$OCtets permits case of service. should it c \'er be nec- before proceeding. Measure the \'o ltage at p in 7 of
tsS8.1)'. When installing the leS. you will need to firs t U2. Norma l indication is ab o ut I.S \'olts. If yo u do not
locate pin I of the chip. wh ich is usually id entified by have I.S volts indicated, there may be a fa ult in Ihe
a ~man indented circle nea r p in I of the chip. p ressure sensor/a mp li fier circu it. C heck the orien ta-
When bolh printed ci rcuit board s are completed. tio n of the se nso r and U2. Check the values of resis-
examine each o f them very care fully for open short tors R7 th rough R 13. Look for bad solder
cirroits and bad solder connectio ns. which mav connections. and the n try a new chi p.
appear as dull blobs of solder. A ny sold e r jo int tlun is

Chapter Five Gas Sensing 131

 ~<l eas urethe vollage be tween pins 32 a nd 36 of taken by switching 10 the update position or the
U3. Adjust R1 for a reading of 100 millivolts (0.1 switch . TIlis way the trend of the barome tric readinl!.
volts). O nce set. do not readjust R2 again. The d isplay rising or falling. may be determined .
should show a four-digit read ing with a decinm l
point. By slowly adjusti ng R4 ove r its range. you
should be a ble to sec a display of digi ts that vary EIE!ctronic Barom E! tE! r Parts
from a bout ?9.00 10 31.00 inches of me rcury wi th the
decimal point properly illuminated. Set R4 fo r the
List
proper ba rometric reading as obtained from a Rl 2 2 . l K , 1/ 4- watt , n
weather re port or a not he r barometer that is known met. al f ilm r es i sto r
to be extremely accurale. If an airport is localed R2 l K c e rme t pot e n-
nearby. the control tower can provide you with a n t.iome t. e r ( PC mount)

accura te c urrent ba romet ric pressure readi ng. R3 1 0 K , 1/ 4 - watt , a

met al f ilm r esistor
Check the ope ration of the hold-update switch. l o R4 SOO-ohm c e rme t
the update position. the display will change with potentiomet e r (PC
ba rometric pressure. A llow suffic ie nt time for the mount)
reading (0 cbange. Note: it is nomlal for the digital RS 3. HK , 1/4 - watt , a
met.al f ilm r e si s to r
display (0 somet imes Ductuate by 0.01 or 0.02 inches.
R6 1 me g ohm, 1 / 4-wa tt ,
With 51 se t (0 the hold position. the reading should
ca r bon re sist.or
remain constant despite changes in the barometric
R1 332K ohms, H - watt ,
pressure. I'll me tal fi l m resistor
O nce R4 is properly sc t and S I cheeked. the R8 1 0 K , 1 / 4-watt , II
barome ter test a nd calibration procedure is com- met.a l fil m resisto r

ple ted. If the display has deformed digits. it may be R9, R12 , R1 3 l OOK ohm,
1/4 -watt, I 'll me tal
caused by a wiring error between the display and fi lm re s i st.o r
ana log board. a short . or an opening in the wiring. R IO I S.4-ohm, 1/ 4-watt,
The location of the deformed digits will le tl you 1 % met a l f ilm r esisto r
where \0 look for the problem. Refer to the Rll 22 0-ohm, 1 / 4- watt
schematic and check cHch in te rconnecting wire with c ar bon r es i st.o r
an ohmmeter after disconnecting power to the ci rcuit. R1 4 l OO K ohm, 1 / 4-wa tt
c ar bon re sistor
If the display is totally blank. check the orientation
Cl , C3 68 uF , 2S-volt
of U3. a nd check all compone nts associated with it. IJ r adia l e le ct. r olYti c
possible, check pin 21 of U3 and pin I of the display cap a c i to r
I with an oscilloscope (0 \·erify the presence o f the C2 , C6 0. 1 u F , 50-volt
square wave backplane signal . Ve rify the reference c e ram i c dis k capacitor

voltage of U3 by measuri ng the voltage between pillS C' 1,000 p F , SO - volt

c eramic disk capa citor
36 (positive) and 37 (negative). Normal indication is
C5 0.001 u F , 50-volt
0.1 volts. If incorrect check R 1 a nd R2 . If the most c eramic d i s k capacitor
sign ifica nt digit is not a 2 or a 3 as it should be. check
C7 o . 41 u F , SO-volt
the orientation of U4. Check the circuit for shorts or ce r amic dis k capacitor
opens. and try a llew chip. C8 0.22 u F , 50 - volt
Switch S 1 is nomlally left in the update position so c er amic dis k c a pa cito r

that the ba rometer wi ll show the ex isting pressure Dl , D2 I NS811 Schottky

diode
level. H owever. the hold position may be selected at
Ul MAX8S6CSA re gulato r
any time to freeze the read ing until a new reading is IC

1 32 Elec t ro ni c Se n sors for th e Ev i l Genius

U2 LM358N op-amp
u3 C04030B£ two-input
exc l usi ve OR gate
U4 ICL1ll6 CPL anal og -
to- digita l
conve rter / LCD d rive r
Ll 41 mic r o-henry
inductor (Digi-key
i>l7833 - NO)
51, 52 SPST toggl e
switch
SEN-l MPX2l 00A Motoro la
t'I]
I S psi abso lute pr es - ~.

81
su re sensor
2 AA c ell s <(l)
DSP- l 3 half - digit LCD
displaY (Di g i-key 153-
1025)
I-liscellaneous IC sock -
I
e tS , PC boards, wire ,
hardware, battery
holder , et c.

Chapter Fiv e Gas Sensing 133

 Chapter Six

Vibration Sensing

Vibrntion sensing can be used sol ve industrial

(0 c urrently using the AS·l for seismic research a nd
IJObJems as well as to detect earthquakes deep in the d isplay. Q ua lified schools can actually receive a n
ground. Engine or motor vibration problems can be AS· l for free (see information at en d of c hapler).
monitored over lime to study machine problems thaI
may be dcvcJoping. In the firs I project in this cha pter.
)'00 \\ill build a vibration hour meIe r. 'Illis simpl e yet I
unique circuit will allow you to r ecord Ihe length o f Vibration Hour Meter
time a machine or oalU ral c\'Cnl OCCUI'X. usi ng an 0[(-
tlie-shelf hour meIer. As long as the vibrat ion persists llle vibration ho ur me ie r is a simple yel unique circuil
the hour meter will record the eve nt. Iha t will a llo w you to record the time o f a machine or
Our next project is a vibration alarm Ihm will system or na tural e\'e nt by using a n off-the-shelf hour
nOlify you of intruding p ersons or ani ma ls. This me te r. II's the pe rfect scie nce fair project fo r the bud-
project uses a commonly available audio speaker as ding scie ntist in the fa mily. Certainly this project has
a sensor 10 delect vibration. The \'ibra tio n a lann many yet und iscovered applications.
project could be used to scare away pesky a nim a ls 'Ille vibra tion ho ur meter ci rc ui t illustrated in Fig-
from your garden or to warn you of approaching ure 6-1 begi ns with the pieza se nsor shown a l XI, The
intruders. Our next project. the piezo se ismic a larm pieza sensor can be obtained fro m a gas-grill sparker
sensor. uses a gas ba rbeque piezo sparke r mecha - c leme nt. TIle piezo sensor c le me nt is fed d irectly (o
nism as a seismic sensor. The piezo seismic a larm pin 3 of a CD-J069U B CIvIO S H EX inve rte r IC at
makes an imeresling scie nce fai r projec t fo r the U 1. The sensitivit), o f the ho ur meter can be
budding scientist. Our advanced project in this decreased by lowe ring the value o f resisto r Rl if
chapler, the AS-l seismograph. is capable of de tect- desire d. The Output o f U I is next coupled to diode
ing earthquakes all around the world.lll is seismo· 0 1. The ne twork of R2 a nd Cl fo rm a pulse shaper
graph can be used for serious a mateur resea rch and tha t inputs the pulses or vib ra tions in to the next
observations. Many schools across the country a re inverter segment at U l :b.

S1

R1
lC2
-- Ul :b

01 S2

6-l1~-;R~'=d
5 B!ue
RE SET
7 HOUR METER
U1:a Wht 81k
o R2 C1 M1

x~
- -- -
-:-0--.--------------------- .. --------.----------.. ---- ---. -
Agure 6-1 VibmtiOllllClim lcd hO/lr IIIl'fer

135
 Upon activation of a vibra tion. a downwa rd pulse 10 the circui t board. And il has four Icads: the red and
is fed d irectly to the hour mete r at Ml. As vibration white leads are powe r a nd ground respectively. The
from the sensor com in ues the hour me te r will con- rese t pins are located on the blue a nd black leads..
tinue to run. thus reco rding the le ngth of the e"e nt. The hour mete r circuit can be housed in a small
The hour me te r can be rese t fo r the next en:-m by meta l enclosure if desi red. The hour ml'ler and both
de pressing the pushbutton at switch $1. Note Iha t a ll switches ca n be mo unted atlhe front top of the
un used input pins of the CD 4069U B sho uld be tied e nclosure. A Iwo-cell AA batte ry holder can be
10 the 3-\'0It source. mo unted to the bOllom of the e nclosure 10 hold lhe
The ho ur me te r c ircuit is powe red from twO AA balle ries. If desired you can mo unt the piezo sensor
cells wired in series to fo rm a 3-\"011 power supply. A as a remme probe. The probe lend should consist ot8
10 uf capacitor is placed across the ba llery sou rce. small diamete r coax cable such as RGI 7-1IU. The probe
Power to the hour me te r ci rcu it is appl ied via the lead-in sho uld be kept under 10 1012 feet if possible
power switcb a t $ I . to avoid degradation of the signnl over a long dis-
The hour m e te r circuil can be bu ilt on a small tance. A two-circuit RCA jack can be moumed on
piece of experim em e r board o r on a ded ica ted the metal enclosure for the probe cable. and an RCA
primed c irc ui t board. A specific layout of the PC plug can be placed at the e nd of the probe cable.
board is not cri tical. however some precautions must Now the ho ur me te r circuit can be mounted to the!
be observed. You Illav wish to have the sensor bOllom of the metal enclosure via I/J-inch standoffs
moun ted along wi th a ll the othe r pa rts on the same and 1/1 -inch -I-..JO screws. Once the circuit has been
PC board or you may wish to have the sensor as a mounted. mak e sure fhe powe r switch is o fr. insfall
probe device using a coax cable lead-in from the se n- the baHeries. and auach the vibra tion probe to the
sor to the actual circuit board . de pend ing upon your circuit. Nex t. you can tum on the power (0 the circuit
particular application. a nd press the reset swi tch $2. The vi bration hour
Certain compone nts requi re special at te ntion me Ier is now ready to do its job. Place the probeona
when mounting. For example.lI single silicon diode is hard surface. rap on fhe sensor. and the hour meIer
used. When inswUing diodes. ca re must be taken 10 shou ld begi n to o pe rale.
install them corro!ctly.l\'lost d iodes ha\'e a black or
red band a t o ne end of the diode. wh ich correspo nds
to thc cathode of the diode. On the d iagram the cath- Vibration Hour Meter Parts Lisl
ode is the \'enical li ne faci ng the inpu t of UI :b. Some
Rl 2 2 megOhm , 1 / 4- w4tt ,
capacitors ha\'e pola rity. a nd particular atten tion
5, resistor
must be paid to insta lling these. In this circui t a single
R2 4. 7 megOhm, 1/ 4-
e lectrolytic capacitor at C2 is used. Note the positive watt , 5 \ resi sto r
lead of the capacitor shou ld be connected to the posi- Cl 0. 1 u f , 35-vo lt
tive lead of the batte n '. Th e ho ur meter circuit utilizes ::: eramic disc capadto:
a single integra ted circuit a t Ul. lt is a dvisable [Q usc C2 1 0 uf , 35- v olt elec-
a n Ie socket as assurance aga inst a circuit fai lurc at a t r olyt i c capacitor

later date. ICs m ust be orien tated correctly in order Dl I N414 8 s i licon clio':'!

to pre\'ent damage to Ihe Ie a nd usually have some Ul CD 4069UB CMOS

inve r te r IC
form of marking indicati ng orien ta tion. Most ICs will
M1 hou r me te r. Red Lion
havc either a small inde nted circle at the k ft side of
CUB3 , TR-O l / A
the IC o r a cutout on the to p of the plastic IC p<lck-
Xl piezoelectric sens-
-
al1c. Pin 1 of the IC is to the ve n, ' left of e ither the ing device
small inde nted circle or the cutOUl. 1l1C hour me te r 51 5 PS T tog gle powir
has Iwo mount ing tabs. which allow it to be mo unted switch

136 El ect r oni c Senso rs fo r th e Ev il Ge n iu s

 52 N/ O normal ly open The seismic vibration alaml is buill around its
pushbutton switc h simple sensor. a 2-i nch modified speaker and the
(reset)
op-amp. as shown in Figure 6-7 . The project is based
Bl, B2 AA penlight
batteries on the speake r and (he unusual op-amp at UI. a
Mis c ellaneous PC board ,
CA309·t This op-a mp co nsists of a programmable
!C soc ket, batt ery transconductance amplifier connected to a darlington
holder, hardware, etc. transistor. In this circuit the darlington amplifier is
co mbined with a PN P transistor at 0 1. to fo rm a
monosta ble ti me r. which de te rmines how long the
buzzer wiUsound. Whe n the gro und shakes, the
Seismic Vibration Rlarm vibration se nsing speaker genera tes a smaiJ vollage
that is amplified causi ng the voltage on pin 1. the dar·
Alow-COSI seismic vibration se nsor can serve vou in lington amplifier in the op·am p. and the J N4403 tran-
anumber of diifcrcnt ways. TIlis unique vibra tion sistor to m m on with re generative feedback prm'ided
alarm can be used not only to de tect people arollnd with the d iode O J. Th~ "1N4401 transistor m m s on , I
!llUr home or campsi te. as a burglar alaml or camp- th us powe ring the buzzer at BZ. until the monoslable
ingalann does. bUI il can be used in your garde n to
detect large animals. ~mcll as deer. and scare them
mullivibrator time r resets itself. <:
~,
The seismic vibratio n alann ci rcuil can be powe red
a'A-ay.Thissimple alaml consumes little powe r a nd
rube built in a le ngth o f PVC pipe tha t is easy
by a 6- to 9-volt powe r so urce. A 9-volt balle!)' will 0"
work. but will no t las t too long. For lon e pe riods of t;
10 transport.
operati o n you will want to use 6 C ba tte ries to pro- PI
vide 9 vo lts or an ex te rnal powe r source.
rt
~,

+
9 VOLT BATIERY
o
81 C : III 'l ::s
9' B1 -
en
(l)
ADDED R7 V D2 + ::s
MASS R2 01 en
I
"- 0
vs-1
; i"'
R1
5
7
L -"
~,

::s
BZ
2 8
R8
+ I.Q
- G4
G2 Ul
3 c
R9
+ 6 b
4
rC v 02

:~ R3 1
-
R6
~
c1 D1 , A

'" -
R4
Rl 0
-
'v
R5 G3
- L

------ --.---- -
Figure 6·2 Seism ic vibrmioll alllrlll circllir

Chapter Si x Vibration Sensing 137

 The vibration alarm circui t is used to drive a piezo le ngth of PVC pipe (sec FIgure 6-3). As a self-
buzzer. but you could easily substitute a Tela\' 10 conta ined vibration a la ml . you will want 10 either
control a la rger current. alarm de vice if desired. You mount the piezo buzze r on the Olilside of Ihe PVC
could also use the relay to conlrol a re mote lnlOsmil- e nclosure a nd waterproof it. or mount the buzzer on
leT10 inform you of an un wan ted visitor via the inside o f PVC tube and have a hole for the sound
femOie rece iver. to come o ul of the lUbe. Place a piece of 1\'lylar over
As me ntioned earlier the heart of the seismic the ITo nt of the buzzer before mounting it inside to
vibra tion alarm is the 2-inch speaker sensor. In orde r protec l the buzzer from the eleme nts. A thrce-C-cen
to lowe r the resonance of the speake r 10 sense low- ban el}' holder can be epoxied to the inside of the
frequenc), vibrations of huma ns a nd arrimals. you will PVC m be. but make sure you place Ihem near the
need [ 0 altnch a mass to the speake r cone. To accom- clean-out cap so you can easily re place the baHeries
plish this. glue an o bject sllch as a baby-food jar lid 10 as needed. If ~'o u are using Ihe vibration alarm as a
the speaker conc. lbe weight added to the speaker po rtable camping a la nn . you may not need to be 000'
will lower the frequencies just enough so thal the cerned wit h wate rproofing the PVC tube. Howcverif
scnsorlspcaker can be used \0 detect larger animals you will be using the vi bra tio n alarm in your garden
a nd huma ns. regula rly. you rna}' wan t to ta ke e xtra care 10 water-
proof the PVC e nclosure and the buzzer device.espr·
Construclion of Ihe seism ic vibnHion sensor can
c iaUy if it is mounted on the outside of the PVC tube.
be accomplished o n e ilhcr a perf-board or primed cir-
cuil board as desired. A sma ll circuil board measur- A 12-inch le ngth of 3-inch diameter PVC can be
ing 2 Y.! x 2 inches was used for Ihe prototype circuit used as the main housing. G lue an e nd cap to one end
in this project. Co mponen ts associa ted with the op- <l nd a d ean-ou t eap assembly to the other end The
amp sho uld be mou nted as dose to the o p-amp as clea n-oul cap assem bly has a screw cap that can be
possible and have their leads ke pt as shari as possible used to pass Ihe circ uit board into the PVC tube
to preyenl circuit oscilla tio n. IC and transistor soek- a long wilh the battery. Once the circuit is housed in
CIS are recomme nde d fo r the project. t n the eve nt of Ihe PVC pipe. place Tenon tape a round the threads
a fu ture circu it fai lure. the socke ts will greatly aid in of the screw-on clean-out cap to waterproof Ihe
repairing the circuit. When constructing th is project. assembly.
be sure 10 care fully observe Ihe pro pe r pola rity of the A la rge r de tection area may be incorporated by
diodes. capacitors. transistor. and the Ie. Transistors burying a long pole or pvC pipe vertically just bekJJ
have three leads a nd arc usually configured as emit- the surface of the ground and locating the vibration
ter. bme. lIlId collector (or E BC). l11e em iHer lead o n scnsor above the pole. Vibra tions will readil)' Im'el
o lde r metal-can tra nsistors was often orienled near down the pole whene\'cr a footstep occurs anywhere
the metal ta b on the side o f the transistor. Newer a long ils lem!lh. The vibnHion a la nn is now ready to
plastic tra nsistors will usua lly have no tab but rna\' alert you of unwanted (wo or fou r legged intruders.
ha\'e a small door a nd a rc ofte n oriented by a fl at
cdge on o ne side of the tra nsistor. Be s ure you know
x Vibration Rlarm Parts List
.... the corn::ct pi no uts of the device before insta lling the
transistor. [Cs arc usually ide ntified in two ways. An

en IC package will ha\'e e ither a plastic cutout at tbe top

edge of the de\'ice. with pin I to the left of the c utOut.
Rl, R3 . R4 22 -mtqohm ,
1 / 4-wa tt re s isto r
R2 I- me gO hm. 1 / 4-wa tt
or it will have a small indented circle near pin I of the
resi sto r
IC to help identify Ihe top of Ihe IC a nd pin I.
RS lOO- ohm, 1 / 4- watt
The piezo buzze r a nd the sensor speaker a re bot h r esisto r
mounted o ff the circuit board. bUl l.lll othe r compo- R6 , R7 . R8 680K ohl:!,
ne nts are moun led o n the circuit board. llle vibra lion 1 / 4-watt r es i sto r

alann circui t board can be buill to be placed inside a R9 , RI O 4 . 7K ohm, 1/ 4-

watt r eS i sto r

138 Electronic Sensors for the Evil Genius

 SCREW-ow
CLEAN-OUT
CAP
STANDOFF MACHINE SCREWS

4- END CAP
PHE NOLIC
BOARD

ELECTRONICS
CIRCUIT BAITERY HOLDER
BOARD 2X "AN cells

MACHINE
aSCEwS ,
( 4- PVC TUBE I
<:
1-'"
C"
~_ SPEAKER MAGNET t;
III
2- TO 3-
rt
a STANDOFFS ~ SPEAKER 1-'"
o
GLUE
PHENOLIC
BOARD ::s
WEIGHT ~- 4 - END
TO Ul
SPEAKER CONE III
,,, ::s
CIl
1-'"
SCREWS
::s
Rgure 6-3 Seismic \librarion alarm mOllllrillg \Q
CI I uF, 35 - volt elec- BZ piezo buzzer
t rolyti c c a pacitor
V5-1 2 -i n c b diameter ,
C2 0. 1 u F , 35-volt 8 - obm speaker
c erami c disc capacito r
51 5P5T toggl. s wit c b
C3 22 0 pF, 35-vo l t 81 6 C cel l s o r a 9 -
c apacitor volt battery
C4 22 uFo 35- volt elec- Misc ellaneo us PC b o ar d,
trolytic c apacitor !C and transistor
Dl IN914 silicon diode so~kets, wire, PVC
D2 IN4001 si li con diode pipe , PVC end caps,
PVC c l.sn-out c ap
Q12N4403 t r ans i s tor a ss embly , PVC glue,
Q2 2N44 0 1 t ran sisto r battery bolders,
Sp eaker mass, et c.
Ul CA3094 t r ansco ndu c -
tance op - amp

Chapter Six Vibrat i on S en s in g 139

Piezo Seismic Detector
The se ismic dcteclOr/dcmonstrator in this section is a
great science fair project thm won't break your
budget. You will wa nt to conside r building this low-
cost seismic detector made from a commo nly 3,'a il-
able piezo sounder.
TIle pieza seismic detecto r project is shown in
Figures 6-4 through 6-6.111e project rc\'olves around
a low-cost Radio Shack pieza sounder and a low-cost
o p-amp. The piczo sounder has a piczo crystal. used
in Ihis project as the seism ic se nsor. TIle piczo crystal
in the pieza sounder is des igned to creale sound
when vohage is applie d 10 its leads. Pie za crysta ls are
two-way devices (i.e.. they can be used to create
sound . but they can also gene rate e lect ricit), as well).
Piezo crysta ls. like q ua rtz crystals have interesting
prope rties. Yo u can use a n oscillator to drive a crysta l
to produce sound or voltage. but you can a lso usc the
crystal 10 generate a voltage when the crystal is
------- ----- ----
Figure 6-5 Pie:.o sem o r am/mo m llillg
--
stressed . In o ur seismic project. we will use the compollellls
piezo crysta l to generate a li ny voltage when it
senses movemen l.
We will begin by modi fyi ng a Radio Shack model
273·060A piezo sounder.TIlis will serve as your
vibra tion se nso r once il is modified. Looking at the

------ . -- ---- .. ---------- ---------- ------_ .. ---- ----- -_ .. -----. ---

Figure 6-4 Piezo sensor find mOl/millg POSI Fig ure 6-6 M OIlIlll'l/ I) ;eZo Sf'lIsor h Olllillg

140 Electronic Sensors for the Evil Genius

back oflhe piezo sounder. you \\i ll notice tWO inden- piezo sounder. you will have to firs t make sure that
tations along the recessed bottom cover. Insen a \'c ry the rod has been placed through the hole in the case.
small screw drher to pry the bottom cove r fro m the Then place the piezo disk back into the plastic case.
pi.!zosounder case. Once you ha\'c opcned the case,
~oo \\ill notice a brass-looking plate. which is the
-
so that the rubbcr rim!. ma tes with the ridge on the
case. Seat the piezo buzze r into the case firm ly. then
piezoc1ement. and you wi ll notice a circuit board place the backer plate rim liy against the piezo c le-
attached to the bottom co\'er. CUI the black and red men t Hnd secure the case.
'Aires from the circuit board and unsolder the th ree Next vou wi ll need to screw the piezo so under
~ires from the piela element. Now solde r the red case to the bottom of the small wooden cylinder box
lIIire that you rcnto\'cd from the circui t board 10 the (see Figure 6-6). Locate a 20-foot length of shielded en
renter elemen! o n the piezo plate. Next solde r the microphone or coax cable and solde r-splice the piezo .....
black "ire to the outer edge of the brass ring on the wires to thc microphone cable. Use heatshrink tubing ~
~zoelement. Notice on the reverse side of the pieza to insula te e ach of the wire connections. and place a
disk a white looking rubber ring. 'Inen look inside the
black piela case: you will fi nd a center cy linde r corre-
-
lem!l h of heatshrink tubin!! over the fi nal asse mbly to
-
keep the wires d ry at all times. I
sponding to thc rubber ring on the piezo disk. The
"iinder is a refe rence pressure poin t. which is used
TIle vibra tion from the piezo crysta l produces a
minute voltage. which is fed to a sensitive op-a mp at <:
.....
lo apply pressure to the piezo e lement. Do not UI. as shown in Figure 6-7. The piezo crystal is con-
remon~ thc rubber ring! Locate the back cover and a nected to a conditioning circui t consisti ng of a few tr
roll of electrical tape. Ta pe O\'er the circuit board area resistors and capacitors.. From the conditioning circuit. 11
lIIilh black eleclrical t,lPC and trim the excess tape, the signal is sent to the O PA 12-1 P op-amp. which III
Ne.>;t IOC;lIe a ~h ... inch diameter. 2-inch long brass amplifies the seismic signal. '[be output of the op-amp c1'
dual,shaft coupler. Now. epoxy the brass d ual-shaft is coupled to a meter circuil and an LED ,lcti" ity .....
ooupler to the cente r piezo d isk 0 11 the rubbe r ring
side of the piezo disk (see Figure. 6-4) . ~h ke sure the
indicntor.ll1c me te r circuit con verts the AC seismic
signal to D C to d rive the D C m illiamme ter. The OUl-
o
pkLOdisk surface is clean and dry before a tte mpting put of the me te r display ci rcuit is sent to a 10K o hm
::3
to epoxy the shaft coupler. Allow the epoxy to potent iomete r. which can be fed to a da ta logger o r
-
dr\'. o\'emil!hl.
Once the epo:\;.' has dried, locate a small ine xpen-
- -
tal converter could be a self-contained data logger
-
analol!.-to-dil!ital converter circuit. The analOl!. to d igi-

me round 2- to 3-inch wooden box [rom a cra ft sup- such as an Onset mini '-lO BO data logger or a n an a~
rJystore. Take the black plastic piezo sounde r case log-tO-d igital converter card in a pe rsonal computer.
and place it over the bo ttom of the small rou nd The piezo seismic detector can be constructed o n II
lII'OO1len box (sec Figure 6-5). r-,'Iark whe re the pl astic Quick-boa rd. a protOlype circuit board o r a conven-
tabs meet the box. a nd drill a hole for each mou nti ng tional pri nted circuit board . G ood construction tech-
lab. Locate a steel rod that is the same diame te r as niq ues should be used. and leads be tween
tile inner diameter of the shaft coupler (i.e.. 1/$. to 5hl componen ts should be ke pi as short a s possible. The
iDcb). You will want to cut the probe shaft to aboUi S [rant e nd of the circuit consisting of the piez:o sensor
inches long. One e nd of the probe sbould be tapered and the o p-amp c ircu it should be shje lded whe n
lOa point. nnd the other end must be sanded 10 fit comple ted.
inside the free end of the d ual-shaft coupler. Afte r When constructing the ci rcuil. be sure to usc an Ie
the epox~' is dry. loosen the outer set screw on the socket for the op·a mp. An Ie socket will save you
~hart coupler a nd inse rt the steel rod into the ope n repa ir time late r in the event of circuit fa ilure, 'Ille IC
eod ofthe shaft coupler. Locate the plastic piezo disk musl be orie nted correctly fo r the circuit to work
case and make the center hole large r 10 accommo- properly. At one e nd o f the IC will be e ithe r a rectan-
date the brass coupler d iamete r. which you will then gular cutout at the top of the IC o r :1 small indented
rbre through the pielo case. As you re asse mble the circle at the top right o f the Ie. If there is a rectangu-

Chapter Si x Vi b ra t io n S ens ing 141

 Chapter Six Vibration Sensing
....
..
IV

..,
~ J1
fD P1 o SEN· 1
n T J3
rt
-,
a
~.
"n
-~-- - -,
Vl ,1----- ----- -------- ------ --
fD U1 97
t 06 05
C1
,,
In , R2 ,,
3N R - R6
"a
-, " - • • , ,
In
M1
, "14 I"
-'
~

a
-,
R1 R4 TO DATA LOGGER
rt
:r C5
fD 01 t-- R8
.., »
<
~.

________ ___ _____ ______ ___ ___ _________ J

fD
'"
~.
"
C
In

______ __ __ ____ ________ _.".. , ___ . ____________________ 0. _0. '0 _________ , ' . _ _ ._ _ __ • _ _ _ _ _ ,_, ••• ___ _ ___________________________________ _
.-
Figure 6 · 7 Ili~Jr ·fl'f:qll/:ll c)' IJiC ZQ xC/Mole vibl'(lliOIi S C II.w ) r drCllil
 51 :a
IN OUT
, + 12v
+ I
C1 + U1 +
B1 - 12V
I
I C4
I
- T I
I
I I- I -
P3
+ I
I
- ,
I
12V I 2

-
- I
I
3
I
I
I
B2 I
:;1 :b IN OUT
-0" U1 -12v I
C4

C3I +

- - -
_.... . ... - ... -
------------- -- - -
Rqure 6-8 + 111- 12 VDC power supply

larcutout at the top of the re. pin I wi ll be to the left 79 Ll 2 minus 12-\'011 regulator a re connecled through ••
ofthecutouL lfthe IC has a small inde nted circle <1 t
the top of the IC then pin 1 will be just !O the le ft of
power switch 51 to Iwo 12-\'0It batteries as shown. or
they can be connected to a 115 VAC dual 12-voll
o
!he circle. Be sure a lso to observe the corrcct pola rity power supply or d ua l waU wart power su pply. For ::::l
.. hen installing the capacito~ d iodes. and the meter. portable a pplications. you may wish 10 power the cir-
The diodes connectcd to the mete r need to be cuit from two 12-voit la ntern batteries. -1l1e piezo seis-
installed correct ly in orde r for the circuit to ope ra te mic detector druws very li ttle current in its idle State.
correctly.The arrow points [Q the cathode of the so 12-\'0 It lantern batteries shou ld ha\'e a long life in
diode, which is usually noted as the black band at o ne a portable setup.
end of the diode. llle activity indicator LEDs are The piezo seismic detector electronics a re
mounted in both di rections: it doesn't m,Hler which mo un ted in a sma ll melal chassis box to e limina te
one is in what location as long as the bands are o ppo- picking up inte rfe rence [rom noise or RF sources.
~teeach other when you are fini shed. The mil-
TIle mete r a nd activity ind icator LEDs arc mounted
liammeter should be marked wi th a plus (+) and a on the top fro nt of the chassis box along wi th the
minus (-) lead. powe r toggle switch 5 I. -lbe piezo sensor wires from
When you have completed bu ilding the circuit Ihe circui t board a re brough t OUi of the chassis box
board. be su re to look at the coppe r side of the board via an RCA jack J I at the rear of the e nclosure. lbe
10 make sure that no stray or cut component leads data logger output wires are connected to an RCA
arestill stuck to the circuit board. Re move a nything jack , J 2 at the rear of the chassis box, A three·
that is stuck to the board. Look for bridged or conductor microphone jack a t 13 is mounted to the
shorted circuit leads before applying power to the rea r pane l of the chassis box in order to con nect the
cirrui1.to 3\'oid damagi ng the circuit. Note that the circuit board to two external p -\'olt lante rn batteries.
piezo seismic detectur circuit req uires a plus and a The diag.ra m in Rgure 6-9 depicts the how to mou nt
minus 12-\'0It DC power supply. The dual power sup- the piezo seismic cryslal to maximize the conduction
ply is illustrated in Figure 6-8. In this dual 12-voll of vibration rrom the ground to the pic7.0 crystal.
po. . -er supply. a 7SL 12 plus I ")-\"011 regulator a nd a

Chapter Si x Vibrati o n Sensing 143

 Piezo Seismic Detector
Parts List
R1 , R3, RS 1 00-megohm,
1 / 4-watt re sistor
R2 3.3-meg ohm, 1 / 4- watt
r esistor
R4 56K ohm, 1 / 4-watt
resist o r
R6 2.2K ohm, 1/ 4-watt
re S istor
R7 6 . BK o hm , 1 / 4-wltt
r esistor

R' poten
10K o hm
-.
. ."
•
.., •
•-• • .~
t iomet er

.. ,.- .. e
•
. ~
. , • •, • • · • C1 10 nF, 630-volt
• , •, ,
- • ,
.
•

• w
•

C2
Mylar cap a c itor
22 p f , 10 0 - volt
Myl ar c apa c ito r
C3 , C4 100 pF , 50-volt
Mylar c apa c itor
-------------
Figure 6-9
---
.- ------ -- ------- ----------- -
Piel.o seismid vibrafiOIl sellsor
--------- C5 6.B uF , 50-volt
elec t r o lYtic capacitor
IIIO/IIlUllg
01, 02 red LEOs
Your vibration sensor is now complete and ready 03, 04 , OS , 06 Sa14 0
to install. You are ready to install your new ,'ibra- S c hottkY d iode s
tion/ seismic se nsor. Locate a n a rea away fro m your Ul OPA12-'lR op-amp
house and walkways with lillie or no traffic as a place Ml 0 t o 1 Ma DC meter
to insta ll your sensor. D ig a small-d iameter hole J1, J2 RCA j acks
a bo ut 10 inches deep. a nd insert the metal sensor J3 th r ee-pin mlc r op hon.
probe into the hole. Onee the pro be is secure in the co n necto r

ground rc pack the din a round the hole a nd ta mp it SEN- I pie%o sounde r
(Radio Shac k , 2 73-060
firmly a ro und the se nsor. -m e sensor should protrude
Misce llan eous PC boa rd,
fro m the ground o nly by about an inch or two. Once IC soc ket , wire , ha r d·
the sensor assem bly has been completed. the last ware, screws , nuts,
deta il is to fm the sTlla ll box with lead sho t or rocks to 2 - 1 / 2 -inch diameter
round woo den box ,
give the box some m ass.. Ru n your micropho ne cable dua l~ s haf t coupler ,
back to your electronics mo nitoring circuit and a ttach etc .
the microphone cable wire to the ci.rcuit. TIlis can be
done with match in g spade clips o r with some sort of
male and fe ma le connectors.
Fina lly. connect the micropho ne cable from the Research Seismograph
piezo seismic sensor to the piew amplifie r e lectronics
box. Connect Ihe a na log-to-digital converter 10 Ihe The AS-l research seismograph system shown in Fi
omput of the seismic a mplifier. fin a lly connect the ure 6-J 0 is casv to use and was desioned and built II
. "
power supply. a nd yo ur piezo seismic sensor mon itor mak e the science of seismology accessible to indi\;f
is complete and ready to serve you! ua ls a nd schools at a reasonable cost. Wilh the AS-J

144 Ele ct ronic Sensors for the Evi l Genius

~momctcr. you will be able to record. analyzc. a nd broader range of ground vi bratio n amplitudes and
arrhi\'e earthquakes 011 a personal compUl er for signal frequency ranges. Research se ismographs also
about SSOO if you purchase the complete system am..l us ually record three compone n ts of ground motio n
much less if •you construcllhe svstem
• •vour.ielf from (onc \'c rtical and two horizonta l components) rathe r
!((D.tch. In the classroom. the instrume nt will allow thlln simply the vcrtical component that the AS·l
students to watch it quake roll in as it is occurring. seismogrll ph records.
Students will bc able to watch a current event un fold, When a ve ry large earthqu ake OCCUr.i II nywh!! re in
Ioogbefore the media reports begin . the world (or a smaller evelll occurs close r 10 the
The AS·I system will record local qua kes as small seismogra ph station ). thc AS·l seismometer responds
asmagnilUde 3.5 from a distance of 150 kilome ters. II
- -
to the smalll.!.round vibrations that arc e.cnera ted b"
. til
"ill record largcr quakes occurring anywhe re in the
lIorid. The AS- I seismometer combined wi th the
and propagate from the e arthquake loca tion to the .....
seismograph sla tion. The ground vibra tion is con·
AmaSeis software allows real·time recording of seis· verted by the seismometer to a small electrical c ur-
X
mice\'ents and simplifies da ta analysis. "1l1e AmaSeis re nt. which is fi rst amplified and fi lt e red. then
software autollHuicall" stores the data about the converted to a digi lal signal via an a nalog· to·d igital I
ground mO\'emen ts so that the earthquake can be conve rte r, and then sent to an attached pe rsomt l
analyzed at a late r time. compu te r. which is running the AmaSc is softwa re . <:
.....
Although the AS-I seismograph is a relatively sim-
ple and inexpensive seismograph. il is capable of reIa- tr
. -
riwl\'. accurate and effective r('cordi n!! of !!round Overvi ew 11
Imlion from earthquakes a nd othe r sources. I\-Iod· III
tmhigh·perfomlance seismographs tha t a rc used by Ea rthquakes a re caused by the sudden move ment of {"'t
seismologists for research and earthquake monitor· blocks of the e arth 's crust. Such mO\'e mc nts involve .....
mghave \'cry accura te timing and calibration . very
Iowelet:tronic noise, and a re capable of recording. a
the fracture of brittle rocks .mel thc movcme nt of
rock a long the fracl ures. A f:racture in a rock along
o
::l

5,rio.l 4cm

E
u
"'
N

36cm
_..... ....... . . --- -. -_ ..... . ••• •
Agure 6·10 A S· ) researciJ seismograph syStt'1II

Chapter Si x Vibrati o n Sensing

which this movement occurs is called aftlll/r. \ Vhe n an Arrival times of prominent phases. such as P andS
earthquake occurs. it relea.<;cs energy in the form of wa"es, can be identified on the extracted seismo-
waves tha t radiate (rom the eart hq uake source in a ll grams and compared with standard travel-time
directio ns. curves so that the d istance from the earthquakeepi-
The different types of energy waves shake the center to the recording location can be determined
ground in d ifferem ways a nd travel through the earth The ope rat io n of the AS-! along with the AmaSeis
a t differe nt velocit ies. The fas test wavcs. a nd the re- software a llows easy se lection a nd display of portions
fore Ihe first to arrive at a given locatio n. are P walles of the seismic data. Seismogra ms corresponding to
(or primary waves). ,llso called compressiolllllwlIl't,s. specific earthquakes or o ther signals ca n be enlarged.
Like sound wavcs. they move by a h e rnate ly com- fillered. viewed on the screen. and sa"ed for further
prcssing and expandi ng mate rial in the d irectio n o f use or additional a nalysis. Seismogram displays can
motion. The next significan t waves 10 arrive are the also be p rintcd. Using the procedu res described here.
S lI'm'l's (or secondary waves). S waves travellhrough magnitude estimates of earthquakes recorded on the
the earth moving material up and down and side to AS- I seismograph can be calculated from relati\'ely
side, perpendicula r to the direction of the mot ion. simple eq uations a nd from in forma tion read from the
TIle last to arri ve are sllr/llce ll'{lI'es. which travel se ismic data.
morc slowly than P a nd S waves and move the Figure 6-11 ill ustrates the AS·l educational seis·
gro und like a rolling ocean wave ( RlIyleigh) o r side to mometer showing the main compo nents of the
side like an S wave (J_O\·e).l1le d istinction be tween instrument. The AS-J is a vertical componem or ver·
types of wave ma l io ns is important because it deter- tica l ve locity transd ucer se ismo meter.1lle seismome-
m ines what wi ll be recorded on a seismo meter. The te r has a natural period o f 1.5 seconds. Up and dO"ll
AS- J is a vertical component seismometer. which motions of the ground. and thererore of the base and
me ans that it records waves tha t displace the ground fra me of the seismome ter. cause the coil to move
in a vertical direction only. Thus. we can e xpect to relative to the magne t lhal is suspe nded by the spring
record P. S. and Rayleigh waves. and boom assembly. The mass of the seismomeler.

dvnr"'l "esse!
wl J:iht o-J

__ b.u~ pb:t

--- ------------------- ----- -------------------------- ---- ---- ---------------- -._-- ------ --------------------_ .. _-----
FIgure 6 -11 AS- I edllcflIiol1al seismo m eter mail1 compOl1ems

146 Electronic Sensors for the Evil Genius

 isting primarily of the magnet. the boom. and the that will f<lce Ihe inside of the seismograph
"JShef'j tends to remain steady because of inertia assemblv. You will need to fabricate and
"hen the base moves. The motion of the coil rclati"e secure an al umin um venical post 10 the base
tothemagnet gene rates a small current in the coil. plate with scre ws. and you will need 10 attach
The current is amplified and digitized by an a mplifier an eye hook to the lOp of the vertical post on
and thell connected 10 the computer for recording a ile of the 2- inch nat s ides.
JJ1d display. The damping reduces the te nde ncy fo r
\bemas.s and spring system to oscillalc for a long 3. U you purchased the AS-I kit. remove the
duration from a single source of ground motion tape from the knife edge at the e nd of the
(arrh'3.l of seismic waves at the location) . Da mping is boom. One e nd of the spring should be already
accomplished by placing oil in the con tainer and a con nected 10 the u pright suppOrt pa s\. Attach
"asher mounted to a bolt exte nding downward (ro m the ot her end o f the spring to the boom. Posi·
the boom into the oi l. tion the boom's knife edge into the slot on the
su ppor! post:lbe boom will be positi o ned a t
an a ngle: this is to be expected a nd wi ll not I
Seismometer Assembly -
da llla e.e the boom. CAUT ION: Before movin!!
the seismom e te r. diseonneCl thc boom to pre·
-
I. lfyou purchased th e AS-1 seismome ler as a "elll da mage to the kn ife edge. Figure 6-13
kit. unpack the box completely and identify depicts the boom asse mbly with the magnet
the parts from the packing list. a ttached a t one end. From the figure. you can
sec the boom has 11 ve rtica l balance bolt with
1. Place the seismomete r base assem bly o n a washe rs as well as a damping bolt wi th wash·
level surfa ce. lbe base contains three leveling ers in the cente r of th e boom. You will a lso
screws.. Use the bubble le\'e l a nd adjust the notice the small post next to the vertical bal -
leveling screws as needed. Check the level o f ance bolt: this post has a hole in the ce nler to
the base. both front to back a nd side to side. which attaches the free end of the spri ng.
The photo shown in Figure 6-12 illustrates the
base with the 1O\h·inch high ve rtical post at
If you a re building the se is momete r from
Olle end of the base plate and the coil <tllached
scratch rather than frOIll a kit. \ ' OU will need 10
to the o ther end of the bllse plate. A 13Y.>+inch
obtain a 14 Y.> IOI1!~ by 2 inch wide a lu min um
spring is shown atlHched to the top of the ver·
strip to form the boom assembly. Drill three
tical post. If you did not purchase the kit. you
holes in the a lumin um boom. In the center of
will have to construct a base plate measu ring
Ihe boom. you wil l need to drill a 51lt> ho le for
17 inches long by 6 inches wide from metal or
a 2+inch long 10-32 machine screw. Next. dri ll
wood. The aluminum \'e n ical post measures
a 5hlr- inch hole for the vert ical balance bah
IOlh inches high by 2 inches wide by I inch
assembly- Tll is hole sho uld be just 10 the left of
thick. About 4 inches fro m the bottom of Ihe
the magnet o r abolll I ' fr. inch es from the end
vertical post. cut a notch across the 2-inch side
of the boo m . Now vo u wi ll need to drill a y~ .

-- . . .... -.+.- • . --
Agute 6-12 Bast' pfare. n?r1ical pOSt. (l11(/spril/g
---
FigurE! 6 -13 Flflcrum lIrul and magnet

Chapter Si x Vi b ra t ion S e n si ng 147

 inch hole fo r the small spring end post. This knife edge at the support post (sho\\'n in Fig·
spring end post has a small hole in the cente r. ure 6·16}. 1l1e boom a rm should move freel)'
to altach the free end of the spring. TIle spring up and down. and the magne t should not
c nd post is mou nled about \ 1/S inches fro m the touch the coil. This may require additional
magnet cnd of the boom. Finally, epoxy a be nding of the coil.
sma ll horseshoe magnet (see parts list) 10 the
6. Anach the spring be twcen the small \'ertical
end of the boolll. Tll e o pposite end of the
boom post and the IQI,'i:-inch vertical support
boom has a knife-edge point : grind a sha rp
post. as shown .
edge to this side of Ihe boom. Now insta ll the
2-inch-long bott though the center hole you 7. Carefully swing the boom up un til it is possi-
drilled in the boom. Place the 2-i nch-long boh ble to positio n thc damping fluid container
through the hole wi th {he head of the boll on under the damping vane (see Figure 6-17).00
the top of the boom and a nut placed under- not 1111 the containe r before it is positioned
neath th e boom \0 secure the bolt. AI the free correctly. CAUT IO N: Do not release the
end of the bolt . place a nut about \.1 inch fro m boom am1 abruptly or nllow the magnet tohit
0'1 fre e end. Then place a 2-illch d iamete r w<lshcr the coi1. Th e equ ipme nt is sensi tive; handle
~ on the bolt and place a ntH on the bolt to and adjust the parts carefully nnd g.entl)'.
'rl secure the washer in place. This bolt wi th the
U) 8. The boom arm must be IC\'e l to accurately
washer attached is the da mping assembly. record vertica l mo tion. Begin by positioninga
~ wh ich will be placed in a jar of light oil at a
0) later lime.
cr.. 4. TIle upright bolt on the boom arm (shown in
Fig ure 6-14) re quires a stack of I to 10 wash -
~ ers (depe nding. o n the tigh tness of the spring).
0 approximately 2.5 ce ntimeters (I inch ) from
'rl the top of the 2 ~- l ong 10-32 bolt . Secure the

+- stack between hex nuts as shown.

5. Tigh ten the coi l 10 the bnse pla te of the ~ci~­ Figure 6 -15 Coil (IIullllllgnelllssembly
~ mometer. The coil should be upright a nd pe r-
,..Q pendicular to 1he basco and it may require
rl tightening ,lOd o r be ndi ng to orient it cor-

:> rectly. Tigh te n the bolt that holds the magne t

10 the boom arm. With the added we ight of
Ihe washe r stack. the boom arm should now
I be suspe nded ove r th e coi l. Center the magne t
over the coi l (see Fig.ure 6-1 5) by sliding the
Figure 6·16 800m (Irlll
_. _. -- ....

Figure 6·14 Upriglu bolt Oil the boom ami

-
Figure 6 -17
-
------ ----- --
COli/pie/I'd seismic sensor
I
,..I
c..
148 Electronic Sensors for the Evil Genius
 bubble leve l o n the boom. If needed . add one
or two washers a long the boom u nti l the
dri\'c a chari record e r or comp uter in terface d cvice.
A sma ll . 22O-\'olt AC relay coi l is d isassembled a nd
n
boom is le\·e l. T he positioning of the washers
and the bubble level will vary. TIl e bubble
used in our seismograph as Ihe sig nal pick up d evice.
Yo u m ight also e lect to p urchase the coil (sec the
,
':1'
level and the blilance washe r(s) stay on the pa rts list). The pickup coil is located within 1 centime-
""i
boom ann to keep it leve l. ter o f the magne t attached 10 the seismome te r's pe n- t
d ulum . Seismic disturbances cause the seismomete r's ~
9. Rotate the bubble level 90 d egrees all the
boom. Adjust th e base-Ie\'e ling screws until
fram e and base 10 move wilh respecl10 Ihe pendu· 1
lum and magnet (and . hence. with respect to the
the bubble is again
•
cente red. Rotate the b u b-
pickup coil that is attached to the (nllne). The mot io n
ble level 90 degrees back to its s tarting
position.
is q uile sma il and very slow. and the amplilude of the ,.
resultant signal is in the low microvolt regio n. This
10. Check that the magne t is st ill cen tered abo\'e weak sig.nal is quite vulnerable to electrical interfer-
0<
the coil. The boom can be horizon lall\' ence and noise: il must be a mplified a nd filtered
adjusted by pushing the boom ti l the support be fore it can be used to dri\'e a chart recorde r or
post. The boom a rm should move freely up
and down. and the magne t should not touch
other instrumen t. TIle p re-amplifie r should be located
as close to the seismome te r a s possible: shie lded
....
II.
the coil.

Add either mine ral oil o r synthe tic lO-m

cable sho uld be used between the pre ·amplifie r and
the pickup coil. ,. •

motor oil to the damping n uid contain e r. TIle ' 1l1e signal at the pre-amplifie r input connection is '1
nuid le\'el should be 1 cen tim c ter ( 3f~ inch) applied to the ill\·e ning. input of a COIIIIJ/lU{l/jll8 f//IIO- U
below the lOp of Ihe con tainer. ::.ero (CA Z ) imtrument ation operat ional amplifier. a 'I'
Maxim MAX-l20CPA (shown in Figure 6-18). TIle
•
CAZ a mplifier is uniq ue in its abil ity to se nse its own

Seismi c Pre-am pl ifier in te rna l offset voltage and automatically correct fo r

it. Long·lerm output voltage drift. due to thermal
,)

and Filter changes and I /Cnoise. is comple te ly e liminated. ma k-

ing the device idea lly suitable for the amplifica tion of
The sensor coil p roduces a weak signal. which must the lo ng·period se ismic signals. TIle am plifie r is con·
reamplified clectronica lly to a le\'e l sufficient to fi gured as a single-e nded (unbalanced ) im'erting

RI All
SIGNAL
OUTPUT

AI2

GND
C~ o
C3
-I

Agure 6·18 Seismic pre,"mplifier fIIlll J H::. 101l'-pass filler

Chapter Si x Vi bra tion Sensing 149

 ampli fi er. a nd the no ninvc n ing input is connected 10 111e fi na l o p-amp sectio n incorpor:n e.s a founh-
ground potential as shown. A to-megohm fe ed back orde r filt er instead o f the seco nd-o rder filt er. as
resisto r se ts the stagc-2ain to I.(XIO (30 d B ). In parallel Sh OWll o n the previous page. Because o f its much

with the fee d back resistor. a 0.0 J-IJ-F cnpacil or is sha rp er cutoff cha racteristics (24 d B per oct,we).
incorporated to fi lte r o ut 60 1-11. no ise. which may a fourt h-ord er fil ter ca n be luned to a highcr cutoff
have been introduced via magne tic coupling to the freq uency- on the o rde r o f I Hz. Signals o f a longer
pickup coil. The CA Z amplifie r Ie is rc l at i "c l ~' pe riod would th us pass u natle nuate d: b ut unwante-d.
expensive al $7.30. bUi it is indispensable to the excel- inte rfe ri ng signa ls a t 3 Hz or fa sICr wo uld be effec·
knt o verall pe rforma nce o f the seismo me te r. tive lv• removed .
The ga in is proportional [0 the va lue of the resist- 'n lC inve rting input of Ihe third stag.e is also used
a nce and is co mputed by the fannu la: to in troduce a n o ffset b ias if necessary when a partic·
ular chart record e r o r d ata acq uisition sys h~m
g = 1O.000.0001( 10.000 + DC resistance o f the coil)
requires a signa l voltage Iha t never drops below 0
Note thai the gain is de pe ndent on the D C resistam:e vailS (i.e .. one I ha t req uires a zero-signal sct· point at
of the picku p-coi l wire ,1Ild can also be adjus ted by so me specified DC m ltage Ie"el). No rrnally. theof(·
changi ng the value of the 10K input resisto r. set adj ustlll eni is SCI to prod uce 0 volts with no seis·
mic signal. b ut the adj ustment is included to prm1de
lliere are tWO major ro nns o f e lectrical no ise Iha l
for a + 1- 5·voll offset ca pa bility. An optional con-
see m 10 p rese nt the mOSI lroub le 10 amate ur seismic
nection to Ihe in \'ert ing inp ut of the third stage is
r' recording syslems: (1 ) 60 Hz powe r~lin e no ise with its
used to acce pt Ihe time -signa l pulses from the
Q) hamlOnics and (2) the \'ery low-freque ncy no ise
o ptional time-code rece iw r d ecode r ci rcuiu-y.
U) cau sed by the characteristics of the pre ·a mp lifie r
used to ampli fy Ihe fa im signal from the pickup coil.
Bc vond Ihese 1\\'0 electrical fo rms o f noise is a nothe r
type of no ise Iha l is not e leelrical in nature. but rathe r Time Signal Decoder
is a lrue eart h motion. It is caused by local. man-
made d istu rbances such as b uild ing vibrations result· A \'c ry useftrl option to the seismometer system

ing fro m nc a rby traffic or mach inery. -Illis form o f add it io n of time-marke r sign als to the seismic recool
no ise. however. has a pe riodicity sufficien tly di[fe re n t l b ese signa ls provide fo r the d e lemlinatio n or the
(rom those o f the earthq uak e wave forms we are p recise arrival times of seismic cw nts. This is espe.
in te resled in a nd can th us be fi lte red wit ho ut causing cially impo n a nl if you arc inleresled in correlating
100 se vere a d egrad ation to the wa\'eforms of in terest.
yo ur d a la with Ihat o f a lhe r seismic statio ns far tile
purposc of trian2ulating to locate epice nters. UnCar·
TIle CAZ a mp lifi e r is some what sensitive to the
luna te lv.the time base of a chan recorder or e\'en a
circuitry Iha t fo llows it. req uiri ng a load impeda nce
good computer is comp letely inadequa te to prO\ide
grea te r tha n iO kilohms. TIle second op-a mp. the TL·
true time-o f-a rrival data . E \'e n the Illost expensi\'e
OSI (A ). is used to iso late the fi rst stage [rom the load .
Pen tium IV. 3 G Hz compute rs a re still being shipped
It acts as the firs t stage of the fo u rth-o rder fi lter to
wi lh a low-<:osl. ine ffici e nt ti me -of-d ay clock thai sim·
reduce the response o f the seismic o utput signa l fo r
p ly canno t ke ep accurate lime lO beller than 10r 2
" ('"ems. such as Ihose that would be caused by people
minute s per mo nth. Some thing belle r is needed; so
walk ing past the seismometer. nearby auto mobile
the following syste m was de \'e loped that pro\i de:sfor
traffic. a nd rema ining e lectrica l-Iype irlle rfe rence
una mb iguous. always-accuratc tillle mmks fo r our
ca used by co mp u te rs. motors. fl uorescent lamps.. a nd
se ism ic reco rd ings.
so o n. -lllUS. any 60 Hz powe r-line no ise will be
reduced in am p li tude by a fac tor greater than 1.000 'n lc N m iullal llls rirlllc of Srmulards am i Techno/·
(3 1 d B 10 be e xact). Because we are in tcreSled in ogy (N IST ) ope rates an e asy-to-receive shortwave

seismic signa ls th at ha\'c a pe riod grea te r Ihan I sec- time -signa l se rvice: it's broadcast by mdio station
o nd . such a fil ter has no adverse effect on Ihe q ua lity WWV from Fort C ollins. Colo rado . 'lllC transmitted
of o u r recorded wa \"efonns.. time signals conta in va rio us tones Ihat call be used 10
automaticallv insen markers 01110 the

150 Ele ct roni c Sensors for the Ev il Genius

the seismic t!\,cnt is being recorded the time marks dinmed Un iversal Tillie (UT C). fo rmerly known as
are inserted. Greenwich Meall Tillie (GMT ). The 440 H z tone.
An)' shortwave rad io. such ,IS those a vailable from normally sent d uring the second mi nute o f each ho ur.
Radio Shack. that can tunc to e ithe r 2.5.5.0. 10.0. is not sent d uring the firs t hour o f each day. thus
15.o.or20.0 MH z can be used to receh'e W Wv. Tune ind icat ing (by its absence) the begi nning of the next
lherndio 10 Ihe freque ncy tha t gives you the best day. UT e.
reception. The audio output of the receive r's recorde r All three decoded o utpu ts arc connected in
"earphone jack is used to feed the fo llowing circuitry. pa ra lle l (a logical O R circui t) a nd to a n ampli tude
The first stage of the time-marker decoder (shown in adjustmen t pote ntiometer to provide a slight offset
Rguref>.\9) is a simple op-amp thai a llows us 10 estab- pulse whe nc\'e r a ny of the specia l to nes arc transmit-
Jish II 200 III V petlk-lO·petlk (pp) a ud io signal fo r the ted. 1l1e offsct pulses a re the n connccled to the out-
&coding circuits. TIlis gain of this amplifier stage is put am plifier of Ihe seismic pre-amplifier at the
adjustable to compe nsate for the d iffere nces in aud io a ttachment poin t. Usually. the ampl itude of the lime
k\'els available from diffe re nt shortwa\'e receive rs. pulses is adjusted to a ppear as about 3 percent of the
The output [rom the op-amp is the n fed. sim ulta- full-sca le seismic signa l. I
neously. to Ihree N E-567 lone-decoder ICs. TIle first TIle circuit diagram ill ustrated in Fi gure 6-20
tkroder is luned to ~O Hz (to provide fo r Ihe -l5- shows a triple-\'o ltage power supply. which can be
!tCOnd-long marker beginning a t 2 minutes past each used to power the seismic pre-amplifie r a nd the, ti me-
hour,excepl the first hour): nle second lC is tuned to signal decoder circu it. TIle power su pply ci rcuit uti-
&code the 1.5 KH z tone d uring the first second of lizes a step-down transformer a t TI. which is cou pled
each hour. And the third lC decodes the 1.0 KH z to the full -wave bridge recti fie r c irc uit that conven s
tone during the first second of each minute other the 115-volt AC \'o hage from the trunsforme r to a
than the fi~t minu te. The ICs a re a mazingly im mune 24-volt D C voltage. The center-lap of the transforme r
tofalsing from noise on the received signa l. In gen- is connected to ground. and therefo re both a plus and
tmt if you can hear the tones from the radio at all. min us voltage is de rived from the transformer and is
decoder ICs will properly respo nd 10 the m. the n sent to the Ie regulators. Regu la tor U I provides
Remember. the transmitted to nes are based on Coor- a pl us (+) 9-volt DC voltage to powe r the time

A5

U2
+9v

A10
A4 cTI:: cK:cN:
-- - 4
A1
8
C1 U3

INP~ I A2
1

A3 U4
Cl 0

-- -
--- -_. ------------ - .- ... -. ---- -_.
Agure 6-\9 Seismic clock
-_
_. -- - .. -----_. ---- --.
sYllciJro ll iUllioll circllit
------ ---

Chapter Six Vi bration Sen sin g 151

d«oderarcuil. whereas the regulator at U2 is used The price. for both th e hardware and software
IOprO\ide a plus (+ ) 12-\'0It DC \'ohage for the is just S99. It int erface s 10 your computer's
~amps in the seismic pre-amplifier. 1lle regulator at serial porl. Cu rrerHly Ihey arc offeri ng a DI-
Uprovides a minus (-) 12-\'011 DC voltage source 194RS Slarte r kit wilh a four-channel. IO-bit
f..Jr the pre-amp·s op-amps in Figure 6-IS. AID converter and chart reco rder so ft ware
fo r S24.95-unbc1ic,'able!

Data Loggi ng
The cirruitry of the se ismomeler. once it is amplifi ed Locating the Se ismomete r Ul
~·theseismic pre-amplifi er. is suitable 10 directly 1-'.
Find a suitable location for the seismometer. prefer-
dJj\e a chart recorder or II con ventional drum
rerorder.A ,·ery useful alternative is to send the seis-
ably where local vibrations from peopl e or machinery ><
arc at a minimum. Vibrations can be caused by air-
mic signalslo a com pute rized d,na-Iogging system. In
addition 10 Ihe obvious ndvH ll wge o f sHving tbe costs
condition ing units. traffic. construction. or weather.
The vibrations. ca lled seismic lI oise. can hide seismic
I
ofcharl paper and pens. an enormous amoulll of data
can besa\'cd 10 disk for laler. nearly instantaneous
signals [rOIll smaller eve nts. llie best surface fo r the
seismometer is a concrete or stone noor. in a location
<:
1-'.
recall.Additionlllly.the data can be smoothed. filtered .
(ree [rom extreme temperuture variations. A back
.md analyzed in any manner desired by using suitable
room or storage close t OUt o f the way is ideal fo r opti-
0'
!lgorithms in the software.
mal recordings. The se ismometer can be out o n dis-
11
The following is a small (but growing) list of hard-
play in a public place so that students can see it in ~
. arelsoftware packages that arc available at a nom i-
operation. but the trade-off is that fewer eanhquakes
("t
nal rosL Numerous computerized logging and da ta 1-"
may be dClCcted because of increased local vibration.
analysis packages are o n Ihe markel. costing many
o
hundreds of dollars.. I·ve restricted this list to systems
tmting less than about $100. on the premise that the
::s
ronstruction of a homemade seismometer implies
Instal ling the RS-l
that the builder may have limited resources at hand. Seismograph Ul
(\)
, Radio-Sky Publishing: For the technically 1. Asse mble the A S- I seismometcr as described ::s
inclined . a 3-chllnnel an,llog-lo-digitHI con-
verter with a simple yet nexible softwHre
in the instructions. -nle seismome ter will work en
best in a q ui et en vironment . TIl e most impor- 1-'.
(freeware) package is available from the
Radio-Sky Publishi ng (www.rad iosky.coml) .
!a nt facio r is placi ng it on a solid noor- a con-
crete slab basement or first leve l is best.
::s
This system can be built for less tha n $30. However. the seismome ter will work nearly I.Q
If you can construct Ihe se ismometer anywhere at a lower gain setting. includi ng on
preamplifi er circuit. you can certainly an upper-leve l noor of the building and on a
construct this little beautyl The analog-Io- table lOp (for lesling and demonstration).
digital converter interfaces directly to your Because the instrument is not very sensitive \0
computer's parallel port. bigh-ueque ncy signals. ,!ibrations from walk-
, DATAO Instrumenls: One o f Ihe best values ing near Ihe seismometer arc conside red small
in commercial. off-the-shelf svstems is the un less the pe rso n is walking within a couple of
•
four-channel. l2-bit A I D de\'ice offered by meters of the seismometer. For this reason, it
DATAQ Instruments. It is ca lled the DI -15SU is desirable to place the connected computer
Kit, and it contains an elaborat e so ft ware and display at least 2 meters away from the
package with terrific daw analysis capabili ties. sfo!ismomfo!ler.

Chapter Six Vibration Se n s ing 15 3

 2. Be sure to level th e base wit h the leve ling ne llis that may bi! difficu lt to find might be the
screws and the boom by moving t he level bub- sprin g. the se nsing coi l. a nd Ihe magnet. BOlh the
ble and a washer a long the tOp surface o f the magnet and sensing coil can be purchased from Lan)
boom u ntil the boom is approxi mate ly level. Coch ra ne (see Appe nd ix) . Ni!xt you will have to
Place a dro p of the mOlar o il all the h inge of d ecide if you want to purchase the seismic amplifier
the boom (be very ca reful of the sha rp edge a nd analog-to-digit al converter from the seismogra
and do not damage the ed ge) to he lp preve n t supplie r for $275.00 of b uild the seismic pre-amplili
fric tion o n the h inge. Be sure that the magn e t (shown in Figure 6-18). You wi ll also have 3 decisi
and coil assemblies are po sitioned as shown in regarding bu ild in g a nd obtaining a n AID converter
the instr uctions a nd that the magnet a nd coi l fro m Radio-Sky or purchasing the AID con\-ener
do not touch when the b oom (and magnet) from DATAQ. The A maSeis software is free fortlle
a re moved up and down. Whe n you a re ready d ownload fro m D r. Alan Jo nes (see Appendix).
to conn ect the se ismo me te r pre-amplifie r to The AmaSeis seismic display/recording software
the computer a nd set up the software. we sug- cu rre ntly widely used by many high schools and u .
0'1 gestthat you do not use the so fl"ware provided \'ersitics aro und the country.llle software has man
c
• ,-i
wi th the AS-l seismome te r. but rathe r that
yo u use the A maSeis softwure instead (see
g reat features lind is well sup po rted by Alan Jones
(see a ppendix for contact infommtion) .
parts listin g). Carefu lly place the cle ar p lastic
C/} The H e lp me for A maSeis software AmaSeis
CQ\'c r ove r the se ismome te r to d ecrease a ir
(found at www.geol.binghamton.cduffacultyljon
C currents o n the spring. which can cause signifi-
has a fairly complete he lp file Iha t includes instruc-
Q) can t noise.
tio ns for setting up the software. options that are
CI.) ,., To test the inst ru me n t. b e sure tha i the out put avail ab le for a na lyzing and d isplaying data. and a
is ap proxi ma te ly centered. Then wa lk up close tutorial. To obtain help infomlatioll. click on the H
C or jump ne ar the seismome te r. and yo u should icon ( me nu) at the to p o f the screen . and then on
0 see a sma ll noise pulse on the screen. Gain Help to pics.. Select Contents. Do uble-click on one
.,-i levels for reasonably quiet sites (concre te sla b the topics and then o n o ne o f the ques tion marks
.j.J or [Ioor installati o n) should be abo u t 20 to 60. ap pears be fo re the name o f a subtopic. Then use t
A t Ihis leveL yo u may record onc the follow- d o uble -arrow controls (righ t or left arrows at thet
CO
ing types of events: (1) some times the signal o f the H elp dialog box) to find information related
~
will be visible but no disti nct arri va ls will be tha t to pic. To investigate a spccific topic. feature,or
..Q distinguished . a nd amplitudes will be so small setting. select Index fro m the He lp topics dialog
.,-i
tha t measuring them for magnitudc calculation and double-click o n the a ppropriate entry. An on .
> will be impossible: (2) some times very clear
a rri vals nnd amplitude will be visible.
tu torial with detailed descriptio ns fo r the use of Ih
Am nSeis software is also available.
I 4. lllese rules o f thumb wi ll d e pe nd on the sit e llle fo llowing sct1in gs for AmaSeis can be found
a nd ga in le\·el. yo ur geo graphic location (for a t: Settings Menu > Hc licord e r.
X example. western o r easte rn U nited States). li nes per ho ur. usually set 10 1. 1his gives a 24-
.,-i the n a ture of the e arthquake. and the pa th ho ur record on screen. which is useful for monitorir
CI.) thaI the waves have tra veled [rom the earth- b eclluse whe n yo u observe the screen once perda
quake loca tion to your station. yo u will know inuncdiately if a n earthquake has
occurred. To go back to look at earlier data, use 1M
Note: Many choiccs need to bc made whc n scroll bar on the righ t. Lines pe r hour can be sel to
d i!ciding !O b uild th is project. First you will ni!ed to high as ' 0 (60 in the latest release of AmaSeis)so
d ecide if you wan t to pu rchase the se ismograph fo r that Ihe cursor mO\'es qu ickly across the screen an
$275 .00 or to bui ld it fro m scratch. The only compo- the details o r the wave fo rm can be seen. l his scuin

E l ectr on i c Sens o r s f o r t he Ev il Ge n iu s
iI. useful for laboratory test in!!. d emonst rat io ns. and that comes with the AS- I seismo mete r thai is
m.le-your-own-earthquak e activil ies (stomp tests. be tween the se ismometer and the comp u te r in Ihe
ttc.). Rlr lines per hour greate r than 1. tempora rily electric circu il.lll': kno b adjusts the cursor positio n
scHhe decimate faC ia l' to l. on the screen. II is very sensitivc. so ma ke sma ll
Gain: amplil1cmion o f the signal by the software. adjustments and dete rmine wh ich way to tu rn the
5.!tthis to 1 fo r set-up and inilial cente ri ng of the knob in o rde r to cause Ihe curso r to mo ve upward.
trareon the scree n.l hen 10 a h igher numbe r d epend- A s yo u adj usl the knob. the cu rsor should get clo ser
ing on the noise level. In reaso na bl y q uiet installa· 10 the zero li ne lind the display num bers shou ld be
lions, a gain of 50 or more is possible. close to zero . Whe n you h avc succeed ed in gelling
the nu mbers close 10 zero. turn th e gain u p und
low- p!lSS fill er cutoff: low- pass filt e r optio ns fo r
re peal. e\'entually selling Ihe gain to the h ig hest level
!be ITace on the helicorder screen d isplay. Se t th is a t 3
that is consiste nt with the backgro und noise (you
Hz: if high frequency no ise is visible on the screen. lry
sho uld see relativc ly contin uo us. small. approxi-
Ilowercutoff such as 1 o r 0.5 Hz 10 see if the noise is
mate ly +/- \- to 2-millime te r moveme n ts o n the
rooured. Earthquake signals will ge nera ll y not be
greatl)' affeeled by this cutoff fre que ncy for this
scree n) a nd making the disp layed va lues d ose to I
ze ro. To adj ust the knob when the ga in is sella a h ig h
~ismometer.

Days to retain record: controls how far back in

value (greater Ihan a bo u t \0). it is con ven ie m 10 usc
a pencil a nd very. ve ry lightly tap th e k nob fro m the
<:
.....
time one can scroll 10 view the seism ic da ta on the
~n. Uyou are scrolling b ack mo re tha n a few
side 10 ca use it 10 mo ve. This centering process can 0"
take a cOlls id erahle amount o f time. Proce ed syste m-
dlY5.mO\·e the scroll bar slide r with the mouse.
aticall~' and patiently,
"'1
lOOead of using the up or do wn a rrows o r click ing on ~
tbebar abol·e o r below the slider. Se t th is to 365 to
When you a re ready to archh'e dat a. d o Ihe fo llow-
rt
alIo"' licwing data back as far as o ne year.l 1le v,l lue
ing. Recording the AS -\ seismic d a ta wit h the A mCl - .....
can be set largcr. but if there are o ld data tha t yo u
Se is soflw;u e gcne mtes about I MB o f dala per da y.
If your com p Uler h as insufficie n t d isk space 10
o
.oold likc to view. they usua lly wou ld have been
SJI-ed as individual even ts (ex tracted a nd sa\·ed ,IS
arc hi ve data fo r ma ny mon lhs o r years. you ca n copy ::s
the fil es o nto a zi p disk or \0 a compact disk
.sac ftIes. so Ihat data arch.i\·e d oesn't get too large)
and then opened und er the File me nu .
rewFi/(/ble (CD R). A h c m a ti\·ely. yo u ca n sort thro ugh en
the recorded data a nd d el e te data for davs in which ro
Detimatc facto r. set to 10. nOnTIally. l llis sell ing
.ill prol·ide a fai rly accurate view of the d ata on the
the re was no sig nifi can t signal. ::s
Be sure to take ti me for time s)·IH:hrolliz:.Jlion and U>
!attn but allow ra pid scrolling. A decima te faClor of
JO plots only cI·ery 10lh point : some disto rtio n is
maintaining:.J seismograph catalog. It is useful and .....
caused by this choice. so for large n um be rs of lines
go o d scie ntific p r<lclice to develop a ca llt lo g fo r your
scismogmph station . E n tries are made a Ulo malica lly
::s
ptT hour. make·you r-own-carthqu ake expe rimen ts.
to the catalog every day or IWO thai include absol ute
IQ
andwhcnel'cr •I'OU wan l to see the most accura te
time checks o r synch ron iza tio ns. Time ch ecks can be
IX"" of a seismogram on the screen. set the d ecimale
made by compari ng Ih e compute r's dock to an accu-
frtorto I. The decimate factor does no t affeci the
rate . absolute ti me signal from a radio-synch ronized
plotting of an extracted seismogra m. which is always
clock such as arcl ime .com or radio sIa l io n WWV a t 5.
r\otted with all o f the ava ilable poin ts.
10. or 15 M Hz (reque ncy o n Cl sho rtwave rad io . o r. if
The Show d:l1a va lues d ialog box a nd d isplay
the compute r is connected to the Int e rne t. the COI11-
allows you to cente r the curso r so th,lI it tracks
p uter clock can be periodically synch ron ilcd to
approximately o n the lero line (the blue line) tha t is
absolute time using the so ftwa re too l A bo utTime a t
defined for each hour. To cente r th e tracc. it is con-
www.arachnoid.com/. Cala log e ntries a lso incl ude
Icnient to start with a low-gain setting (such <IS I).
times o f arrival. a mp litude and m agnit ude info nTIa-
Tum the black knob o n the small b lack inle rfnce box tio n o f earthqua kes (record ed by the seismograph ).

Chapter Six Vibration Sensing 155

 a nd cOlllme nts about the wea ther. background noise (very light and uvaiJable in fab ric and se\\;ng stores)
conditions. or openllional Slams of the seismograph. to the top of the poster board tent with a small pie«
One very conve nient T<ldio synchronized clock of (a pe. ·nlrend the monofilament through the hole ill
(Atomic Clock) is the SkvScan wall or desk dock the cove r (from the in)oide of the cover) so that the
(available from Sam's Club for $20) Ihat has vcrv small mass is suspended above the mark on the boo
large lettering. The clock can be set to show GMT by the thread. Because the inst rument is sensitive to
lime and can be used 10 visually check the lime COf- til t if o ne is standi ng near it. a nd because the air cur·
rcetion of your computer running AmaSe is and rent noise is large. put the cover on and 100\;:r the
record the drift of Ihe computer dock. Occasiona lly mass through the small ho le in the top of Ihe co\'cr
resctt ing (synchronizing) the computer clock to by ho ld ing the olhe r end of the thread [rom a dis·
GMT lime wi ll keep lhe AmaSeis lime d isplay rca· tance of about 3 me ters. stamling still. It is com·eni
sonably accurate. A lime correction can be applied \0 10 uu nch a piece of tape to the free e nd of the tMad
saved se ismogram mes in AmaScis. Th e alOmic clock to make it easier to find and hold on to theendof tbe
ma kes a nice display for GI\'IT time even if you h,!\'c th read. Loweri ng the mass gives a calibration pulse.
an Internet conneClion on yourcol11pUler tha I is used but a be llcr pulse;' (ahoul 1.-100-1.500 counts ma~i·
\0 run A maSe is a nd upda te your computer clock mum amplilllde) is obtained by lelting the instrume
I stabi lize a nd (he n pulling on the thread to lift the
'lUtommicall -v. llle SkvScan Atomic Clock is also
• -
Illass s udde nly off the boom . This me thod appears \0
availa ble (S30) a t hllp:fleggshop.netlskysatcloc.h tml
a nd at http://homestorc3.comiskysalcloc.html. be slable and re)ouhs in calibration pulses that \'aried
Another OIomic clock option (with large-digits dis- only abeu l + /- 10 percent between tests. The ma~·
pl ay) is the WS-SOCII U wall dock from La Crosse mum a mplitude of this test shou ld provide a rela·
Technology. available for S-ID at tively linear correction fa cto r to Ihe amplific3tionof

, www.weathenne te r.com/.
Re lat h·c calibratio n o f the A5-1 seismograph can
different instrume nts. For mo re infomlation on cali·
brat io n of Ihe AS-I seismome te r. see
htl p:llq ua ke .ens. ga tech .edufl\ tag WebJ
( be conducted using a ste p function ml'lhod. A step
, function (a small. sudden increase or lkcrcase in the
CaIReptA S-I.htm. This relative metbod of calibra·
tion has the followi ng uses:
position of the mass with respect to the coil) can be
a pplied to the se ismome te r by lowering (or re mov- • Pe rforming the ca li bra lion tests to see if the
ing) a small mass onto the boom of the instrume nt. seismometer is working properly (the calibst-
Beca use lowe ring the mas... causes an incollsistem tion pulse should look approximately like th~
., input to the seismo me te r. the mClhod works best if
....... you lift the mass. Because the seismo me te r is very
sc nsitivc.the re la tive calibration process. a lthough
one in Figure 6-21: the liflillg-lflt··lIwss pulse is
used: the calibration pulse is extracted from
the stllndard AmaSeis displav to vicw it in a
simple. must be performed wi th a wry specific proce- close-up view). Repeated calibrations sugg
du re and ve ry ca refully. To perfoml the calibratioll. that measurable va lu es o f lh e calibration leY
usc a piece of masking ta pe or post-it no te ma le rial pulse should be (approximately): amplitude

....•
to m.lrk a position on the boom of the AS-I seis- firs t trough (negative) = -1 -120 + / ~ 150
mometer th at is 10 ce ntimeters [:rom the hinee and CO UnlS a mplitude of first pea k (positive) '=
upright. Place the cover back over the instrume nt and -180 +1- 50 countS time from beginning of
drill a small ho le (npproximately -I millimeters or 1/~ ibralion pulse to first zero crossing = 3.0 tI
inch) in the to p of the cover above the mark on the 0.5 seconds
boom. i\ lake the mass used for calibralion by cutting
a I x 2 cen timeter recta ngle of lightweigh t poste r • The rela ti ve calibratio n nllows you 10 com·
board. This mass is a bo ut 0.063 grams. Fold (he poster pare different instrumen ts. A5-1 seismogra
board reclilngle into the shape of a lent. and auach a having calibra tion pulses that are approxi·
3·meter long piece of nylo n monofilament lhread mately the same as the pulse in Figure 6-21

t
156 Electronic Sensors for the Evi l Genius
 _...
_.--,,--
"
Seismograph Filter Circuit
Parts List
Rl 10K ohm. 1 / 4- watt
resistor
I
R2 10 megohm. 1 / 4-watt
'( resistor
R3. R6 . R7 . RS 1-
I megOhm , 1 / 4-watt
re s i s tor
R4 , R9 13 0-ohm, 1 / 4-
.•. _._- watt resistor
Agure 6·21 Calibratioll pltlse RS 2 0 K ohm. 1 /4- watt
resist OJ;
can be <lssu med to have the sa me d isplace-
mcnlamplificlIl ion val ues as give n here. and
RI O 160K ohm,
re Sistor
1 / 4- watt
I
RII 220K o hm , 1 / 4- watt
the}' can be used to estim ate magnitudes using
the ampl ifica tion values and procedures
resistor
Rl2 lOOK o ff set
<:
.....
described here. If the calibra tion pulse for a potentiometer
different AS-! seismomete r is sim ilar to the Cl 0.0 1 uF , 50 - v o lt
J'
one shown in Figure 6·71 (a nd paf:lmelers c erami c disk capacito r '1
gi\"cn here) but has different maximum a m pli~ C2 , C3. C4, CS, C6, C7 u
lUde.lhe amplifica tion facto rs used can be 0 .1 u F o SO-volt T
adjusted in the magnitude calculations by the
c erami c c a p a c it o r
.....
relative diffe re nce be twee n the two AS-I
Ul MAX42 0CPA CAZ auto-
zer o in s trum e ntati o n o
instruments.
U2
amplif ie r
TL082 op-amp
::s
• The calibration provides a check on the polar-
itfor the seismome ter. Because lifti ng the
mass (rom the boom causes the boom to move
Ll disassembled relay
co il {see text} en
Miscellaneous PC board . CO
up relative to the coil thaI is a tt ached to the
base of the seismome ter. the first Illotion of
wire , I C sockets, con -
ne c tor s, enclosu re ,
::s[J)
etc.
the output trace (the calibratio n pulse) should
be down o r negative. A first up motion of the
ground from a n inco ming se ism ic wave will
"".::s
move the base and the coil up re la ti ve to Ihe Optional Seismic Clock \Q
magnet (corresponding 10 a relative down
Synchronization Circuit
mOlion of the boom) attached to the boom.
because of inertia of the seismomete r mass Parts List
suspended by th e spring. This u p motion of
RI , R2. R3 . R6 , R8 10K
the ground will therefore cause a n up or posi- ohm. 1 / 4- watt resisto r
tin! signal on the seismograph trace. Jf the cal- R4 lOOK ohm potentiome-
ibration pu lse (co rresponding to lifti ng the ter (PC b oa rd)
small mass) has a first positive mOl io n. thc RS, RIO , RII 20K ohm
polarit)' of the seismomete r is revcrsed. To potentiOme t e r (PC
b oa rd )
correct the polarity. simply switch the input
R7 I SOK ohm, 1 / 4- watt
"ire connections o n the amplifie r. re sistor

Chapter Si x Vibration Sensing

 R9 10K po ten t iomet er The AS-l was designed and buih for Ihe IRIS
( PC boa r d) Seismic Consortium to offer low-cost seismic systems
Cl, C5, C9 , C13 4 . 7 uF, fo r e ducational purposes. I f you represent a qualified
50-volt el e ct r olytic
c apacito r
school group. you can apply for a grant to obtain on~
<II 11 0 COSio G o 10 the IRI S Web site at
C2 , C6, C7, CIO, CI I
0 .1 uF, 50-volt www.iris.edu/ed u/ASl.htm for more infomtation.Or
c e ramic dis k capacitor you can purchase an AS-J system by conlaclingJeff
C4 47 uF, 50-volt elec - Batten and Th<: Amateur Seismologist.
t r olytic capacito r
The Ama te ur Seismologist
ca, el2 22 uF, 50-volt
electrolYti c capacit o r 2155 Verdugo Boulevard, P~'lB 528
Hi sce llaneous PC boa r d, Mon trose. CA 91020
IC socke ts, wire , (818)149-1759
h ar dwa r e info@amate urseismologisl.com

Power Supply Parts List

RS-l SpeCifications
RISK ohm potentiomet er
(PC b o ar d)
Seis mome ter: Vertical velocilv Irilnsduccr
R2 24 0-ohm, 1/4 -wa tt
wi th oil dam ping
re s i sto r
CI , C 4 , C7 4,700 u ' , N atural period: 1.5 seconds ( filter extends
50-volt ce r amic disc bandwidth to 20 seconds)
ca pac it o r
Amplilier: 100 db with low-pass [ilter. wilh a
C2, cS , ca 0.1 uF, 50-
volt e lectro ly tic zero adjustment but no gain adjustment
capa c i to r
Digi tizer: 12-b it lInaIOI!-IO-dibrltal converter
C3 , C6, C9 10 u F , 50-
vo l t elect r oly tic Bandwidth: 0 .1 second 1020 seconds
c a p a cito r
Dimensions: i7 inches long. 6 inches wide.
BR- I bridge recti fier ,
3 amps, 100 v olts 12 in ches high
UI LM7812 plus ( + 12 Computer interface: serial port to PC
volt s) DC regulato r
Duhl format: ASCII numbers from 0 through
U2 LM7912 minus ( - 12
volts) DC regulato r 20S5
U3 LM780 9 plus (+ 9 Data rate: 6.2 samples per second
I Tl
volts ) regulator
tran sf orme r 2 4- Com plete syste m : $550.00 plus California
volt / 3-amp c en t er sales tax if applicable. plus shipping and
tapped ha ndling
51 5P5T toggle po wer
Seismomet er ouly: 5275.00
s witch
Miscellaneous PC board, Seismometer e leclroni cs on ly: 5275.00
wire , conne ctors, et c.
Seismograph pl astic conr and plastiC'damp·
ing oil dish: S-I.O.OO from E & A international

AinuScis software from : www.geol.bingham-

ton.edulfaculty/jonesl AmaSeis.html. For
details on how AmaScis reads from a
O AT AQ r\ O.goto
www.dataq.com/supportltechinfo/dalaform.htm

158 Electronic Sensors for the Evil Ge ni u s

Pickup [oil
The pickup coil is extracted from a new 220 VAC
lelay, with a 5-foOI shielded cable and an R CA plug
at the end. The coil has 10.000 IUrns and a DC resist-
anceof around 9,000 ohms. The coil dia m e te r is
23millimelen; ( l ~h6 inch) and is 17 millimeters
rlf" inches) wide. Cost: $15.00.

Magnet
The magnet is rated a t 22 lbs of p ull. The d imensions
of the magnet arc 25 millime ters ( 1 inch) high, 40 mil -
limclen (19h ~ inches) wide. TIle open c nd o f tbe
magnet is 21 millimeters ( 13116 inch) wide. This gives
approximately 2 millimeters (lito inch) on each side
or 17 millimeters (1I1t6 inch) wide coil when placed
inside or near the edge of the magne t. Cost: $20.00.
Contact: lcochrane@weblron ics.com
The AS-I Seismograph magn itude dete nnination
\l,v.w,eas.purd ue.cd u/- braUe/ed umodlas Imaglas 1rna
glhlm
AmaSeis software setup
II'ww.iris.washi nglon.ed u/abouIfENO/AS IArnaSc is_v
.'-pdr
en
ro
::s(J)
.....
::s
I.Q

Chapter Six Vibration Sensing

 Chapter Seven

Detecting Magnetic Fie ld s

In this chapler we will discuss different types of mag- ,,~th iron f'i lings sprinkled on iL Similarly. field li nes til
of the earth start near the South Pole of the eurlh. (l)
netic sensors. [rom small induction pickup coils Ihm
can be used to listen \0 telephone conversations and CUfye around in space. and COl1\'erge again near the
North Pole. Faraday called them lillt's of fo rct'. but the
<:
\OiocaIChidden electrical conduit. 10 larger coil (l)
tenn fiett/ lillt's is now in common usc.
&1~Ors that can bl! used to d etect magne tic fi elds ::3
produced by moving cars and trains. We will also con - In nalUre. magnetic fi elds are produced in the
strut! an electronic com puss and 1m E Lf radiation
monitor that can be used \0 survey your home appli-
r;Jrefi ed gas of space. in the glowing heat of sunspots.
and in the molten core of the earth. In the eanh 's
I
ances for harm ful radiation . Radio enthusiasts will be
interested in the io nosphe ric d isturbance receiver.
m aglletosphere. currents also now through space and
modify this pattern: on the side facing the sun . fi eld o(l)
used for radio propagation studies. Science-minded lines are compressed eanhward . whereas on the night
tlpcrimentcrs will discover the research pote ntial for side. they (l rc pulled out into a "cry long tail. like that ("t
the earth-fi eld magnetome te r for detecring solar of a come l. Ncar E arth . however. the lines remai n (l)
magnetic storms originating from the sun. very close to the dipole pllltem of a bar magnet. so o
named because of its two poles. ("t
To Faraday. field lines were mainly a method o f .....
displaying the structure of the magnetic force. In ::3
Historical Review space rese'lrch. however. they have a much broader I.Q
signifi cance. because electrons and ions tend 10 stay
UntillS2 L iron magnets were the only form of mag· all<lciled to them. like beuds on a wire. even becomin l!
netism known. A Danish scientist. Hans Christian trapped when conditions arc righl. Because of this ~
Oersted. while demollstnning to friends the now of attachment. they define an easy directioll in the rarefied III
an electric current in a wire. noticed that the current gas of space. Like the grain of a piece of wood. the I.Q
caused a nearby compass needle to move. The new easy direction is a direction in which ions and eJee+ ::3
pbenomenon was slUdied in France by A ndrc·tvtaric trons ,IS well as electric curren ts (and certain radio· (l)
Ampere. who concluded that the nalUre of magnet· type Wl\\'cs) can move easily. In contrast. motion from ("t
ism was quite different frOIll what c\'eryone had one line 10 another is more difficult. .....
believed. It was basicaUy a force between electric cur+
rents: twO parallel currents in the same direction
Faraday's ideas evolved into the II/ngllt'tic fielt/
concept- that space in which magnetic forces may be
o
allmct and will repel when they run in opposite
observed is somehow changed by the fo rce. Faraday I'%]
directions. Iron magnets are a vcry special case. which
Ampere was also able to expl<lin.
also showed that a magnetic field that varied in time
- like the one produced by an alternating current
.....
(l)
Michael Faradav is credited with fundam ent al
disoo\'eries on electricity and magnetism. He also
(AC)-cou ld drive electric cu rrents if. for example.
copper wires were placed in it in the appropriate way.
,.....
proposed a \\;dely used method for ,~ su alizi ng mag· That idea has come to be known as magllelic illt/IIC+ P-
netic fields. Field lines of a bar magnet are commonly lioll. the phenomenon on which electric transformers (J)
illustrated by holding o,'er a magnet a piece of paper arc based.

161
 $0. magne tic fi e lds could produce electric currents. range of radio reception and in 1903 detected
and we already know thai elect ric currents produce signa ls from E urope and [rom as far as Cape
mab'11c tic fields. Wo uld it pe rha ps be possible fDr Cod. Massachusetts.
space to suppo rt a wave motion alte rnating between
the two?
-
Electroma gnet ic wa\'es even tua lly . led to the
inve ntions o f rad io a od te le \'ision and to a huge elec-
tronic indust ry. But they are also generated in spare
mmmelic fie ld ---+ electric c urrenl-t mmme lic [ie1<.l ---+
-
elect ric current ---+
- by unstable electron beams in the magnetosphere.as
well as at the SUIl and far-awav in our universe.
•
There was o ne stumbl ing block. Such a WlIve could
not exist in empty space. because e mpty space con-
ta ined no copper wires a nd could not carry the cur-
ren ts needed to complete the above cycle. Transformer Action
A brilliant young Scotsma n. James Cle rk i."laxwel l.
Whe n an alternating vall age is ap plied to an induc-
solved this riddle in 1861 by proposing tha t the equa-
tance. such as that of a coil. an eleclromotille/orce
lions of electricity needed one more term to represent
(em f) is induced in the inductance by the varying
an electric currem that could !ravel through e mpty
magnetic fi e ld that accompanies the flow of alter-
space. but only for very fast oscillations. With that
na ting current. Now if a second coil is brought into
teml added (the displacf'lIlem w rrem). the equa tions - -
the same fi e ld as Ihat of the first coiL a sim ilar emf
of electricity a nd magnetism allowcd a wa\'c 10 exist.
will be induced in the second coi l. This induced emf
propagati ng at the speed of light. Figure 7~1 illus-
may be used to force a curren t through a wire or
tra tes such a wave - (H ) is the magne tic pan. (E) the
o ther e lectrical device connected to Ihe tenninalsol
electric part-t he term Maxwell added. The wave is
the second coil.
drawn propagating just along o ne line. Actuallv it fills
space. but it would be ha rd 10 draw tha!. A n electro- In this ma nner. the two coils are said to be couple<
magne tic wave is comprised of IWO fields: a magne tic together. and the pa ir of coils make up a mills/omit!.
field ( H) a nd an electric field (E ). These combined 'Ine coil connected to the source o f energy. such as
[wo fields rad iate into space. 1?O-volt AC house cu rre o t, is caUed the primary 0011
and the other coil. is caBed tbe secondan' coiL
Maxwell p roposed that it indeed was ligh t. The re
had been e arlier hints-as noted. the velocitv. of lioht The use fulness o f a tra nsfomle r lies in the faclth!
0

had appeared unexpected ly in the equations o f elec- electrica l energy can be Iransforrned from onc cimril
tricity a nd magne tism -and fu rthe r studies CO Il- (the primary) to the other (the secondary) without
direct connection. Such is the case with induction
I firmed it. For instance. if a beam of light hilS the side
o f a glass prism. only pa rt of the light en ters or passes pickup (discussed shortly). where it acts as theset'-
through: anot he r part is rdlec ted. Maxwell's theory ondary of a transformer. Whatever we a re listeningb
correctly predicted p roperties o f the reflected beam . with the pickup probe is the primary. And as we "iU
see. th.is can be used in a te le phone. a n AC motor, Of
The n in G enna ny. H einrich H e rtz showed th at an
a T V set.
e lectric c urre nt bouncing back a nd forth in a \\~ re
(today it would be called an ameJllla) could be the 111e transformer. of course. cao be used onl~' on
alternating curre nt circuits. because no voltage will b
source of such waves. E lectTic spa rks create such - -
induced in the secondary. or winding coil. if the mag·
back-aod-forth currents when they j ump across a gap.
netic field is not changing. When direct current is
-
hence the crackling he ard on Al\'! radio caused by.
a pplied 10 the primary of a transfo nm::r. such as wht;
lightning. And Hertz in 1886 used such sparks to send
a radio signal across his lab. La te r the Italian rv!ar- connecting a battery across the \\~ nding. a voltage v.i
con i. with more sensiti ve detectors. extended the be induced in the secondary winding o nly at the

162 Elect ro nic Sensors for the Evil Genius

instant of closing or opening the primary because it is the same time. One of these componeills. however is
onlYa! these times that the field is changing. At other inversely proportional to the d istance from the
limes. the currelll is constant and no voltage is a ntenna. lIr. while the other componelll is inversely
induced into the secondary because there is no proportional to the square of the distance from the
changing field. Of course. when the battery is nOi antenna.lIr.
connected. there also is no curren! or change in
current. and there is no \'oltage induced in the sec-
ondary winding.
The Electric Field
"I11e electric field contains three componen ts. one of
The Radiation Field and which is inversely proport ional to the distance from
the an te nna. 1Ir: a second. which is inversely prupor-
the Induction Field tional to the square of the distance. I /~: and a third.
which is inversely proportional to the cube of the d is-
In brief. a magnetic fie ld fonns part of an electromag-
tance. 1/"';. In the case of the electric fJeld. however.
~Iic field. which radiates from an antenna. and this
I'3diation is caused by the changing electric and mag-
all the components are not in p hase. The componelll
that is inversely propon ional to the cube o f the dis-
I
nelicfields about the antenna conductor or wire. We
also know that the changing fields produced a IIlOV-
tance (l /r') has a 9Q-dcgrec phase rel<Hionship wi th
the other two. Thus. two sepll rllte e lectromagnetic
o(1)
ingfield that tra\'el away from the antenna at the
fields arc produced. In the firsLthc radiation field .
speed of light.
which propagates the farthesl. the electric and mag-
it
The components of this moving field arc the (1)
netic fields a re at right angles in space and are in
indllclioll field and the radiOfioll field. The induction phase as shown in Figure 7·1. In the second . the o
field acts as if il were permanently associated with induction field. the electric and magnet ic fictds arc at it
the antenna. and its energy is alternalely slored in the
antenna and removed from it. The induction field
right angles in space but 90 deg rees om of phase. as .....
rornponents are usually no longer de tectable beyond
shown in Figure 7-1 . ::l
adistance of abo ut two wavelengths from the
Because the electric component in the induction \Q
field is inversely proportional to the cube of the dis-
antenna. For IWy high frequellcy (VHF) TV chan-
nels, this is on the order of 10 to 30 feel. The portion
tance. it dies OUi very quickly and therefore may be
ncgleclCd whenever the distance. r. is morc than a
~
oftheeleclfomagnetic field that carries the si2nals
few wavelengths. Such is the case when one is
IU
from the antenna. or poim of transmission. to the
lislening to a broadcast stm ion in the Alvl broadcast
\Q
pointofreception is called the radiation field. Let
band. as it is being recei\'cd via the radiation field and
::l
us look marc closely at the developmem of the fields
not the induction 6eld. Howeve r. al shorter d istances.
(1)
rurrounding a \\~re. We will exam ine the difference it
lx!tween the composition of the magnetic and
the ifr' term does not die o u t fast enough . and the
induction field term must be taken ltli O accou n t. 'illis .....
electric fields.
is the case when using the pickup probe close to a
mOior field or a radio speaker. ' ille induction field. in
o
- -
which the e lectric and maUnetic fie lds are 90 deUTees
out of phase. d issipates no powe r. Any power deliv·
The Magnetic Field ered to the field during one part of a cycle is relUrned
d uring another part.
The magnetic field is composed of two compo-
Demswhich are in phase:ilmt is. they both reach a As stated ea rlier. the effect o f the ind uction fie ld is
maximum at the same time and are bOlh minimum at negliuib le a t d isiances greater than a few wavelengths
from the anten na. ThUs. at high rrequencies. where

Chapter Seven Detecting Magnetic Fields 163

 E

OIRECTlOff
OF
PROP

-------. ,-----.-.- ----.--

Figure 7-\ Rodilllioll field propag(l(ioll
- --. ---

------- ---------_. ----_ .. -----_.

I Figure 7-2 Indllctioll field propagmioll

c(1) the w:lvc!ength is sharI. the induction field effectively

> extends only a few feCI from the antenna. However Magnetic Detectors
at low frequencies. where a \w\'clenglh is much
(1)
longe r. the induction fi eld ma kes itself felt al a con- One of the most simple I ypes of magnetic detection
CIl siderable d istance. Wilh the induction pick up loop as dc\'ices is the ind uction pickup coil. The induction
input to the mag-car project thai follows- we will be coil can be coupled with a high-gain a mplifier and
using the induction field fo r some of our expe rimcIlIs. used to liste n \0 mam' -
. different magne tic phenom-
ena. Induction picku p coils are available from man
local radio/e leclronic supply sto res at a cost of only
few dollars.

164 Ele c tronic Sensors for the Evi l Genius

 The induction picku p coil is s hown in Figure 7-3. to in vestigate a n um be r of magne tic pheno me nu. as
einduction pickup consists o f a n ind uction coil we will scc. The mag-ear ampli fier circuit shown in
anda small suction cup. which is used to clamp the Figure 7-5 is a high-ga in a mplifie r used to amplify the
\ice to the base or earpiece of a telephone. The signals from a magnetic pickup coil. The mag·ear cir·
output of the pickup probe is connected thro ugh a 3· cuit consists of two amplification stages. Tlle first
lO+foot shielded cablc to a miniature 3 Y.!-m illimeter stage consists of a T LOS2 op·amp acting as a pre-
male plug. a mplifier. followed by a n U .'I 386 high-ou tput a udio
The pickup coil consists of a large n umber of turns amplifier IC TIle input a t J 1 is coupled fi rst to a
olver)' thin \\;re and has a DC resistance of 400 to capacitor a t Cl. followed by a resistor a t R I. The gain
5OO0hms. This coil serves as a secon da ry winding o f a of the U I. a TL08J o p-'I mp. is contro lled via s\\~ t c h
SI. a three-position rotary switch that selects the vari-
en
uansformer. and the source of the signal we are seek- CD
iDg10 lislen to is the primary winding. Tlle coil may
ba\"f a soft·m etal corc. which servcs to concentrate
o us gain resistors. The ne twork formed by C2. R5.
a nd R6 fo n ns pa rt of a bias ne twork con nected to pin <:
lheinduced lines of n ux. Figure 7-4 shows a 3 of U I. Tllis network is coupled to the 9-\'011 power CD
!odlematic diagram of the induction pickup coit. source. Tlle output of U I is coupled to the second- ::l
stage audio a m plifier. via capacitor C3 and aud io vol-
The induction coil or te le phone pickup can be
coopled together with a high-ga in amplifier to form a
ume control R8. The out put of the U2. lhe LM386
a ud io amplifier is coupled through capacitor C6 to an
I
Ik\icecalled the mag-car. which can be used to
amplify the signal from the induction pick up coil and
8-ohll1 spe aker. o
A m ini switched I/M · inch audio jack: disconnects the CD
speake r if a headpho ne is plugged into the jack at J2. ('1"
TIle mag·ear amplifier circuit is powered by a 9-\'0 It
CD
tra nsistor radio balter), through the power swi tch at
S2. TIle mag-ear amplifier circuit can be constructed
o
('1"
on a perf-board o r a circuit bO(lfd. whatever your
preference may be. Locate two Ie sockets: they will
.....
a id in trouble shooting and replacement if the circuit ::l
has problems at a late r date. There are a few e lec- I.Q
trolyt ic ca pacitors in the mag-car circuit. which m ust
R!!ure 7· 3 /lUIIfCliol1 pickup coil
~
~
I.Q
DI RECTION O F MAXIMUM PICKUP
::l
.- ... __ ....l'
_... __... __ ....,, 118" PLUG CD
('1"
,,
,,,
,,
.....
FINE WI RE - - --+;, -- SHIELDED CABLE o

IRON CORE MATERIAL

--.....-.--.J..----.... ,,
,

MAX IMUM PICKUP

----
A!!ure 7-4
,--- ------ ._------------- ,----- ------------------------------ ,------- ._----------_.. -
InductiOIl pickup coil diagrlllll

Chapter Seven De t e ct ing Mag n etic F i el ds l 65

 Chapter Seven Detecting Magnetic Fields
~

~I B1
82
+ 1 I II
R2 1 9V -
I
.... ,
'"
- R3
~no I I ,, 1>.,," ~ \ 81

ci 1 R4 _ I <- R7
~
~.

"", I J1
I +
~'"
V> C1 R1
0 2 B
C4
-,
V> I +
U1 h I I C5
~

0 + 4 C3
-, ¢ 3 3 1 >,-1 J2
R5 RB B
no - C6
:r C2 , +
R6 - U2
'" +9V
T
'"
<
~ .
•
T 1 2 ''''''''-- ' 4
-'" '

- C7 R9
~
'"
~.

c
V>

~ -_________ -____ ________ -_____ ------_0 .. ___ _______________________ ._. _______ .___________ .. ___________________________________________ . __ . __________ .._ __M
O.,__ _____ _
F ig ure 7-5 A4111;-Cflr fllllp/iji.:,.
be installed correctly.-nlc reforc it is importa n t to R8 10K ohm
obserye the proper polari ty. Also be sure tha t the ICs p o t enti omet er

are correctly installed to avoid damaging th e circuit Cl, C2 , C1 0. 1 ur

ce ram i c c ap a c i t or
"hen flrst powering up. r.,'iost ICs have e ith e r a
C3, C5 1 0 u r , 5 0- v o lt
cutout nolch or indented circle. wh ich gene ra lly indi-
e l ect r o ly t ic c apac itor
rate the top o f the IC with pin I just left o f the CUIOUI
C4 10 0 ur , 50-volt
OOIch or indented ci rcle. A ft er co nslruc ting the mag- ele c t ro l Ytic capac ito r
ear circuit. be sure to check a nd recheck the c ircu it C6 22 0 ur , 50 -vo l t
against the schematic fo r possible m ista kes in wiring. e l e c tr o l y ti c c apac it o r
Also look for any cold solder join ts o r solde r brid ges Ul TL082 dual op- amp
(o ne s ec tion u s e d )
More applying power to Ihe mag-ear c ircuit.
U2 I.M386 a ud i o
Once the mag-car circuit has been b uill. you will amp lifie r
need 10 locate a metal ch assis box in which to install 5PK 8-ohm min i s pea k er
the high-gain am plifie r circuit. D rill ho les o n the 51 th r ee - po s i ti o n
frolllof the chassis fo r the inpu t a nd earpho ne jacks. r o ta r y g ain s wit c h
as well as fo r the spea ke r. Bo th the on-off switch a nd 52 SP5T o n - o ff switc h
tbt gain selector switch 5 I can a lso be mou nted o n Bl 9 - volt t r an s i s t o r I
tile fron t of the chassis box. Next instull a ba lle !)' r adio b at t e ry
holder for the 9-\'olt balle ry. a nd then mo unt the cir-
roit or perf-board insid e the chassis box o n p lastic
J l , J2 'It- inch s witc h ed
mini jac k
o(1)
Mi sc el laneous PC boar d,
!landoffs. using 1.h-inch long 4-40 machine screws.
wire , IC so c k e t , c ha s- M-
Now that the circuit has been built . yo u can test it s i s, st a ndo f fs , (1)
to make sure it is working correctly. Plug in a pickup
0Jil membly to the inp ut jack a t J I. and ap ply powe r
s crews, nuts , et c.
o
M-
tothe circuit via switch 52. You shou ld then bri ng the
!<nsing coil near a T V sct that has been po wered o n. Rmplifying Telephone
.....
If the mag-ear circuit is working correctly. you shou ld
::;I
Conversations \Q
bear a humming so und as the pick up co il is b ro ug ht
near me TV set. U yo u hear a h umming sound. the cir- Now. with yo ur mag-e ar a m p lifier constructed a nd
cuit is functioning correctly a nd yo u can begin using
read y to go. yo u ca n expe rimen t with the inductio n :?::
the circuit fo r yo ur observat ion and expcri me rus. p ick up coil. The inductio n p ickup can be used to III
a m pl ify th e sound received O\'e r a te le phone. It can \Q
also be used to provide re mo te sensing o f a tele - ::;I
Mag-Ear Rmplifier Parts List p ho ne ring. In o rd er to am plify voice o r te lephone (1)
conve rsation. you will need to d isco ver the IWO loca- M-
Rl lK ohm , 1 / 4 - watt
r esi sto r
tions on a telepho ne wh ere the induction p ick up can .....
R2 1 0K ohm , 1 / 4-watt
re s istor
be p laced to rece ive signa ls that will be amplified by
the mag-e ar. O ne o f these locations is the induction
o
R3 100,O OO- ohm , 1 / 4- coil. usually in the base o f the te lephone. a nd th e
wa tt resi s to r other locatio n is the fro nt o r back skle of the e ar-
R4 1 , OOO ,0 00-o hm , 1 / 4- p ho ne o n the lelephone ha ndset. The ind uction coil
watt r e s i s t o r
in the base of the te lephone may be a t differe nt loca-
RS , R6 41 K o hm , 1/4- tions d e pending o n the type o f te le pho ne yo u have.
wa t t re sis t o r
The signa l picked up fro m the earpiece wiJI usually
R1 , R9 l a- ohm . 1 / 4-wa tt
r es i s t or b e the stronger of the two. and a suction cu p can be

Chapter Seven Detecting Magnetic Fields 167

 used 10 attach the pickup probe to Ihe telephone
hand piece. "fbe back of the handset is best as it will Making a Wire Sound Like
be out of the way during normal use o f the phone. Big Ben
Adjust the volume control of the mng-.:ar to a place
where there is plen ty of listening volume without A thick wi re call be made to sound like Big Ben
audio feedback. You can also use the magnetic when it is amplified by the mag-car. A stiff\\;re 6108
pickup as 11 remole telephone ring ind icator by plac- inches long. clamped at one end. will produce a sowoo
ing the induction coil near the telephone's internal like Big Ben when it is struck with an object such au
ringe r coil. On occasion. you might want to be able to wooden pencil. if the ind uctance pickup is placed
hear the teleph o ne ring. at a locution distalll fro m the ncar the vibrati ng end. As wit h the vibrating guitar
phone itself. for example if you a re worki ng in the wire. a magnet should be placed below the \\;re to
ga rden. TIle mag-ear can then be used to a mplify the generate a magnetic field to be picked up by the
sound o f the rim.!cr remOle l\',
- - ind uclance probe. Eve ntually the wire will become
magnetized by the magnet. and the magnet will no
longe r be needed. The bong sou nd that is produced
Listening to Magnetized Wire by the vibrating wire and amplified by the mag-earis
extremely realistic. D ifferent sounds can be productd
Some interesting sounds can be heard from magne t- by differem lengths of clamped wi re. as is done in
ized wire. You can use the wire strings of an electric many of the grandfather clock gongs. Those bongs.
guitar or an o rdinary thick wire. The electric guitar.just however. are Hcoustically produced. whereas the
like an acoustic guitar. uses stretched steel wires that technique we arc using is electron ic in nature.
vibrate when plucked. In the e lectric gui tar. a magnet
and a coil are associated with each other simi lar to the
induction pick up probe. When the wire vibrates. it Detecting MagnetiC Field
causes a changing magnetic field in the ind uction
Leakage
pickup coil so that a changing volwge is produced.
which is the n amplified by the guitar amplifier.
'fbe mag-car used wit h the induction pickup coil isa
The induction probe of th e mag-ear can be pl aced \'ery handy means fo r the detect ion of wanted or
a t any position along the length of the guitar wire. unwanted magnetic fields. One example of magnetic
Howe\'er. no ampl ified sou nd will be heard in the
mag-ear unless a small magnet is placed under the
-
field leaka2.c is electroma{!.netic interference.
-
wire. The mo\'c ment of wire d istu rbs the field
induced by the magnet into the p robe. If you pUithe
Locating Electromagnetic
ma{!.net u nder the wire anywhere along its length, thc
!: wire will become ma2netized. You can locate tha t Interference (EMI)
<ll place by moving the probe along the wire until you
You can trace o r probe for magnetic fields surround-
~ find the spot of maximum sound from the plucked
in g electronic equipment. 111CSC fields might be gen-
wire. In the hlle 1930s. the wi re tape recorder was the
<ll erated with in the equipment o r externally to the
o nly means of qu ickl y record ing and playing back
U) equipme nt and yet affect its operation. ~·I uch of the
sound.111e popular magnetic tape recorder was not
to come a long until the mid-1950s. In lhe 1960s. the d ata regarding the shielding effectiveness of \'arious
casse tte tape recorder was invented. and more alloys (including scam quality) is measured in the fre
recently in the 19SOs. the VCR was invented and quency range of 50 Hz to 20 KHz. Because the mag-
became extremely popular. Now almost e \'ery fa mily car operates over most of this frequency range. it can
household has at least o ne VC R. be used to o bse rve relative shie lding effectiveness of

168 Elec t r o ni c Sensors for the Evi l Geniu s

\arious mu-meta l co nfig ura tions (which confine mag-
netic fi eld~) and to observc magnetic fi e lds radiat ed Locating Electrical Conduit
from electronic o r electrical devices.
Whe n you are work in!! wit h e leCiricil l wiring and con-
d uiL It is necessary to know the loca tion of existi ng
line. connections. a nd switchcs. E \"en when vou a re
Probing Magnetic Fields
hanging window curlains. Ve ne tian blinds. o r sus-
pended potte d plants. you should know the local ion
If)"ou place the mag-ear ncar a piece of e lectronic
of ex isti ng wires or conduit so you don't inad\!er-
tquipment. its induction pickup will act as an
le n tly cut. drill. o r nilil into them. This is most impo r-
antenna. With .m e arphone added. acoustic noise can
lanl if the eleclricallines a rc ene rgized a t Ihe time,
~ shut OUi while yo u are liste ning [ 0 the m a ~'11etic
fields. The mag-ear will pick up magnc tic fields gener- Yo u can lise the inductanc<;, pickup coil as H mag-
ated and radiated by electronic wrist wa tches. e lec- netic probe. "l1lUS the mag-ea r c.m be used to loca le
uonicc1ocks. motors. pocke t calculators.. TV the e Xilct positions of wires by listening 10 the 60 Hz
rttti\·ers. teletype equipme nt. compute rs a nd their hum radiated by the lines. You will be able to locate
peripheral equipmen t. powe r lines a nd e lectrical con- wires 10 within a quarter of a ll inch. and you C,IIl eve n
duit, 3nd switching current as small as the dicks tcllthrough a wall cO\"er which side of Ihe switch a
wi re is connected to. Simply mo\'e the p robe around
I
",used by mming a flashlight o n and off.
During the in tegration of va rious uni ts into a sys -
lIntil the 60 Hz hum is a maximum , In most cases. it
will not C\'c n be necessa ry to have thc wall switch on.
o
tm the electrical influence o f aile unit on the opera- It>
tOO of the others can be d e te mlined with Ihe aid of - -
as a gr;:a l amo unt of hum voliage is induced in all ihe
rt
the mag-ear and the inductio n probe. Because the - -
electrical wiritH! in b uildings.
It>
mag-ear is battery operated and complete ly indcpend-
tilt of an AC power supply. the introductio n of powe r
111 is strong hum will a id you in loca ting house

- -By
wirin!! and also in locating cond uit buried in concrete
o
rt
~rated by a Tconducted through milgnetic fie ld
plIbs is awided. l-"1elds can be in troduced into the unit
walls. sidewa lks. or patios. knowing all which side
-
of a Willi smd the electrical wirin .g is Tunning. -YOU can .....
ooJy through the ante nna input probe, 11lis makes the d rill or d rive nails \\~thoU1 fear of mak ing accide n tal ::I
mag-ear extremely \"ersatile for probing magnetic co ntact with a hot \\~re. lQ
fields to detemlinc Iheir stre ngth and d ireCiion and
their effect on othe r equipment , II can also indicate 3::
bov.' magnetic shielding reduces these quantities.
The Barkhausen Effect PI
lQ
111e Oarkhausen effect is a means of obse rving mag- ::I
Listen to TV Receiver netic domai ns. A mogllelie cio ll/aill is the region in It>
Radiation which the magnetic fields of a to ms a re grouped rt
together a nd a ligned. Favored domains arc those .....
The mag-ear can ensily d etect the strong magnetic
radiated by a TV rece i\'c r. Very high curren ts
domains with a high prope nsity for alignment or
magne tic doma ins. Barkha usen d iscove red that a
o
are used in the de flection ci rcuits of a TV sct in order
to!:aUSC Ihe electron beam o f the picture lUbe 10
- -
cha n{!e in curren t in an elec trical coil encirdin!! a fer-
romagnetic sample produced CI noise in the sample
Sling properly fro m left to right. retrace. drop down that cou ld be heard when amplified sufficie ntly and
aline. and s\\~ n g from left to right. until a comple te fed to a speake r. This noise could be heard even
frame of a picture is presented to the humnn eye. A though the magne tizing fo rce applied to the sample
romplete pictuTe is presented to the eye 30 times was changed smoothly. From these experi ments.
asecond.
-
Barkhausen cond uded tha t the mal?netlsm in the

Chapter Seven Detec ting Ma gne tic F i el ds 169

 sam ple docs nol increase in a strictly continuous hull. In another sce nario. metal beams can be
manner. bUI instead by smaiL abrupt disconti nuous attached to dam structures 10 sense the generation of
ste ps or increments. These steps arc now called Barkhausen no ise a nd \0 warn of any structure shift-

.,
[ Barkhaflsell jumps. They arc caused by the discontin-
uous movem ent of mobile magnetic boundaries
between magnetic domains.
ing. Many alher applica tio ns will also co me 10 mind.
The amount of signal generated is sufficicni so thai
a sensor pickup probe can be placed 2 \0 3 inches
from the meta l sample a nd still pick up enough signal
for sampling. The pickup can be nonconlacling
Research because it is picking up a radiate d magnetic fi eld.

Ba rkhause n re poned on his work with magne tic

domain mo veme nt in the teehnical literaLUre in Listening to Barkhausen
1919. Si nce that time. limited rese a rch ha s be en
conducted a s to the prac ticality and useful ness of
Noise
Barkhauscn noise jumps. r.,'lore rece ntly So uthwest
Barkhausen noise is as a result of the sudden irregu·
R esearch Institute of San A ntonio. Texas. haS been
lar motion of the domain boundaries as the fa\'ored
doing pioneering work in the a rea o f de ve lo ping an
domains grow a t the expense of the ir neighbors. The
easy-to-use comple te ly nondestructive method fo r
Barkhauscn no ise we can hear is a hiss or white
m easuring residual stress. The method. wh ich is a
noise. Using the Barkhauscn effect. we can " hear~ the
proprie tary deve lopme nt. uses the Barkhausen
magnetic domai ns shift under the influence of a
no ise analysis me thod of resid ual stress measurement.
citane.ing magnetic field. Barkhausen noise can be
It is a pplicable 10 most ferromagnetic ma te rials.
he ard acco mpa nying the motion of a single domain
~ -
Brie n\,. with this method . a controlled rna e.ne tic fi e ld
boundary.
is applied to the reg io n of the part be ing e xamined.
A small pro be is used to sense the Barkhausen
no ise caused by abru pt move me nt of magne tic Locating Buried Ferrous
d o ma in walls. Analysis of the Bark hausen noise
d uring controlled e xperime nts has establishe d that Metals
high-amplitude signatures (pa tterns) arc associate d
Yo u can use the Barkha usen noise techn ique to look
with tensile stresses. low-amplitude signa tu res are
for buried fe rro us metals such as nails or screws in
associated with compression stresses. and
wood or concrete. Figure 7-6 shows how a magnet
inlennedi ate signatures a re obtained [ro m
he ld close to the inducti\'e pickup coil induces a mag·
unstressed regio ns.
ne tic fi e ld in a nail or screw below surface level. The
na il or scre w the n radia tes Barkhausen noise. which
the pickup coil se nses. The outpUl is amplified by the
Rpplications of Barkhausen ma g-ear. and a nail can be closely pinpointed \\i th
Noise this technique.

Ma ny industrial and private uses of Ba rkhausen

noise de tectio n a rc possible. Some of the co mmercia l
uses of Barkha use n noise analysis include liste ning to Two-Inch Diameter Pickup
turbine e ngine blades, disks. and compresso rs. Vario us [oil and Rpplications
ball beari ngs can be checked in this manne r. and the ir
future failure predicte d. Checking for melal fa tigue Yo u can utilize the two-inch magnetic pickup coil and
on <l submari ne is another possible a pplica tio n. \\~ th the mag-ear to de tect and loca te buried waste pipes.
de tector probes being placed abo ut the submarine locate \\~rillg and rods in waHs a nd concrete. and

170 Ele ctronic Sensors for the Ev il Geniu s

eWD listen to moving subway tra ins. You easil y can as shown in Figure 7-7_ Use ;tllleriC(1l1l1'ire gauge
wind your OWTI 2-inch d iameter p ickup sensing coil (AWG) No. 28 to 32. cnamei-covered wire and wind
by'iliinding 50 to 100 tu rns of a thin_ enamcl-co\'e rcd the turns on top of each other so the loop is abo ut liz
..ire around a 2- 10 3-incb-diamctcr cardboa rd IUbc_ inch th ick. Figure 7-6 iIllL"lra les the coil con nectio ns

AMPLIFIER
PICKUP COIL

RING MAGNET
en
C\)
,
~----:
,"" ",',,,
<:
," ,, ," ,"",":"',"","",',? BARKHAUSEN NOISE SPEAKER C\)
",,"" ",,,, ,',',,'", ::l
'" ",,'"
, II,
", ,' ''''
", . 0''''
"'7""'
",
', .'" I
,,, ,,, -
I \\\ ,, ,,
,, ,, WOOD oC\)
, /' , .
'/
rt
C\)
FIgure 7-6 Locating ferrous mewl o!Jjl!(:t.~ o
rt
....
112 inch thick Coil Form ::l
~
50--100 Turns No. 28 to 32 AWG Wire

Mag-Ear

2-lnch
Diameter Coil

Cable o
Audio Amplifier
, ._-.- .. _.... _-------_._-._------ .. _---------------_ .. ------- _._-_.-----------------------------------
FIgure 7-7 Two-inc" coil probe

Chapter Seven De tec ting Ma g neti c Field s 171

 to the mag-ear audio amplifier. Take the Output of ing. wi th Ihe 2 -inch loop dangling 2 to 6 inches alxm=
the 2~i n ch coil and connect it to the mag-ear circuit the ground or grass. The plane of Ihe loop should
and you will be able to explore a whole new avenue point in the direction yo u are w<llking. You will even-
of magnetic fields. tually fi nd an area where the 120 Hz hum is ralher
strong. At this pa in!. tu rn in the di recl ion of the street
and swing the pickup back and forth. seeking the
Locating Buried Water Pipes maximum hum as you walk slowly toward the street
As yo u do. you will soon ru n across the water meter.
Aro und a ny ci lY or to wn . a maze of e lectrical wires "Ibe cutoff is usually loca ted a few fee t [rom the
spreads across tbe countryside. This maze of wires meier. You a lso can check wit h ne ighbors to see how
includes the giant tra nsmission lines going cross- far their cutOffs are from the meter. Because you
Country and carrying a voltage of 138 KV. the 4.300- have d ete rmined the di rect io n the pipe takes. you
volt line going down yo ur alley. a nd the 240- o r should now be able to locate the cutoff valve.
120-voilline coming into your house. Your cit )' or Plastic water p ipes are not at a ll cooperati vc.or
town a lso has a maze o f wate r ma ins se rv ing whole conductive. Consequen tly you will not be able to
sections of the town. and I-inch pipes coming inlo sense any yard insta lla tion with a pl astic pipe. c\'cnif
individual yards and se rv ing individual homes or Ihe me ier and cllloff " <lIve are me w!.
apartme n ts. Now an inte resting thing happe ns: the
powe r maze o f wires in troduces.. o r induces. a 60 H z
com ponent of the power-line energy into the wate r Locating the Water Main
distributio n syste m serving your house. If yo u want to
liSlen in or to find the water pipes. the signal you will Once yo u have learned to loca te your small 1-102-
be looking fo r is a strong compone n t o f the 60 H z inch residential wate r pipe. you can go on to larger
power line. The strongest signal you will h ear is a 120 things a nd look for the 5- to IO-inch wa ter main tbat
H z hum . b ut harmonic e ne rgy will exte nd up to at runs d own your street. The sound you will listen for is
Icast 1.200 H z. the same as the o ne you listened fo r with the small
pipe. But o ne thi ng may surprise you: you will be able
to locate a wate r main from O\'er 100 feet awap\ Uit
Locating Residential Water ta kes is skill and understa nding what thc loop
Pipes ante nna is te lling you.
There a re two ways to locate a water main using
In order to locate buried coppe r or galvanized -iron the 2-inch loop probe: (1) by ide ntifying increasing
I wa te r pipes in your froni or back ya rd. start ,It so me hum ime nsity and (2 ) by c hanging the loop plane
location where you can see a water fau cet or water angle. The increasing hum inte nsi ty is the same tech-
~ me Ier. if you r question is whe re to dig or not to d ig. n ique you used to fin d the sma ll water piJX'.After
<U yo u must lea rn whe re the pipes run. When many you have fou nd your cu toff vnlve and meter. proceed
:> ho uses are built. th e water cutoff va lve is promptly with caution in to the stree t. Swing the plane of the
<U covered up by so il and grass. Try ing to loca te a buried loop back and forth across the pa th you arc taking.

en water cutoff " a lve d u ring an emerge ncy is hectic. TIl is

technique will help you locate the line to you r house.
keeping thc hum signnl the loudest you can as you
proceed. lf you lose the hum signal. back up a few
If the wa le r mains run d own your street. yo u will steps and look fo r the signal in the ot her three direc·
wa nt to start look ing in the front yard. Walk a long the tions a p ipe could go. Soon you will find a st rong b
(ro nt of your propen y line near the house o r build- at 1I righ t angle to yo ur pa th. and this is the water
main. At this time. look a bove you to see if you are

17 2 Ele c troni c Sensors f or the Evi l Genius

oot following some overhead power lines. You will you wi ll be able to trace wiring tha t goes under-
find. surprisingly. tha t the loudest hum signal comes ground and passes under sidewalks. You should be
fmm the buried waler main and nol the usual neigh- able [Q place its locat io n \0 wi thin Ih inch in concrete
borhood power line. that is 6 inches thick. Wi th pract ice. you will become
The changing-loop-plane-angle me thod of findi ng adept at locat ing b uried wiring and electrical condui t.
!he water main a llows you to recognize the signal While you may not be able to loca le plastic or PVC
wben )"ou have tilted the loop so you are receiving a water pipe because it will not conduct electrical cur-
minimum hum signal. Minimum hum at any particu- re nl. you will be a bl e to hear hum conducted by
lar location is received when the broad"ide of the buried reinforcement rods. especia lly in sidewalks or
loop ism a right angle [Q the line [rom the loop cen- d ri veways. Using this technique is alm ost like ta king
an X-ra y picture of the sidewalk or wall, locating
en
tertothc water main . A s you move closer to the (l)
main,lhe tilt angle becomes less until yo u a re finall y
owrthe pipe. When you pass the pipe, lhe tilt will be
e lectrical wiring and reinforcement rods.
<(l)
in the other d irect ion.
The tilt of the loop to obtain a minimum signal Listening to Subway Trains ::3
from the waler main changed as you moved closer to
the pipe. You obsc rved also that the line pointed to A n e lectric subway tra in d eep unde r ground gene r- I
the pipe and not the ground. Consequently. when you a tes a cloud o f e leclrical noise as it travels swi ftly
are over the pipe. the line will point directly straiglH along o n its appointed ro unds. You can hear this elec-
trical noise with the ? -inch loop a n tenna and the
o(l)
do\\lI. lf the pipe is buried 5 fee t deep. and you move
back to fee t from directly o ve r the pipe. the loop mag·ear. The noise of a subway train is unl ik e any
rt-
VlilImake a 4S·degree angle with the ground. If you Dlher sound and has the appearance of a c rack ing (l)
100\1: 10 fect 10 the Dlher side of the cente r line. the
Ioop\\ill again mHke an a ngle of 43 d egrees wi th
noise. as if many wireS carrying current we re being
scraped toge ther. And, indeed. this is how power is
o
supplied to the tra in as each car has its own power
rt-
the ground. f-',
takeoff rrom the third rail. As the train travels a long.
crossing different power supply grids. the frolll of the ::3
Locating Wiring and Rods In
• train may not have power but the back part will. un til I.Q
all cars have moved to the new power supply grid. As
Walls and Concrete a result of all this power switching. much elect rical
noise is generated by the train that can be received or
~
hisdangerous to drill . nail. or screw illlo a wall with- ~
detected many hundreds of fee t away on the surface
0111 knowing where the electrical wiring o r conduit of the ground .
I.Q
runs. \\~th the ? -inch loop as a probe. you wi ll be able ::3
tolroce the direction the wiring takes by looking for (l)
amaximum hum in the mag-ea r. An e lec trical circui l rt-
that is turned on while you a re searching fo r wiring ELF Monitor f-',
VlilI help make the signal stronge r. i n addi tion. if you
h':l\·ea lamp dimmer you can lurn on. set it at min i· The re is a growing concern over possible heal th haz-
o
mum brightness as th is ca uses the lamp dimme r to ards from low-frequency electromagnetic fields. t'%j
o!fl]il the most inte rference. o r hnsll. The signal will
then be conducted throughout most of the house or
--. -
Some new evidence sUl!l!ests th is rea ll\' iso·t the case.
Howc"er.1O some it a ppe;ns tha t the e.nreme/y /011'·
f-"
apartment and this will he lp you in searching o ut all
(l)
freqllency (ELF) ma!metic fields gi\'en off by many
~ble \\~ring d irections. household appliances a nd computer monitors can be
~
When you probe with the ? -inch loop and swing it of suFficient strengt h to be pote n tially hazardous. If p...
rock and forth as you did for the buried water pipe. you are concerned by the possible rad iation safe ty (/l

Chapter Seven Detecting Magnetic Fields 173

 issues o f ELF fie lds. YOli can co nSlm cl a simple ELF inlensilY fe ll o ff d ra ma tically a few inches away from
moni tor 10 check and modih'. .vou r em'ironmen t. The Ihe T V scree n and lu m ed o ut to be incidental. But
E LF monito r described in this chapter is simple to more insid io us than Ihis overt threlll is one that has
bui ld and should COS I less than S25. passed unno ticed until q uite rece ntly: Ihe low"
You might be wo ndering if E LF radiat io n is such a freque ncy magnetic fi e lds gene rated by the coils on
healt h hazard. why has i1 taken so long for anyone \0 the T V c(lfhode my Ittl]£, (CRT),
mention ils dange rs? To answer lhal question . we Com pute r monilors. or I'ideo disp/(I,I' termillals
must look at how scien tists fi rst sized up the potential (VD T s), genera te these low-freq uency magnetic
harm of lo w-freque ncy ma gne tic fie lds.. It was o rigi- fie lds. which emanale in all di rections. -{bey present a.
nally belk\'cd lhal weak low-frequency fie lds could greater hazard than T V's beca use a user must sit
not have a significant impact o n living systems. This closer to them d u ri ng use, In fact. numerous reports
belief was based on the amount of themlal energy havc bee n made fro m female computer operators of
the E LF field s could produce in biologicallissuc. The cluste r miscarriages. "llte word ell/ster here refers to.
energy prod uced by ELF radiation is much smaller greater-t hall-average inciden t of miscarriages among
than the norma l the rma l energy illlc rn<l lly generated a group of women.
by a celrs me w bolic processes. In addi tion, the q uan- A recent st udy in\'ol\'es 1.583 pregnant women
tu m c n cr~"
'"
of the fi e lds is far too low to break ,my. a nd cl uster m iscarriages. >llte st udy was performed b].
chemical o r n uclear bonds in thc tissue, -Ilterdore, doctors M ari lyn Goldhabe r. l\ lichm:1 Polen,and

cxposed to ELF radiatio n, Add itio nally, the electric

-
scie ntists fe lt D NA would be safe (rom Illuta ti ng if Robe n H ial of the Ka iser Pemlanente Health
in O a kland, California . and showed that female
fi e ld of 1he body is m uch gre ate r than the induced wo rkers who used computers more than 20 hours a.
fiel d from ELF rad iation, Looking at all these fac tors. week had double the miscarriage rate as female
it's casy to understand why the scientific com munity work e rs who did simila r work without computeTS..
quickly dismissed e pidemiologieal stud ies that indi- Wha t the stud\' did n't take into account was the inci-

E LF radia tio n,
~-
c,lIe d a sta tistica lh' signifi ca nt hazard associated wi th de nce of malfom l<lIions and ca ncers in the children
bom to women who U5l' computers as compared to
As a resull. the scientific community has of late the child ren of women who dOIl'1 usc computers.
becn po rtrayed in the press 11S a bunch of hacks or Excessi\'e ELF fie lds emilted by computer monitors
bureaucratic puppe ts genuflecting fo r grants fro m is a n ind uslrywide problem. virtually all CRT com-
go\'e rnmelll agencies and powe r companies. How- pUler mooitors em it excessive E LF radiation unless
eveL the reason fo r the quick dismissal was o ne of speci fi cally stated ot he rwise. In a recent
genuine d isbelie f. not one o f a mass co\'e r up, 10 popular mon itors. all of the monitors lested emit,
I A lthough in trut h, a few scientists have stepped O\'c r led excessive E LF radi ation a t close range, "lnc on~·
the line a nd mnligned good researchers based upon recommendatio n that can be offe red at this ,i' me
c the profi t a nd loss Sllitement of their employers. these increase the d istance between you a nd lhe monitor.
a> scie ntists a re few in numbe r a nd thc en tirc scientific A working d istance of , feet is recommended,

>
a>
community sho uld nOt be condem ned based upon
their isolated uneth ical e ndeavo rs.
-llte ELF field propagates from all points around
th.: monitor. nOl just from the front of the screen,
en Concerns over the radia tio n from televisions and
compute r monitors (which a re close ly re lated in
"l"l l<1t fac t becomes importan t in offices where com-
pUler te rmina ls a rc in close proximilY 10 0",' ar.o.
o pe ra tion and tecbnology) is no thing ncw, A n um ber because workers can be exposed oot o nly frolll
o f yea rs ago, concern arose as to whe ther radi ation own mo nitor but also from a coworker's
given o(f by color televisions would have a negati\'e important to realize tha t the ELF
impact on healt h, TIlis concern was based primarily varv somewhat fro m monitor to monitor,
on ionizing radiatio n (or low-le\"c l X-rays) whose

174 Ele c troni c Sensors for th e Ev il Ge ni u s

 ch ildhood cancer in this country. has also perfonoed
Shielding simi la r research on users of electric blanke ts. She has
found a higher incidence of miscarriages among p reg~
Itlli'{)uld be nice if we could pu rchase a radia tion nan I women who usc electric blankets as compared
weld for our moni tors. somet hing similar to the to pregnant women who did not. For users of electric
antiglare shield on the market. but none exist. Be blankets. the following recommendations can be
lerycareful.lhere a re some anligla re scree ns o n Ihe made. O ne. switch to ordinary blankets. If you like
markellhat make a claim of blocking the electric and ekctric blankets. usc one 10 hern your bed before
magnetic fields gh'en off from Ihe mo nitor. M ISt. e1ec- going [0 sleep. but unplug the blanket before you
tricfie1ds.as farns I know. have nOI been re porled to acmally gel into bcd. It is not sufficient to just tum
b.!.\'e any negalive impact upon health. Second. the o ff the blanket because man)' blankets slill produce
magnetic field thc screens claim to block arc in fact an ELF field as long as they're plugged in10 a socket.
lbe\isible-light-freque ncy fi elds gene raled by the Fluorescent lights arc much morc efficient (more
CRT.Those high-freque ncy magne tic fields have not light per e lectrica l watt) than ordinary inca ndescent
been shown to have a negati ve impact on hea lth. bulbs. Because of that. the"• have become the stun-
These antiglare scree ns have no imp;let on the low- dard lightingsyste lll used in mOSt offi ces. indus try.
frequency (60 Hz) magnetic fi elds e mitted that we and now a round the home. Howeve r flu orescent I
ha\ediscussed he re. lights require a ball ast transformer tha t generates a n
There is no easy way to shield the monitor to ELF fi eld. I f you 're using a small n uorescent la mp as t:l
r~ure the propagat ing ELF fie ld. If you are CO I1- a desk lii!.hl. you may want to consider switching to ro
ttmed, one possibility is to use an alternatj\'e Iype an inca ndescent lamp. which genera tes vi rlually no "t-
ELF. Th at also applies to the new ene rgy-saver fluo-
computer monitor. Liquid cryswl t/i"'pltly ( LCD ) and ID
rtasma-display monitors do nOI em it ELF l1elds.
Hov..e\·er their drawbacks are higher cost and
rescenl lamps that re place standard incandescent
bulbs. Thc\'- a rc ok
.. - - -
av for o\'erhead lillhtim~. but \'ou
o
r-t
lower resolution. may want to reconsider using the m for close-up work

- -
or desk lie.hti ne.. ....'j
Te levision se ts fa ll into the same cntegory as com-
Precautions Around the Home puter monitors. Like our monilors. they produce a I.Q
fi eld thal propagates from around the e ntire se t. The
Other sources of ELF exist around the typical home. ELF fi eld will pro pagate through sta ndard building ~
An appliance in the hOJlle Jllay genera te a very strong ma te rials such as wood and plaste r. So if a T V set is I)l
ElF field. but if the appliance is used only a short placed agCl inst 11 wall. the ELF will pro pmm te through I.Q
time, its risk fa ctor is probably low. Electric razors fall the wall inlO the adjoini ng room. So it becomes "j
iIIto this category. Line-ope rnted (pl ugged into a wall important not 10 place a bed against a wall wi th a TV
D
S«ket rather than batte ry-powe red) razors prod uce
c:rtremel~' strong E LF field s lind are held in very -
-
se t on the othe r side. A e.ain. an LC D monitor is a
e.ood choice if .vou ·rc conce rned with ELF radiat ion.
T
~,
dose proximity to the body. but because they a re The small motors in AC-po\\'ered docks produce
')
osed for only a short time. the total exposure or dose ELF fie lds. If th e clock is an aluml clock that lies
tsmlaJl and they arc probably safe. In contrast to the close to the sleeper·s head. it could be giving that per-
dearie razor is the electric blank et. which emits a son a significant dose of ELF radia tion duri ng the
mIlCh lower ELF field st re ngth. but for a much longer night. The recommendation would be to move the
aposure time. clock a si!!nificant distance away. Or purchase either
Dr.Nancy Werthci me r. who first published the ,I
a ba ttery-powered dock o r digital dock thai pro-
epidemiological study showing a correla tion between duces a negligible field .
liIHzpowcr lines and the increased incide nce of •

Chapter Seven Dete c ting Magnetic Fields

 '~
~

C3 A7
Ml 5•
A. D.
A2

c.
A6 "-
v ,<1 r- "

," A ,
I =~ - "
• '" '"
7 02
C6
" c.=.Il'
• 3
6
~02
4 U.
•
~ A5
C5 :
I
C2 • A3
~"
... - ----------- --. -------------_. -. ~ ---------------- ..- -- ----------------~
·l

Figure 7-8 Electrolllllgnetic field llelector eirCl/it

Hair dryers fa ll in the same category as electric based on the I mH c hoke acting as the sensor coil,
shave rs. Because using them means shorl-term. high and the op-amp at V I. a n LF351. acting as a low·
fi eld-strength exposure. they arc probably safe for noise op-amp. The ne twork of C3 a nd R2 form a gain
most people. NOIablc exceptions are people who usc path a nd fi lte r be tween pins 2 and 6 of the op-amp.
them in their occupation. slich as hair stylists and hair '111e o utput of VI a t pin 6 is fe d to capacilOrC-l. An
dresse rs. El ectric baseboard heate rs are anoth er a udio output is provided at J I. 'me output from
putential problem appliance. A minimum of -l fee t of capacitor C-l is a lso fe d to transisto r Q I. which driH1
distance is recommended from such heaters. the indicating me te r ~ I l, Diodes OJ and D2 provide
1(5 impossible to slate at this lime exactly what a proteclion [0 the me te r.llic ELF monitor is powered
safe. long-Icnn dose is because it hasn't been eswb· by a single 9-\'01t transisto r radio ba lle~', through
lished. Effects ha \'e been re poTled a l dose rales as switch SI.
low as 1.7 to 3 mi lligauss. And Ihe controversy sti ll The E LF mo nitor ca n de tect any magnetic field
rage s as to the impact and e Xlent of ELF fi elds 011 with frequenci es between 50 Hz and 100 kHz, and b}'
human health. Try to limit long-tcnn exposure to one using headpho nes you can estima te the frequency of
milligauss or less. Of course. it is d ifficult to kno w the magnetic fi eld. -Ill is low-cost ELF meter is a use·
what your ELF exposure level is withoul a m illigauss ful addition to a ny curious experime nter or science
meter. Using an ELF meier a rou nd your home. en thusiast.
apartment. or work space wiJi enable you to identify The ELF monito r can be constructed on a perf,
potent ia lly hazardous ELF fie lds a nd their sources so board or o n a printed circuit board. as desired. Keep
you can imple me nt correcl ive actio n. wiring be tween component leads as shon as possible.

- -
llie dia2tam shown in Figure 7-8 illustrates a low-
COS I ELF monitor [hat you CHn build, This circ uit is
Re me mber, when build ing the ELF monitor circuit
to pay care ful anemion to the corrCeL polarity of the
extre me ly sensitive a nd provides both an analog d iodes li nd capaci tors when insta lling them on the
me te r and provisio ns for a n a ud io output. so you can circu it board. in order to avoid dama1!:ing the circuit
lis te n to the magnetic fi e ld a t the source. The circuit is upon power-up. Ie socke ts a rc highly recommended.

176 El ec tr o nic Sens o rs f or t he Ev il Geniu s

 pre\'ent major headache s if the ci rcuit fH ils m a chassis box. A ft e r the circuit boa rd and all the com-
terdate and you have to remo\'e the IC Wh e n pone nts have been mou nled. yo u can test tht: E L F
tailing the IC be sure to observe the correct orien- monito r to make su re it is worki ng correctly.
tion. There arc usually n \'o differen t types of iden ti-

-
rs (or intee.rated circuits: Often the rt! is eithe r a
tout on the top of the plastic Ie case. or sometimes USing the ELF Monitor
re is a round inde ntl!d circle. Pin I will always be
the left of the phlslic cutOLlt or in de n ted circle. To test the u nil.lU m o n a td e \'ision. Starting fro m
\'ben finished constructing the circuit board. care- approxim,u e ly 2 fee t away. slowly m ove the sensor
Iy check it over for cold solder join ts and a ny so l· closer to the sel. Once you arc close e nough to Ihe
bridges Ihal migh t huve formed while yo u we re T V. you will begi n to sec the monito( s me ter needle
1>uilding the circuit. Once you a re smisfied with yo ur begin to move across the me ier face. As you walk
inspection. ~'ou can move o n to mo un ting Ihe c ircu it a rou nd checking various appliances. yo u 'lI p robably
board and hardware inside an enclosure. fi nd tha t you can lower your E L F exposure. For
The sensor input j.lck at J I. the headphone jack at instance. one o f my comp u ters has a n external powe r
E,as well as power switch 51 ca n a ll be mounted on supply tha t e mitted s tro ng radiatio n: by simply mov-
tile top front of the chassis box. Once you have ing the power supply fa rt her away fro m my work I
r,elecled your meter. it too can be mou nted o n the space \0 nnother locntio n.t he leve l of rad intion
front panel of Ihe chassis box. ~'I ou nt i n g the me ter in
the chassis box may pro\'e to be the most challe nging
d ecreased significa m ly. O ther sim ple things. such as
cha nging from a fl uorescem desk lamp lO a n incan·
o(1)
.Cl of this projecl. Unless you have the exact size d escen t o ne. will furthe r red uce yo ur expo sure. TIle It
diassis punch. you will ha\'e 10 mark where the meier ELF monito r can also detect a sla tic magne tic field. (1)
islObe mounted . and then d ri ll a nu mber of small whe n it is moved imo or out of Ihe field .
()
boI~ around the inside circumference of Ihe meter
It
template. \'cr:o' close togethe r. Then. you wi ll need to
cut out the metal between the small ho les. a nd fi milly Electromagnetic Field
....
file the crude circle into a smooth ci rcle so you can
Detector Parts List
::l
insert the meter. Next. mou nt a 9-\'0It ban ery hold e r I.Q
on lhe boltom o f the chassis. and secure a locat io n Rl , R3, R7 10K ohm,
fOlthecircuit board within the chassis box. Once all
the switches. meters. and jacks have been insta lled.
1 / 4-wa tt re s i stor
:3:
R2 2 . 2 me9 o hm , 1/ 4-wa tt
r es i sto r
III
\'011 can nJQum the circu it board in to a metal

chassis box on plastic sta ndoffs usin g 'h-inch 4-40 R~ 2 .2 K ohm, 1 / 4-watt I.Q
machine screws.
r es ist o r ::l
R5 l O-ohm, 1 / 4- watt (1)
Finally. you \\~11 need to make up the sensor-probe r es i s t o r
It
cable assembly. Locate a plastic fil m can ister nnd drill
3 small hole in the nOllope ning e nd of the container.
R6 I - mego hm , 1/ 4-wa tt
r es i sto r
....
Place the Sl!nsor coi l ( L I) insid e the p last ic film can is- Cl 100 nF , 35 - v ol t ~
c a p a c i to r
rer:you can glue the coil or wrap the coil wit h foa m
toz:l
....
C2 10 u F , 35- v olt e lec-
and then insert the foam a nd coi l in to Ihe fi lm canis-
t r o lyt i c c a p a ci tor
"I. Solder thl! ends of th e co il sensor to the lead o f a
C3 150 p F , 3 5 - v o l t
mini two-conductor shie ld ed audio cab le. A t the c ap a c i tor (1)
opposite end of Ihe -1- to 6-foot sensor probe ca ble. C~ , C5 2 2 0 u.F . 35-vo l t
~der an IIII-inch mi ni phone plug. which can be e l ect r o ly t i c capa c i to r
inserted into the inpu t jack 10 the E LF circuit o n the C6 100 uF , 35-v olt

Chapter Seven De te ct in g Ma gne ti c Field s 177

 elect rolytic capac itor tered on the direction of magnetic north, as indicated
01, D2 IN4148 silicon by an LED.11mt pemlits a quick, accurate reading;
diod e The project is housed in a p lastic enclosure. is small
Ll 1 mH coil (see text) a nd lightweight. and is powered by a common 9·volt
Ul LF351 op-amp battery. Because the compass circuit is energizedoo1y
Ql 2N3904 NPl'< when it is used to mak e a reading. the battery's useful
transistor
life approaches that of its she lf life.
Ml analog me te r
D cvelopment of a magnetically sensiti\'e solid·
51 SPST on-off s wit ch
state compass is mad e possible through a phenome·
J l , J2 lIS-inch mini
110 n calle d the Hafl effect. discovered in 1879 by
switched phone jack
Edwin Hall . He observed that a small voltage was
Pl liS-inc h mini phone
p lug de ve loped at the edges of a current-carrying gold fril
81 9-volt t ran sistor whe n the fo il was exposed to a magnctic field. Solid·
ra d io batt ery sta te technology now provid es small. low-cost Hall·
Mi sce llaneous PC board , effect d evices th at a re very sensitive and able 10
battery clip, wire,
d e tect E arth 's extre mely weak magne tic field.
sensor c able , c h assis,
sockets, etc. 11le Hall-effect sensor is a small sheet of semiooR'
ductor material in which a bias current flows.. The
Hall-e Ucct output of lhe sensor ta kes the fonnoh
voltage measured across the width of the conducting
Electron ic Compass ma teria l and \\~ 11 be negligible in the absence of a
t1I magnetic fie ld. If the biased Hall sensor is placed ina
I::: Most of us have used a common magnetic compass. magnetic fi e ld with the fl ux a t right angles to the flO\\
·ri which ofte n consists of a light-weight balanced mag- of cu rre nt. a voltage output d irectly proportional to
~ ne t suspended on a pivot. The magnet. free !O rotate. the in tensity o f the magnetic field is produced. Addi-
o is affected by Earth 's magne tic field and assumes a
posi tion in whicb its nort h-seeki ng arrow poin ts to
tionally. the voltage will be a funct ion of the angle
between the lines o f force and the plane o rthe sellSOf.
Q)
Earlh"s magnetic North Pole. The geographical North Maximum H all-effect o ut put voltage occurs when the
~
Pole o[ Earth is of course offset [rom tbe magnetic face o f the sensor is at a righ t angle to the lines of
Q)
Nort h Po le by a bout 10 or 15 deg rees in most areas o f fo rce. a nd zero voltage is produced when the linesof
Q the United Swtes. force are parallel to the face of the sensor. The Hall·
Most low-cost compasses leave something to be e ffect sensor is further e nhanced by using integrated·
I dcsired a nd are us ually affected by any tilt of the case circuit technology 10 add a stable bigh-qualit}' DC
or fric tion in the pi vot. With the development of amplifier to the device. It then provides a usable lin·
I::: solid-slale magne tic detecting d cvices such as H all- ear o ut put voltage. which is sensitive enough to read
Q) e ffect sensors.. it is possible to construct a low-cost. to Earth 's magnetic fie ld (about !h gauss).

:> reliable magnetic compass that has no moving parts The d iagram in Figure 7-9 illustrates the schematic
Q) a nd eliminates the disadva ntages of inexpensi\"e of the H all-effect e lectronic compass. The Hall-effed

en mechanical types.. Because tltis project contains no

mO\'ing o r mechan ically sensitive parts. it is an
devices sho wn at U3 and U4 are three-terrninallinear
devices, which are d ri ven by a regulated 5-\'011 supply
extremely rugged d evice that can lolera te a ll poten - pro\~d e dby fixed -\'oltage regul ator U I. The ompul of
tial stresses encoun tered when hiking or traveling each of the se nsors is a DC voltage that varies linear!}
through rough terrain . Taking a re adi ng on the com- from a quie..cent value of 2.5 volts as their position
pass is quick. easy. and very reliable. with respect to the lines of force of the magnetic field
This so lid-state compass uses a unique detection changes.. A ty pical sen sor has an output voltage
syste m that produces two sharply de fined p o ints cen- sensitivity of about 1.3 millivolts per gauss.

178 Electronic Sen so rs for the Ev il Genius

 9V
U1 C3
S.'...L 3 1 +5V R3
C4
,:0- I 0 R6
, 2 , 1 , U3 ,9V
C1 - C2 2
- OUT
3 Rl 2,
4
-
R5
, 9V
,;-
,
U2;? 1 6'-
7
r---lf-:L- ~- OUT 3
R2
3 11
5
U2:b
, en
U, CD
1 ,
Rll R' ~
R7
<:
R12 CD
/11 2 ::3
1=-
RS
~- 8 R1 3 14 /' +

R9
10 ,
U2:c
,-",-"
<U2od
- I
'" 13
Rl0
,9V -{>'
NORTH
R14
c
b
o
Ql
CD
~
a
- rt
CD
- ------.- -. --- ----------- o
Electronic COIIIIHISS cirCllir rt
•

Two Hall-dfl!ct generators arc used in the circuit ,'oitage of U2-b to be SCI 10 a usable level to d rive Ih e
IDprO\ide \\\;ce the sensitivity of a single sensor. The next slilge.
tlU dc\ices are orien ted in opposite directions so O p-amp U2:d is used as a vo ltage comparator.
thallhe change ill o utput voltage o f o ne sensor will wi th a fi xed refe re nce of about 3 .4 vo[ ts fed 10 its
heposilivc. whereas the change in the othe r will be nega tivc inpul.lllU5.. when the o ne outpu t of U2:b
DCgative as the compass is rOI~H cd. -nl C voltage diffe r- fed inlo the positi,'c input o f the comparator exceeds
ential between the two outpul1crmina ls of the se n- the 3 .4-\,0[1 re fe rence le ve l. the output ofU2:d (pin
a represen tation of the magnetic fi eld inICnsil Y (4) goes high. applying forwel rd bi,IS to Q I. 11ml in
md direction. The ,"ollage diffe re ntial produced by turn illumina tes LED I to indic,He that a ,'o llage
!he Hall generators is red \0 a different ial amplifier. exceed ing the reference e xists at U2:b (pin 7).11Ie
ll!:a.As a result. the output of U2 :a (pin I) will be a use of a "ollage comparator to d e tect the change in
minimum (nUll) when the compass is facing the mag- output voltage of U2:b (pin 7) produces two sharply
IIdic North Pole and a maximum whe n it faces the d e fined po ints a nd allows a mo re accura te d e te rmi -

Thechange in OUtpUt \'oltage of U2:a is too small

nat ion of the magne tic Norlh Pole.
TIle ind icator LED wi ll be illuminaled over a
...
roaIJowa simple met hod of determining the n ull :0
lOItage as the compass is ro tated . Therefore. U2:b is
small arc as the compass is rotated full circle and wi ll
re main off over the rest of the 360-dcgrcc spa n. The
,.....
~ as an im'ening amplifier with a gain of 100 to sensitivi tv control ( R9) a llows adjustment of the p..
farther increase the chanc.e in voltaire. A DC offset.
- -
rnnided by sensitivi ty-adjuste r po te nt iome te r R9
widt h of the arc. Once the twO LED switching. points (Jl
are dete rmined. true magne tic north is the n the posi -
andmltage follower U2:c. permits the DC outplH tion at the cen te r of the arc. Powe r is provided by a

Chapter Seven Detecting Magnetic Fields 179

 common 9-voll butlery_ The circuit drnws abo ut 25 aligned sq uare ly with Ihe rectangu lar shape of the
rnA. and. beca use the compass usua lly is powered for primed circuit board. That way the compass direction
only a few seconds al a lime. battery life is ex tremely will be a ccurate when the project is assembled into
long: several hours of cont inuous compass operat ion the e nclosure.
is a lso possible. Circuit stabilit), wilh a falling ba tlery /I.-Ian)' of the resistors specified in the parts lis\ are
voltage is ensure d by the 5-voll regula lOr. US. Whe ll me ta l-film Iypes. TIle usc of such componcms ensurts
the battery is exhausted and cannol delive r sufficient
current 10 operat e the circuit. the L ED will appear
maxi mum stabilit". ' of the circuit in varvin!!.
. -ambient
te mpera lUres and reduces the need to periodically
dim o r will not illum inate at all. adjust the sensitivity con trol. Ordin a,)' carbon resis-
tors are not temperature sta ble and should nO! be
used in place of me ta l-film types.. Also. it's a good
Construction ide a to usc a socke t for U2.
It is recomme nded that you use a miniature
"Ibe compass c irc uit can be built on the printed cir- momentu ry pushbullon switch fo r SI. This will ensure
cuit board . as the circuit is ve ry compact. The pro tO- that ba lle ry power will nc \'e r be inad\'enently left 011
type is housed in a 2'l:!-inch square by I-inch high whe n the device is not in usc. The se nsitivity control.
plast ic e nclosure that has sufficien t room to accom- R9. may be placed o n the side of the enclosure 10
modate both the board a nd the 9-\'011 butte')'. A a llow ci rcuit adj ustme nt whc n neccssa ,)'. You should
metal e nclosure m ust not be used for this project. as usc a ba ttc,)' cl ip for B l. Bc very careful to \\~re the
it can a lle nuatc o r distort E a rt h's weak m agnetic ba tte ry cl ip with the co rrect pol arit~"
fie ld. lbe power switch and sensitivity control arc
Whcn the circuit bonrd is completcd. examine it
0'1 mounted on the side of the enclosure to a llow e asy
vcry carc full y fo r sho rts a nd cold solder joints. II is
r ope ra tion o f the compass.
much easier to co rrect proble ms at this stage rather
• TIle o pe ra tio n of the e lectronic compass de pends than late r o n if you d iscover that your project does
upon the H a ll-e ffect se nsors be ing placed in opposite not operate.
d irectio ns ,:lI1d exactly paralle l. as indicated in fi gure
Usc a photoco py of the a rtwork in f-i gur.: 7·11 (Of
7· 10. Note that the o rie ntation o f the sensors is de te r·
the top of the compass. You can simply glue it in
mined by the marked face of the device, with pin I
place. Indicator LED I is placed a t the north indica·
being on the left side whe n looking at the markings.
I io n of the compass by d rill ing a suitable sized hole·
TIle sensors must be positioned so thnt they arc
the plastic top whe re the leiter N would be. Be \'ely
care ful when dri lling: some plastics will shatter \\; th

I
~
Q)
>
Q)
C/)

I..t ---- ----~

I Figure 7-10 P/{lCl'lIIem of 111I1I-effect sCl/sors Figure 7-11 CompllH din/master

,J
t
180 Ele c tronic Sensors for the Ev il Genius
txressi\'e mess. Be sure to properl y o rie nt the top of
lheenclosure in accordance with the final posi tion of
When the LED o pe rates as descri bed, the project
is ready to he tested unde r actua l o pe rating condi -
n
..,..
!he PC board, tions. Be fore you start. make sure that the re are no
magnetic fields nearby and the project is no t shielded
J
- -
bva lame mass o f iron o r steel. Whil e holding the
"
Checkout Procedure unit horizontally in any direction. apply power and
carefull y adj ust R9 so that the LED is at the switch-
\\l!eO}'OU are satisfied that a ll the wiring is correCL over po int between on a nd off; while doing this. a llow
checkout procedu re m ust be perfo nned, Be sure at least \0 seconds for the ci rcuit to stabilize, Flicker-
lOuse a fresh 9-\'0It battery. Checkout req uires a DC ing o f the LED is nonnal as the ci rcuit switches back
Ioltmeterconnected to ground and the ou tpu t t enn i~ and forth, Once R9 is se t. ro tate the compass o\'er a
a.tIof Ul. Apply power to the circui t. c heck for + 4.75 360-degree arc or full circle, and no te thut the LED
to -515 mlts. ~'l easu re the resist ance between the 5- will be on over pa rt of the arc a nd off over the rest, If
1-o\t bus and ground: A nomla l reading is about 600 necessary, readjust poten tiometer R9 very slightly to
ohms.. Measure the termina l voltage of th e baltery to obtain this result,llle o pt imum se lling fo r R9 will be
resure that it is de1i\'eri ng li t least 7 volts under load at the point whe re the arc of illuminat ion is as small
toUI. Replace a weak bat te ry if necessa ry. as possible, I
Nn.1. measure the outpul voltage of U2 pin I , and As the compass is rotated ow r the illumina ted arc,
writ)' the mlta!!e range of potentiometer R9, (Com - note the two o nloff poi nts. When the com pass is posi-
"",orientation is not importa nt al this time.) The tioned halfway between those points. it is faci ng the
lohageshould be about 2 to 3 volts O C. Measure and magnetic North Pole, and the sca le indications on its
ItWId the DC "ollage that you observe a t U":a pin I. face indicate all other direction,

~leaS\lre the voltage change at U2:c pi n S as the

-
semithitl'. control is rota led over its e nl'ire ran!!.e, The
Using the Compass
difference between the highest and lowest readings
!boold be about OA5 volts. Ideally the center of the
measured mltage range should he close to the \'olt - Alwavs. be sure that the batten' . . fresh.
is reasonably
age recorded earlier at U2 pin I. - -
and take alan\! a n ext ra o ne before starting out on an
excursion wit h the compass- Note that a weak biltter\,
If necessary. cha nge the val ues of RS and R IO so
will be indicated by a dim or totally unlit LED. Avoid
that the ,'oltage range obtained at U2:c pin R is some-
taking a com pass reading in any area where there
ahat centered about the voltage r<;" lding. at U2:a pin
may be II magne tic fie ld from a nearby device o r
I.This ensures proper adjustme nt runge of the se n si~
whe re the ea rth 's magne tic field is shie lded by a large
tilit),control for the particular pair of Ha ll gcncra ~
mass o f me tal.
100 that are used in you r compass project. Once the
sensiti"ity range is correct. rotate R9 over its ra nge Hold the compass in a ho rizontal posit ion and
ahileobser\'ing the LED. At onc end of the se n ing. rotate it full ci rcle while obser.'ing the L ED. Adjust-
tbc LED should be extinguished. and at the othe r ment of the se nsitivity con trol is indicated if the LED
tDd it should be illuminated, If no\. check the polarity is to tally o n o r towlly off as the compass is rota ted ,
ofLEDI and the orientation of Q I . Check pin l-i of Always allow a t least 10 seconds operati ng time for
the circuit to stabilize. Once the s<;'nsit jvilv control r%j
li~ 10 be certai n it swi ngs from about zero to bat-
Itfy,'oltage as R9 is rota ted over its ra ngc. Check pin is adj usted. it should not req uire readjust ment 1-"
(\)
-
13ofU2:d for a voltage of about 3A volts as set Ill'.
RI1 and R1 2. Problems in this arc,l mal' warra nt
unless the project is subjected to a n extreme change
in te mpera ture, ~
replacing U2. If e\'erything e lse checks out alright. Don '! fo rget that the ekctronic compass circuit P-
- --
dIeck the soldcri nl! before changin g the lC can be used fo r th ings o the r than a simple d irection Ul

Chapter Seven Det ect ing Magnetic Fields 181

 find ing. It provides (I n electron ic means of findi ng
nort h. so it s ho uld be easy to interface the compass to Sudden Ionospheric
olher devices that may need to know where nort h is.
such as a robo!. for e xample. Di s turb ance Rece iver
A slIdden iOllospheric dist/lrba llce (S ID ) is an abnor·
mally high plasma density in [he io nosphere caused
Electronic Compass Parts List by an o ccasional sudde n sol ar nare. which oflen inler·
Rl , R2 4,150-ohm, 1%, rupts or ime rferes with telecommunications systems.
1/4-wa tt re s i stor Th e $ 1D results in a sudde n increase in radio-w31'e
(meta l fil m) a bsorption th at is most severe in the upper melUllm·

u
,...
R3 , R4 , R12 1 00 ,00 0 -
ohm , 1 %, 1 / 4-wa tt
! requCl/cy (NIT-") and lower high-freqlff!Il(Y (HF) ran~
\Vhe n a solar fl are occurs on the sun. a blast of
r e s i sto r (meta l fi lm)
RS , R7 , Rll 47 , SOO-ohm, ultraviolet a nd X-ray rad iatio n hi ts the day side of
1%, 1 / 4- wa tt re sistor th e eart h after 8 minUies. Th is high-e ne rgy radiation
(metal fi l m)
is :lbsorbed by atmospheric particles raising them to
R6 475 ,O OO - ohm, 1%,
e xcited sta tes a nd k nocki ng e lect rons free in the
1 / 4-wa tt r es i sto r
(metal f i l m) p rocess of photoio nizatiol1. The low-altitude ionos·
RB, Rl O 249 ,O OO-ohm, pheric layers (0 region a nd E region) immediately
1%, 1 / 4-wa t t re sisto r increase in d ensitv. O\"er the en tire dav. side orthe
(meta l film)
earth . Radio evil geniuses Illay a lready know thai th~
R9 50 ,OOO -ohm o ionosphe re l<lycr is the lowest layer and is
potentiome te r
a bsorbed d uring the day by sun light. The E layeris
R13 41, 00 0 - ohm , 1 / 4-
watt r e S i sto r the ne xt layer up. foll owed by the F layer. whirh is
R1 4 56 0 -ohm, 1 / 4-watt used for shortwave p ro pagation.
r esi s to r Earth's ionosphere reacts to the intense X·ray and
Cl , Cl , C3 0 . 1 uF, 5 0 - ultraviolet radiatio n released during a solar flare and
volt c erami c c apa c ito r
produces sho rt wave fadcoUi on the day side of the
C~ 0. 01 u F , 50 - vo l t
earth as a resu ll.
cerami c c ap a c itor
Ul AN 7B05 5- v o l t regu- Shortwave rad io wa\'es ( in the I-IF range) are
l ato r I C a bsorbed by the increased pa rticles in the lo\\,-
U2, U3 UGN350 3U Hall - a ltitude ionosphere causing a com ple te bl<lckoUl of
I e f fe c t s e nso r
(Alleg ro)
rad io commun icat io ns. -Illis is where we get the lenn
s!lOrfl l'nl'(! !ndeolll . These f<l deoul.s last for a few min·

cQ) Uq
LEO l
LM32 q qu a d op-amp
re d LED
utes (Q a fe w hours a nd are most se\'ere in the equa-
torial regio ns where the sun is most directly
Ql 2 N3904 NP N
>
Q) S1
tr a nsisto r
9 -volt trans i stor
overhead.
Thc io nosphe ric distur bance e nhances {ong-wm·t
r a dio batt e r y (VLF) radio pro pagatio n. 51Ds are observed and
U)
Sl SPST switch recorded by monitoring the sign <ll strength of a
Misc el l an eous PC boar d , d islant VLF transmitter.
wire , !e soc ke ts . ba t-
tery c lip . etc. Yo u can investigale the p he nomena of Sills by
bui lding a spccial receivcr and a low-cost data-logger
setup. You ca n no t o n ly o bserve when solar flares are

1 82 Elec tro n ic S e nso r s for t h e Ev i l Genius

occurring. you also can colleci a nd analyze Ihe data of free e lectrons. lhe collisio n frequency. and the fre-
and display it o n your compuler. The S ID s reCeL\'er is q uem:y of the radio signal. It is fou nd by a mathemat-
agreal opporlunity to o bserve first hand when a ical integra lion througho u t Ihe e mire 0 region. a nd
solare\'em occurs. and yO ll ca n usc it to p redict when o f cou rse the result d e pe nds 011 wh,H lime of the 24-
radio blackouts will effect radio propaga tion. which is hou r day one perfonns the imegration. A paper titled
ntremely useful for amate ur radio operators.. VLF Signal Propagatioll: A Dis("w;sioll by 510
Obsen'ers by the Ame rican Associatio n of Varia ble
Sta r O bserwrs (www.aavso.org) me ntions re nectio n
VLF Signal Propagation coefficients of Ihe ord er o f 0.6 ;1t night and on the order
of 004 at no on. ·Tltc paper calculates what the sunrise
en
-
Whv. do VLF signals strenl!then a t nighl instead of
~ ~
VL F s igna l stre ngth signature sho uld look like for
ro
getting weaker? H propagmion is basically I~a the certain transmission paths and compares them with
actua l signatu res. -n le resullS were very good.
••
li"J\'eguide effeci. why doesn't the signal d ro p down
at night \I·hen the wavegu ide disappears with the D We can think of the E layer propagati ng the sig nal
ro
la)'tr? Is there some kind of reduced a bsorption a t at night. ·nle n the promine nt sunrise palle rn we see is
~
nighl? If so. where is it taking place llnd why? Also. a shift from E laye r pro pagation back to 0 layer as
lihat accounts for the big fluctumions in signa l the sun rises and forms the daytime 0 layer. Th e sun- I
5lrength at night. ap parently more or less at mndom'? sel patlern is the reverse. A n in teresting feature of
The strength of the recch'ed signal depends on the waveguide mode propagll lio n is that the signal is o
dfecth·e renection coefficie nt o f the region from split into IWO compone nts. which can fonn an itHer- ro
lihkh Ihe radio wal·e re fl ects in its mult ihop path fe re nce palle rn. rT
between Earth and the ionosphere. In daytime the Yo u ca n build .your own S IDs receive r and bel!in - ro
reflecting reg.ion is lower. the air d ensity is higher.
.md the free electron d e nsity is controlled stro ngly by
your own investigation of solar nares and the ir
effects on radio propagalio n. llle Sills receiver is a
n
rT
!be solar radiat ion. At nighttime the re necting regio n simple VLF receivcr designed to be used wi lh a loop
iihigher. the air densit), is lower. and the (ree elec·
1-"
ante nna. which can be placed e ither inside or ou ts ide.
Iron density is controlled by variable ambie n t cond i- 11le receive r monitors the strong VLF signa l fro m the ~
tions as well as variable innuences from electron U.S. t avy 's station NAA 24 K Hz tra nsmitter in C u t- lQ
precipitalion from abol'e. At noon thc electron den- ler. Maine.
sity is about 10 electrons/em ' a t an a lti tude of 40 kilo-
-
llle diae.ram shown in f1 e.ure 7-P illustrates a
- 3::
meters. 100 electronsfcm 1 a l an a lti tude of 60 srDs receive r consisting of two integrated circu its. a I}J
kilometers. 1.000 e lectrons/ern' at an alt itude of 80 Texas Instrume nts Rt'v14136 and a National LF353 lQ
kilometers. and 10.000 electrons/cm 3 at an a ltit ude o f ope ration amplifier. l 11e S I Ds recei l'er begins with ~
b5 kilometers.
,\1 night these fi gu res become 10 electrons e lec-
the loop a n te nna. which is con nected to a miniature
600-10·600 ohm matching Ifa nsfo rmer a t T I. The OUI·
ro
rT
em' at 85 kilometers.. 100 e l ec t ron s/cm ~ at 88 put from the secondary coil ofT} is fed to tll"O pro-
1-"
tiIometel'l. 1.000 electrons/em ' a t 95 kilometers. and
then il remain somewhat th e same up to a t least 140
tection diodes a t 0 I and 0 2 at the (ront e nd of the
rece iver. -n lC outpu t of the diode network is the n
o
kilometefS.J-\ t nig.ht the electron density in the lowe r coupled to a 100 p F capacitor at C I . Capaci tor C2 is
parl of thc D region pretty much disappears. At 40 connected from Ihe outp u t o f C I to ground at the
t"Ij
tilometel'l. the electro n collision freq uency is a bo ut inpu t of the fi rst op-a mp singe U2:b. IC sectio ns U2:a 1-"
ODe billion collisions per second. whereas at 80 kilo- a nd U2:b fo nn a amplifie rlfiiler a nd tuning. The tll/I· ro
ters.the collision freq uency dro ps to one million illg is controlled via R5. which is placed in a shielded ......
collisions per second. 111e re fl ection coefficie n t e nclosure to p reven t circuit o scillatio n. The poten- p..
depends on (among othe r th ings) the numbe r d e nsity tiom e le r is kepi sepa rate in a sma ll shie lded box CIl

Chapter Seven Detecting Magnetic field s 183

 '":hapter Seven Detecting Magnetic Fields
....ex>
~

_ _ _ On _ _ ow ·
~.--- ----- .•. _
.... ... . _- .-- _
... _.- ._-------------- --
F I9U' . 7-12 SI D ~' r cc;ciL'cr ~ ~ . . _.
--------------------------------
~~ _"..:= _ -.-_ ~ • -.:... -. ......... ~ ..
~ ~- ~- ~ ,
. . ..
-.~ ~.
. --- -- ". -
fomled by some scrap pieces of thin circuit board sol- of thi! IC to the le ft of the cutout. Somi! ICs ha\'e an
dered togethe r. n,C ou tput from U2:a is ncxt fed to indented ci rcle ncar pin 1 of the Ie. Thi! use of Ie
JCd and U2:c. which together fonn an amplifie rl sockets is high ly recommended. in order to avoid cir-
integrator section . A final buffe r a mplifie r sect ion at cuit board meltdo wn if a component fail s a t a late r
UI is used to dri\'c the 0 to I m A meter a t the o utput. date for some reason.
The o utput a t ( A ) Ciln be used to feed a low-cost The SIDs receiver utilizes ICs that require the use
data logger. of a dual power supply providi ng. both a plus and
Thc SI D s receiver is best built on a printed circuit minus milage to th e circuit. Because the circui t is
board. although Othe r RF buildi ng techniq ues could meant to hi! le ft o n for lo ng pe riods of time. the use
be used. The rece ive r is rela tive ly simple to build. but of a dual-voltage wnll-powe red power supply is rec- en
the lUning poten tiome ter R5 should be shielded . This ommended. -1l1e d iagram shown in Figure 7- 13 illus- CD
can be done wi th the use of some scm p circuit board
mate rial solde red toget ber to form a small box. You
trates " simple d ual plus-a nd-minus voltage powe r
supply that can be used to po we r the SID s receiver.
<:
\\;11 have to use a solde ring g un or a higber te mpe ra- A 9-mll 500 mA cente r-tapped transfonn e r is used
CD
ture soldering iron to solde r la rge a reas of circ uit to drive a bridge rec lifii!r that provides both a plus ::s
boa rd material. nle SI Os recei\'cr eOlHa illS silicon and minus voltage. where the plus leg is sent to a 5-
diodes that m ust be installed with respect to polarity volt pl us ri!gulator (7805 regulator) and the Illinus leg I
markings o n the diodes. The white or black band on a of the bridge is sent to <l minus voltage regulator (a
diodc's marki ngs usually de note the cat hode of the 79{)5 minus 5-volt regulator).lllc power supply o
diode. Electrolytic capaci tors also must bi! installed coul d be built on pe rf- boa rd o r on a printe d circuit CD
wi th respect to pola rity marking. Capacitors ,Ire gen- boa rd if di!sired. it"
erally marked with a plus or minus marking. Be sure The SI D s receive r a nd po wer supply can be both CD
to ta ke the e xtra time to install these COITi!ctly. The installed in a metal chassis box e nclosure. The proto- ()
SIDs receive r ut ilizes two ICs. which m ust be
installed correct ly to avoid damaging the circuit. ICs
arc usually m ark ed in one of two ways. Often a plas-
type ri!ceive r is Illounti!d in a sloping cabine t. as see n
in Figure 7-1 4. The power supply is mounted along ,...
it"

tic cutOut can be scen at the top of thi! Ie. wi th pin I -

side the SIDs receiver. The tuning control as we ll as
the power switch and meter are a ll mounte d o n the ::s
I.Q

~
l m7805 +v III
1000 I.Q
51 uf + + + ,j
T1 __ .lul . l Ou!
-0' rJ CD
'::l r
- SR1 + I- ,...
it"

t r- + + +
.10 uf
-- ()
PL1 - - .lu!
-{ 1000
uf
F1

l m7805 -v

._-------------_. ----------- ----------- ._----------- -----------_.- -------._-

Figure 7-13 5 1Ds dllal power SlIfJpiy

Chapte r Seven Detecting Magneti c F ie lds 185

 top front panel of the enclosure. TIle power cord is uploading a nd downloading information to the data
lead out of (he rear panel lhrough a strain felicE A logger. Starting times and dates as well as "oltage
power fuse is installed inside a chassis-moumed fu se parame ters and timing be tween samples can be pre·
holder on the rear of the panel. A dual-binding pasl
(banana chassis jack) is mounted on the rear panel to
-
option is the new introductory starle r package DI·
-
se t. TIlese a rc a ercat ahernali\·e. Another data IOl!.I!.er

connect the antenna to the Sills recei\'er. The STDs 19~ R S lO· bit resolution PC data log.ger kit from

receiver requires a ralher large loop antenna. which OATAQ fo r S2~. 95. -Illis da ta logger option is a real
can be placed inside your attic or outside away from ba rgain. providing bOlh hardware and soft ware. and it
large metal struct ures or aluminum siding. -Ibe loop can gel you sta rted recording data in just a short
anten na is shown in Figure 7- 15. time. The company offers many othe r data recorder
TIle loop is a diamond·shaped loop consisting of opt io ns as we ll. Check the DATAQ web site for
50 turns o f sol id #24 enamel-coa led or plastic-coated dela ils 31 www.da taq.com.
wire.llie specific wi re rcquircmen lS are not critical.
TIle loop has nn enclosed area o f about 9 square feel.
TIle lead-in from the loop antenna shou ld form a 510s Research Opportunities
loose twisted pair.nlis balance d \cad-in is rollled as
far away from any metal as possible to the 6QO-to-6£X) You can jo in Ihe fo re most group involved wilh SlDs
ohm matching tra nsfo nner a t Tl.lhis Iransfomlcr resea rch. 'Ille Americall Associmioll o/lIuriuble SIan
a rra ngeme nt reduces 60 Hz hum interference from OIJSl:'rl'crs (AAVSO) S ID Program is made up of
e nte ring the SIDs receive r. solar o bse rvers who mo nitor VLF radio stations for
The output of the SIDs receiver can be coupled to sudde n e nhance men ts of their signals. As we now
a solid sla te dala logger from the output of the know. Earth's ionosphe re reacts to the intense X·ra)
recei\'e r at point (A) a t the recei"er output te nninals. and ultTilviolet radiation released during a solar [lare.
I n o rde r to save and la te r view a nd correla le your We a lso know that the io nospheric disturbance
recorded data. you will need to acquire some form of e nhances VLF radio propagation. By monitoring the
da ta 10gger.lllree good options are available fo r sav- signal stre ng th of a d istant VLF transminer. SLDs are
ing your data. llle first option is the ONSET Com- recorded and indica te a recent solar flare event.AlI
pute r H OBO series o f data loggers (see appendix for SID monitoring sta lio ns are home buill by the
con tact informa tio n). ONSET oUers a n umber of dif- obse r\'crs. A S I D station operates una ttended until
fe rent mode ls fro m S-bit to 12-bi t models. a ll reason- -
Ihe e nd of e ach month. Rccordin!?s are then ana!\'loo
.
ably priced frolll a round $60.00. The data loggers a rc for the beginning. e nd . a nd duration of SlD ewnts.
powered by a sllla ll bunon bailer),. which will last for
a long lime. ONSET a lso offe rs low-cost software for

1:=
Q)
>
Q)
C/}

---------------
---_. --- ---------- --_. --_.- -.- ----- -----
Figure 7-14 Prototype receiver //IOIlIIleel
-
011
-----------
sloping cabinet Figure 7-15 Loop al1f(,lIl1a

186 Ele c tronic Sensors for th e Evi l Genius

 A simple analog-to-d igital cQ[H'e rte r d esign for talum c a p a c itor
ipOOfic usc with the V LF recei\'e rs is ava ila ble by C6 , C7 1 uF , 3S -vo lt
1,..
conlacting the chairman of A A V So. SID o bservers ele ct r o lyti c c a p a c i to r

submit Slrip charls or compute r plms to the SID

coordinator for visual inspection at the end of each
C8 , C9 0 . 1 u F , 3S-vo l t
c erami c c ap a c i to r ,
~

month. Many o bsen 'crs analyz e the ir own strip cha rls
Dl , D2 lN914 s ili c on
d iod e
rt
and computer plo ts. A na lyzed res ulls arc subm it ted (1)
D3 . D4 lN34 germanium
lye-muil lO the AAVSO SlD analvst for correla tion dio d e 11
"ilb OIher obse n 'e rs' results. -Ille final SID report Ul LM3 5 3 op-amp
combines indi\ idua l obse ryer!; re ports wi th the (Nati onal Semi-
con d u c t o r ) U':l
AAVSO SID coordina(Or"s visual anal \'sis. SID eve lll
resullSare sent month ly to the N(lf;Ol/fll G eophysiCllI
DOla Cellla (NGD C) fo r publ ica tio n in the SO/(lT-
U2 RM41 36 Op-amp (Texas
I n struments )
.
to
U3 79L0 5 S- vo l t rli!gu 1 11.-
GtopilysiCliI D(I/(I Report where they are accessed by t o < ( + v o l ts)
researchers worldwide. The red uced SIDs da ta and U' 78LO S S-vo lt regula-
particularly inte resting plols are reprod uced in the to< (- v o lt s )
monthly AAVSO SO/lIr Blllietill ma ile d to all con -
lributing members.
Tl 60 0- t o-60 0 o hm
i n ter st age / ma tc hi n g
I
Ll
tra ns former
l oo p an t e nn a
t ext)
(s ee o(1)
5105 Receive r Parts Li st 51 DPST t o ggl e sw i tc h c+
( on-o ff)
(1)
R1 , R2 . R3. R4 3 . 3K
ohm , 1 / 4-watt r esisto r
Bl , B2 9-vo l t t r a n s i s-
tor r adi o ba tte ry o
R5 10K ohm pote nt i ome - c+
R6
t er (c ha ss i s mo un t )
lK o hm , 1 / 4- wa tt
Mi scellan eo u s PC b o ard,
!C s o c k e t s, wire, so l -
d er , so l de r lugs ,
.....
re s i s t o r c h a ss i s hard war e, ::l
R7 l OOK potentiome ter
s c r e ws , stando ff s,
etc .
I.Q
( PC mount)
R8 100-ohm. 1 / 4- watt
resis to r 3::
R9 10K ohm, 1 / 4- wa t t ~
resis to r Earth Fi eld Magnetom eter I.Q
RI O 47 0 K o hm , 1 / 4 - watt ,j
resis to r
r.,'lagnelic fi e lds arc a ll a ro u nd us.. -nlc e arlh itself pro- (1)
Rll 56K ohm , 1 / 4 -watt
duces a magne tic fie ld. which is why compasses work. rt
re sisto r
R12 22K ohm . I j 4-wa tt
Anvlime a n e lectrical current fl ows in a conductor. a .....
resi sto r
R13 5K ohm poten ti ome -
magne tic fi e ld is generated. Tlla l is why tra nsformers..
inducto rs. a nd radio a nten nas work . Several di ffe re nt
o
t er (PC moun t I devices could be used to sense a m agnet ic fie ld. O ne
Cl 1 00 p F , 3 S- vo l t
c erami c c a p a cito r
of the ones most fa miliar to electro nics hobbyists is
the 1-IHII-e ffect device. Howcvcr_in Ihis section we 'll
...
C2 1 , 5 00 p F , 3S - vol t t<l k ~ a look a t a magne tic sensor that is as e asy to usc
Mylar ~ a p a c i to r
bu t is more sensitive. morc linear. and more tempera- .....
C3 0.00 1 u F , 3S- vo l t
c erami c capa c i to r
ture stable tha n the typical H all-effect d e" ices.. A nd l..
just like Ha ll-effect de\'ices. il can be used 10 make a fJ
C4 1 uF , 3S-vol t tanta-
l um cap a c itor va riety o f instruments.. including magne to me te rs a nd
C5 10 u F , 35 - v o lt ta n - grad iomete rs.

Chapter Seven Detecting Magne t ic F i e lds 1 87

 For those unfamiHar with th em.llloglll'fOIIICrerS are a.xis of the core ha\'c the most effect on the total
used in a variety of applica lions in science lind engi- magne tic field inside the core. As a resull of the
neering. O ne high-tech magnc lOmc le r is used by cxte mal magne tic field s. the saturation condition
Naw• aircrafts to locale submarines. Radio scientists occurs e ithe r e,lrlie r or later than wou ld occur if we
use magnetometers to moni tor so!;, .. activi ty. A Tche- _ . -
wc re d ea lin !! onl " with the ma!!netic fie ld of interest.
010gi515 lISC magne tometers to locale burie d artifacts. Whethe r the saturation oceurs e arly or laler depends
And marine archeologists and treasure hUniers use on whet he r the exlc ru nl field o pposes or reinforces
them to locale sunken wrecks and sunken treasure. the intended fi e ld.
111e earth fi eld magnetometer that we will be A be llc r solution . in this \'crsion of Ihe fl ux-gatl!
exploring uses a flux- gale magnetic sensor.TIlis s<:nsor. is to have two inde pendent cores. <:nch of
device . in essence. is a n oVo.! r-d riven magne tic-core which has its o wn excita tio n winding. A common
transfa nner where the ··transducible·· e"en! is the sal- pickup winding se rves both cores. -Ib e excitalion coils
uration of the magnetic material. ll\ese devices call are wound in a series-opposing: manner 50 that the
be made very small and compact. yet will still provide inductio n generated in the cores precisely cancels
reasonable accurae\'• . each other if the exte rnal fi e ld is ze ro. However. in
l lll!most simple form of flux -gate magnetic sensor the p rese ncc of a n exte rna l fie ld . pulses are produced
in the pickup coil. -1l1ese can be integrated in a low-
-
is shown in Figure 7-16. It consists of a nickel- iron
rod used as a core. wound with two coils. One coil is pass filt e r to produce :1 slowly varying DC signal that
used as the exci tation coil. a nd the othe r is used as is proportional to the a pplied e xtemal magnetic field.
the o u tp ut o r sensing coil . -m e e xcitation coil is
dri\'e n with a square -wa\'e signal with an amplitude
high enough to sanJrate thc core . 'rneCllrTe nt in the
outpu t coil will increase in "linear ma nner so long as Toroidal -Core Flux-Gate
the core is not sa turated . But when the sat umt ion Sens or
point is re ached. the inductance of the coi l drops and
the CUrTe nt rise s to a levcllimited onlv• bv the co ir s
(1) o the r circ uit resistances.
•
-
suffer from two main proble ms. First. the desired sig.
-
The flux-£a tc sensors Iha l usc a linear or slrail!.hl cor\:

If the simple flux-gate sensor was in a magne tically nal is small compared \\ jlh the signal on which it
pure e nvironment.tlten the fi e ld produced by the rides. so it is difficult 10 discriminate properly. Sec-
excitation coi l would be the end of the story. But ond . Ihe re must be a ve ry g.ood m<uch between the
magnetic fi e lds a rc all a round us. a nd these ei ther add cores a nd Ihe excitation winding segme nts on cach
10 or subtract from the magne lic field in the core of winding. AlIhough those problems can be O\'crcome.;
the flux- gate se nso r. Magne tic field lines a long the it makes the sensor more expensi\·c.limiting the
design's popularity.

'"'
(1)
I
A be ller solution is to usc a toroidal doughnut-
sha ped magnc lic core.lllis type of core re lic\'es the
problem of picking small signals in the presence of
large o ffset components. II ulso reduces Ihe drive Ie,·
EXCITATION
els required from the excita tion source. In the
toroida l-core flu.x-g:ll e sensor. we ca n get away with
using a single exci ta tion coil wound ove r the entire
circu m fe rence o f the to roida l core (see Figure 7-11
-m e pickup coil is wound o ver the o utside diameter
._. of the core. A nathe r advantage of the to roidal-rore
Figure 7-16 Flux -gmi' lIlagnetic sensor \'e rsio n o f the flux -ga te sensor is th ai a pair of
j

,J
c..
188 Electronic Sensors for the Evil Genius
 f:reque ncy range of -W to 125 KHz. The de tection sen-
sitivity of the FGM-3 device is +1- 0.5 oersted (+ 50
",
,,' 11//1
I~
J.t Tes la). That range co vers the eart h's magne tic fi e ld .
'l making it possible to usc the se nsor in E arth-fi e ld
0 -"-"
•
----
~ magnetometers.. Using IwO o r three sensors togethe r
provides fun ct ions s uch as compass orienta tio n.
EXCITATION
--
0
- 'l
'l ,,,"""
th ree-dimensio na l orien tation measure me nt syste ms.
,md three-dime nsio na l gimbalcd de \'ices such as
'il virtUlII-real ity he lme t display devices. They ca n a lso
1// \\\\'\
Iii be used in applica tio ns such as Fe rrous me ta l de tec- (J)
tors. as unde rwa ter shipwreck find e rs. a nd in fHctories ro
as co nveyer-belt se nsors or counters. A host of o ther
a pplica tions exist whe re a sma ll c hange in a magne tic
P ICK -UP
field needs to be de tected .
----_._._.-
Rgure 7-17 Toroid fll/x -ga/I' s('nsor The series a lso includes two othe r d l'vices. lhc
FG M-2 a nd the FG M-3h. The FG rvl-2 is a n o rthogo-
onhogonal (i.e .. right a ngle) picku p coils Ciln be nal sensor with two FGJ\'I- J devices on a circular plat- I
installed that will a llo w Tlull measure ments to be Fonn a t right angl es to one anot he r. TIlat o rthogonal
made.The maximum sensitivit y occurs when the arra ngement pe rmits easier im ple me nta tion o f orie n- t:!
magnetic H-fi eld (or the stre ngth of the magnet ic ta tio n measureme nt. compass fu nctioning. and o ther CD
fteld) is on hogonalto the pickup coil. whe re as mini- applica tio ns. The FG M-3h is the same size a nd sha pe rt
as the FG M -3. but is about 2.5 times more sensiti ve.
mum sensitivity OCClirs when the picku p coil and CD
H-field are aligned with each other. A s you can see. Its o utput frequency changes approximately 2 to 3 Hz
per gamma of fi e ld change. with a dynam ic ra nge of
o
\lohen two pickup coils are a t right angle s to each "i-
other,onc will be at max imuill sensitivity when the
other is at a null (minimum sen5itivit\') .
+1- 0.15 oerslCd (abo ut one-th ird o f Ea rt h's mag-
ne tic fi e ld stre ngth) .
.....
The o ut put signal in all tbe devices in the FG M !:l
series is a +5-volt (TTL-compatible) pulse whose lQ
pe riod is d ir ectly proportional to the appl ied mag-
The Flux-Gate Se ns or netic fie ld s trength. This relationship ma kes the frc - ~
que ncy o f t he output signa l di rect ly proport io nal to .J
Acompact and reasona bl y low-cost line of nlL~ -ga t e the magne tic field strength. The pe riod va ries Iypi- lQ
sensors. designated FG M-X. is m ade by Spe ake & caUy from 8.5 JIS to 25 JIS or a freq uency of abou t 120 .l
Co. Ltd. and d istributed in the Uni ted States by Fat KHz to 50 KHz. Fo r the FG M-3. the line a rit\' is about
CD
Ouarters Soft ware (see a ppendix for co ntact info r- 5.5 pe rcent o ver ils +1- 0.5 oe rsted range.
rt
mation).Thc FGM -3 device is the a ile used in this
project. It is a 62-millime te r-long by 16-millim eter-
111e response pnlle rn of the FGM- X series sensors .....
diameter (2.-1-1. inches by 0.63 inch ) de vice. Like all
is shown in Figure 7-1 8. II is a fig ure-e ig ht pa tte rn
that has major lo bes ( m a.~illla ) a lo ng the axis o f the
o
thedcvices in the line. it co nverts the magne tic fi e ld sensor and nulls (mi nima) at right a ngles to the sen-
.trength to a signal with a proportional f:reque ncy. sor a.xis. lbis pa llc-m suggests that for any given situa-
The FGM-3scnsor has on ly three leads: Red is +5 tio n, there is a preferred d irect io n for sensor
VDC (power): Bl ack is 0 vo lts (ground): and White is alignme nt.111e long a.xis of the sensor shou ld be
the output signal (a square-wave whose freq ue ncy poi nted towa rd the ta rge t source. Wben calibrating or
varies \\ith Ihe <lpplied field ). The o utput signal is a al igning senso r circuits. it is common practice to alig n
lminof IUlllsistor-trtmsislOr logic (TIL) co mpatible the sensor along the east-west d irectio n in o rder to
pulses with a period tha t ranges f:ro m 8 to 25 mS. o r a min imize the effects o f Ea rt h's magn etic fic1 d.

Chapter Seven Det ect ing Ma gneti c Fi e ld s 1 89

 FIB
/~"""''\-- -------~·--- ~ ----l----- -------7
-- --:
~ GNO (BLK)

::1:
FGM·3 16mm

, _ '-
_ __ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ __ _..J _ ________ .l ____________ ~__ /C_I---

~1(---62mm' ---~~

MAXIMUM
MAXIMUM
SENSrTMn
SENSITIVITY

B
.. - -- -- ----
Figure 7-18 FGM·3 l1I11gllf:tom eler sCl/sor

do ing radio-propagation s tudies a nd those who want

Flux-Gate Magnetometer to mo nilor so la r nares. It also works as a laboratory
magnc lOll1c ler fo r va rious purposes. The SCL006A is
The earth field mag ne to me te r project depicted in housed in an IS-pin DIP Ie packa!!.c and is shownal
'r- Figures 7- 19 and 7-20 illus trates the circuit for a flux- UI ."Ille FG ~ I ·3 nux-gate sensor is coupled \0 the
gate magnt! to me te r based on the FGM-3 flux-gate input pin at pin 17 ofUI.The reference osciUatorof
sensor. the SCl OOO6A is controlled by components Xl.CI,
C2. a nd R2. A sensitivit), switch. S1. pro,-ides four
TIle heart o f the circui t flux-!!;ate mamtctome
~ 0 lcr
positio ns. each wi lh a d irferenl ove rall sensitivity
circuit shown in Figure 7-2 1 is the special inte rface
range. Swi tch 52 is used 10 reset the SCLOOO6A. when
chip al U1.a Speake's SCLOO6A Ie. II provideslhe
pressed for aboUl 2 seconds.
circuitry needed 10 pe rform magnelometry includi ng
-ille second op-amp at U2. is an Allaio!! Devices
- -
.' It inle!!rales fiel d fl ucrua-
eart h field ma £!.nctOtnctrv.
AD 557 digita l-to-ana log conven er. The magnetome-
tions in I-second inte rvals. producing very se nsitive
I output va riati ons in response to small field variations.. te r circuit is desig ned so that it could be run froma9-
The magnetomete r is of special interest to people to 15-vo lt battery fo r use in the field . Power supplied
!: from the battery is controlled by power switch 53.
(l)
>
(l)
Ul 123 4 GAlN

H "
IMGNETOMETER
,
(l)
~
0-
(I'
Figure 7-19 Magllf:tol11nl'r cumroi box
- -- Figure 7-20
----_ .. _, .... _----
i\lagllf'tolllf'ler sellSor aud reglila/of
,s:. ass/!/IIM\"
•

U
190 Elec tron ic Sensors for the Ev i l Genius
 ns
T O FGM -3
3
I 01----------;
R4 +
Cl l
02 \1 @ )
A
R1
n '" -
:T 1 t.<:'
OJ R3
o /l ..L
m
- - ,-0 O---jll
~ 2 1 ) 1
2 18 I RESET
r 01 '" 1 S2
lJ1 17 r-
m
< t6 L£!.
m 3
::J 15 R2 -L -L C l +9-15VOC
4
~ 1,1 I::l Xl
S3
•
I-
ID 6 1 13
n-
,.'" 12 C3 Ic>J.
ID I +
~ - ~
n 03
--
i-
11 -
- -
~. 1 I2 3
4
"":J 9 I I 10
+5V
'" o t 81
:3
S1 uT IN
U3
1--
'"'":J C5 + + +
ID
j 1
GAIN GNO
~.
"" C~ ~7
n - - --
'1 21314 15 6 17 1..:.
8 ..L-
I--
~.
"
ID
-12 U2 11
.... 13
C.
+ I C4

'" 10 I 9 14 115 11 6
-- I
COURTESY OF
I-
J2 FAT QUARTERS SOFTWAR E
L
- L------~o 0 1OUTPUT
.... ---------------_ .. --- .. --------------- -------- -- ----- ------------,,--- -- .. "---- -- _ _ MOO ' "."

'".... FlgUfE' 7-21 E(m" field I// tlglIl!tolllcft.!r

s PTa~~ ~~~aufi~w fiu~~~a~aa uahas .%a~d~q:::>

 which supplies 9-\'Olls to the regulator. f or stationary rou nding m e ta l. The flux -gale probe is mounled
research. the magnetometer should be powered from length-wise a nd pa ra llel to the le ngth of the PVC
a n IIOVAC to the 9-10 15·\'0\t DC powersuppJy. pipe.11lc FGtvl-3 scnsor and re mote regulator I\ ere
"1l1C regu la tor U3 d ro ps the 9-\'011 in p ut s up ply powe r the n hOllsed in a 2 Y::-inch dia m e te r by 12-inch long
down to 5 volts to power the magnetometer circuiL PVC p ipe . which is sepa rated by a length of three·
The ompu l signal is a DC \'oltuge thai can be moni - conductor cablc.
tored by a slrip-chan or X-Y paper recorder: a \'011- When constructing the main magne lometer circuil
-
meIer or the signal call be fed into a compUier usine.
- board. you s ho uld install IC sockets. In the e\'enl of II
an analog-Io-d igital cOIH'erlcr. In th is project we usc circuit failure at a latc r date. the y wi ll make parts
the output \0 drive a portable mini data logger such re place me nt much easier. Whe n installing the \\\"0
as the ONSET corporation I-I OBO HOS-002-02. You IC s. -vou will need to makc s ure thai -vou cOTTcctly
will walll 10 select the 2S "ol! model logger. You orientated the m in orde r to avoid damage to Ihe cir·
could also eleci 10 use a digi talmullimcter wilh RS- cuit. Most ICs will have either a small indented circle
232 output. which can be fed \0 a computer"s serial on the le ft side of the plas tic pack age or a small rec-
port for daln loggi ng.
-
tangu la r cu tout in the top ce nte r of the plas tic pack-
age. Pin I of the I C is alWaYS 10 the left of either the
- -
indente d circle or the cutoUI.
Construct ion 11le magne to m eter circuit co ntaills both elec-
trolytic C<lpacitors and diodes.. Electrolytic capacitors
The earth fie ld m agnetome te r project shou ld be built a rc pola rity sensitive and I1IUSt be installed correctly
on a tWO sm a ll p ri med circuit boards. The m a in ci rcu it to avoid da m age. Diodes a re us ually marked Ili th a
shown in Figure 7· 21 is conSiructcd on a 3Y.!· inch X wilite o r black band a t o ne e nd: this band denotes the
-i1 12·inch PC board. and the FGr...I-3 sensor is paired cathode end of the diode. Afte r the circuit board has
with a second 5-volt regulator shown in Figure 7-22. been comple te d you s ho uld ins pect the circuit board
Reg ulator U-i is mou nted on a2 x 3 inch PC boa rd. fo r cold so lde r joints as we ll as for solder bridges
attache d to a sheet of flex ible plastic using plastic betwee n PC circuit boa rd lands.. Also look for stray
screws. 11le FGM-3 sensor p robe is then mounted on compone nt leads. which Illay have stuck to the under-
the 2 X 4 Y.! inch p lastic shee t. The p las tic she et is used side of tlte boa rd during the assembly process. These
to mount the probe. ahe ad of the regulator in orde r steps he lp e nsure that th e ICs will llo( be damaged
to give the flux-gate probe some isolation from s ur- upo n power-up. Note that you could also clcct to pur-

--
;
B

C8

Oul +
In
A Flux-Gate
+ U4 +
--f
C10

i-- GND
-= I-
-
C9 FGM-3 Sensor

--
C r
-
Figure 7· 2 2
-
Flux-gmt' S('l1sor probe nsscmlJl-"
- -- ----
,J
t
1 92 El e c tronic Sen so r s for the Evil Gen i us -
•
chase a flu x-magne to meter kit includ ing PC board. the outside probe e nd of the PVC pipe. A Ill-inch hole
the FGM-3 se nsor. ICs. and most other parts e xcept is d rilled a nd tapped in the center of the seco nd PVC
the ,I!.ain switch . which ca n be obta ined from Fa t end cap. A brass nipple fi n ing is ce mented in Ihe
Quarlers Soflware for about $75.00. -Ille Fa t Qua rte rs tapped hole to allow the three-conduclOr cable 10 exit
circuit boa rd pin layout is showll in Figure 7-23. the probe assembly in the PVC pipe. Be fore ce ment-
Now that the magne tometer ci rcuit bonrd hns ing lhe fi nal e nd cap to the PVC pipe you will want to
been complet ed. you can locale a suito ble me w l test Ihe c,lrth fi eld magneto meter.
enclosure fo r your mllgne to metc r proj ect. ' n It' e arth
fie ld magnetome te r prototype main circuil board is
moun ted in a 6 X 3 X 3 inch mc ta l chassis box as en
shown in Figure 7-24. T1le gain. power. a nd reset ro
powe r switches. a nd the power ind icator LED arc
<:
also mounted o n the fro nt pane l of the chassis bo,x.
The magne tomete r's output connect io ns a re bro ug ht
ro
to a red and blllcJ,; bindi ng post o n the front pa nel of ::3
Ihe chassis. A scre w·te nninlll block is mo unted a l Ihe
~ide of the chassis box to a llow con nections be tween I
the main electronks a nd the probe assembly.
The fl ux-gme probe as descri bed earlie r is mounted o
in a 211.: X 12 inch length of PVC pipe. Circuit board ro
guides a rc e poxied to the inside of the PVC pipe to cT
ailow the circuit board to be slid into the PVC pipe. Figure 7· 24 Elmh p dd maglletometer circuit ro
One 2Y.:· inch e nd ca p is the n cleaned a nd ce mente d to board mOl/med i" (/ mellil chassis box
o
rT
.....
, ::3
2
I RED

WH ITE +au, -L FGM-3

to
BLACK
(-) 3::
3 I iJ
MAX
MIN
1 2 3 4 GROUN D
OUTPUT TO METERIRECORDE RIND CARD lQ
GAIN ::3
ro
rT
CtRCU IT
BOA RD 5 1/
.....
IPOWER 0 0 +9to l 5VDC o

R ECOROER POWEA I RESET

G ROUND GROUND
! SA RESET

-
....... -.-. __ .... --
_ - . -. .- --------------
Figure 7·23 Magnetometer PC bOlml

Chapter Seven Detecting Magneti c Fields 193

 C5, ClO 2.2 uF , 35 - volt
Testin g eapaeito r
C6, C9 0 . 1 uF, 35 - v olt
Testing the ca rlh lJeJd magnelOmeter is straightfor- capacitor
ward. Connect a three-wire shielded cable between C7 100 u F o 35-volt
electrolYtic c apacito r
the probe assembly and the main circuit board.
ca, CI l l O uF, 35- v olt
Connect a digital multimc tc r to the output of the
e l ect r o lytic c apa c itor
magnelOmele r circuit anti select the 2-\'01t sening on
01 , 02 IN9 14 ~i li co n
the multimeter. Be sure 10 observe polari ry connec- d i ode
tions 10 the meIe r. Connect a powe r supply to the 03 lN4 0 01 si l icon d i ode
magnetometer circuits and switch Ihe power 10 the Xl 10 MHr c ry sta l
circuits. Put the probe assembly on a nonmetal surface Ul SCL006A magnetometer
and very slowly rota te the probe assembly in a circle. output Ie
As the probe assembly is rota ted slowly. the meter U2 AD-557 digital-to-
should show a significant diffe rence in the reading ana log convert er c hip

whe n the probe is rota led through north . Note. lh al U3, U4 LM7805 , 5-volt
r e gulator
the circ uitry in U I ta kes ahoUl 7 to 8 seconds for a
Jl, J2 wire jumpers
reading (0 be updated , so lhe results wi ll not show
51 four-pOsition r otary
immediately. O nce the probe assembly has been
gai n switch
tested. you can ce me nt the last end cap to the PVC
52 n orma lly open pus h -
pipe. button switch
For solar storm obsen 'a tions.the magnetometer 53 5PST toggle powe r
probe should be buried ou tside away from your S witch

house o r out-buildings to e nsure no me tal influence. Lo gge r HOBO H08-002 -0 2

(O:-fSET)
Sillce the fl ux-gate probe is not temperature compen-
Mi sce llaneous PC b oa r d,
s'lIed. the probe assembly should be mounted at leas t wire , I C socket s,
3 feet unde rground for best results.. A permane nt AC chass is, etc.
to DC power supply should be used to power the
magnetomete r circuits for best results. As men tioned
previously. you could use a n inexpensive H OBO dala
logger. a serial port multimclcr. or an analog-to-
digital card inside your compu te r for data logging
purposes.
Your earth fi eld magnetometer can now be put
into service collecting data on solar storms. diurnal
va ria tions. and more. Have fun !

Earth Field Magnetometer

Parts List
RI, R3, R4, RS 4.7K
ohm, 1 / 4- watt r eS i s tor
R2 1 00 ohms, l / ~- w att
r esisto r
CI , C2 IS pF , 3S-volt
c apacitor
C3 , C4 41 nF , 35-volt
e lectro lytic capacitor

Ele ctro nic Sensors for the Evi l Gen i us

 Chapter Eight

Sensing Electric Fields

The earlieSI 51udy of nalUrc·s wonders began with the

obserwl1 ions rel'lline to sialic eleclricil), or clcclru- Electrostat ic
statics.. ~ I any early observations of Sia lic d eclI;ci l Y
in\'Dlved animal skins and hair and glass or Slone Fundamentals
objecis' TllCSC carlv observalions lead 10 the discov-
ery of e!celTical a ttraction p rinciples. electrkal wan:s. For centu ries people have ponde red lightn ing. lod e-
and latcr the basis for e]eclronies as we kllOw it stones. ,lml SIHIil" e lect ricit), ph..:no lllc non withuu t
loday. In this chn pler you will discO\'c r and Icam de \'eloping eve n rudimentary expla nations or models.
In our mod e rn tech nical world. it is hard to imagine
I
about e leclroslalic fundamentals. elecl rk fi e llis. and
elect romagne tic fields. You will learn Ihat all electro- a nything as dramatic as ligh tn ing goi ng unexpla ined. tJ)
b u t e leclrici t), is usua llv im;sible. and. without e lec-
magnetic ene rgy. regardless of ils frequency_ has ce r- (1)
tain common properties. Two things magic'llly bind
electric and mae.llc lic e llen!." (ogc ther inlo e lecl ro-
k ~. _ _
tronic gadge ts. it is rathe r e lusive. Fortun:uc1y. modem

-
day e lectronk"s experimenters ha \'c no sho rlal!.e of
::s(fl
magnetic radiation. These are the traveling electric

- -
e lectronic equ ip ment from which to slUd)'. Even a
poorly fin a nced e xperimenler can acquire precision
.....
and magnetic fi e lds. which are al ways at ric.ht angles
.
[oeach other. " Iways a t right angles to the di rection equipment that would have se rved proud ly in a mod- ::s
of propagation. and always becoming weake r with ern laboratory only a few d ecades ago. And jun k lQ
the distance thl.!Y uilyel. yards h ave mo un tains of scrap e leclronic components

You will discO\'er applications fo r the classical

that wou ld havc been worth a fortun e to that same
M
lab. Tlle concep ts a re simple a nd ma te ria ls are easy
electroscope. the Leyd en Ja r. the sla tic luhe. as well ~
to obtain.
as how to build and use a cloud cham ber. Practical (1)
projects in this chapter include a n io n detector. an Electrical imeractions a re su rprisingly simple and ()
a few basic laws of electricity mode l the real world
electronic e lectroscope. a nd a n a tmosphe ric e k ctric-
with stu nning p recisio n. A s fa r as an yone k nows
rt
it}' monitor. Adva nced projects prese nted for junior
,ltl "!
scientists include an advanced electronic e lectroscope
and a cloud cha rge monitor that can d e tect and dis-
there is absolute mi nimum q uant ity of charge ~ an
amount of charge that cannot be subd ivided. This is
.....
the amount of c harge tha t a n e leclron a nd proton ()
-
pla~' the charges from clouds tm\"elilH!. ove rh ead. TIle
chapter'S final project is an e lectric field distu rba nce possess. 'IlIIS packet of charl!.e has a magni tude
monitor. which can be used to d e tect hUlllan bodies denoted by (' a nd comes in [wo polari/ies. denoted by
in an e lectrical field and then sound an alarm . The the pl us and mi n us signs (a positive a nd a negati\'c
electric field disturbance monitor could be used for charg~ ) . A ll electrica l charges are made up of these

research or could fonn the basis for a ho me or camp- tiny packet s. C ha rges with the same pola ri t}' p hysi·
ing alarm svstem.
each othe r.
-
cally re pe l each other. a nd o pposite chan!.es a tlmct
 The charge of an electron is genera lly defined as the allracted particles will suddenly flyaway from the
the negative cha rge. A little more thai rod afte r a minute or two- as if repelled. The react ion
6.?40.000.000.000.000.000 e lectrons are needed to is nearly immediate if Ihe lillie pieces of paper are a
make the common unit of charge called the coli/omb. sligh tly damp. Try dropping a damp piece of paper or
TIle uni t of curre nt. the nll/pere. is defined as the flow a tiny piece of aluminum foil past the charged plastic.
of one coulomb per second. Clearly_lhe charge on It will be allracted. btl! as SOO I1 as itlOuches. it will flv
one electron is ral her small. If the d ecl n c chan!.(' on away. The rapid. erratic motion is hard to follow. so
Ihe electron were represented by a tiny drop ofwaler. watch carefully! -Ille charge on the rod attracts the
ODe coulomb wou ld fill a lake more than 30 mi les neutral particle. but as soon as con tact is made Ihe
across and over 100 feet deep_ The current flowing in particle picks up some of the charge and is repelled
a I-amp fla shl ight bulb is equal to one such lake per because like charges repel each other. Dry particles
second! D espite this incredible flow rate. a n electron do not pick up the charge as quickly because they are
entering a short wire al the bane ry might take several less cOl/tillclil'e and remain ,HtraclCd to the rod for a
miuUles to reach the bulb. Obvious!\'. a tre mendolls longer period.
nu mber o f fre e cfectrons <Ire in the wire! Most If you have nc\'cr expe ri mented with stalic
electronic ci rcuits d e al wi th huge numbers of elec- e lectricity. ta ke a few moments and try a few projects
trons. and the discrete nature of the charge carriers descri bed in this chapter. Millikan's amazing experi-
is insign ificant. men! was the result of sound scielHific reasoning
Because there arc 6.24 X (O IS electrons in a combined wi lh an engineering common sense that
cou lomb. the cha rge on a single electron is 1/(6.24 X cOllles onlv from tinkering.
~ - You ha\'e charged
- rubber
(O tH) coulo mbs. or 1.6 X (0- 19 coulombs. R.A. Mil· ba lloons to stick them to the wa ll. no doubt! But did
likan and associa tes are credited with being the first you ever dete rmine if the cha rge on the balloon is the
- - -
to accurately. measure this charge usine: an in genious sa me polarity as the charge on ~'our pocket comb?
llpparatus in what is now known as the Millikan oil- How about the charge o n a glass rod rubbed wilh
drop experiment. Tiny d rops of oil from an alomizer silk? See if you can find out Ihrough experimentation.
were injectcd between two me tal plales with an Here's a useful hin l: Like charges repel: opposites
adj ustable voltage between them. TIle resulting elec- allrac\. Another hint: Glass and silk are positi\·ely
[ric field would att ract one polari[y of charge to the attractive. whereas cheap plastic and fake fur have
top plate. and . if the voltage was just riUhL the force negat ive connotations!
of gravity could be perfccll y balanced. freezing the The force between two ti ny particles with charges
particle in midair. At litis point. gra\'ity multiplied q l and q! is given by COl/lombs lall':The force that
limes Ihe oil drop's mass equals the charge muhiplied one particle exerts on a nother is d irectly propor-
I times the elecl ric fi cld.lvlillikan discO\'ered thai the tiollallo the product of their charges and ill\'ersely
random cha rge on the d roplets was a lways an illtege r proportional to the square of their separation.
mult iple of 1.6 X 10- 19 coulo mbs.
Try Ih is experime nt from elemeillary school.
Obtain a clea r L ucite rod or a black plastic pocket wher~ (j l is the net charge of particle one. (jl is the nel
comb. Rub the rod on your hair. a piece of fur. or silk charge of particle two. r is the separation of the pani-
clo th with rapid strokes. Hold the rod ncar some tiny cles. and eo is equal to 8.85 X 10 12 Nm 3/C C is called
pieces of pape r or sawdust and obse rve the results. the coulomb. which is the unit of electric charge.
Now wa tch closely! Th is force is a \'ector that points along the line
You shou ld have observed the e xpected attract ion bel ween the Iwo charges. lois simple equation can
of the neutral particles to the cha rged plastic. The g ive one food for tho u ght~ If the force is proportional
careful obse r.'er will a lso havc noticed that many of to the product of two charges then why does the
charged plastic rod pick up neutral particles? Bccause

196 Elec tr o nic Sensors for the Evil Genius

one of the charge terms is ze ro, shouldn't the force be leaves hangi ng [reely [rom a wire like a sheet d ra ped
zero? The answer is not obvious a nd may leavc one O\'er a clothesline. The lea\'cs arc usually placed inside
wonderi ng if the equation has a ny real world rele- a glass jar to block the wind.llle wire prot rudes
vance. through a n insulated top to allow for the deposition
When the charged rod is hcld near a small object. of cha rge. A differential electroscope has two isolated
a charge is induced in the objec!. If the object is a supports for the metalleave5. allowing di(ferent charges
conductor. the like charges will be repelled to the far to be applied to each lea[ For the purposes of this
side of the object a nd the opposite charges will be experiment. construc tion can be quite simple. requir-
a ttracted to the side ncaresllhc charged rod. Because ing o nly a small block of styrofoam. two large nails.
the charges arc segreg.lled at differe nt distances. their a nd a couple of stri ps of aluminum foil a bout 4 inches
contribution to the IOtal force will be diffe re nt long a nd 1/1 inch wide. Push the two nails through the
(note the 11," term). llle charges in an insulating foam about I lh inches apart. fomu ng two hangers for
material are not (ree to mo\'e about as they arc in a the fo il strips. Be nd the ends of the foil strips around
metal. bUI the c harges can redistribute on a micro- the nails so tha t the sl rips hang [ree ly.
scopic le,rel resu lting in n somewha t weaker attrllction Collect some charge on your plastic rod or pocket
to the cha rged rod. If a conductive object is touching comb and the n tra nsfer the charge to one of the
a conductive su rface. it can accumul ate a ne t c harge lca\'es by dragging the charged rod across the head o f
because like cha rges can leave the object en tirely a nd the nail O ll the back side of th e foam. Do not touch
opposite charges can accumulate. TIle resulting the othe r nail. Notice that only a little a ttraction or
atlraclion can be quite strong. perhaps a slight repulsion is noted between the
To find out if Coulomb's law might ha\'(:- a ny real leaves! Now touch the head of the nail supporting the
world application you may wish to do another experi- uncharged strip. The two strips sla m toge ther!
men!. This experime nt wi ll require the construction Beca use the strips arc \'ery thin compared to the
of a unique differential electroscope (see Figure 8-1 ). dista nce be tween the m. thc a mount of force due to
The tradilional electroscope consists of two me tal the induced charge is small. Whethe r the charge is on
one face of the leaf o r the OIher. i( is almost the same
distance from the OIher leaf so l/rl is about the same.
Beca usc the ne t charge on the ne utral leaf is zero. the M
force between tbe leaves is alwavs nearlv
• • zero. But
,......
whe n you touch the neutral leaf, the induced cha rge (1)
can sk."yrocket because the re is now a place fo r the
like charge to go a nd a plentiful source of opposite
o
rt
charge (your body).
11
Coulomb'S law appears to be look ing pretty good ....
after all. and the physics of what hilppens whe n a
comb picks up little panicles involves induced
o
I charge. not simply diffe rent levels of charge. A ttrac-
t%]
tion occurs because the c harged rod induces a signifi-
cant o pposite charge. or po/arizariol!, in the othe rwise ....
ne utral objects. ro
A col/lomb can be stated as one amp for o ne ,......
second, a seemingly modest amount of cha rge but p..
actually an e.'l: tremely large clectrost;:l tic charge. (h
----- .- - - ---_. - ----- ._------------ According to Coulomb's law, two plates I yard apart,
Figure 8-1 Differel1lial e/eclroscope each with one coulomb of cha rge. wiJI anrac t o r re pel

Chapter Eight Sensing Elect ric Fields 197

 cadI other wi th billions of pounds of force! Fon u- se\'cral charges a re in close proximity. lhe line of
mu !! ly. charged bod ies usually eontain ll111ch less than force at a particular point witl be the veclor sum of
a coulomb! Ihe con tributions from all of the cha rees.
,
U nlike the gnl\'il<l lional fie ld. electric fields have
\\\'0 polaril ies and can work togethe r or oppose c<lell
c Electric Fields other as the diagrams depic!. Notice how a positive
panicle precisely betwee n the two posit" 'c charges
,... TIle concept of a force field is quite fam iliar to us would experience no force bcc<luse the two fi elds
ea rth-bound hu mans. We spend our e ntire lives in the ca ncel each other. But if the charge is slightly abo\'c
ea rth's gra\'itational fi eld, which seems perfectly uni- o r below the cenler line. it is squeezed out lik e a
" form a nd constant. The lines o f force are clearly ,1011'/1 wate rmelon pi! between wei fin gers! JlL"liike gravity.
- I he direction the fi ne chi na heads whe n it slips ou t the electric fie ld is a force field - whe re the fi eld
o f your ha nds. A lille offol"ee is simply an imaginary intensi t), ill any poi nt is equal to the amount of
line that traces the pa th a n object would take due to mecha nical force tha t would be applied to a charge of
" the influence of a field. For diagramming purposes. it one coulomb positioned at the point . 'me units a re
might be usefu l to associate a line with a ce rtain ne wtons pe r coulomb. '1l1e eleclric fi eld surrounding
amount of force so that more lines indicate more a cha rged Lucile rod can be detected by holding the
force. A person standing on the moon wou ld be
"skewered" b\' fe we r lines of force than a person
stand ing on the earth because the moon's gravita·
,... tional field is weaker than Earth·s. -n le force on a n
object is propon ional to the Iinc density, Therefore
whe n the lines a rc fa r apart. the fo rce is wea k. and
whe n they a re closely spaced. the force is high.
I Re me mber that the line de nsity can be hard to judge
, , because only a few lines (1fe usually drawn.

I Lines of force arc useful also fOf showing Ihe

Figure 8·2 Lilies of force
g.eneral shape of a fi eld. only hinling at Ihe field
I-.
slrengt h <I t any particular poi nt. One could draw so
many lines Ihal they blur toge ther in sh<ldes of gray.
da rke ning in are<lS of g.reater fo rce. but il would be
difficult to determine Ihe direction of the force if the
individual lines could nOt be seen. The fo llowing
figu res show \ypical lines o f force for an anfllcting
bodv and a simula tion of how the lines o f force mii!ht
~ -
look if thousands we re d ra wn . Remember. as an
object Illm'es <l long a li ne of force. it usually e ncou n·
, , ters a cbanging level of force. Lines of force a re rl!adily
seen in Figu re 8-2. and field strength is more easily
see n in the Figure 8-3. which simulates a "cry I:l rge
number of li nes.
The lines o f electric force arc defined to point in
the direction a positive charge would move: so elec-
trons ha\'c li nes of force pointi n!! al the m. and pro-
tons ha\'e simila r lines of force pointing away. Whe n Figure B· 3 Fie/tl of s'I"ellgIIE

t
198 El e c t roni c Sen s o r s f o r t h e Ev i l Gen i u s
rod near the l!leClrode o f a sensitive electroscope. tic of e lectricity and magnetism is used in radios to
Without the rod making conlllCI. the leaves will se nd informa tio n to distan t recei\'e rs.
sprcad d ue to the induced cha rge caused by the fi eld . infrared. visible. a nd ultraviole t light arc no t the
o nly types of waves. Further down the spectrum past
infrared lay microwa\·cs. radar waves. telcvision
EIE!ctromagnE!tic WavE!s waves. a nd rad io waves. Microwaves are thought to~

have been re leased d uring thc Big Bang. which could

After the discovery of in frared light by Hersche l. a h ~l\'e been thc start of thc uni \'e rse. These slow wa\'es
Dan ish physicist named Ha ns Christian O crsted are used in microwa\'e ovens to heat food by chang-
found an electrical current thot could change the ing the align me nt of wate r molecules. E\'c n slower
direction of a compass's needle. And re-Marie are rada r waves. Radar is a n acronym for rtulio detec-
Ampere also fou nd that differe nt e lectrical curre nts liollllllt/ mllging. Radar scanners scnd out short radio
could attracI or repel one anmhe r.lt was in 1865 waves and detcct the echoes from o bjects in thei r
whe n James Clerk ~·I a.xwc ll pro posed the idea of path . E ven furthcr down the spectrum arc te levision
e lectromagne tism . He showed that electricity a nd waves. These waves send ou t so und and pictures to
magnctism were closely related a nd, if made 10 surge o urTV se ts. And the slowest known wal'es of a ll a re
back and fO Ti h. could produce alternating e lectro- radio waves. Radio waves a re produced no t only by I
magnetic waves. which would mo \'c at the speed o f radio sta tions but also by stars and galaxies.
Ugh\. Maxwell then concluded thatlig.ht itself must be A t the ultraviole t e nd of the spectrum a re three CJ)
on electromagnetic wave. o the r types o f waves. all with higher freq uencies tha n (I)
Electric and magnetic fie lds interact in 11 va rie ry of ultraviolet. Directly above (higher in freque ncy) ::s
. A moving electric fi e ld creates a m.um e lic field.
woys. ult raviole t a re X-rays. Wh ile X-rays can pass through CIl
.....
~ ~

Tha t is. as a n electric fie ld moves thro ugh space. it Ihe soft pMts of our bodies, the y can not penetratc
gives up ils e nergy to a companion magne tic fie ld .
l be e lectric fi e ld loses energy as the magnctic fi e ld
bone. This is why they are used today to take pictures
of broken bones. Gamma rays a rc radioactivc and a re
::s
gains energy. ThUs. we see a g radual tra nsfer of re leased by certai n a to mic nuclei. With the ir la rge
I.Q
energy from one form of e ne rgy to a no the r. but no amounts of energy. they are able to penetratc me tal
loss or gain in the total e nergy of the wave. Conversely. nnd concrete a nd kill living ce lls. This ty pe of wave tr1
a moving magne tic fie ld c reates an electric fie ld. thus is re leased by nuclear bombs. ca using m ulti tudes ~
a magnetic field moving th rough space will lransfcr of dcstruction. (I)
its energy grudually to a companio n e lectric fi c ld. The highest-energy and most fr equent waves a re o
A static o r unvarying electric field will produce a cosmic rays, Tlley a re made up of particles of atomic cT
static magnetic fi e ld . A varying electric fi eld prod uces nucle i, e lectrons. lI nd gamma rays. The eart h's at mos- Ii
a varvim.!.
. ~ -
ma2nctic field. The reverse is a lso true. A phere protects us from these wa"es. wh ich come from .....
static magnetic fi eld produces a static electric fi e ld. If
the magne tic fi e ld varies so too will tbe electric fi eld.
OUler space (see the elec tromagne tic spectrum chart
in Figure 8-4). Electromagne tic radiation exists a ll
o
Whe n a n e lectric a nd magne tic field va ry in around us and throughout space. It is produced
strength O\'e r time. thcy form e lectromagne tic waves. through the inte ractio n of e lectric a nd magnetic fie lds.
A now of electric curre nt creutes a corrcsponding These two fie lds always exist togethe r.
magne tic fie ld. If the current now is unvarying. the Waves are measured by the ir le ngth (wavelength)
magnetic field wi ll not vary and no electromagne tic a nd by th e rrequc ncy with which they pass a point in
waves are produced . A varying. or oscilla ting. fi eld space (freq ue ncy). The le ngth o f a wave is usua lly
will produce a cha nging magne tic field. Toge the r. measured in me ters. The freq ue ncy is measured by
changin!! electromagnetic fi elds produce e lectromag- the numbe r of wave-s o r cycles that pass a given point
netic radiat io n that travels in waves. n lis characteris- in o ne second. O ne cycle per seco nd is called a h eriZ

Chapter Eight Sensing Electric Fields 199

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(lro moet ....)
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,0'

---- ---- -- -------------,-_. ---- -. --

Figure B-ll E If.'CIr<JI1I(lgllelic: spectrum chari

(/-I ::').111e shaner the wavelengt h the highe r the fre- works! '111e classic electroscope is constructed in a
q uency of the radiation. n le higher the freq ue ncy_ the lurge clear glass jar or bottle with an att ractive brass
more e ne rgy the wave has. wire hanger fo r the foil le aves and a polished brass
Electromagne tic radiat ion always travels at the knob a llhe top for the electrode (as seen in Figure
speed of light in a vacuum . or nearly the speed of 8-5). Labora tory-grade electroscopes usc extremely
light if it is traveling thro ug h a medi um of some kind. thin gold foil to minimize the weigh t a nd the refore
The speed of ligh t is approximately 300.000.000 mc!Crs maxi mize the de nc,ctio n. Sim ilar voltage sensitivities
pe r second (300.000 kilometers pe r second). For prac- may be achieved with al uminum foi l if very long
lical purposes we can say thaI radio waves a lwavs le aves are used. 'nlese larger iea\'es will make the
Iravel at the speed of light. electroscope more sensitive. And because the cap"cif}'
o f the electroscope will be higher. more charge will
\ Vhile the wavele ngth and the frequency of radio
be necessarv, but Ih e sensiti\'it y to volt age can still be
I wavcs will vary, the speed of light does not. Th ese
three aspects of e lectrornagnclic radia lion are relaled
quite good.
~ 0 _

to one anothe r and Cil n be described using ma lhe-

malical fomlUl as,The fo llowing form ula can be used
10 delemline either the frequency o r Ihe wavelength
if vou know one of t he two:
Wavclc nglh = JOO f Frequency in i\ IHz

Building a Classic
Electroscope
E ven though the electrosco pe is a bit obsole te. it slill
possesses chaml and e legunt simplicity. And in facI it
Figure 8 -5 Eleclroscope

200 Electr on i c S en sors for the Evil Genius

 Various chemistry bea ke rs make att ractive e lcc~ Na med for ils discovcry by the physicist Pict..':r vall
troscopes wj th necks su itable ror sto ppe rs a nd wide Musschenbroek at the Un iversi ty o f Leyden in the
chambers fo r the leaves. It is usuallv desirable to lIlid~1 700s. a Lt'.wlt-II jar is a de\·ice that early experi-

choose il wider jar than the wine boule so that the me nters used 10 help build and store elect ric e ne rgy.
leaves do not become a tt racted to the g.lass when Ii was also referred 10 as II cOl/del/ser becausc ma ny
highly charged. Hani!:ing short leaves can be a bit people though t or electrici ty as Quid or maile r tha t
tricky beca use th ey must swi ng independc ntly. G ivc cou ld b~ conde nsed. Today someone fam iliar wi th
one leaf arms fo r hanging like a pe rson hanging from eleclricallenni nology would cali it a capadlor.
a bar. The other leaf has a single narrow aml in the l3 asically. the Le yden jar is a cylindrica l conta ine r
middle like a monkey hanging by its taii! The two made of a die lectric (that's an insulator. like plastic o r "'Y1
lea ve.s can move awav frolll each other without the
pivot points in terfering with each o ther. -Illc long
glass) wi th a layer o r metal foil o n the inside a nd on ,...-
the oUlside. With the oU lside surface grounded. a lQ
leaves in the picture we re simply attach ed to the
screw on the top because they nre long cnoul!h 10
charge is g i\'(~ n to the inside s urface. TIlis gives Ihe
oUlside an equal but opposite charge. see Figures 8-6
::r-
fl ex. Smooth the lea\'es by gently rubbing them with and 8~7. Whc n the outside a nd inside surfaces a rc
rt
-
a unger al!ai nst a fl a t surface.
-
If you wish to make an electroscope with a scale.
connected by a conductor ... SNAIJ! You get a spark
and eve rything re turns to nomllll. l 11e a moun! of I
replace one of the lea\'cs wi th a stiU strip of metal or charge one o f these de vices can store is reluted 10 Ihe
copper-elad circuit board. Faste n the fl exi ble lea f to voltage a pplied to it multiplied limes its cupaci la nce. fl
the stiff le ur at the lOp and place a pape r scale be hind In simple tenns. capacitance de pends on (I ) the llrf.'{/ ro
the leavcs. lf the fl exible leaf is at least ~~i n ch wide. it of the foil or metal. (2) the lyPl! o/II/(/feri(ll between ::l
will be stiff e nough a nd therdorc wilt not twist a nd the two layers o f fo il. and (3) th e thickl/ess (ge ne.ra ll y Ul
stick to the scale. Enclose Ihe scope in a large, clear the thinner the better) o f that material.
,... -
plastic box wi th sqUltre sides (the type sold for deco- A more modern \'crsion is made by lining the
rative purposes will do nicely). A colored Lucile rod inside a nd coating Ihe outside of the jar with aluminum
::l
mounted in CI wooden handle makes H nice accessory foil. the reby form ing. two capacitor phlles. The a Urac-
lQ
for this unique cOIl\'ersation piece. Actually_ ordina ry tion o f opposite charges be tween the two plalcs gives
glass bottles are infe rior to dear plastic bottles due to the foil Leyden jar the capaci ty to store a significant
surface conduct ivity. So. if you wan I the very best pe r~ cha rge. TIle outcr fo il is usually the grol/lul plllle. and
formancc. consider using a dear plastic jug.. the inner fo il is the hut {Jlme. A connect ion is madc
be twee n a n e1ectrodc on the top of the jar and the
foi l with a wirc o r metal chai n.
The Lcydenja r in the Fi gure S-7 was made from
Building a Leyden Jar an empt~· spaghc tti sallce jar. a rubbe r stoppe r, <I long
screw. aluminum foil. and black elect ric<ll tape. Spray
Afte r c:xperimenting with a comb and a n e lectroscope
fo r a few min utes. lhe expe rime nter will notice tha t
the elect roscope lea\'es can be charged in s teps: Each
touch of thc comb causes more defl ection. Th e leaves
- -
accumula te the bits of chnr!!c a nd the volla!!e builds.
Bigger le:I\'cs will require more cha rge to achicve the
same volt age bc:c,mse the electrons arc spread over a
larger area. If we coal the e ntirc inside o f Ihe jar with
al uminu m. the capaci ty of the ja r to hold charge will
be much highe r. Fig ure 8-6 Lt'.w/m jar

Chapter Eight Sensing Electr ic Fiel ds 201

 Cabinet kno bo< Bui lding a Static Tube
other round metal
ball A slat ic tube is a simple way 10 charge a Leyden ja r
(see Figures 8-8 and 8-9). A static lUbe consists of a
piece of PVC tubing with some fur. wool. paper
lowel, chamois.. or other malerial wrapped around it.
You can construct your OWI1 stalic tube. first obtain a
Metal Foil piece of -X-inch diameter PVC pipe about 4 feet long
a nd a piece of collon fabric. To operate. simply hold
Bead Chain
if- the fabric or pape r with the left hand wrapped
around the pipe. Then push and pull the pipe through
the fabric . using large strokes. while holding the pipe
J near some fine wire tip pickups 10 collect the charge.
l'
TIle wire lip pickups can be connecled to a Leyden
jar or elec('roslalic motor. It is also a good idea \0
-------------------------.-------------------------------
Figure B-7 Leyden jar imerior hold in the left hand. along with the fabric. a p iece of

- -
me tal that is connected to i!Tound. This gives the !len-
-
adhesive was used to affix the foil to th e inside surface e rato r a good volta!le reference poim and keeps the
a nd the e lectrode connection was made by ta ng ling a bod y (ro m building up a big charge that will zap you
long p iece of bare wire with some of the fo il o n the the next time you touch a grou nded object. With the
inside and faslCning the o ther e nd to the screw with spark gap set at aboul L/~ inch. a spark can be produced
e lectrica l tape. A ground wire was fastened to the across it with almost every stroke of the pipe.
outer fo il. and the foi l was wrapped with a coating o f
fiber tape fo r protection . A I-inch gap was le ft at the
top o f the jar for insulation. This gap should be
cleaned with alcohol a nd wrapped with electrical
tape to e nhance the insu lation.
The Leyden jar may be tested by connecting it to
an electroscope with a stiff wire that touches only the
electrodes. A few discharges from a ch a rged pocke t Figure B-8 Simic Ilfbe

comb or p lastic rod sho uld give a n indication on Ihe

I electroscope. If the electroscope discharges quickly.
there may be lOa much leakage-probably due to the
glass being dirl)' or too much h umidity in the air. As
with the electroscope. you will have an easier time
with a clear plastic jar (try a peanu t butter j a r). Elec- COTTO N
F AGRIC
trosta tics experiments arc best perfomled on d ry
days! If everything is working well. charge the Ley- Electrostatic Generator
de n ja r with repeated comb charges and then brin g
you r finge r near the electrode whi le ho ldi ng the
ground wire in the o ther hand. Yo u should get a
spark. and the electroscope will indicate a sudden
d ro p in charge. --------------------------_._---------------- _. ------.
Figure 8-9 E1l'clrosllIlic gl'lIl'rlIlOr

202 Elec tro nic Sensors for the Evi l Genius

 it will pick those things right up. If yo u hold il over an
How to Charge a Leyden Jar ann. it will make the hair stand on e nd. A dramatic
with a Static Tube way to demonstrate repulsion is 10 hang a balloon
(rubber nOI ]\'Iylar) by a string. then charge the bal-
SCI the jar sOlllewhere so that the OUlside surface is loon by rubbing it wi th fur. !\'!ove the charged l ube
grounded (not o n a glass table or on a plastic con- nea r the balloon and you \\ill see \'c ry clearly that
tainer. for example) or have some one hold il (even like charges re pe l. Yo u can do similar things with
better). Gel your slatk-gene rating lube and hold il so pi ng pong balls on a foam plalc. or perhaps a plastic
lhal the tu be is right above the ball on top o f the soda bOil Ie. For more informatio n on slatic electricitv
Leyden jar. The closer the be tte r. The hand ho ld ing experiments sec the following websites:
the sliding pad remains still. I find il helpful wanchor
www.amasci.com/e mot o rlsl a te lec.h IIII I
,.....
my e lbow by resling it on the table. 'llie o th er hand
slides the tube back and [orlh. -n lis p:1rl requires www.alaska.nct/ - natnkell/staticgen.h lm
some fin .;sse: You have to draw the lube across the www.ste vcspa nglerscicn cc.comlca legory/ l 01
ball on lh e jar so that th e chargc on the lUbe "goes
into" the jar. If you listen carefully. you can hear this
happen. and . in a very d ark room. you can seL' it (give I
your eyes time to adjust). Th ere is no problem if the
lUbe touches the ball except that you might knock
Simple Electronic
the jar o\·er. After seve ral strokes.. the charge that Electroscope
builds up is sufficient 10 create a \'isible spark whe n
the Le yden jar I:> dischil rged. Figun.: Sol 0 illumates a The cin:ui t shown in Figure 8-11 is a simple electro nic
stal ic tube cha rging a Leyden jar. version o f the classic e lectroscope. which is quite use-
f ul for detecti ng electrosta tic charges. A sma ll metal ••
sphere of wh ip an te nn a is being uscd as thc sensing
Other Expe riments that Use antenna a nd is coupled to the sim ple e lectrometer via
a n RC1-\ jack. The input RCA connector is fe d
the Static Tube d irectly to a high-value I-megoh m resistor. Capacitor

-111i5 lube works !!.rcal for demons trll tim~ the a ttractive
1)
~ ~

a nd repul sh 'e powers of e lectrici ty. If you charge it up

and hold it over bi ts of paper or ot he r ligh t materiaL
/ SMALL METAL SPHERE l
OR
WH tP ANTENNA
t
p,
J,
....
R' (J
C,
0,

S, R2
~
-- R3

9-VOLT
...-=-
, B,
M'
BATTERY 1 L
Y
-
Figure 8 -10 Swtic wlJe charging (/ Leydel/ jar Figure 8-\1 Electrol/ic electro.w:ope eircl/it

Chapter Eight Sensing El e ct ric Fi elds 203

 CI is used to red uce AC noise. b Ui Jowers the sensi· loll 2 00 u A cu rr e nt mete r
livi!\'. a lin". bi t. The l>JrPFI02 FET transistor and R l 51 SPST toggl e ~ witch

form a vohllge divider. When the FET s gate is earth Bl 9-vo l t t r ansis t or
ground ed. the d ivider's outpu t will be abo u t 4.5 volts. radio batte r y
gh'ing a half-scale reading on the me ie r M I. The sen- PI RCA plug
sitive meter is a 200 uA melcr.A positively charged Jl RCA chass i s jack
object (l ike a cotton-rubbed glass) will give u positive Antenna smal l metal
Sph er e o r whip antenna
de fl ection fro m half-scale. nod a neglll ively charged
o bject (a plastic comb) will give a nega tive me ter Mi scellaneous wi r e,
battery clip, per£ -
defl ect ion.llle enti re circu it can be buih in a few boa r d
minutes using a perf-board or circuit board. The whole
circuit including the 9-\'011 transistor rad io battery
will fi t in a small me tal chassis box. For best resulls
the electrome te r sho uJd be ho used in a me ta l box Ion Oetector
and connecte d to an eart h ground if possible.
An ion detector detects static charges a nd free ions in
the air (see the ion detector c ircuit shown in Figure
Simple Electronic 8- 12), 1l can be used to ind icate the presence of ion
e missio ns. Healt h enthusias ts might use the ion de tec-
Electrometer Parts List
tor to detect bene ficial negali\'e ions near wate rfa lls
Rl I - meg Ohm, l / ll - wa tt , or after a rain stoml. 'In c ion detector ca n he llsed to
S\ resisto r d e tect leakage of high voltage in power supplies and
R2 ISOK ohm, 1/ 4- wa t t, radiation circuits. 'Ibe ion d e tector can a lso be used to

R3 " r e sistor
33K ohm, l / ll - watt ,
d e lect sta tic e lectricil)' and e lectrostat ic fields around
your home or workshop. The antenna o r charge
S\ r esisto r
collector can be made [rom a short piece of bare #12
Cl 220 pr , IOO - volt
capacito r or #14 copper wire. The an te nna is then fed to a 100,
Ql MPFl O2 f[; 'I' t r ans i s - megohm resistor. which is coupled to the first transis-
to< tor. a 2N2907, at Q 1. The emitter of Q I is next fed to

ANTENNA
I 01
RCA PLUG
2N2907
RC\ t

~
JACK 03
2W2222
R1 c
100 MEG
02 c b 81
~C1 b ,/
~ , a
,,
470pf
--'"
2W2907
e R2
10K
,---- - -- , M1
-1-
~
,
J.
9V BATTERY
R3 -
EARTH GROUND 5K J. +
100MA
OR
ALUMINUM TAPE -

.. --- ._--- _ .. ,---, ----- .' . _----.- .. . . --.

Figure 8-12 /011 (if:'ieCior circllii

204 Electroni c Sensor s f o r the Evil Geniu s

the base of a second transistor a t Q2. The outpu t of An t enna 6 - i nc h whi p
the second-stage amplifier at the collector of Q2 is antenna

finally sen t to the base of tra nsislor al Q3. a 2N2222. Gr ou n d e ar t h grou n d or

aluminum plate
111e o u tpu t of th e e mi ller a t Q3 is then coupled to
Mi sc ellaneo u s PC board,
the LED indicator. The o verall sensiti\'ity of the circ uit wire , battery c lip ,
is controlled by pOlentiomeler R3. A 100 u A meter a t et c .
~\'I I is used to p rovide an indication of the presence of
ions nearb\'
•
.
TIle ion de tector circu it is powered by a 9-voh
transistor radio bil lter)'. Switch S 1 is used to apply Rtmospheric Electricity
powe r to lhe circuil. The ion de tcclOr circuit can be
Monitor
readily buih in less thH n an hour on a perf- board or
circuit board. For best resuhs. a small a luminum chas-
Nearly everyone is familiar with ligh tning. a vcry
sis box should be used to house the ion de tector circuit.
dyna mic exam p le of e lectricity in the a tmosphe re.
The short antenna has an RCA pl ug sold ered to one
This a nd smaller e lectrica l d ischarges in clo uds a re
end . which mates to an RCA jack on the chassis box.
which is then coupled 10 the ion de tector circuit. The
the prima r)' cause o f radio Sla tic. The atmospheric
electrici ry mo nitor. ill uslnltcd in Figure 8-13. can be I
power switch. L ED. and meIer can a ll be mOUllled on
the top front of the aluminum enclosurc. This circuit
used to measu re a tmospheric e lectricity.
en
should have some sorl of a ground connected to it.
If a need le is fas tened to an insu la ted wire al the
top o f a IO-meter pole . e lectricity wi ll fl ow fro mlhe
ro
..,
The ground con nection can be made by ei ther to uch-
eart h to the a tmosphe re or vice \'crsa. Under fai r-
ing the :lluminum foil electrode wi th your hand or to (Jl
-
an earth ground.
weather skies. Hu le if a ny current flow can be de tected
wil h th is device because sevcral lhousand vo lts are
,....
needed bcfor.! an o rdina ry needle can "go into :::l
Ion Detector Parts List
corona." H owc\'cr. if a n air-ion iz.ing source such as a I.Q
cart ridge of rad ioact ive polonium is mou n ted at the
lOp of the pole. it prod uces a loca.li1);!d zone of ions
R1 I -megOhm, 1/ 4-watt.
thai serves as an effective electrical connect ion to the
trl
5 , re s i sto r
R2 1 0K ohm, 1/ 4- w8tt,
5 , resi sto r
atmosphe re. Using this device in conjunctio n wi th a n
ult rase nsitive micrO<lmmelC r will a llow you to easily
'Cl">"'
R3 5K ohm potent i ometer measure currents as low as 0.01 microampere. This is o
(c::hass i s mou n t)
the type o f fa ir-wea the r current tha t p rod uces a n -t
C1 4 70 pF , 35 - vo l t,
electrical gradient near tht' eart h of +60 to + 100 i
capac:: i to r
0 2 2N2 907
vo lts pe r meter. ,....
Ql ,
t ra n si sto r As the a tmosphere becomes cloud y. the coro na o
Q3 2 N2222 t ra n s isto r current increase s u nti l values as h igh as 5 to 10
Dl r ed Li:D microam pe res may be obse rved. ind ica ting the grow-
loll 100 uA panel mete r ing p roximity of a thunders tor m. TIle electrical g rad i-
51 5 P5 T tog gl e switch ent under an aclive Ihunderstonn often shows values
Bl 9 -vo lt t ransi s t o r of 5.00n to 10.000 vo lts (p lus or m inus) p e r mete r.
ra d i o b att ery A n umbe r of d evices a re ava ilable for mcasuring
PI RCA p l ug a nd studyi ng the e lectricity of thc a tmosphere. so me
Jl RCA c h assis jack of which are high ly so p histicate d and vc ry expe nsive.

Chapter Eight Sensing Electric Fields 205

 _ _ Radioactive
strip Of needle

Weatherproof
insulators
10 meier mast

- - Mast
/ Binding

• Support post

Single conductor
Earth shielded cable

\
Insulated
Figure 8 -1 4 ;\lI(ellll(l delector lIssembl\'

wire
Ullrasensitive
microammeler
-- oUidoor shelte red place. NOle thai placing an
Ground
•I alllcnfla outdoors. high on 11 pole. aels as a Ii~hlnin g
rod. therefore be extremely careful when using this
Fig ure 8-13 Almospheric electricity mOllitor
s\,stcm
. -
during an electrical stann. When the system is
not in use. the an te nna shou ld be shorted 10 a good
TIl is project o ffers a si mple. ponable. and highly eart h grollnd. l 11c meier display is an uitrasensil jvc
info rma tive device that will a llow you to do your own microammcter. which can be read ily located thro ugh
atlllospheric e lectricity resea rch. At the hean of the Newa rk Electronics. nle air ioniz.ing radioactive car-
atmospheric e lectricity monitor is thl." a ntenna system. tridge is available frolll Nuclear Products Co. (see the
A fou r-section te lescopi ng a luminum rad io mao;! appendix for contact info).
(four 2-ffi eter sections) can be used as Ihe detecting
pole or nntenna. TIle insulators clin be moullled on
,.c the to p end of the masl with a single-conduclOr poly-
)
•
styre ne insul ated cable carried down inside the pipe Rdvanced Electrometer
to the se nsing instrument (as shown in Figure 8·14).
In order for Ihe syste m to operate effectively. the 'Ine fi e ld of ekctrosHHics concerns itse lf with charges.
a tmospheric electricily 11I0 niIOr must he referenced potelllinis. and fo rces and is ofte n conside red to have
\0 ground as shown. A 4- to 6-foot-Iong copper firs t been studied in the late eigh teen th and early
ground rod should be driven into the ground as the nincteelllh centuries. lntoday's modern world. elec-
refe re nce electrode. When the weather is seye re. trodynamics is the domi nant study in electrical engi-
microammeter readings should be made from an neering. Electrostatics is making somewhat of a come
I
..c:
t
206 Electr o nic Sen so r s f o r the Ev il Geni u s
back. a nd (he forces a nd charges invoh'ed can be superlat ive o ne. Keithley Instrume nts a nd Victoreen
used for a number of novel purposes in o ur day-to-<lay are major suppliers of these specialized instruments.
lives. X erogmphy. or the process of copying images 'n lis project will supply the experi me mer with
by the action of ligh t o n an electrically charged pho- sche matics and a broad o verview for assembling a
toconductive surface. is a prime example. first class e lectrome te r wi th a very m odest o utlay of
The expe rime nlCr can ann him- o r herself with an cash. -nle advanced electromete r circui t depicted in
old classic e lectroscope and invest igate a number o f Figure 8- 15 is a un ity-gain impeda nce translalOr or
rathe r large e lectrostatic effects. In order to gain real e lec tromete r a mplifier. in th e strictest se nse. as Ihe
insight and do more subtle and difficult expe riments. experime nter will have to supply the readout system
a n electro mete r is oflen needed. The e lect ronic elec- (us ually a VOM or oscilloscope). It will be assumed
tromete r is nothing morc tha n a n ordina ry \'olrmerer tha t the experimen le r has a mod icum of experience •
(VOM). TIle difference between your digital VOM in assembling simple electronic ci rcuits.
and the e lect rome ter is one of input impedance. TIl e adva nced e lectrometer has u frequency
which rela tes to the amou nt of load the instrume nt response ll ro und 10 H z. which is limited by the low-
places on the circuit under test. Most good e lectrom - pass ril ter circuitry so no special PC boards arc needed.
eters have a n input impedance orlOO te rraohms. This Point-to·point or wire-wHl p-type connections are all
is tens of thousands of times greate r than the a"e rage lhat is required. Yo u could a lso assemble this circuit I
electro nic YOM ( I to 10 megohms). It will immedi- on the simple pad per hole. 1 X 3 inch circuit boa rds
ately a maze the experimente r just how e lect rical the found in your local Radio Shack Slore. The key poin t
world really is. once anned with an e lectrometer. is shielding and insulation. The {rant end o f the system
ivlodern e leclfo nic electrometers are very expen- uses iI special precision CivlOS FET IC by National
sive. Five-thousand dolhns will buy a fair ly nice Semkond uctor (U"fC 6081). which can be purchased
instrume nt, while $10.000 would be needed for a from D igikcy e lectronics. 'lllC o nly other IC is an

9V
Sl:a + ..
HINCH
SPHERE
o-:'-jIIIl'B111' tyl
.......
('1)
+9V

R3 R4
+9V C1
A6
i1'
C2
OUTPUT
Ii
f-'.
14 J2
A7 A8
C1
-

S l :b +
9V

---- ... ------------------------ - - ---_._--_._----------- ------------------ .- ._- .

Figure 8-15 At/vanced electrometer cirCllit

Chapter Eight Sensing Electric Fie l d s 207

 LM-3HN. fO llnd aI most Rad io Shack stores. Ie
SOCkCL<; arc highly recommended. Radio Shack also Testing and Calibrating
hilS alum inum chassis cases thai will be nceded for
shielding. nle inplll connector must be a Tenon insu- With the shielded box still apan. conncct a 1.5-\"01t
Imed . chassis mounl. female. U H F connector PL-259. balle ry to the input. Turn the unit on. ~-I eas u re wi lh a
VOlvl the volfage on the ba u ery. Write it down. Now
TIle speci fi ca tions of the OUlpUl connector a re
go to the ou tput wilh your VO;"-I a nd adjust the gain
unimportant and can be an RCA -Iype phone jack. A
pote ntiometer unt il the reading exactly o:quals the
ONe chassis jack is used for the outpu t conneclOr.
inpu t voltage of the battery. This scts the instrument
nIl! system is powe red by two common 9-\'olllransis-
fo r unit), gai n. Your electrome ter is now calibra ted!
lor radio batteries. Parts layoUi is cri tical o nly in that
the part of the PC board containing the inpUi Ie Next. check the finished svstem. Asse mble the box
( LM C 60S]) must be located immedi ately at the input and case for fi nal use. I prefer to use a banana plug
connector. TIle critical inplll pin 10 this Ie (pin 3) is with a stiff 24-gauge rod soldered inside the plug to
care fully lifted and not inscrled in its socket at all. make a "ertkal whip a ntenna if the input con nector
The two compone nts from this Ie lead to the input is 011 top o f the instrumen t. If nOI. simply use a short
connector center temlinal and arc connected nOlllin{! nexible wire solde red to a banana plug and connect it
in midair! All batte ries a nd wiring should avoid this 10 a stainless stee l sa lad bowl th at is selling on a clean
area and be on the opposit e side of the board a nd d rinking glas.... It is crucial that no path of any resist-
shi elded container box. Beyond this. the bui lder is a nce exist to ground from the isolated a nd insulated
me tal object. Ground the chassis of the inst rument
,.. IOtally at libe rty to do as he or she pkases.
(a good solid earth ground is needed.) Connect the
output to a n osci lloscope or V01'1'1. Set the scope·s
sweep for a long-pe riod swee p of 10 seconds or more
Construction
,ICroSS the screen. Set vour mete r for th e lO·volt
Begin hy solderi ng the Ie sockets to the PC board. range if you have no scope. Turn on the instrument.
Next make all the connections 10 all the va rious tic Now move about around a bit and notice the varying
points. Whcn th e board is wired. add the batte ry clip volt age you arc impressing on the a ntenna! l l ie
leads. The box should be a fully enclosed all-mewl impedance is so high (te rraohms) Ihal lhe instrument
one. Place the input connecte r at one e nd and the can resol' ·e voltages Ihat would be o\"Crloaded and
ou tput connector at the Dlher e nd of the box. For swamped back to zero by other me te rs of lowe r
cOlwenience in some models. I pul the input connector impedance. If you ha'·o: e ncountered a ny problems in
on the top of the box at one e nd. Holes must be gClling the syste m to work. you have made a simple
d rilled for sta ndoffs or long machine screws to sup- mistake somewhere. Recheck your balleries. Are
Ihe~' \'iablc'! Arc they hooked up correct ly'! Arc the
port Ihe boll rd ncar th e input connector. The ba n eries
are best placed in the opposi te side of the box near ICs in their sockets correctl .,,? Recheck at! wiring.-
the o utput connector. Make sure :11 each step of the You can blow the input Ie very easily by touching
dri lling process thai all compo ne nts wi ll fit in the box the input Icad while your bod". is c l cc l rosla\ica ll~'.
charged .
• and nOI short out or touch one another. TIle power
swi tch should also be posit ioned near the output end It seems bizarre tha t we use static-sensitivc
of the hox. If you still haven ·t picked li p on il.the compone nts in an instrume nt and then use them in

I
input end of the box is special! Only the input Ie ,md
the ultrashort input connection. a nd air. a re allowed. impedance from the use of feedback a nd the delicate
-
slat ic experimen ts. This instrumen t gels its ultrll hil!h

208 Electronic Sensors for the Evi l Genius

microthin laye r of insulation separating the FET gate
\ead [rom the main substra te in the device. This is a Rdvanced Electrometer
layer that is easily punctured by static. There fore such Parts List
punclUre means the destruction of the device and the
IC Wise application of the electrome ter device is the Rl la - megohm, 1 / 4- watt
film reSistor 5 %
best prec,lutionary measure you can take. Never
R2, R6 10K ohm, 1 / 4-
\cave anything hooked to the input connector when watt film re sis tors 5 %
the instrumcnt is not in usc.
R3 10K ohm potentiome -
TIle size o f the isolaled capacity (item hung up as ter linea r taper (PC
tYpe)
an antenna and hooked to the input) rela tes to the
amoun t of charge collected _and thus to the \'ollage R4 3.9K ohm. 1 / 4- watt
film r eSistor 5 \ ••
collected. -illis instrumen t wilJ respond to volwges in
R7 , R8 lOO K ohm . 1/4-
Ihe ram?c of +/- 7 \"olls or so. Larec collectors
- -
a round high-voltage equipme nt such as Van DeGraf
watt film resi stors 5 %
CL IO p F disc capaci -
generators. Wimhurst machines. a nd Tcsla coi ls wi ll tor, 600 volt s
collect hundreds of volts a nd th us destroy the input C2 , C3 0.2 2 uFo 50-
Ie. The voltage collected also (e lalL'S to proxi mil y of volt, 10\ Myla r
~apa cito r
I
the source of charge for any given collector size. If in
UI LMC 6081 integrated
doubt. use small collectors or a whip anten na hooked circuit (Digikey)
to the in put. Never walk across the room and simply U2 LM 324 integr ated
touch the input collector or connector. You may carry circuit (Oigikey)
thousands of ,'olts on you r body! Always ground 5P - l a - inch metal
yourself on the grounded instrument box. Reme mber. Sphe r e
the box must always ha"e a solid connection 10 a real 51 OP5T toggle switch
earth ground to function properly. Jl UHF chassis jack
J2 8~C chassis i a c k
Your electrometer can be used to detem1ine the
polarity of various insulators. Plastics arc a U negali,·c. 81. 82 9 - volt transis-

Polishcd. dean glass ;s always posi tive. Tapping o ne's

to r radio battery tTl
toe in time with a piece of music while sin ing on a
Miscellaneous pe r f - ~
board , IC soc ket s,
modern ca rpe t can induce a +1- 1O-\'olt potential en~lQ s ure, bat t ery
(l)
charge 011 a can of Spam 5 feet away! The study of c lips ()
atmospheric elect rici ty can be investigated. A rt
Ii
people-proximity de tector could be dC"ised. 10 mat-
ter what your intended use. you will see in short order
that every object is con tinuously exchanging charges Cloud Charge Monitor
....
()
with other objecls in our everyday world. We exist in
a sea of charge. For more infonnat;on on elect rostat- Did you e ver wonder how the c harges were cha ngi ng
!]
ics. an excellent book by A. D. r-.·Ioore titled Eleflro-
SUllies is 'l\'ailable a t a "cry modest price. and many
in the clouds directly overhead during a thunderstonn?
Docs an early-warning voltage exist right before a
strike or do the c harges jump [rom cloud to cloud too
....
1)
experime nts are suggested in it to int roduce the ama-
teur scient ist to the fascinati ng world of electrostatics. quickly'! Is the polarity of the charge always the t--
same? Build the cloud c harge monitor and watch the p..
charges ebb and flow for yourself.
Il

Chapter Eight Sen s ing Ele c tric Fi el d s 209

 The cloud charge monitor is an extremely sensitive the pan (with a hole p unched in the cen te r just large
device capable of detecting su btle changes in the enough for tJle pipe). then glue a nOlher washe r o n
accumulated ove rhead charge. The device consists of top. Press the two washers togethe r as the glue sets to
a charge-sens ing anten na. a 60 Hz nOleD flIl c r. a sclf- fi rml y secure the pa n. Next. thread the insu lated wire
zeroing integrator. a signal limiter. and a leakage zero down through the pipe. The pan may now be insu·
adjustment (see Figure 8-1 6). The mon itor is a fai rly lated by gl uing two rou nd pieces of trash-bag plaslic,
sophisticated device with a few special construct ion cut 10 be slightly la rge r in diame te r tha n the pan. The
req ui rements. Beginners may wish to solicit some bottom p iece will need a hole for the conduit. (Satis-
help wi th construction and testing. For the more factory o peration is possible with out insula tion.) The
advanced experimen ter each circui t function is o ther e nd o f the pipe may be secured to a metal box
described along with possible "ariillions and pcr- in a similar manne r. An ordina ry electrical o mle l box
[ommoce enhancement ideas. is a good choice because it has a een le r punch,oul
An overhead cloud charge is sensed by an antenna j us t the correct size for the conduit. it has mo unting
fash ioned (rom a large aluminum-foil pizza pan or ears tha t can be used to nail or fasten the box to a
si milar metal sheet. An insul;Hcd wire conncclS (he board . and it has plenty of room fo r Ihe amplifier. A
pan a nle nna to th e e lectronic circu it. using the fol- bOllom cover is nOI necessary.
lowing me l hod . Firs!. slrip back se\'e ra l inches of the
wire's ins ulation. Next. unroll a few inches of the
pan's ri m. Now. roli lhe rim back wra pping Ihe bare Construction
wire inside. The n. crimp the rim in a few places with
pliers to e nsure a good conn ectio n. Finally. cut a ho le lli e clo ud charge monito r circu it prototype is
in the. cen te r of the pa njusllarge e no ugh for ~-i n c h constructed on a p iece of coppe r-clad circuil boa rd
PVC The pan is mou nted at the end of a short p iece using Ihe "dead b ug" technique. So named because
of Y.!-inch e lectrical cond uit PVC p ipe. It may be the a mplifier Ie is mounted upside-down (lead s
secured by cutting small washers o r d o nuts abo ut po in ting up) and will look a bit like a dead cock-
\4-inch tall from a ~ inc h PVC coupling. Glue o ne roach. Bend Ihe gro und pin (pin 4) back to the board
washer about I/';-inch fro m the e nd of the pipe. slip o n and solder it d irectly to the foil. The other I(!ads may

51 +
ANTENNA

AN 1
I

C3 C5 C6
A10

C7 A12 + C8
C+ AS A11

--
____ M ____________ MM"

Figu re 8 -16
. • • ________ . . . . __ • • _____ . _

Clol/d charge mOIl;/or circuif

._ • • • _. ______ ••• _ •• _ • ______ • • __ • _ • __ . _

--.- --

210 Electronic Sensors for the Evil Genius

be air wired. or liule islands may be made by cuttini! R7.the integrating capacitor CS. and the a nte nna
small pieces of copper-clad board. The ··bites·· that capacity. The effect ive \·alue o f R 7 is much higher
come out of a typical nibbling tool are a bout Ihe cor- than 220 megohms thanks 10 Ihe bootstrapping circuil
reci size ! ·Illey may be solde red in place if Ihe board formed hy R8 a nd R iO. If R IO is decreased. the
has coppe r on both sides. or they may be glued. Make amount of bootstrapping will increase a nd the feed-
sure to inspect the edges to c nsure Ihat no melal back resistor will seem even larger. A lower limit of
slh'CT is shorting the island 10 Ihe ground plane. 10K is recommended unless the ex pe rime llie r is quile
Other construction Iechniques are also fin('. bUI a experienced! The e ffect of a larger feedback resistor
couple of points in the circuit should be wired in a is to increase Ihe au to-zero lime consta nt. A si milar
effeCl is realized by increasing G. bu t a proport ional
,.
special way. R6. R7. and pin 2 should be air wired and
should nOI be allowed to touch anything. 111e base of loss in sensitivity will be evident. Lowe ring C5 will
the Ie must be clean and free of solder flux. Use increase the sensiti vi ty. if desired. bUI Ihe sensitivity is
)
alcohol or lacquer thinner to dean the package if .
sufficientl\' hiuh -
. fo r sto rm monitorinl!. as shown. r
necessary. Cllie dead bug technique makes inspeclion Th e boots trapping technique also amplifies Ihe
easy!) The input filter is built on a separate piece of op-amp·s offset \'oltage and drift. bu t the chopper·
rt
board. which rna\' be mounted on the main bQ(lrd. s tabilized ICL7650 has vi rtua lly no offsel. Other
bUI the circuil foil is biased to 6 volts instead of ell-'IOS op-amps may be used and might be more I
ground. R~ and R5 connect directly 10 the foil. which desirable because they have belle r overload reco\'e!")'
is indica ted b\" a dolled line in Ihe sche matic. This behavior. I.f the experimenlCr has extremely high-value
bias helps to reduce leakage current from the inpul resistors in Ihe junk box. RIO could be increased or
circuit to ground. If Ihe builder has access 10 Te non- even removed and the diodes eliminated. creating a
insulated tc nnina ls then the input circui l may be air circlli t with less sensili vi ty to op·amp drift and e xcel-
wired between terminals without concern [or leakage. lent overload recovery properties. Try a CA3160 op-
111e insulated "ire from the an te nna should not rcst amp or one of the numerous new Ci\·IOS amplifiers.
- -
:Hwinst the metal box. so CUi it short enough that it is
st retched from Ihe conduit to the circuil board. It is a
It can be quite difficult for the beginner to work
with circuits tha t have several minute time constants
goou idea to solder a ground wire from the circuit and extremely high impcdn nce. bUl the expe rie nce
grou nd foil to the me ta l box and 10 strai n-re lieve the M
power a nd signal cable.
cun be quite education:l!' To slew the circu it back to
the center point after a n overload. simply touch the
,.....
The output of the circuit may be connected to a ground or the + 12 \'olls with one fin ge r (dependinu ro
\'ariety of readouts including a simple I rnA current on which way the circlIil must slcw). and touch pin 2 '1
meter with a 5.6K series resistor or mu ltimeter. The wit h the end of <l 10-megohm resislor held in Ihe t
OUlput voltage will read about 6 ml ts whe n no charge o thc r hand. To verify tha i the circu it is worki ng. rub a 11
is present. R 14 is adjusted to zero any offSCI due to
.
CD or o the r piece of plastic on you r hair a nd bring it ....
-
leakage. and it mav be remOleh'- located wi th the
meter and power supply. if desired. Leave.! Rl 3 in the
close to the antenna. 111e meIer should mo\·e up or
down and then slowlv drift back toward cente r. A 12-
o
metal box. however. Remembe r. this circuil h<ls a volt b'llle!")' was used to su pply power to Ihe ci rcuit.
IT]
\·ery-Iong time constant on the aUla-zero ci rcuit so
the dfeCl of any adjustme nt wi ll take several mi nutes.
An te nna experimentation is encouraged. bUI be
very care ful in placing an an te nna o utside unpro-
....
R7 may bc mmje (rom a single resistor or se veral tected from ligh tning. Place the device ncar a large ro,.....
lowcr val ue resistors connected in series. The purpose window or hang it from Ihe ceili ng of a porch away
of R7 is to automat ically drivc the ou tput toward from the rain. A differe nt an te nna can be made bv a...
zero charge indication (6 volts OUI) so that the use r taping a lum inum foil to a clean window and covering [/)
isn·1 required 10 constantly ndjusl an offset cont rol. it wi th plastic wra p. ·1l1e edge of the foil sho uld be
n le mte of aUlo·zero is determined by the va lue of scvc rn l inches awav• from the window framc at all

Chapter Eight Sensing Ele ctric Fields 211

 points to avoid leakage. Ordina ry roofs a re usually RlS 41 0-ohm . 1/ 4-watt
too conductive for an attic installa tion. but installing re s istor

on a plastic or glass greenhouse roo f or la rge skylight Cl , C2 25 0 pF . 3S-vol t

Mylar c a pa c it o r
might work well. Those e xperi m e nl e ~ who are
C3 500 pF , 35 - v olt
e xpe rts a t handling the threa t of lightning strikes Mylar c a p a c ito r
might wish \0 build a Plexiglas umbrella [or an o ut-
C4 10 n F , 3 5- vo1 t My lar
side a ntenna. bUI make sure lhal no discha rge path \0 c apac ito r
ground exists whe n the plexiglass becomes wel. The C5 , C6 22 0 nF , 3 5-vol t
outdoor a nte nna shou ld be mounted al b'TOund level My l ar c apac i to r
ra the r tha n high in the ai r. fo r safe ty reasons.. The C1 1 00 n F , 3 5 -volt
My lar c apac i to r
photo shown in Figure 8-17 ill ustrates 1I cloud cha rge
moni tor mounted on a shorl tripod and placed under C8 10 u F , 3 5-vol t e l e c -
tro lyt ic c a p a citor
a plexiglass roof e nclosure.
01 , 0 2 IN150 2. e n er
diodes
Ul ICL1 650 chopp e r -
Cloud Charge Monitor Parts st abil i zed (or CA3160)
k~ - l pi zza pan a nt e nn a
List
Jl RCA phone j a c k
RI , R2 , R4 , R8 10 - 51 5P5T t o g gl e sw i tc h
megohm , 1/ 4-wat t Bl 12 - v o lt la nt er n
resisto r ba t ter y
R3 5-mego hm , 1/4 -wat t Misce lla n e ous perf -
resisto r b o ard, I C soc k et,
R5 , R6, Rll , R12 l OOK wire , t e rmi n al s,
ohm , 1/ 4- watt resi s t o r e nc l osu r e, e tc.
R7 22 0-megohm , 1/ 4 - watt
resist o r
R9 , Rl3 I-megohm , 1/ 4-
wat t resistor
Electric al Field
RI O 47K ohm. 1/ 4-watt
resi s tor Disturbance Monitor
R14 lOOK ohm
p ot ent iomet e r The electrical field disturba nce monitor project will

I instruct you how to build a unique monitoring device

to measure the voltage fluctuations or dismrbances
of the eanh·s natural electric field that arc caused hy
cond uctive o bjects moving near the device. TIle mag-
nitude and frequency of the fluctuations can be used
to determine the aCllla l natu re of the object. As an
exam ple. la rge moving objects. such as truck.s. produce
large ,'o hage swings with low-frequency components
whereas small fast mo ving objects. such as birds. pro-
d uce smalle r field changes with highe r frequencies.
i'.'lovin!!: humans.. o n the other hand . produce a ,·ariety
o f freq uencies associated with arm and leg motions.
Figu re 8 -17 C /OIU/ charge lIIonilOr 1I1OIIHfed 011 {/
~·"orl l riporl

oJ
U
212 Electronic Sensors f o r the Evi l Genius
 Unlik e OIher projects Ibat have very specific pur- tor. the body actually distorts the voltages ilS it moves
poses in mind. this construction project provides the through the field. reducing the ac tual potential differ-
experimeme r with a device that can be used to con- ence across the body.
duct a wide varie ty of object-motion expe riments, To illustrate Ihis effect. suppose a n air pote ntial
including simple mOl ion alann applica tions. For ,'oitm e te r was positioned to measure the a tmospheric
example. with sufficie nt signnl processing and analy- voltage be tween ground level and a position 2 meters
sis. it may eve n be possible for the expe ri men te r nOl above the grou nd surface. Wilhout any conduct ing
on ly to de tect the mot ion of a human but to de ter- objects nearby. the device would measure a pote ntial
mine which human was moving. 'lbe objective of this of 200 voits. But. when a conduct ing human walked
construction project is to provide the e xpe rimc nter next to the probe. the ,'o llage is shunted to a near
with the eq uipme nt necessary to conduct rcseil rch in ground le"el pote ntial and the instrume nt's rcadi ng
the nature of the fi eld changes. would drop toward zero ,·olts. As the human walked
I'm hoping 1I iso th ilt this device will excite a new away from the meier. the field would again gradually
gcne riHion of e xperimen ters into exploring Ihis linle be restOred to the 200-volt readi ng. In addit ion to the
known phe nome non. Before we get into the de tai ls <lvenlge voltage changes as a pe rson walks near the
of the circuiLlef s cover some of the basics fi rst-the detector. the shifting conlact of the human's fOOl with
phe nome non of the earth's electric fi eld grad ient. In the ground a nd his o r he r lIrm motion cause small I
his Lectflres 0 11 Physics. Richa rd Feynma n stated that highe r frequ e ncy Ouctuations in the measured voltage.
as you go up from the surfllce of the ea rt h. the electri- Such signal changes are used as the basis fo r detect-
cal polential increases by lIbout 100 volts per mete r. ing human motion near the de tection circuit.
Th us a vCrlicll l electric fie ld gradie nt of 100 valL" pe r The fi eld disturbance monitor is illustrated in Fig.-
me te r exists ill the air. ures So l S a nd 8- 19. It uses a telescoping whip an te nn a
As a means of e xplanation. imHgine the existe nce that is mounted on top of iI metal box to probe the
of a vcry se nsitive voltmeter that could measure the air for field changes. By mising and lowe ri ng the
voltages prese nt in the open air. If you pushed the ante nna . you can increllse or decrease the field
negative te rminal o f the instrument's probe into Ihe change se nsitivity. The design I chose uses an off the
earth's surface. :md you positioned Ihe positive lead shel f me tal box to house the electronics. The circuit is
1 mete r abo,'e (he surface. a bout 100 volts would be powe red by a standard 9-\'0It baue ry. l1tree LED
detected. If you then moved the probe ve rtically by indicator lights provide syste m status. One of the
anothe r meter above the surface. the voltme ter would LEDs indicates a positive fie ld change. a nd anothe r
measure 200 vol ts. This voltilge difference would con- indicates a negati ve fi eld change. A third power indi-
tinue to increllse as you moved the posith'e probe cator light doubles as a battery-voltage indicator. If
upward until it reached the top of the atmosphere. Ihe light f:lils 10 turn on. it is a n indication that the
some 150.000 fec t (46.000 me ters) up. A t tha t point. 9-volt ba u e ry needs to be re placed. An alarm sensi-
the instrume nt would fin ally measure an ave rage tivity dial can sel the minimum disturbance level to
pote ntial diffe re nce of about 4 million volts. trigger an alarm. A loud piezoe lectriNype beepe r
This naturally occurring 100 \'olts per me ter sounds whe never the alarm level is e xceeded. A tog-
electric field gradie nt exists e ve rywhe re in the ea rth's gle switch " lIows the alarm fea ture to be turned o(£.
atmosphe re and can even penelf<l !e inside most An outpu t jack a t the rear of the monit or can be used
buildings. You might ask: If such voltages exist in ope n to connect the monitor 10 a re mole <llarm de vice if
aiL then why isn't the average 2-llle te r lall human desired . I have also included an ou tput jack that can
shocked by the 200 \'olts that shou ld be present be used to send the monitor's processed disturbllnce
between his fee t and the top of his head'! The reason signal to some remote recording de vice. Finally. to
you don't feel anything is beca use the air is too poor e.nsure consisten t operation. an earth ground jack is
a conducto r of electricitv to allow eno ueh also included at the rear of the mOnitor's e nclosure.
• • curre nt to
be delivered by the m ilage. Also. because the human Connec ti ng the ground jack 10 a true earth ground
body is fill ed with salt water. which is a good conduc- improves disturbilnce sens itivity.

Chapter Eight Se nsin g El ectric Fi elds 21 3

 Anlenna
Ant
,,- - - - -,
, ,- - - +9V
- ------- 1 +9V
, , UZ: A ca
U) C1 C2 C3 R5 R6 I
I- 3
-0 - •
R3
+
a -
1
..-4 R1 R4
C6
Ra C9
R2 C.
(1) 7
C5
C7
6 U1 R7
' .... ,, --
,, ,
R9
t%.4 __ _ J \ _ I\ ________

I-=- Shie!ded fronl

--
+2.5V
U -=- end amplifier
+2.5 V
' ....
UZ: B A
~ R10 R1 1 R12
J2
~ Oul1 R15
B Signa! oul
U
(1) I C10
C11 C12 C13
-=-
2.5V PC Bias
Phone Jack

..-4
R1.
~ 2.5V

2.SV

------------------------- - ._---
Figu re 8-1 8 E/ec/rollic field disllIrbllllc:t' monilOr ei,.("/I;I. pari J

both simple and effcctivc. It uses an operational

Circuit Desc ri pti on umplifier UI Ihut is wired as an impedance amplifier.
The circuit has a verv- hioh-input
, impedance and a
J\'iosl moving objecls. including huma ns. prod uce low-output impedance.llle small \'ollage signals col-
elecuic field dislUrbances with frequencies that range lected bv a telescoping wh.ip antenna. caused by an
between 0.1 Hz and 15 Hz. However. when the dis- object moving near the monitor. are routed to the
mrbancc monitor is used indoors. those signals must amplifier circuit. The I-gigaohm feedback resislOr R2
compete with rather large fie lds produced by nearby provides the amplifier with a DC feedback path.
50 Hz and 60 Hz power lines and appliances. Because while the capacitor Cl. in parallel with resistor R2.
the motion signals of interest can be liS much CIS LOOO reduces the ga in of the amplifier al high frequencies.
limes smaller than Ihe signals produced by power WithoUi the capacitor Cl.the amplifier would easily
lines. much of Ihe monilOr"s electronic circuit is dedi- be swamped by AC fields associated with any 50 to
cated to removi ng Ih e unwanted power line freq uen- 60 Hz power lines or line-powered devices nearby.
cies. If the monitor is to be lIsed only outside or away The lOOK resistor R J is placed between the antenna
from 60 Hz powe r-line illierference. a less aggressive and the am plifier to protect the amplifier from being
fi lter design can be used . damaged by any high-\<oltage static charge thnt could
'n le circuil can be broken inlo several sect ions. be picked up by the antenna. The I-gigaohm resistor
-n le most imponant pan of the design is tbe front-end value is important for studying human motion signals.
section . Many diffe rent front-en d circuiL<; were lried Higher resistance values. going up 10 100 gigaohms.
over the vears. ·I11C circu it included in Ihis project is have been tried and cause the monitor's freq uency

214 El ect r onic Senso r s for t h e Evil Ge n i u s

 +9V

O N·OFF PIZEQ
n I + ... ALARM
::r on • •
W 51
"0 »--' ~ BZ
ro +5V +5V
~ +9V
-
m
A ¥::3
_. I y y V I +9V
tC
::r
-, ,
A1 6 C16 :r::: R22 U4:A PHONE JACK
- B A20 A23 ! J'
~I 2 ~ 01 "
r T
:J -
"
~.
+ T
3 1 ~ -
D2 D3
'":J 3
U3:A I I I~ 02
"' I C14
f'1'
~
R
17r - ::3
to +2.5V - - -
n D 6
rt
.,
~.
O ~OP
n AlB Q1·Q2
R21
6
7
~.
"to -
~
lJ1 4
C15== D4
c. R1 9
U3:B
'" - I-- -

N
.. . __ . --, • •• __ ,, _ow" ._ . - ___ _
.... ------- ---- .. - -----------_. _ "
.. --._----, .. - --------- ••
Figure 8- 19 Elcctrollic field (/isfllr{)(III Ce lII unitor d n:llif, purl 2
'"
sPTa~~ ~~~~~aT3 DU~SUas ~qD~3 ~a~dl?q::>
 response 10 be excessively low. Electric fiel d changes digital recorde r that is connected to a computer.
from nearby rain Slanns cu n be measured with high Using some digital sig.nal processing schemes. a lo t of
resiSlance values.. A resisHUlce value lower than I infonnat ion can be squeezed from the raw signals
gigaohm makes (he monitor more sensit ive to ge nerated by the mo nitor. As sta led pre\'iously. iden-
higher fre que ncies. tification of specific individua l huma ns is possi ble by
The signal that e me rges from the fron l --end circuit carefu lly monilOring the freque ncy signature produced
will con tai n a la rg.e a mo unt of power-line no ise. Eve n by a person's a nn and leg motions during. walking.
when the moni tor is used ou tside away from visible In a simila r manne r. certain a ninmls a nd insects can
power lines. there will st ill be some un wan ted power- be iden tified.

,, line signals collected. llle passive filter sect io n afte r For some experiments. you may wanl to know if
Ihe fro nt-end stage con tains three networks: (I) One the signals exceed a cerwin len!!. This feature is espe-
low-pass filt e r ne twork begins the proces.'i o f cially useful if the monilOr is 10 be used in a mot ion
tlllenu<lling the un wanted high frequencies. (2) One alarm a pplica tion. -nU! signals tha t emerge from the
u high -pass fill er network is designed to block the slow signa l-processing. ci rcuits are ro ut ed to two compara-
., DC shift that will occur a l the fro nl-c nd circuit. -111e IOrs (U3:a and U3:b).TIle two compa rators determ ine
va lues se lected start reject ing frequencies below 0.1 if the signal has sufficien t a mplitude to be considered
Hz. (3) To re move much of the funda metllal 5U to 00 an a larm condi tion. Com parator U3:a is referenced
Hz noise signals. a third no tch filt e r ne twork is used. above the 2.5-\'0It bias poin!. whi le the low U3:b
As shown on the schematic. components were selected
-
Slage is refe renced below the 2.5-\'oh bias \,0Ita2e.
-
,.... for a 55 Hz no tch-fi lle r center freq ue ncy. The selec-
tio n is a compromise betwee n the 50 Hz and 60 Hz
llle upper comparato r is triggered when the signal
swinb'S above the uppe r threshold (posi tive "ohage
international power-line freq ue ncy sta ndard!> in use chanue). and the lower comparator is triggered whe n
around the world. The notch filt e r sho uld reduce the the signal swings below the lower threshold (negative
power-line frequ ency noise by a factor of 1 /~ voltage change). The va ri::lblc resistor R 17 symmetri ,
(-34 db). ca lly controls both th resholds and a llows a single

" TIle output o f the notch filt er is connected to a -

knob to se.t the trie.2e r se nsitivi!v. ie"els. With the
values chosen. the comparators can be triggered by
no ninvening opera tional amplifie r (U2:a) at the fi rst

I - --
buffer stage. The va lues chosen 2ivo: the signals of
interest a gain of about x 6 while rejecting some of
\'o ltage changes as small as +1-0.05 \'olts or as high
as +1- 1.5 \'oils. A n LED connected to the o utput of
the unwan ted higher freq uencies. e ach comparato r provides an indication of either a
positive or a negative d islUrbance. Both LEOs are
The output of the firs l bu ffer stage is connected 10
mo ullled on the frOtll side of the mo nitor's metal
a th ree-pole active low-pass filt e r. and!O a second
pn nci. Diodes D3 and 04 sum the t\\'o comparator
buffe r stage. TIle combina tio n of the passive compo-
outputs a nd. with the ::l id of a nother comparator A4a.
ne n ts and the operational amplifier (A1:b) boosts the
l signa ls of interest with a ga in o f x 6 while filtering the
dri\'e the transistors Q I a nd 0 2.111e two transislOrs
0 1 and Q 7 arc used to drive the piezoelectric a la rm
high-frequency signals that may still remain. The over-
connected to the monitor or::ln external alaml that is
all gai n fo r the two amplifiers is about x 36 (+ 31 db).
connect bv a sh ielded cable to the remote ,llaml out,
Note that a ll th ree of the operational amplifier stages
put jack a t the rear o f the monitor. Th e ex ternal
are biased at ?5 \'olts. The signals o f interest wi ll
alarm output ca n sound a re mo te beepe r or close a
the refore swing a bO\'e and below 2.5 \'olts.
relay. If desired. the local ala rm feature can a lso be
The o utput of the second bu ffe r stage is routed to
turned off when the alarm selector switch is placed in
a phone jack a t the re ar of the moni tor enclosure.
the off position. In the o ff posi tion. the swi tch discon-
Using a shie lded cable connecled to the phone jack.
nects the 9-\'0It source to the local beeper alaml and
tho: signa l can be fed to a strip chart recorder o r 10 a

.c
(,

216 Electronic Sensors for the Evil Genius

to the two indicator LEDs. When the system is oper-
,ned in the alarm off mode. the overall current will be Circuit Rssembll,l
much less and wili extend the operating liIlle from
the bauery. A metal box should be selected 10 house Ih~ monitor
electronics. A l eI~scoping whip ,mtenna makes a n
To provide the system with IWO well-regulated
excellelll probe for collecting the electric fie ld changes
voltages from lhe 9-voll ballc'1'. !wO voltllge regula-
ncar the monitor.111e anten na can easily be raised or
tors arc used. as shoWIl in Figure 8 -20. -111e regulalOf
lowered to increase or decreasc sensitivity. A banana
US gene niles 5 \'olts. and U6 produces 1.5 vails. 111e
plug solde red Onto the end of the whip antenna ciln
2.5-\'011 s upply generates the midsupply bias vollage
be pl ugged into a matchi ng insul atcd banana jack.
used in the signlll processing ci rcuits. whereas the
mo unted on top of the box. The meta l chassis fomls
5-volt supply is used in the ala ml amJ the voltage
an electric shield around the electronic circuits inside
monitor circuits. Because the current demands of bOlh
and fOnTIS a reference capacitor pla te with a large
supplies are vcry low. low-power regulators are used.
cross-sectional area . As the previous discussion sug-
Another \'ollag..: comparator. U4:b. is wi red as a gests, the me tal chassis and the whip antenna fonn
ballery-voltage monitor. Should the battery voltage the two vcrtical points in space needed 10 detect the
drop below about 6.8 valis. th e power indicating
LED will nOi tum on. te lling the user that the ba ttery
electric field change.
I
needs to be rep];lCcd.

+9V

P5

+9V

R24
+
e18
R26
M
::r:: t-'
6
8
ro
7
0
BATTERY
POWER SUPPLY 5
MONITOA
rt
11
+9VDC +9VDC
R25
.....
IN OUT
0
U5 +5VDC

52 t'Zj
+
U6 +2.SVOC .....
61-= 9V IN OUT
+ +
ro
t-'
e19
I C20 I e21 p..
CIl
-
Figure 8-20 Field disfllrbfll/ce 1II0l/ilOr power supply

Chapter Eight Sensing Electric Fields 217

 The mewl box selcclCd hns a top section that nai to a metal rod. which can be driven into the
slides over the bottom section in two U-shaped ground . A n old screwdriver with th e \\ire attached
pieces. All of the chassis-mounled pans can then be makes a convenient grounding tool. If the unil is used
mounted o nlO the top section. TIle circuit board can indoors. a good earth ground can be obtained by con-
be mounted . upside down. to the inside top o f the nec ting the monitor's grou nd terminai to a water pipe
box. Four I-inch-Iong metal stande (f legs should be or to the ground tenninal of a power outlel. The
used to suspend the circuit board. monitor will still work . even without an earth ground.
The (ront-end amplifier circuit should be enclosed but it will lack over all sensitivity. especially to the
wi thin II metal can tha t is soldered to the circuit low·field-cllange (requencies.
board and connected to circuit ground. The shield can I should also mention that the monitor works
be easily constructed using sections cut £rom lin-plated much better in d ry e nvironments. Moist air tends to
steel sheets purchased from any hobby slore. The can be sligh tly more conductive than d!)' air. and there-
will help prevent other signals ge nerated inside the fore less static electricit), is produced by
enclosure from being picked up by the vcry sensitive walking humans. Because the moni tor's frequency
front -end circuil. The open top of the can shou ld be respo nse extends down to one cycle in 5 seconds, you
made a bout I inch high so it nea rl y touches the inside shou ld expect the monitor to go into an alarm condi-
of the metal enclosure. It shou ld be positioned so it tion fo r several seconds afl er the power is fi rst turned
surrounds the banana jack that the whip antenna on. Likewise. when tbe monitor is subjected to a large
plugs into. You can connect the banana jack tenninal fie ld change. which may saturate the front-cnd circuit.
to the fro nt-end circui t by feed ing a wire that is sol- the alann may sound for several seconds. evcn after
dered to the jack through a hole in the circuit board. the fi eld has stabilized .
TIle signal output jack and the eart b ground A standard phone jack mounted on the rear panel
tenninal should be installed on the rear of the box. A can be used to route the disturbance signals to a data
9-voh ballery clip is used to secure the 9-volt ban e!)' collection device. When using the signal output jack. a
inside the box. A llhough having the banery inside the shielded aud io type cable should be used to rou te the
box is less convenient. a (resh ballery should provide signal to the recording device. The outpu t signal is
many days of experiments. TIle th ree LEO indica lOr designed to have a 2.5-\'0It cen ter-bias point. so the
lights. the piezoelectric beeper. the alarm-level COIl- signals of interest will swing a bove and below 2.5
trol knob. and the two toggle switches should be volls. Th is voltage range is ideal for many digital
mounted on the frOnl of the panel. Connections from recording syslCms tbat are connected to a computer.
the circuit board to the alarm LEO s, beeper. rear out- When you are satisfied that the circuit board and
put signal jack, and rear alann jack should all be all the components are wired correctly, attach a fresh
I made using shielded cables. When completed. the dis- 9-volt ba u ery to the bau ery clip. Make sure the un it
turbance mo nitor will resemble a portable radio with is turned off when you connect the new ballcry. Extend
a single. large. whip antenna protruding out from its the whip antenna to a mid-24-inch length. Lay the
top. By gluing a Ih ·' O nut on the bollom of the box. moniior on a high wooden table or on top of a wooden
the assembly can be anached to a standard metal shelf. Position the sensitivity dial to the midpoint.
camera tripod. Switch the alarm switch to the on position. Switch the
power switch to the on position. and back away about
6 feet [rom the box. Stay perfectly still and do not
Operation move. llle alaml should sound fo r se\'eral seconds..
After the alarm stops. you should be able to move
-nle system works best when the metal box is attached one of your feet and see the two LED indicalOr tights
to a melallripod. 1f a plastic or wood tripod is used, turn on and off while the alurnl beeper sounds. Try
an eart h ground reference should be established by walking past the unit and notice how the twO indica-
connecting a wire from the unit"s eartb ground term i- tor tights tum on and off malching your fOOl sle ps.

218 Ele ctronic Sensors for the Evil Genius

Electrical Field Disturbance
Monitor Parts List
C20, C21 10 uF, 35-volt
el ectrolytic capa c itor
01, 02 red LED
,.
j

02, 03 lN~148 s ili con PJ

Rl l OOK ohms, l / ~ - watt
diode
resistor Ql , Q2 BS17 0 transisto r
R2 l-giga ohm. 1 / 4 - watt Ul LP661 integrated
resistor ci rcuit
R3 10K ohm, l / ~ - watt U2 LP662 integrated
resistor c ircuit
R~ 22-megohm , 1 / 4-watt U3, U4 LJ.1C6762 inte-
resistor grated circuit
R5 , R6 , Rll , R12 62 0K US ZMRS OOC (Ze tec l
ohm, 1 / 4-watt resistor
U6 ZMR2S 0C (Ze tec l
R7 300K ohm, 1 / 4- watt
az p ie~ o buzzer
resis tor
51 SPST togg l e switch
RS , R13 56K ohm, l / ~­
watt re sisto r Jl, J2 RCA pho ne jacks
R9, R14 10K ohm, 1 / 4-
watt resi s t o r
al 9-volt transistor
radio batte ry
I
RI O, RIa 22K o hm , 1 / 4- k~T telescOping whip
watt resist o r antenna
RlS 470-ohm, 1 / 4- watt Mi sce llaneous PC board,
r esisto r Ie socket s, wi re , sol-
der . chassis, battery
R16 . R25 I-megOhm, 1 / 4 -
c lipS
watt re sisto r
R17, R19 , R23 I -megohm
potentiometer
R2 0, R21 , R26 4 .7K ohm,
1 / 4-watt re sistor
R22 4.7-megohm . 1 / 4-
watt resistor
tr1
t-'
R24 360K ohm. 1 / 4- watt
resistor ro
Cl , ca, C9, C I O. C13 o
0.1 uF, 35-volt d isc
cap a c itor
c1"
11
C14 , C IS , Cl6, CIS
u F , 3S-volt disc
capa ci tor
0. 1
....
()
C2 22 pF , 3S - v o lt Mylar
capacito r
C3, C4 0 .47 uF, 35 - v olt
Mylar c apacitOr
CS, C7 0.0047 uF , 35-
volt Mylar capacitor
C6 , C l2 0.0 1 uF o 3S-
vo lt disc c apa c itor
Cll 0.0 22 uFo 3S - volt
dis c capac i to r
C17 0.22 uF , 3S - volt
disc capac itor
C19 47 uF o 3S- volt
elect r olYtic c apa c itor

Chapter Eight Se nsi ng El ect r i c F iel d s 219

 Chapter Nine

Radio Projects

Electromagnetic e ne rgy encompasses an extremely

wide frequency ran ge. Radio frequency energy. bOlh Radio History
naruml radio energy c:rcalcd by lightning and pla ne-
tary storms as well as radiu frequencies generated by O ne of the more fascina ting applications of electricity
humans for comm unications. e ntertainmem. radar. is in the generation of invisible ri pples of energy
and Idc\'ision ar ...· the topic of this chapter. -nlis RF.
or radio freqlll'llcy energy. co\'crs the freque.nc), range
ca lled radio wa\·cs. Following Ha ns Oersted's acci-
den ta l discovef\' .
. of electromagnetism . it was realized
I
from the low end of the radio spectrum (10 to 25 that electrici tv . tism we re related to each
. and mal!ne
KHz). which is uscd by high-powe r navy stations that other. Whc n an electric c urre nt was passed thro ugh a
communicate with subme rged nuclear submarines. all cond uctor. a magnetic field was generated perpendi-
the way through the T"dar frequency band of 1.000 to cular to the a.xis of now. Likewise. if a conductor was
1.500 Ivll-lz. Beyond tha I. the spectrum extends e xposed to <l chHllge in magnetic flux pe rpe ndicular
through approximately 300 G Hz. The radio [rc- to the conductor. a voltage was produced a lo ng the
quency spectrum actually ex tends almost up \0 the length o f that conductor.
lower limit of visible light frequencies. Joseph Hen ry. a Pri nceton University professor. "tI
In this chapter \\c will explore different types of and Michael Faraday. Cl British physicist. experimen te d I"'!
radio receivers that you can construct and usc. Our
firs t project is an e lectronic lightning de tector. used
separately wi th eleclromagnc ts in the early IBOOs..
The\' e ach arri\'ed a t the sa me obse rvation: the the-
o
to warn of oncoming e lectrical storms-a great proj- ory that a curren t in one wire can produce a curre nt
ect for weather en thusiasts and researchers.. O ur nex t in another wirc. even at a distance. Tllis phenomenon
ro
project is the ELF na tural wdio. which call be used to
[)
is called electroll/aglletic ilUllIctioll . or just il/dlle/ioll.
listcn to those mysterious sounds produced by That is. o ne wire carrying a current induces a current \t
;" loth"r Nature. such as tweeks. pops. whistlers, and in a second wire. Up unlil this ti me. scie ntists knew (j)
the dawn chorus. "n lese ascending a nd descending . tism a lways seemed to
that e lectricitv. a nd magne
frequency swceps arc caused by electrical storms o n affect each other a t right angles. H owever. a major
the othe r side of the eClrlh . Why no t build your own d iscove ry lay hidden just beneath this seemingly simple
shortwavc rccci\'c r a nd explore the world of radio concept of rcla tcu perpe ndicularity. and its unveiling
from foreign b roildcas te ~ on the o the r side of the was o ne of the ph'o talmoments in mode rn scie nce.

-
!!.lobe. I-lear excitilH~ music and news from European
-
and African radio SHltions. O ur fina l :tdvanced project
-1l1e man responsible for the next conceptual
revolutio n WilS the Scollish physicist James Clerk
in this chapter i ~ the Jupiter radio telescope project. Maxwe ll (1831-1879). who unified the study of elec-
which will pennit you to listen to the strange sou nds tricit}' ,lIld magnetism in fou r relat ively tidy equa-
of stomlS on the planet of Jupiter. -nl is radio receiver tions. ln esse nce. wha t he discovered was that e lectric
projeci is a great starting point for sonte great ama- a nd magne tic fie lds arc intrinsica lly re lated to one
te ur research on radio astronomy. ano the r. lI'if" or lI'irhol/f the presence of a cond uctive
path fo r e lectrons to Oow. Stated morc fomla l!),.
~\'l axwelrs discovery was this:

221
 A changing electric fie ld produces a perpendicular between these kinds of electromagnetic radiations is
magnetic field . and a changing magnetic field produces the fre quency of their oscillation (alternation of the
a perp<! ndicular eleclfic field. A ll of this ca n lake electric and magnetic Fields back a nd fonh in polarity).
place in open sp<lce.lhe alternating electric a nd nHII!-
By using a sou rce of AC \'olwge and a special device
ne tic 6elds supporting each other as they trawlthro-
ugh space at the speed of lighl.1l1is dynamic stmctu re ca lled an lIIlIell/llI. we can create electromagnetic
of elect ric and magnetic fie lds propag<lIing through waves (of a much lower frequency than tha i of light)
space is better known as an elecrro/J1(/gllclic II'{WC. wi th ease.
I! was discovered that hig.h-frequency electromag-
La ter between the years l886 Clnd 1888 He inrich
netic cu rrents in CI wire (antenna). which in turn result
Hertz. the G ennan physicist who is honored by our
in a high-frequency electromagnetic field around the
re placing the expression cycles per secolld with herr:.
an tenna. will result in electromagnetic radiation that
( Hz). proved J'\'ta.'\well"s theory. Shortly aCter Ihat in
will move away from the antenna into free space at
189 7. Edouard Brunly.a Fre nch physicisl. inven ted a
the velocity of light (approximately 300.000.000
device that could receive radio wllves (as we know
mete rs per second).
them today) a nd cause them to ring an electric bell.
Note thilt at the time. a ll the re.sea rch being conducted In radio broadcasting. a rad iating antenna is used
in what was to become radio a nd later radioe lectron- to convert a time-varying. electric current into an
ics was done by physicists. electromagnet ic wa\'e. wh ich frecly propagates
through a nonconducting medium . such as air or space.
The n finally in 1895. the fa ther of modem radio.
An antenna is nothing more than a device huilt to
Guglie lmo !vlarconi of Italy. put illlthis togethe r and
prod uce a d ispersing e lect ric or magn etic field . An
deve loped the first wireless telegraph. The wire tele-
electromagnetic wave. with its electric and magnetic
graph had been in comme rcial use in Europe for a
componen ts. is shown in Figure 9 -1.
number a vears.
When allached to a source of radio-frequency
signals (a generator or a transminer). an antenna acts
as a transmilling device. converting AC voltage and
Types of Radio Waves
current to c.1ectromagne tic-wa\'e energy. Antennas
a lso have the ability to intercept electromagnetic waves
There are many kinds of natural radioactive energy
composed of c.1cctromagnetic waves. Even light is _.
and convert their ener!!\, into AC vollaue -. and current.
In this mode. an aillenna aCls as a recei\'ing device.
electromagne ti c in nature. So are shortwave. X-ray.
and gamma-ray radia tion. The only di(ference

I }, = Wavelength Field
j
I
Direction

Figu re 9-1 Eleclric alld magnelic COlI/pOllems of all eienrolllagllelll'm'c

222 Electronic Sensors for the Evil Genius

 radio frequ encies. A radio frequency spectrum chan
Radio-Frequency Spectrum is shown in Figure 9-2.

Radio-rrequcncy e ne rgy is ge nera ted by humans for

communica tions. entertainment. radar. television. and Table 9-1
so on. This mtlio frequl'lIcy (RF) energy covers the
Radio Frequency Bands
range from the low end of the rad io spectrum (l0 to
Hertz Sp ecific BlI/lll
25 KHz). which is the domain occupied by the high-
3 to 30 kilohertz vCT}' low frequencies (VLFI
power navy Sial ions that communicale with sub·
merged nuclear submarines. through the familiar AM 30 to 300 ki lohe nz Long-wave ( LW) band
broadcast band (550 to 1.600 KHz). on through the 300 to 3.000 kilo henz I\kdium·wB,·e Z
shortwave band (2.000 to 30.000 KHz). which makes (MW) band 1-'-
usc of muhiple reOeclions from the ionosphere that 3 to30 megahe rt z Shonwa"e (SW) or high. ::s
surrounds the earth. The next band of freq uencies are freque ncy (HF) band ro
used by the \'cry high-frequency television ch<lnnels 30 to JOO megahertz Very· high-frequency (VHF)
(54 10 216 MHz). foll owed by the vcry popular fre-
quellcy mOl/II/arion (or R vl) band (from 8S to J08 300 to 3.000 megahertz
band

Ultra-high·frequency
I
MHz). Following the FM broadcast band are aircraft (UHF) band

frequencies. U HF television channels. a nd the radar 310 30 gigahertz Super.high·frequency (SHF)

freque ncy band of 1.000 10 1.500 MHz. Beyond that. band
the spectrum extends through approximately 300 .30 10300 gigahertz Microwave frequencies
GHz. The radio frequency spectrum acmally extends
gigahertz Infrared. ';sib] .. light. ultra·
almost up to the lower limit of visible light freq ue ncies ,·jolel. X-ray. and gamma
with just the infra red frequencies lying in between it
and ,·isibJe ligill . Table 9-1 illustra tes the division of ---------------------- "0
11
o
u.
ro
, ,.' ,.' ,.' ,... ,.' ,.' ,.' W ttJ uri) o
W.*l<ngth
(Wl lnflfll)
10' ,~ 10'
'"' IO"~ ]0" I'
rt
!>iu af ..
w~\",,!..,qlh
'- .~,
:J - ("$:
'h~

'"
~- & "
.... ......
"""''- r....., 1'1 .." ..........
•
It.:!"ta
Ul

C~
/U/TIoII rJ WI'"!

~"ua ~.

, ,I ~
1~' '''''''' ~--
"-
C
~
,- V
",'~
11~~
......-
,~
.._ l-...,
JrtqUE<"I(y
( "'h~1 ptt

~"'"
,0' '0' ,0' 10' 10 111 lO ll 101' 1011 10 14 101\ 1(1 1• ]0 11 1011 101~ ION
r~~
[ __ 91°1 '"""
,.' ,.' ,.' ,,.. ,.' ,.' ,.' ,.' , ,..
ont pt>oto.o
(11IN"l roo \dr.) 10" 10' 10' 10' I O· 10'

. __ ..... _._._-_ .. _._ .... _-----._ ..... --.---- ...... _----------------_._------_._ .. _...----._ ..... _--------- ...... _-_.- ...
Figure 9 -2 Radio freqllellcy specrntm dum

Chapter Nine Radio Projects 223

 In this chapl e r we will le<l rn how to delect radio plasma). A point is reached (usually when the gradie nt
I:l1crgy C:luscd by lightning. The \"cry·!owj rN/IIt'II(," exceeds lens of thousands of \'ol[s pe r inch) when the
(VLF) radio recei"er will pe rmit you [0 lis te n to low-
freq ue nc), nat ural rad io signa ls. suc h as whistle rs and
-
ionized ai r bC2ins \0 act like a conductor. A I Ihis
point. the ground sends oul feelers to the cloud.
the dawn chorus. 111e sho rtwave radio will ope n up a searching for a path of least resistance" O nce that
whole ne w world of listeni ng 10 DX radio statiuns path is establis he d. the c1o ud· to -eanh capacitor
from a ll around the globe. Science-minded e nt husiasts discharges in a bright nash of lightni ng.
will be interesled in bui ld ing a radio recei\'c r that will Beca use an e no rmo us amoun t of current exists in
pe mlil you 10 liste n a nd record na tural radio e ne rgy a Iigillning strike. the re's a lso a n e normous a mount o f
emille d from Ju pite r. heal. ( In fac1.a bolt of light ning is hotte r than the sur-
face o f the su n.) The air around the strike becomes
supe rheated. so hot that the air immcdiale to the
strik e actually e xplodes. ·1l1e explosion cre ates a
Detecting Lightening sOllnd wa'"e that we call thlfllder.
Cloud-to-ground strikes are nOt the o nly form of
Intense c1ectricnl storms crc aled by unstable wcather
light nin g though. The re are also gro und-to -clo ud
cond it ions occur frequem ly a ll around Ihe world. At
strikes (usually o rig inating (rom a tall stm clUrc ) a nd
any give n poim in time. the re is likely a n electrica l
cloud-to·cloud strikes. Tlle se strikes are fu rther
sta n n occurring somewhe re in the world. Most people.
defined into nonnallightning. sheet Ligh tning. heat
especially hikers. boate rs. a nd even backya rd pa rty
ligh tn ing. ball lightning. red sprite lighte_ning. blue je t
( gocrs. would be grateful to have a n advance wa rning
· ...., o f ,111 a pproaching electli ca l storm . Now you can con-
lighte ning. and others. For more information o n lighl-

--
stmcl vo ur own li!!.hlnine monitor 10 obtain an advance
- -
nine. check ou t these two great We b sites:
-
warni ng of an approaching electrical stoml be fore h ttp://sciencc.howstuffworks.com/lig.htning.htm
you sec o r hear the lightn ing. ·Ille sc nsiti"e lighting
www.lig htniJlgstorm.com/ t uxljsp/gpg/lex Uma J'
detecto r project will a lert yo u to an oncoming storm
display_free.jsp
from o ver 50 miles away. gh'ing you time to take
cove r or go inside to safe ty. Sate ll ite s are often used to follow lightning s trikcs
•
i\!la ny have wond e red : During a ligh tning strike. around the wo rld a nd haven·t ad\'unccd to the point
is the e arth conside red positive or neg<ll ive? In an whe re they can accura te ly map local areas. Two major
electrlcll l Slaml. the stoml cloud is charged like u Types of senso rs are commonly used: m<lgnc lic direc-
g iant capacitor. ·1l1e uppe r portion of the cloud is tio n fi nde rs and V HF inte rferome terv. The NariOlwl
positive and the lower portio n is negali ,'e. Like all Lightl/ ing D etection N em·urk (NLDN). which is ope r-
capacitors. an e lect ncal fidd gradient e x.ists be t ween ated by Global AlIl/osphl'ric.s. III Co (GA l ) in Tucson.
the upper positive and lower negative regions. The Arizona. is a ne twork o f more than 130 magne tic

,
(!) st rength or in te nsity o f the eleci ric fi e ld is d irectly
related to the amount of cha rge b uildup in the cloud.
d irection fi nders thaI covc rs the e ntire U.S. A.- more
than twice the co\·crage of existing weather radar

·, The cha rge is c re ated by co lliding. wa ter drople ts.

As the collisions continul; and the charges at the
ne tworks. Each d ireclion fi nder d e tc nnines the loca-
tion of a ligh tni ng d ischa rge using triangu lation a nd is
top and bOllOTll of the cloud incre ase. the electric ca pable of d ctecting d o ud·to-ground lightning flashes
fi e ld becomes more in te nse-so in te nse. in fa cL thm at diSlances of up to 250 miles llnd mo re. Processed
1 the e lectrons at the earlh ·s surface are re pe lled in form;Jt ion is transmitt ed to the Network Control
( dee pe r into the earth by the strong ne gative charge at Ce nte r. where it is then tlisplaye d in the forlll of a
the lowe r portion o f the cloud . This re pulsion of elec- grid map showing lightning across the U nited States.

, tronSCll uses Ihe earth·s su rface to acqui re a strong.

positive c harge.
Recently. the N a/iollf/I Space f/ml Aerflll(lluic:s
Admillislratioll (NASA) has improved the resolution
o f the syste m by adding aco ustical me asure me nts to
,j 111e strong e lcctric fi e ld also causes the air around
the mix. A lthoug.h the fl ash and resulting thunde r
{ the clo ud to b re ak down a nd become ionized (a

224 Electronic Sens o r s for the Evil Geniu s

occur at essen tially the same time. ligh t travels at VLF band. Yo u can build your own VLF radio receiver
lH6.000 miles pe r seco nd. whe reas sound Ira \'ci s ,It that is c'l pa ble o f monitoring lighm ing fla shes fro m ,..
the relative snai l's pace of one-fifth of a mile pe r sec- an on-coming electrical sto rm. 'Ille lightning receiver
ond. Thus. the flash- if not o bscured by clouds- is circuit is shown in Figure 9-3. 111is rece i\'e r is d esigned
J
seen before the thunder is heard. By coullting the to pick up a ba nd of frequencies nea r 300 KHz. a
seconds be tween the flash a nd the thunder a nd divid- range tha t is a rairly empty e xcept for lightning static.
ing by 5. a n estimat e of the distance to the strik e (in These radio crack les are picked up by a n ante nna
miles) c<ln be mucie. with [he help o f the to millihellry (m H ) choke. Shon
In the NA SA ligh tning se nsors. low-freq uency a ntennas beha\'e as though a very ti ny capaci tor is
rece ivers detect the lightning strike. -Ille leading e dge connected in series. a nd this choke resonates wi th this
of the electric-field pulse is used to start a time r. and capaci tor allowing current to now into the receiver.
The 330 microh£'lIry (u H ) a nd 680 p F capaci tor form
••
the leading edge of the thunde r pulse stops the timer.
a tuned ci rcuit at 300 KHz. a nd the 0.01 uF ca pacito r
..l
A microcontrolJer in each r.:ce iver transmits thl! time
measured (0 a processing station. whe re the times are couples th is tank circuit (or a coiUcapacitor combina- :tl
conn-n ed \0 dista nces th at are used to compute the tio n used as a resonant circui t) into the base of the
local ion of the lightning strike to wi thin 12 inches. first transistor amplifier.
llle onl\' drawback is that the NASA se nsors ha\'e to 'nle amplified radio signa l on the collector of Q I is
be located within a 30 mile radius of the st rike to be coupled imo the base 0 ' through capacitor C3. -Inc
accurate. circuit gain is controlled b y the pote ntiomete r at R5. J.I
The collector of transistor 0 3 is coupled throuI!.h diode 1..
D2 and 117 to the base of tra nsistor 0-1. which acts as "'.
a me te r dri\'er circuit. l1le output of 04 provides an
Lightning Detector output to the averaging me Ier circuit . which shows a
fairly sleady readi ng that is proportional to the light-
Lightning [lashes gene ra te a broad spectrum or radio IIlg aCll vlI)'.
freque ncies with especially intense e missions in the

Antenna R3

02
Ll A11
Rl R9
C2 03 /
Ml

L2 A

/ A17 A16

/ A1S

/
R14
82
-
A13

• •
Figure 9 ·3 U ghtening t/t'teclOr cirCllit (Col/rres." Charles \ I'ell :::eJ)

Chapter Nine Radi o P rojects 2 25

 llle DC OUlpUl a t the mete r circui t also provides
a n o utput. which is used \0 drive a n additional
comparator circuit Ihal can be used \0 drive higher
current loads such as for ala mIS a nd m Ol ors. Note
that a scparale powe r supply is used \ 0 power the
ex:ternal load thai . in this diagram. is a buzze r bu t
could be a higher cu rrent load if desircd .l l lC mete r
circuit d rives the comparator via the in put resistor. Figure 9-1l Oll-o//switch, gain control.lIlld
A 10K ohm resistor a t R ll drives the positive inpu t bu::.::.er 011 from panel of chassis
o f the LM339 comparator at pin 5. A 3-yoll bias is
a pplied to the minus input of the op-a mp a t pin -I ,lOd
the threshold is adjusted via the poten tiomete r al would require a 4-ce ll bau er)' holder. and so on.
R 13. The comparator output at pin 2 drh'cs the Afle r comple ting the circuit board. be sure to check
VI....10S n-channel power transistor al 05. and recheck vour circuit board for errors and shorts.
'Ille lig hting monitor circui t was e nclosed in a 6 x
8 x 5 metal chassis box. l lle on-off switch. a DPST
Construction switch was used for power in the circuit and was placed
o n the fron t panel o f the chassis along with the me ter.
The lighti ng de tector cifc uit is buill on a glass epoxy gain control. and the buzze r. as shown in Figure 9-4.
circ ui t bOHrd me asuri ng 4 X 6 inches. but yo u could 111e prOlDiype uses two chassis-mo unted pote ntio me-
cicCi to build the circ uit o n a pe rf-board if desired. ters. a nd they arc both mo unted on the front pane l of
The circuit is simple to construct and has no specia l the enclosure as well.
wiring conside rations because it opera tes at low A binding post or ban ana-type jack is placed on
freq uencies a ro und 300 KHz. Whe n constructi ng the the top of the Ch,lssis for securi ng the antenna.
lighting detector. be care ful to obse rve the correct De pend ing upon your choice of an te nna. you could
polarity whe n inserti ng the e leclrolytic capacitors. use a telescoping antenna. a wire a ntenna attachl!d to
A lso no te that you m ust observe thc proper orienta- the bindi ng post. o r a wire whip a nte nna a ttached to
tion whe n insta lling the diodes and the transistor a ba nana plug.
semicond ucto rs. The lightning detector util izes a single
IC a t UI. LOCale an IC socke t a nd install it prior to
insta lling the Ie. Wh e n installing the IC be sure to Operation
correctly insert the IC into its socke t. Most ICs ha\'e
e ithe r a cuto ut or notch at the top of the Ie o r an ind- Operation of the lightn ing monitor is quite simple.
I ented circle near pin I of the Ie. ri n 1 is usua lly jus t
to the left of e ither the cutout or the indented circle.
O nce the circuit has bee n built a nd placed in the
chassis. your next task will be to power up the ci rcuit
(l) TIle prototype lightn ing detector is powered from and teSt it. Place the batteries into the holders. Insert

s::
.~
two C ce lls. As mentioned earlier. to drive a higher
load. the compara tor circuit is powered by a second
the ,lIlte nna in to the input jack a nd power up Ihe
ci rcuit via swi tch S I .
balte ry detennine d by the load that you choose. If.
Z for e xample. you select a 6-\'011 load or buzzer at the
Next. adjLL<;t the sensiti\1ty cont rol \1a potentiometer
R5 for maximum sensiti\1ty. or fully clockwise. Finally.
o utput of the comparator circuit. you would have to adjust the comparator potentiometer at R 13. Turn
provide a 6-volt source by us ing four C cells. the R 13 c1ock\\1se until the ala rm sounds and the n
You will need to lOCale two ballcn' holders. one back down the control until the sound stops. and the
for the main circuit and o ne for the load circuit. The comparator control is set for normal uperation. Your
main circuit can usc a two·C-ce ll battery holde r. a nd light ing monitor is now ready for Storm de tection!
the ba tte ry holder chosen for the load circuit is de pen- You'll be glad you built it once the next storm rum·
dant upon the load that you have chose. A 6-volt load bles into vour town.

226 Electroni c Sensors for the Evi l Ge niu s

 S1 DPST to ggle switch
Lightning Detector Parts List ()
BZ 6-volt bu z zer o r
other load (see text) ::r'
RI , R2 , R4 . R9 . R14
l-megohm . l / ~-watt
B1 o or C cells (2 III
resi sto r
cells to equal 3
volts)
0
R3 . R15 10K ohm. 1/ 4-
-to
watt r esistor
B2 ••• text
ro
Miscellaneous PC board,
RS Z OOK o hm
potent i omet er
wire, binding post. r;
a ntenna. etc.
R6 4.7K ohm, 1 / 4-watt
resistor
R1 3.9K ohm, 1! 4 - watt
resist o r
a8 lOOK ohm, 1 ! 4-wat t ELFNLF Radio or Nature's
res isto r
RI O 4.7-meqohm. 1 / 4-
Radio
RII
watt r esisto t"
5K ohm, 1 / 4- watt
Few peopk know of the beautiful radio musk pro- I
resi stor duced naturally hy se\'e nll processes of nall1re.
R12 . a17 IK ohm, l / ~­ processes including lightning storms and the aurora.
.... att re sistor Ihat are aided by e\'e nls occun"illg on the sun. nIl'
Rl3 SOl< ohm majority of Earth 's natural radio emissions occur in
potent i omet er
the eXlrellldy-lolI'-frequellcy a nd n!ry-loll'-freqllellcy
R16 1 0- megohm, l / ~ - .... att
(E LFlVLF) radio wave spectrum.
resis to r
Cl 680 pF, 35-volt disc These natural radio signals have caugh t the inter-
capllcitor est and fascination of a small but growing number of "0
C2 0.00 1 uF, 35-volt hobby liste ners lind professional researchers for the
1
C3
d isc capac itor
0.00 1 u.F , 35-volt
past four decades. Whistlers. one of the more frequem
natural radio emissions to be hea rd. are just one of
o
disc c apacitor
many nalUral radio sounds the earth produces at all
C4 1 uf, 3S-volt elec -
trolytic c apacitor
times in one foml or a nother. Whistlen; arc magnificent ro
sounding. bursts of ELF/VLF radio energy initiated
")
CS 10 uF, 3S - volt elec-

C6
trolytic c apaci to r
1 00 uF, 35-volt
by lil!htning stri kes that fall in pitch. A whistler. as
heard in the audio output (rom a VLF whistler
T
,
elect rolytic capac itor receiver. generally [.llIs lower in pilch . from as high as
01, 02 lN914 silicon the middle-to-upper frequency range of our hearing
diode downward 10 a low pilch of a couple hundred cycles
LI 10 mH cho ke coi l per s('coml (or hertz). i\'feasured in freque ncy tenns. a
L2 33 0 uH cho ke coi l whistler can begi n nt over 10.000 Hz and fall to less
Ql , Q3 2N4~ 01 than 200 Hz. though the mlljority nre heard from 6.000
t r ansi sto r
down to 500 Hz. Whistlers can tell scientists a greal
Q2. Q4 2N~403
transistor
deal abOlH the space environme nt between the sun
and the ea rth lind also a bout Earth's magnetosphere.
QS VNI OJO.I VMOS power

Ul
transist o r
U1339 quad compa ra-
-
The causes of whist len; arc {!eneraJlv well known
~

today though not yel complete ly understood. What is

tor IC
clear is that whistlers owe their ex iste nce 10 ligh tning
MI 1 00 uA mini panel storms.. Lightning Slrike energy happens at all eleclrO-
meter
ma!!ne!ic frequencies simullaneously. The eart h is

Chapter Nine Radio Proj ect s 227

 literally bathed in lightning-stroke radio ene rgy from wi th the rate of frequency ~ hift steadily decreasing as
an estimated l.500 to 2.000 ligilining storms in the f.requency d ecreases. A whistler's note may be
p rogress at any give n lime. trigge ring ove r a million pure. sounding al most as if it was prtxluced using a
lightning strikes daily. The IOwl e ne rgy output of labora tory audio signal ge nenlto r. Other whistlers
lightning StamlS rar exceeds the combined power arc mo re diffuse. sounding like a b reathy sll'oosh or
o ut p ut of a ll numnllldc radio signals anti dcctric like they are composed of multiple to nes. On occasion.
power ge nera tin g pla nts. some whistlers prod uce echoes or long progressions
Whistlers also owe the ir t:xiSlc ncc to the sun a nd of echol's. known as edlO [millS. that can cont inue for
\0 the e arth"s magne tic fi e ld (nlilgnclosphere). which many minutes.
surro unds the plane t like an cnomlOUS glove. Sm."am- Whistlers ca n ot'Cur in a ny se a~on. Some types arc
iog fro m the sun is Ihe .w/af willd. which consists of more likelv to be heard in slimmer than win te r and
e ne rgy a nd charged particles. called iOlls. A nd SO. the "icc vcrsa. Statist ically. the odds a re especially high
combination of the sun's sob r wind. the earth's mag-
n ~ lOs ph c rc surrounding the e ntire planet. and ligh t-
-
for good whistler activit"
mid-April.
.
bet\\el.~n mid -\Iarch and

ning stanns all irlle raC\ 10 cre:lle the intriguing Whistlers and the sounds of the dawn chorus can
sounds and great varie ties of whbth.:rs. not he heard equ ally \\cll everywhere in the world.
How whistlers happe n fro m this combina tion of Reception o f these is poor in equatorial regions and
nat ura l solar- te rrestrial forces is (brien,,) as fo llows: - .
best at geomagnetic latitud e~ abo\'c 50 de!!.
. ree~ For-
--
Some of the radio e ne re" bums from li!!.htninl!. strikes
travel into space beyond Earth's ionosphe re layers
- - tu natelv the con tinental United States and Canada
arc well positioned for reception of \\ histkrs and
and into the magnetosphere. where they follow OIher signals of nat ural radio.
'r"
ap proximate ly the lines of force of the enrth's magnetic
o field to the opposite pola r he misphere. They travcl
Considered bv. manv . liste ners to be the l\lu::.ic of

~ a long d ucts formed by ions streaming toward Ea rth -

Ea rth. whistler.; arc a mong the accid ental discO\eries
of science. In the latc nineteenth century. European
p fro m tht! sun's solar wind. Solar-wind iOilS get tra pped l o n g~distnnce telegraph and te lephone operat o rs
- -
in and aligned wi th Earth's magnetic field. As the were the fi rst people to hear whistlers. The long tell"
(
., - -. -
lil!.ht ning ener!!.v tra\'e ls a lon g a fi dd-a ligned duct. its
- - graph wires o ft e n picked up the snapping and crack·

., radio freq uencies become spread out (dispersed) in a

similar fashion to light shining into a glass prism. The
higher radio frequ encies arrive before the lower
ling o f lightning storms mixed with the 1\lorse code
bUlZes or \·oic . . . audio fro m the sending stations.
( Somclimes. th . . . te lepho ne operators also h.:-ard stram!.e
freq ue ncies. resulting in a do\\ nward falling lOne of whistling tones in the background. Tht!se tones we re
c:t. .
" arymg pumy.
.
attributed to problem::. in the wires and connections
A whistler will oflen be heard Illllll\' tho usands of o f the telegraph system llnd then disregarded.
miles from its initiating light ning stri ke. a nd in the ' n le first wrill . . . n report of this phenomenon da l e~
opposite polar hemisphere! Ligh tning storms in ba('k to 1886 in Austria \\ hen whistle rs were heard o n
Brit ish Col um bia and Alaska may p roduce whistlers a 12 kilometer (1 -4 mile) telephone wire without

.,... that a re heard in New Zeala nd . Likewise. lightn ing

storms in e as te rn North America may produce
a mplific<ltion.1l1en during World Wa r I. while the
German scientist H. Ba rkha uscn was eavesdropping
whistlers that a re hea rd in southern Arge ntina or on A llied telephone conve rsm io ns. he heard the
even Antarctica. E ven more rc markablv. whistler whistlers. ln order to pick up the te lephone conversa-
energy can also be bo ullced buck through the magne-
h tosphere nc ar (or not -sa- near) the ligh tning. storm
tions. hc inserted two me tal probes in the ground
some distance apart and conllected them to the input
(rom which il was born! o f a sensitive audio amplifier. He was surprised to
Whistlers are d escending tones. Their duration can hear whistling tones thai lasted for 1 or 2 seco nd ~ and
range from a fra ction of a second to seve ral seconds. glided from a high freq uency in the a udio range to a
(
..c:
u
228 Electronic Senso r s for the Evil Genius
lower frequency where thcy disappeared inlo the The dawn chorus has been variously described as
amplifier or background noise level. On occasion. the sou nding like birds at sun rise. a swam p full of frogs.
whistlers were so num~rous and loud that he could or seals barki ng. In facl. the chorus varies constantl\,.
not detect any type of lI!le phone. H ooks. risers. and hisses a re all part of the dawn c11O-
La te r. in 1928 three researchers from the Marconi rus. but sometimes these sound s are a lso heard as
Company in England reported on the work they had solita ry evenls. A hook starts OUI like a whistler b ut
done in whistler research. Eckcrslev. Smith. and then abruptly turns into a rising lone. Risers increase
Tremel1en established a positi\'c correlation between in frequency from beginning to cnd. And hiss sounds
whistler occurrence and sO\;lr activity, and they found j ust like the name. Appropria tely enough. the dawn
that whistlers frequen tly occu r in groups preced ed by chorus is best heard around dawn. but it may occur at
a loud click. 'Ibe time be tween the dick and the any time of the day or night. TIle dawn c horus is most
whistlers was about 3 seconds. Thev concluded tha t like ly to be heard during a nd shortly after geomag-
there must have been two paths of propagation ne tic stonns.
invol\'cd: onc for the click that preceded the whistler
and a second mueh longer pa th. over which the
whistler ami its echoes propagated, Time of Listening I
Eck ersley was able to show in 1931 that Earth's
magnetic field pennits a suitably polarized wa\'e to ;...Iost of the V LF signals. incl ud ing clicks. pops. and
pass completely through the ionospherc.lllis was in tweeks. can be heard at a lmost any ti me of the day or
accordance with the II/fI[Jlleroiollic Ilicory. Tre mellen night. The occurre nce of whistlers is a fun ction of
had on one occasion observed thill during a sum mer both th understorm occurre nce and p ropagal ion con-
thunderstorm at night. every visible [lash was fo llowed d it io us thr ough the ionosphere. 'nle n ile of wh istlers
by il whistler:1l1is se rved as the firs t d efinite evidence is highe r at night th,lIl d uring the day because of the
of the relationship between lightning discharges and diurnal variation in the D region absorption. which is

-
whistlers.thc dick being the lightnim~ discharged that
- - - -
Ihe D lave r does not exist because it is ionized by
-
hie.hest when the sun is above the horizon. At ni!ilit.
causell the whistler. A s the ~'I arconi workers conti n- ~ ~

ued their resea rch. they a lso d iscovered a new type o f solar ultraviolet rays.
atmospheric acti"ity that sounded somewhat like the The whistler ra te. or the number of whistlers heard u.
warbling of birds. Because the sound tended to occur per minute. has a marked dependence o n sunspot (1)
most frequently at dawn. they gave il the name dOIl'II act ivity: the rate increases with the sunspot number. ()
chorus. Whistlers are heard on ly when suffici e n t ionization M'
L.R. O. Storey of Cambridge University began a n e xists along the pa th to guide the waves towa rd Ul
in te nsive study of whistlers in 1951. H e confimlcd Earth's magnet ic fi e ld. Th is ionization is assumed to
Eckersk,,'s law. which showed tha t most whistlers be supplied from the sun du ring a solar even!. such as
origina te in ordinaT)' lightning discharges. and fo und su nspot activity. "10 hear a whistler or other signals
the path of propagation of the whistle r to be along such as the dawn chorus. you will no doubt have 10
the lines of Earth's magne tic field. get away [TOm power lines and industrial noise, The
liste ning time for these signals will be from ncar local
Oth~r inte resl ing sounds incl ude tweeks. which
m id nigh t to early mo rning hours.
have been described by one listener as a cross
betwecn chirping birds and a hundred litt lc men hitting
iron bars with hammers. The epheme ra l dawn chorus
is a cacophony of sound that resembles noth ing clse
o n Earth. Tweeks are abrupt. descending notes th at
resemble pings. On ley are us ually heard at night du ring
the wint~r and early spring.

Chapte r Nine Ra d io Pro j ec t s 229

 forms of nonna tural radio no ise. lhe receive r is desi-
Observing and Recording gned for porta ble operation in the field. that is. away
Hints from such interference sources.
A sensitive d ual FET whistler receiver is de picted
The best location 10 obsc ....'e VLF signals is OUl in Ihe in Figure 9-5. The an te nna is first fed to an R F filter.
countryside.
•
in an area whe re few cars or t fuck s are composed of rcsistors R I through R... and capacitors
likely to pass. You will wan l to ge l as far away from CI through C3. This filter allows only the desired fre -
powe r li nes as possible for optimum results. The q uencies to be se nt to the next section of the reccive r.
lowe r the power line noise is. Ihe stronger the VLF ·Ibe R F filler is nexl fed to the 60 Hz fi lter. or trap.
emission signals wi ll be. Take a portable. bane!"}'- which fi lt ers o ut 60 Hz powe r-line frequencie s before
ope rated. casse He lape recorde r wi lh you and usc a the RF signals are ampl ifi ed. TIle 60 Hz filter can be
long audio cable to run to the lape recorder [rom Ihe switched in a nd out of the circuil with switch 51 ::1.
audio output of the VLF receivcr. "llle dua l·ma tched FET transistor 01 along with
transistor 0 2 are used 10 amplify the RF signa ls of
the desired band of frequencies. ·111e amplified sign<l ls
Building a Whistler Receiver arc then feu w the inpul of a set of selectable filters.
( which can be swi lched in and out of the circuit. Toggle

4 -
Even though whistlers and re l.lIed emissions occur al
acoustical (requencies. they are radio signals. To hear
s"itch S2 is used to s\\itch in the high·pass filter circuit.
whereas switch 53 is USeUto switch in the low· pass
whistlers. you must in tercept their electromagnetic filte r. You ca n select either or both filters if desired.
energy wit h an antenna and transfoml il 10 Ihe The ou tput of the low-pass filte r circu it is coupled
•I mechanica l vibra tions to which OU T ears respond. to the (inal a udio amplifier slllge via capacitor e17.
( It is not easy to go oul and buy a radio capable of Po tentiometer R 12 controls the audio le\'eI enlc ring
lUning I to JO K Hz. but il is possible 10 build a sensi· the U.1386 audio amplifier at U I. Notc that R 12 also
live receiver 10 penni t you hear the sounds of nalUral contains a switch 55. which is used \0 supply power to
rad io waves. We will explore what causes these the LM386 nudio :lmplifier. ·1l1e ompUi of the LM386
( sounds and sec how you ca n study them yourself. is cou pled to an audio output jack via capacitor 00.
• The classic whisllcr rece iving system consists of an C lpacitor CIS is coupled to a recorde r output jack to
antenna for signal collection. an a mplifier to boost allow a chan recorder o r a nulog-IO-digital converter
the signal le\"e l. and headphones or a speaker to trans· to be used to monitor and record the output from the
fonn the signal to sound waves. (A magnetic tape whistler receh'er. The whistl.:r recei\'er can be powered
recorder can be substitu ted for th e headpho nes or from a 9-volt ballery for field receiving applications.
speaker.) A whistler receiver cll n simply be an audio Power 10 the circuit is supplied via power switch S....
amplifier connected to an antenna system. However. For slHlio nary reception a nd recording. you can
powerful manmade interference immediately abo\·e power the circuit from a 9-\·011 wall·wan power supply.
and below the frequencies of interesl tcnd 10 seriously ·1l1e \\ hisllcr receiver is cOIlSlructed using good R F
overload receivers of this sort and make rece ption of techniques on a glass epoxy circui! board \\~th large
wh istlers and related phenomena difficult. ground p!:lI1e structures. that is. using scrap pieces of
To overcome these probl ems. a good whistler circuit boards placed ve rtica lly acting as RF sh ielding
receiver circuil includes a circui t called a low-pass (Figure 9·6). Yo u could modularize the circuit building
filter thaI allenuatcs all signals a bo\"e 7 KHz. This by using three small circuit boards: one for the R F
grea tly reduces in te rference from such sources. To filter and trap ci rcuit. one for the high-pass a nd 10\\-
escape in te rference fro m AC power lines a nd other pass filter. and a third board for the audio amplifier

230 Electronic Sensors for the Evil Geniu s

and powcr circuit. Small metal shield covers could be
built using scrap circuit board material. Keeping
component leads short is a good idea with this circu it:
it is an RF circuit but not critical because it is a low
frequency RF.
When installing the electrolytic capacitors. be sure
to observe the proper polari ty to avoid damaging the
circuit upon power-up. Whcn handling the dual FET
at Q I and transistor at 0 2. be very careful: the FET
should have been shipped in a metalized foam that
shorts all the pins togethe r. The metalized foam
z.....
prevents electrostatic damage to the [ront end of the
::l
FET. Usc ant istatic practices when handling QI and
02. For exampl e. make sure you are sealed and use a
Headphone Amp ro
wrist st rap to prc\'en t stalic dllmage on the FET. AJso .------ - ------------_ ... ---_ .. _--- ------_. ------.
makc sure you can ide ntify the pinouts of both QI
Figure 9·6 Vertical cirellif board shields
I

RI FILTER
,,
, AI 5

C2 C3 ,
CI
,, 84 AI7
AI 6
pO
,, 9V 11
- ---- --
60 Hz TRAP 81 C23 C24 0
,, u.
81:a
ro
-- IN- -,
- --l OW- PASS 0
C4
C6 , , -- - --,
I S2:b , - - -- ("t
Ul
J2
,
A9 Q2'
, All
,
C7
,, CIO
, I
I

, I

,
,, C I6
7
C9
A7 C8 A8
,
, L2

--
---- .. _--_. - ------_ .. _---
Figure 9-5
--- ------- . -- ----- ------ .---- ----
Dual FET whislfer receil'l!r eirellif
------- -- ----_ .. -----_. - . ---. -.-- ----- ._-_. -.... ---"-

Chapter Nine Rad io P roj e cts 231

 and 0 2 before install ing them.1lle FET actually has to Ihe ground te rminal. Other places \0 makl! a ground
two ide ntical matched tmnsislors in the same package. conneclion incl ude ca r hadies. wire fences. or o ther
Each transistor in the package has three pins. ivlakc large me lal objects not connecte d in a ny way to an
sure you know each of the manufacturer's pin desjg- AC power c ircu it. Anothe r approach is to use short
nations before insta lling the tra nsistors. sections of copper tubing as ground Slakes that arc
A single Ie in the receive r circui t a nd Ie socke t driven into the ground a nd connected to your receive r,
a re recommended in the e ve nt of a ci rcuit foi lure -,
Trv, seve ra l diffe re nt i!.found inl! sche mes to sec which
one provides the qu ie test reception, Don't be too
down the road . lCs generally hn\'c ma rkings 10 indi -
calc lhe proper orie tlla tio n of the package. llle LM386 surprised, ho\\'e \'e r. to discove r that you still h:l\'e to
should have eit he r a small inde nted ci rcle on the le ft make hody cOlHact wit h the ground temlinnl ror
side of the package or a cutout on the l Op cen ter of quietest reception!
th e lC package. Pin j of the Ie will be \0 Ihe le ft o f
e ither the sma ll CUlO ul or Ihl! inde nted circle.
Onc!! the circuit board has bee n completed. USing Your VLF Receiver
carefu lly check it over to m;lke sure you find no
shorting paths a nd no stray component leads that The prototype receiver. wilh a whip a ntenna. is
mounted on a piece of wood approximate ly 2 x 60
ma ke bridges ncross the PC board circu it la nds.
inches. I instal led the <tntenna <t t o ne e nd (i t can be
'Ille whistle r receiver prototype ci rcuit board is
mou nt ed on a bracket or just tape d o n) and atlached
housed in a cast 6 X 5 \.1 X 2 inch alumi num bo,'\, l ne
the receiver abuut I foot down (rom the antenna using
rilte r switches. ga in contro l. a nd headphone jacks are
d uct ta pe (two-sided foam tape or a mounting bracke t
mount ed o n the front of the box. as seen in the phOlo
could a lso be used). 'llie monitor a mplifie r is mounted
in Figure 9-6. TIle on-off switch a nd SO -23X U HF
in a si milar fashion. a sho rt d istance belo w the receiver,
connector are mOUTHed on the side panel of the
e nclosure. Tlle ground binding post is moun\i;,'d 011 , -
A le nl!th of wire runs from the recei\'e-r's 2ro und te r·
minnl down the wood a mi is ta ped in place a t seycral
the rear pa ne l. opposite the front pa ne l. Tlle main
locations. Now ,\'o u have a ha nd)' walkin"0 !otick tha t
circuit board can be mo unted to the bottom of the
o e nclosure with l/s· inch plastic Slando(fs.
was easv to carn-' and use ! TIle base can be stuck into
~

any cO[lycnie nt hok-.ja mm.:d into a rock pi le. damped

" The whistler receive r is designed to be used in onlO a fe nce or vehicle. o r e\'Cn he ld bv hand.
open areas. with a ve rtical an te nna of rough ly I to 3
For the best chance of hearing whistlers and related
me ters (3 to 12 feet). It can also be uSl!d in wooded or
phenomena. you will need to put some distance
obstructed areas with wire a nte nnas. roughly 50 to
be tween the whistler receiver and the AC power grid.
200 fe e t in le ngth and connecte d inste ad of vertical.
The bare minimum is about one quarter mile from
Wire a ntennas sho uld be insula ted and suppo rted off
any AC powe r line: the more dista nce bet ween the
the gro und as high as you can pbce the m, The perfor-
receiver and any AC powe r lines. the betler your
mance o f a w; re ante nna improves the more you can
reception wi ll be. Yo u'll need to do some explormion
-
eet it in the clear and the more \'e rticall " it can be
~
to discover quiet sites near you. Once you've arrived
positioned. If you do usc n wire a nte nml. you may
a t a poten tial liste ning site. se t up your receiver. put
have to reduce the value of the input resistor R I for
in :1 ground connection. and sec wltat happens. What
best results.
you hear depe nds to some exte nt o n Ihe time of day.
'1l1e whistler receiver a lsu needS;l ground connec- but you can always expect some sharp. crackling static.
tio n, some times calleJ a ('vI/lite/poise. A simple but TIlc inle nsit y :md volume of this s tatic will depe nd on
ofte n effecti\'c ground can be provided by your body pro pagation conditions lind whe re thunderstorms are
in contact with the I'..round te rmina l BP2. I hO\'c used in relntion to you r locat ion, Chances are tha t vou'lI
an improvised ringer ring nttached to a wire connected also hear some power-line hUIll. but hopefully ;1 \\'o n't

232 Elec t ron i c Se n sors fo r the Evi l Ge n ius

a nothe r place.
-
be verv. loud. If .vour listening site is too nois\,.
..VOli tr\'-
VLF Receiver Parts List
If your ears have good high-freque ncy response. Rl, R4 1 0K ohm, 1 / 4~
you will probably hea r a continuing seq uence of watt , 5 \ re s i sto r
I-Sl!cond tones. -nlesc a rc from the OMEGA radio- R2, R3 22K ohm, 1/4 ~
navigation system. Oi\IEGA is transmined from 10 wa t t , 5 \ r es i sto r

to 14 KHz. and Oi>. IEGA transmitters are very pow- R5 6.2-rnegohm. 1 / 4~

watt , 5 \ r esis t o r
erful. YOll may also hear anything that can produce
R6 I- me g ohm potent i ome~
an electrostatic discha rge. particularly if the humidity
is low. These miscellaneous noise sources can include
wind, the buzz of insects nying near the antenn,L dry
R7
ter (trimpo t l

5\
1 0~rne gohm.
res i!lto r
1 /4~ watt , z....
lea\·es or I!rass movine. in the wind. and e\'en the elec-
~ ~ R8 lK ohm, 1 / 4- watt, 5 \
re s ist o r
::I
Irostatic cha rges that build up on your cloth ing. P<lSS-
ing vehides o ften e mit noise [rom their electrical and R9 lk ohm , 1 / 4- watt, 5\
'l>
r esistor
ignition systems. A nd if you have 11 digital watch .
keep it aW<ly from the ante nna or you'll he listening Rl O 3.3K o hm . 1 /4- wat t.
5% resi sto r
I
to it instead of whistlers.
A nything you hear o ther than whjstlers and
Rl l , Rl2 820-ohm , 1 /4 -
wa tt. 5 \ re Sistor :xJ
related phenomena o r orvlEGA signals are likely to Rl3 10K ohm pote n tiome - IlJ
p..
be the result of extraneous signals overloadi ng your
recei\'e r. Burbling sounds (possibly mixed with
ter (panel)
Rl4, R1 7 l a-ohm. 1 /4 - ....
Oi>.'IEGA tones) are caused by mili tary sigmlls in the
15 to 30 KHz range, perhaps overloading the receiver.
watt, 5\ resistor
R1S. Rl6 2 . 2K ohm, 1 / 4-
o
watt. 5 \ re Sistor
A ticking sound Ht a 10 Hz fate is from Loran-C
C l , C3 47 p F , 35-v olt
radio-navigat ion signals at 100 KHz. The Loran-C mica capacitor
navigation syste m was used extensively by ship cap- C2 100 pF, 3S-volt mica
tains. sa ilors.. a nd boaters before the adven t of global c apac ito r
positioni ng system (G PS). In gene ral. don·t be sur- C4, CS, C6 3.3 nF . 35 -
u.
prised if you experience overloading from tnmsmit- volt Mylar capac itor (l)
ters ope ra ting on a ny freque ncy. if they are wit hin C7, CIS 0.0 1 u F , 35-
volt c 8ramic disk
o
sight of the location where you're using your whistler ca pacito r r+
receIver. Ul
C8 2 7 pF, 3S - vo l t mica
Some whistle rs lllld rela ted signals are so sha n c apa c i to r
lived and impossible 10 predict thai you migh t want C9 1 uf, 35 - volt elec-
t r o lyti c c apacitor
to consider usi ng an unattended tape recorder to
record the signals in the field. A ny tape recorder wi th C I O 0. 18 uF o 35-volt
tantalum capacitor
an external microphone input can be used. Best
CII 0.1 2 uF , 35-volt
results a re obtained wit h a recorder tha t has no (I!/fO - tantalum c apacitor
II/f//ic It"'d colllroi (A LC). The VLF receiver shown Cl2 1 .8 uF , 35-volt
has II output jack that can be coupled to a recorder tantalum c apacitor
input for fidd recording. You may have to place the C1 3 0. 68 uF , 35- v olt
tape recorder away from the recei\'er to a\'oid pick- tan t alum capacito r
ing up motor noise. G ood luck and happy exploring! Cl4 0. 22 uF, 35-vo lt
tantalum c apa c it o r
Cl6 0.068 uF, 35-vo l t
tantalum c apa c it o r

Chapter Nine Radio Proj ects 233

 C17. Cl S 0.22 uF , is \'e ry exciting as weU as interesting a nd ca n lead to
35-vo lt tantalum new hobbies such as shortwave listening or perha ps
capacitor
li ma le ur radio. TIle shOrlw,l\'e radio can also prese nt
C19 0.05 uF . 3S-volt
ceramic disc c ap acito r many different avenues for research that perhaps you
C20, e22. C24 100 uF , neve r thought about. You can use this shorlwavc
3S-volt e lec trolyt i c rece iver. for example. to study wave propagation by
c ap;!l c itor liste ning to the broadcasts (rom WWV. the lime signal
e21, e23 0. 1 uF, 35- radio site in Fort Collins.. Colorado.
v o lt ce r amic disc
capllcitor The simple. three-I e supe rheterodyne radio in
L1 120 mH co il (Mous_ r Figure 9-7 can rece ive stations in the 4.5- to lO-r"IHz
electl:onic s ) range (ro m a round the world wilh o nly a IO-fool
L2 150 mH c oil (Mouse l: antenna. A superhe te rod yne ra dio works by mixing
ele c tl:onics) the incoming RF signals with a local-oscillnro r ( LO )
L3 18 mil co il (Mouse l: signa l 10 produce a n IF. or imermcc!illtc f reqllellcy.
ele c tl:o ni cs)
111e circuit then filters. amplifies. and diode-de tects
L. 56 mH co il (Mousel:
electl:on i cs) the IF signal to reproduce the a udio signal cOllw ined
in the RF input.
fIl QI U~OI 5iliconix dual
matched N-Cha nnel FErs The transforme r--capacilOr ci rcuit a t the input
4-l
o Q2
Ul
MP5A5 6 transistOI:
LM386 op -amp
provides impedance matching 10 Ihe antenna: the T-e
IUned circuit provides rough prese lection fo r Ihe
Q)
51 DPOT togg le Switch 4.4. to IO-MHz RF signa l.IC U l . <l Philips N E602 .
'n (tl:apJ conta ins the required RF stages. U1 also co nta ins an
52 OPOT toggle sw it c h acti,'c Gilbert--cell mixe r a nd a transistor configured
{high-pass}
to provide the LO fu nclion (pins 6 a nd 7). 111e LO
53 OPOT toggle switch
( low-pa ss) uses a simple Colpi tis co nfi guratio n. The L-C wnk
81 g-volt t l:ansistol: circuit dClCnnines the Colpitts configuration 's fre-
rad io battel:¥ que m:y. The LO operates a t 455 KHz. abm'e the
Jl , J 2 1 /8 - inc h mini incoming RF. thus producing a consWnt 455 KHz IF
pho ne jac k with switch out put at pin 5 of U 1.
J3 50-238 UHF chassis
The TO KO ce ra mic filter re moves any ou t-of-band
jack
responses.. The'" KH z passba nd o f the filter provides
Pl PL2Sg UHF p lug
surprisingly good audio q ua lity and adjacenl band
P2 binding post
rejeclioll . The workhorse of the receiver is 1C2. a
I (gl:oundJ
Miscell aneous PC b oa l:d . Plessey Z '414. originally designed as a simple. one-
IC socket, solder, chip A~'I radio. This IC provides more than 70 dB of
wil:e , antenna, b atte ry IF am plification. an amommic g(lil/ -colI/rol (AGC)
ho l de r , battel:¥ c lip ,
hal:dwa l:e, chassis circuil. and a de tector circu il in a TO~92 package. YOli
can se t the gain of Ihe ZN414 by changing the bins on
the device using the IF-gain Irimpol. When U2 ampli-
fi es. provide.s AG e. a nd detects the IF. it produces
Shortwave Radio baseband a udio. U2 can directly drive high-impedance
headpho nes. blll this design uses an Uv1386 audio
This shortwave radio project can ope n up a whole amplifier to drive a 3-inch loudspeaker.
new wo rld of possibilities to bo th you ng and old This shortwave radio is constructed on a small
a like. Lisle ning to radio broadcasts (ro m far off la nds printed circu it board. If a pe rf-boa rd is used compo-

234 Electroni c Se nsors for the Ev il Genius

 51 +5V
Cl0
+
+ U, +v
+ + R6
Cl' :;:+' - 0-' T C1.

~ +9V
- R3 -
I- BATTERY +V
"-
Ql
C.
IN
U2 j5.UT

ANT
T1
C3
-2 B
5 Rl
CB

--
r
-
C9

Ul ,
" i:"Cl 1
I
Xl
I
R2
"" 7 6 3
7 ' _ +V

~I
-7
-7

C6 I ': C7 :!cC12
I
- I
-
- - - -C2b- T2
,,:B
C2. 7
- - B
J- "*-
2 C13
U3 >5 + " 5 PK
+
R7 ( I 3 7
C11 '-
'-
•
-
Figure 9-7 Three Ie sl/Or/wlI\'" receil'er cirellil

nern leads should be ke pi ns short as possi ble because receiver. Bo th potentio me ters R4 and R7 are mounted •
this is an RF cin:ui l. Be sure 10 usc Ie socke ts for the o n the fron t pan e l of the chassis box. A 2- or 3-inch D
ICs lu a\'o id problems switch ing out compo nenlS at a speaker is also mounted o n the fron l panel of the I
later date if the re arc defecti,'c parlS.. ICs need to be c hassis along with the on-off swj tch at SI. -1l1e pri ntcd t
installed correctly 10 avoid destroying them. Most ICs circui t board is mou nted to the bonom of the chassis )
h ,m~ a notch CUI o ut of Ihe plastic at the l Op or Ie box with If, -inch pl astic sta nd-offs to lift the boa rd of
package or they ha" e an indented ci rcle near pin I of the metal floo r of the chassis.
Ihe IC Be carefu l when handling the ceram ic fi lte r -Ine front -cnd coil asse mbly at TI is a hand wound
and be sure to obsen'e the cen te r or ground wire coil consisting of a T37-2 ferrit e core from Micromctals.
\\ hen insta lling Ihis device. When build ing the in Anaheim . Ca lifornia. The inp ut transforme r coi l T I
shortwave receiver be sure to observe Ihe correct consists of two coils wo u nd o n the fe rri te corL'_ The
polari ty of Ihe electrolytic capacitors as we ll as that p rim ary coil consists of '4 turns o f iP6 gauge enamel
of the tnmsislor. wire closely wound o n the fer rite core. The sccondar)'
Because this p roject is a radio p roject. you sho uld coi l consis ts o f 5 turns of #26 ga uge enamel wi re
choose a mew I e nclosure for the project. A n "Iu- wound on top of the primary coil. 111e coil at T2 con-
minum chassis box measuring 6 X 6 x 21h inches is sists of 2' turn s of it26 gauge e name l Wife closely
best for this project. Tuning capaci tors CI ,md Cl afe wound o n a ferrite core_
both mounted on the fronl panel of an alum inum
chassis box. which was used to house th e shortwave

Chapter Nine Radio Projects 235

 The IC a t V2 is a Plessey Semiconductor RF. a You may need to adjust C2 at Ihe low. center. and
comple tl: a mplifie r package. which is no longer pro- high po rt ions of the ba nd for 0 best compromise.
duced bUi is still available. A re placement de\'ice. a n . -
Now. tune 10 an\'. mode ratclv stron e statio n and set
MK484. is readily available from O cean State Elec- the LF-ga in trim pot fo r maximum signal with mini-
lronics or Radio Laboratories as well as olhe r suppli- mum audio distortion. A la rge increase in the output
ers. The bll ia nced RF a mplifier and oscillato r. the noise le\'c1 accompa nies the o nset of distortion.
NE60'. at VI is readily available from many sources Yo u will ha\'e fun learning about other interesting
such as D igi-Key Electron ics or O cean St:He Elec- things on W\VV at certain ti mes besides just the time
tronk'S.. llle ceramic filt er module is nvailable from function fea ture. Featu res such as accurate tone frc-
TOKO Coils. que ncic!';. geophysical a le rts (sola r act ivity reports).
Powering-up a nd testi ng your new shor\ wave ma rine storm warnings. global POSiliollillg syslem
receiver is yo ur next ste p. Check and recheck the (GPS) re po rts. and OMEGA navigation system sta-
circu it board to make !';ure that Ihe com po ne nts have tus reports arc broadcast also.
been installed correctly and thai you fi nd no shorts or Figure 9-8 shows the broadcast schedule for WWV
small wires bridging the PC la nds on the PC board. in Fort Collins. Colorado. A similar schedu le is avail-
Once you hnve completed checking your circuit. a ble fo r WWVH in Hawa ii. 111is diagram is extracted
connecl a 9-\'olt Ira nsislor radio batte ry.llle curre nt from a National Institute of Standards and l echnology
drain on Ihe ba lle ry is only abo ut 10 rnA. so the (NI ST) publication . (N IST publ ications are available
bane ry should last for q uite awhile. for a modest charge from the Gm'emment Priming
A lignment of the receive r is simple. Yo u should
veri fy that Ihe LO is oscillating (ro m approxima te ly
-
Office. Washinelon DC 20-\02. Write and risk for 11
current list of available publications.) The IWO features
5 to 10 ~'I H z whe n you tune C2. You can pe rform this of 1110st interest are precise freq ue ncy of the carrier
verification by placing a direct o r x 1 probe o r anten na signa l 10 calibr;lIe radio and test eq uipment. a nd the
from a frequency counte r on or ncar the NE602 chip. precise time infomlat ion given each minute as a
Don't connect the coun te r directly to the NE602 pins. \'oice transmi!';sion, But you will find many other
because Ihe added capaci tance changes the osci llation inte resting parts of their transmissions.
freque ncy. Various lan es can be and a rc used to check audio
Next. set tbe IF-gain trimpot near the cemer o f its equipment or musical instruments. 'Ibese tones can
range a nd add a n a nte nna to the circuit. You could be ca ptured to detect the start of each hour or each
use 10 or 20 feet o f wire strung randomly about the minu te. A t specific intervals. \'oice annou ncements
-
house. but 0 IOIle.e r oUldoor a ntenna substan tialh'
~
a re made on WWV for the benefit of OII1(.'r go\'em-
impro \'es pe rformnnce. Tune to the ce nter o f the ment age ncies. ' Ib e predominant ones are as follows:
rece ive r's ra nge and care full y listen for a station.
Mari ne storm wurnings that arc of interest 10
You can usua lly hea r a Departmem of Defense fax
the U.S. govern ment are prepared by the
transmission on 8080 KHz at night from anywhere in
National Weather Se rvice and broadcast for
the Un ited Stales. (The tra nsmissio n sounds like a
areas of the Atlan tic and Pacific Oceans.
scra tchy record.) O nce you hear a !'; tation . carefully
tune C2 to peak the signa l. D uring the peaking Glohal llOsitio ning system sta tus announce-
ments are prepnred by the U.S. Coast Guard
adj ust me nt. you may need to adjust the [ f gain or
vol ume for optimum receptio n. Now. tune to the -
10 eiw current status information uboUi the
GPS sa telli tes.
upper portion of the band, You can hear WWV"he
National Jnstimles o f Standards nnd Technology OMEGA na\'iga tion S~'st e lll reports are pre-
standard time-and-frequency station. at 10 ivU-Jz. lbe pared by the U.S. Coast Guard to give the sla-
station transmits time infomUllion 24 hours a day. IUS of the eight OMEGA tmnsmilling stations
in the 10 to j-l KH z frequency range.lllese
Repeat the adjll!:il mem of CI for optimum recept ion.
se T\'e as naviga tion aids.

236 Electronic Sensors for the Evi l Genius

 ~!J'Y:{jW
BroadcasCFormat
ISTAT10 ~ID

- 4"" Ht l-HOUR MARK

, - N ~ ST RESERVED

cOCA.".
.c.o-""G~O'~~ 105'1Y.1'27U W

s ....·;V..QfI 8RC\DCAS1 fR[ClLI~~

A:n RJ,O,I,T(O I""..."m
Z.!t ~'~l - 2!: 'oW
!> I.Ih,t - 10 ~ W
1a IJHl -
15 '.Ii-V -
a"
RePORTS
"20 l' .... ~ _ 25 l'N
UTI C~C~
- - OMEGA REPORTS
- ~ .o.:::mYJ.!. ~"iV;';VI W.W;;
'.7 "-1.(;0 ~lAr<;t;
:.)-0 (I..q cwrr K' ~e
Id,',

f(8! CC ... U-'S. co OOS~ ~

(JoJJ) L&l-2Jn
GEOo\lERTS
I
u 6£G;'.1'. ,'.0 OF EACH HOUR IS ID E~mF IED BV
O.8·SECONO ·~O NG, :SOO-H t l ONE .

o ar:GINt.."'G OF EACH MltruT E IS ICENr.f:EO BY

O.a · SECOI. D-LO t.G. 100Q-H, TO ' /!;.

o THE 2gth AND !.Dr.. SECOND PU ~SES OF EACH

M i ~ UTE ARE O ~' rTTEO

U U O H. lO~E IS OM'TlED DUR, I. G ARST

SiATiO~. !O HO..lR O~ E"Cl-i ':lAY

Figure 9· 8 lJrondml/ schedule for \\furV, Fori Collins. Colorado

G(,0I)hys-i c~I a lerls arc prepared by the Space

Environment Service Ce lller of the Nmio ll(l/ Frequency Calibration
Oecal/ie (/1/(/ A III/ospheric A(/m;l/istrmioll
(NOA A ). They a rc broadcast on the ISth
Ho w are frequency ca librations made with a WWV
minute of the ho ur and givc informatio n o f
recei\'er? It is easy to cal ibrate <I signal gene THtor
interest to amate ur radio o pe rators a nd vari-
using the sho rtwave receiver. Simply couple the signal
ous sd c ntific organiza tions r~ gard in g solar
acti\'it y. geomagnctic field s. solar nares. and g.enera tor with a COIII;1I11011.} II'//I 't' (cw) signal loosely
o ther geophysical statistics. TIlis propagation to the anle nna input with an ante nna connected. and
information can help you ded de when the ox adjust the sienai generator level to get a be at note on
signals wi]] be good. th ... rece iver. Th l!n. adjust the freq uency of the signa l
gene rator fo r zero heals. -Ibe signa l genera tor can
Spcdfic liming trans missio ns a re made to
then be used to calibra t ~ other ... qui pment. sut"h as a
allow liste ners to synch ron il.e equipm ent:
frequency counter.
• The beginning o f each hour is identified bv
D.S-second long. 1.500 I-Iz to ne.
• 111e beginning of each minute is ide ntified
by D,S-second long. 1.000 Hz tone.
• TIle 29th and 59th second pulses of each
minute are omin ed .
• A 440 Hz tonl!' is omitted during the fi rst
hour of each du\'o

Chapter Ni ne Ra di o Pro jec ts 237

 U4 LM 7 805 r e g ulato r Ie
Shortwave Receiver Parts List 51 SPST toggle Switch
SPK 2-i nch o r la rger ,
Rl lOO-ohm , 1 /4 -watt
8-ohm Spe aker
re s istor
Misce lla n e ous PC board ,
R2 1 . 5K ohm , 1 / 4- watt
!e sockets , wire, con-
resistor
nectors, et c.
R3 l OOK ohm, 1 / 4-watt
resistor
R4 1 0K ohm pot entiome-
ter (chassis mount, IF
gain) Jupiter Radio Telescope
R5 1 0K ohm, 1/4- wa tt
re sistor llle Jupiter radio telescope is a special shonwave
R6 15K ohm. 1 / 4-watt receiver that will pick up radio signals from the
resistor
planet J upiler and also from the SUIl. It is a very excit-
R7 10K ohin potent i ome-
t er (chassis mount,
ing projecl. "ntis project will allow you to do amateur
vo lume) research in lO radio aSlronomv, in ,vour own back .yard .
CI) CLIO to 18 0 p F tuning J upiter is the fifth pla net from the su n and is the
c a paci tor
~ largest one in the solar system . If Jupiter were hollow.
u C2 10 to 35 pF dua l
gang tu ning c apaci to r
more than one thousand Ea rths could fit inside. It
a lso contains more matter than all of the other plan-
Q) C3, C8 0.01 uF , 3S-vo lt
d isc c apa c ito r e ts combi ned. It has a mass of 1.9 X IOn kilograms
C4 , Cll 0. 22 u F , 35- a nd is 1-12.800 kilometers (88.736 miles) across at iL<;
volt Myla r c apa c it o r e quator. J upiter possesses 28 known sate llites. four of
CS, C6 380 pF, 3S-volt which were observed by G alileo as long ago as 1610.
Myla r TIley are Callisto. Europa. G anymede. and 10.
C7, C12 100 pF , 3S- volt Another ]? satellites around Jupiter have been
l-!ylar c apa c i tor
recently discovered and given provisional designators
C9, CIS 0.1 u f , 3S-volt
until they arc officially confirmed and named. Jupiter
d i sc c apa c itor
CI O, Cl~ I u F , 3S- v o lt -
has a rin!!: syste
. m. but it is vcrv -
. fa int and tOiallv in visible
elect r o lytic c a pac ito r from Eart h. (The rings were discovered in 1979 by
C13 22 0 u F , 3S -vo lt Voyager 1.) Its atmosphere is very deep. perhaps
elect rolY t i c c a p a c ito r comprisi ng the whole planet. and is somewha t like
Ql 2N39 04 tranSistor the sun. It is composed mainly of hydrogen and
I Xl TOKO HDFl-12- 456
c erami c filter
helium. wi th sma ll amounts of me th ane. ammonia.
water vapor. and o ther compounds.
TI T37 - 2 ferrite core
with twO coils (s ee Colorful latitudinal bands. atmospheric clouds. and
t ext ) storms illustrate Jupiter's dynamic weather systems
T2 T3 7 -2 f e rri te co re (see Figure 9-9). 111e cloud patterns change \\~thin
with s ingl e co il (s ee hours or days. Jupiter's C rem Red Spot is a complex
text)
storm moving in a counterclockwise direction. A t the
Ul N£ 60 2 Phillip s bal-
outer edge of the SP0l. ma te rial appears to rotate in
an ced RF amplifier !C
-I to 6 days: nl'ar the center. motions arc small and
U2 ZN414!F module o r
new er MK4 84 nearly random in direction. An array of other smaller
U3 Lt.1 386 a ud i o a mpli - stornlS and eddies can be found throughout Jupiter's
fie r module banded clouds.

238 Ele ct ronic Sensors for the Evil Genius

 they arc filte red to reject strong out-or-band interfer-
ence a nd a re then amplified using a jlll/CliOIl fle/r f (,!fecI
mlll"JistQr (JF ET ). This transistor and its associ ated
circuitry provide additional fi lte ring and ampl ify
incoming signals by a (aelOr of 10. The receiver input
cu-cuit is designed to efficiently transfer power from
the a ntenna to the receiver wh ile developing a mini-
mum of noise within the receiver itse lf.

Antenna

Figure 9 -9 Jllpil('fS colorfllllaritlule ballds.

tlllllUsplleric clout/so(flld storms RF 20 MHz
Bandpass
Qs.ciliator
Filler
Auroral emissions. similar to Ea rth's northern
Jigilis. were obscn'cd in the pola r regions of J upiter.
I
The a uroral emissions apJX"ar 10 be related to material RF
from 10 that spira ls a long magnetic field lines and fall
Pie-amp ~
into Jupite r's atmosphere. Cloud-to p lightning bolts. III
similar to superbolls in Earlh's high atmosphere, P-
ba\'e a lso been o bserved. LOfMixm I-"
Radio signal s from Jupite r are very weak: they • Tuning 0
20.1 MHz
produce less than a milliomh of a voll at the a m e nna
te rminals of the receive r. TIIese weak RF signa ls must FIVe-Pole
Low-Pass Filter
'1:1
be amplified by the recei\'er and converled to audio t1
signals of sufficient strengt h to drive headphones or a 0
loudspeaker. -llle receiver also serves as a narrow fi lter.
Audio
u.
as it can be rolled to a specific frequency to hea r Pre-Amp (I)
Jupiter while at the same time blocking OUi strong
Earth-based radio sta tions on othe r frequencies.l lIe
> (J
receive r a nd its accom panying a ntenna arc designed Volume c1'
(I)
to operate owr a narrow range of shOrlwa\,e [reo
quencies centered on 20.1 M J-I z. lllis freq uency range
is optimu m for hearing Jupite r signals. Audio
Amp
lbe block diagram shown in Figure 9-10 illustra tes
the various parts of the J upiter radio telescope. First
the ante nna intercepts weak c lect romagnetic wa\'es
that have travcled some 500 million miles from Jupiter
to the Earth. When these e lectromagne tic waves strike
the wire a ntenna. a tiny RF voltage is developed at
"., o
AudIo o ... ,
Audio

the an te nna terminals. Signals from the antenna a rc

delive red to the an te nna termina ls of the receiver bv External
a coa.xial transmission line, Next the signal is delivered Speaker

10 the RF bandpass filter and preamplifier. where

Figure 9-10 JI/pifer radio lelt'scope block diagram

Chapter Nine Radio Projects 239

 Nexllhe signals move 10 the 10m! oscil/mor ( LO) signa l fl ow a nd the various fun ctions performed
a nd mixe r. which perform the important task of con- wi th in the radio. The nex t Il!veJ of detail is the
,'eTti ng the desired RF signals down to the ra nge of schc m,lIic diagram. A sche matic is used to represent
a udible frequenc ies. -1l1e LO gene ra les a sinusoidal the wiring connections be tween a ll of the compone nts
\'011age wave form at a frequenc~' in the vicinity of tha t make up II c ircuit. A sche ma tic diagram uses
20.1 r-.tJ-lz. -nle exact freq uency is SC I by the fro nt- symbols for each of the diffe re nt compo ne ntS nlthe r
panel tuning con trol. Bo th the a m plified RF signal than using pictures of wha t the componc nL" actually
from the a nten na and the LO frequency arc fed in to look lik!!.
the mixer. 111e mixer develops a new signal1hat is the A schelllatic diagnl m of the complete receive r is
ari thme tic di ffe rence between the LO and the incom· se en in Figure 9-11. On this sche matic. the part types
ing signal frequency. Suppose the desired signal is at are numbered sequentially. Fo r example. inductors
20.101 iIotHz and the LO is tuned to 20. 100 /vl H z. 1l1t' are denoted L I through L7. and resistors are de noted
diffe rence in frequencies is the refore 7U.101 - 20.100 R l thro ugh R31. Signal fl ow as shown in the schematic
= O.cXH ,,,I Hz. which is the aud io frequency of 1 kilo· is as follows.. The sign al [rom the ante nml connector
hertz. O r if a signal were at '0. 110 MHz. it would be (J2) is coupled to a resonant circ uit (blmdpass filt e r
conve rlcd to a n a ud io frcqucm.:y o f 10 KHz. Beca usc L L C2. C3) a nd then to the .1 -310 transistor (0 1)
-
the RF siunal is convcrted direct l\' . to audio. the radio where it is amplified . TIle o utput of the J-310 goes
is known as a dircct-<:onversion receiver. through a nother resonan t filt e r (D . C6) bdore being
To e l.iminatc in te rfering. statio ns a t nearby applied 10 the resonant input ci rcuit ( L-t C9. CIO) of
frequencies. a low·pass filt e r is used nexl: this operales the SA602 Ie (Ul). which serves as the local osci ll a·
like a window only a few kilohertz wide through which tor and mixe r. The center frequ ency of the loca l ascii·
• Jupite r signa ls can e nte r. When liste ning for J upite r lator is set by inductor L5 and adjus ted by the tuning
or the sun. the radio will be tuned to li nd a cie3r control R7. TIle a udio out put fro m U I passes through
cha nnel. Because frequencies more than a fe w kilo- thc low·pass audio filt e r ( L6. L7. QO. Cl i . and el2).
hertz away fro m the center freq ue ncy Illay contain The audio signal is nex t amplified by UI (an NTE82~)
inte rfering signa ls. these highe r freq uencies m ust be before going to thc volume con trol R I.5. The final
( el iminated.llii s is the purpose of using the low· pass a udio amplifie r stages comprise UJ (another /'.'T E824)
fi lter followin g the mixe r. It p"sses low (audio) fre- and the output transistors 0 2 (2N-39O-l) and 0 3 (2N-
•I
quencies up \0 ahout 3.5 KHz and a He nuates 39(6). Afte r the rece ive r has been assem bled. the
'1
higher freq ue ncies. ,'ariable capaci tors C2 a nd C6 and variable inductors
Finally the low-pass filt e r feeds a n a udio amplifier L4 and L5 will be adjusted to tune the receiver for
operation at 20.1 IvlHz.
-
sta2e. which takes the ver.' -
. wea k a udio si!!.nal from
the mixe r and amplifies il e nough to dri,·c headpho nes
directly or enough 10 drive <Ill exte rnal a mplified
spea ke r assembly. PC Board Rssembly
After ident ifying and loca ting all the componenls for
• Ci rcuit Diagram the Jupiter radio and preparing your printed circuit
board . you are ready to begin building the project.
The block diagram of the J upiter radio receive r in Whe n insta ll ing the compone nts. ta ke some extra
Figure 9-10 shows the radio as a group of functio na l time to inse rt them carefull .\' and correctl". in the ir
blocks connected together. Although this type of proper holes. IC sockets a nd transistor sockets a rc
diagram does nOi show individual components like highly recommended. and can a\'oid major problems
resistors a nd capacitors. it is useful in understa nding if the ci rcuit eve r fails and components need to be

240 Electronic Sensors for the Evil Genius

 Jl 01 51

-'-1>1'1 11 ./ 1 I 1 1 ~ .]- 1
I . I . I . A27 ~ A5} .I. ;::
- - - --
C39 C40 C41 HQ A -.
LED1 C6 -=-
L3 C7
~
J2 Cl C23
...:.....J ...,
n "";"1 1" ,1 1 , '
:::r
OJ
o A2 I.
- 11~ -bI. -
ru
-
~
- - - -.=- ell C20 C2 1
C3
-:Jz. I- C12I .
ru A •
+
, I - A12
A6 R7
C38:r: i L5
~
'"c. C24 I
~.
-
o TPl -
C37
"o-,
w.
ID A26 "-, I
'; ---"I ':L ZD2 C29
n J3
- -- R15
'"' U3./
-
'" - I
A16=- C28
-
- J4
R19
R17
-
AUDIO
R18 I C34 OUT
-
~
'" Figure 9-11 JUpill'l' radio IC'llfs('(lpe l'i/"{:lIil
~

.::;+:)a~o:rd O~p-e~ ,:I U ~ N :r.:n d P'l[:)

 replaced. In order to avoid damaging the receive r il is (see Figure 9-12). Wire the four jacks J l through J4 to
important to install the capaci tors. diodes. and semi- the ci rcuit board.lbe prOtOtype has the power und
conductors with respect to prope r polari TY marked on anlen na jucks mounted on the rear panel of the chassis
each of th em. Elect rolytic ca pacitors have ei ther a box . One audio jack is mounted on the fro nt panet.
plus or min us marking on them and must be installed and the second a udio jack [s mo unted on the rea r
correct ly by obse rving the polarity of the capaci tor chassis pane l. The power swi tch S I is wired to the PC
with respect to PC board. A ll d iodes including varac- and mounted on the front panel of the recei\'cr a long
lor diodes have polari ty. so be aware of theiT polarit), wit h thc power-indicating LE D. The runing control
when installing the diodes. (A varactor diode. or lun- R 7 and volume control R 15 a re both mounted on the
ing diode. is a Iype of diode used principally as a volt- front panel of the chassis box.
age-controlled capacitor.) -nle band usually denotes Once you a rc satisfied that your circuit boa rd is
the cathode end of the diode. Transistors general[v.
~
wired correctly. you are ready 10 apply power to the
ha\'£' three leads: a base. a collector. and an emitter: circuit ilnd begin testing for proper operation.
pay particular a tlc nlion to these leads when installing
the trans istors. res always havc so me type of ma rk -
ings indicating the ir orien t3tio n. You will fin d e it he r 11
Testing and Alignment
plastic cutout on the top of tile Ie package or a n
I indented circle next to pin I of the Ie. Be sure to usc
oj -Ille receiver requires 12 \'olls DC (vdc). which may
these markings when insta lling the reS. A number of
be obtained from a well-regu la ted power supply or
coils are used in this project: although there is no
a: polarity to the coi ls. you will need to pay a n emion to
from a battery. Curren t drain is approxima te ly 60
milliam ps (ma). The power cable supplied with the
'r'"' the va lues of th e coi ls as well as which ones are
kit has a fe ma le power plug on one e nd lind stripped
( adjustable and which are fixed before you insta ll
leads on the other. Notice that the power cable has a
I them on the PC board. Note un the schematic the
black stripe. or tracer. a lo ng one of the wires. This is
two points ma rked A: one is at R6 and the othe r at
~ the wi re thai is connected to the cen ter conductor of
C16. Bo th of these points are con nected toge ther.
the plug and m ust be connected to the plus (+) side
lotc the test poin t marked TP I at the OSC-I mod-
( of the powe r SOllrce. The Radio Shack RS 23·007
ule. wh ich can be used 10 ensu re tha t the oscill ator
( Eveready) 12-volt ba ttery o r equiva le nt is suitable.
" module is working correctly. Powe r is broughl to the
'T circui t via the coaxial power input jack at Jl. ll1e
I a ntenna connection is shown a t 12. This connector
~ can be ei ther iI BNC or an F type chassis-mounted
conneclor. ll1e receiver circu it has two a udio out put
jacks. both at 13 a nd J4. Two circuits of mini l/ll-inch
ste reo jacks a rc used in the prOtotype.
C Once the printed circuit has been assembled.
recheck the solde r joints to make sure they arc
, smooth and that no cold solder joints exist. Also
observe the PC circuit lines to be sure thaI no bridges
or shorts have formed by cut com ponent Ic:ads. Once
the circui t has been checked. you a rc ready to insta ll
I the circui t board in the chassis.
A me ta l e nclosure is chosen becallse Ihis is: a
sensi ti \'e RF receiver and you wi ll want to kee p OU I - .. --- --- ..
side interfere nce from effect ing the circuit opera tion Figure 9-12 A lIu'wi enclosure fo r the cirelli/
I
,J
{,

242 Electronic Sensors f or the Evi l Genius

 Nex1.lUnl the Jupiter receiver's power switch to A~ you m(lke adjustments. the signal will get louder. ()
0(( Connect e ithe r headphones or an a mplified Reduce the receiver volume control as necessarv to
speaker (Radio Shack 277+IOOSC o r equivalent) to keep the tone from sounding distorted or clipped.
)
the receiver audio output (J3 or J4 ). -Illese jacks :lITepl To test the recciver on the air. simply connect the
3.5millimctcr ( I/,,-inch) monaural or stereo plugs. antenna. For best performance. usc a 50-ohm an tenna
t
If you are using a Radio Shc\("k amplified speaker. designed to operme in the freq uency range of 19.9 to
turn it on and adjust the volume control oillhe 20.2 M Hz. At cenain times of the day. you sho uld be o
speaker up about Ill'- of a turn. If you are usi ng head- able to hear WWV or WWV1-1 on 20.000 MHz. The "I
phones. hold the m seve ral inches from your car as Ju piter radio telescope direct-conversion recei \'cr
there lila" be a loud whistle due to the internal test l'
oscilhuor. Turn the recei\'cr on. The LED should light
design does not allow dear reception of amp/ill/de
/llOt/lI/ale{1 (At\ I) stations like WWV So Ihe voice will r•
•
up. Set the \"Olume contralto the 12 o'dock position. probably be garbled unless you IUne \'e r)' precisely.
Allow the rccei\'cr to \\'ann-up fur several minlllcs. The receiver does work well on si/l.r;le sitieb(ll1ll (SS B)
Set the tuning contralto the 10 o'clock position. signals and CW signal'\.
Careflllly adjust inductor L5 (Figure 19-1 2) with the
white lUning stick until a loud low-frequcncy tone is I
heard in the speaker (set volume control as desired).
Caut ion: Do not screw down the inductor sl ugs too The Jupiter Radio
far. as the ferrite material could crack. By adjusting Telescope Antenna
L5 10 hear the (One. you are tuning the receiver to
~.
20.00 ~ 11-l z. The signal that you hear is generated in -n il! an te nna intercepts \\'eak c\(:ctrolllilgnelic waves
ascI. a crystal-controlled test oscillator built into thill have tra\'e led some 500 million miles from D
the recei\·er. Oncc L'i has been sel. do nol readjust it Jupi ter to the Earth or 93 million miles from the sun.
during the remainder of the al ignment procedure.
(When the receiver tunes 70.00 ~ II-l z with the knob
When these electromagnetic waves strike the wire
antenna. a tiny RF \'ollagc is developed ,I( the antenna
a
set to the 10 o'clock position. it will tune 20.1 i'- IHz
I
terminals. A basic dipole an te nmt is shown in Figure )
wi th the knob cr.!ntered on the 12 o·clock position.) 9-13.111C recommended antenna design for the Jupiter
•
The following steps invoh'c alljusti ng variable radio telescope is Ihe dual dipole shown in Figure
capacitors (e2 and C6) a nd a variable inductor ( L4) 9- 14. Signals fram each single dipole antenna are
l
~ -
10 obtain the maximum signal strength (loudest tone)
at the a udio output. For some. it is difficult to disccrn
brought toge th er with a powcr combiner via two
pieces o( coaxial cable. The output of the power com- t-
slight changes in the strength of an audio tone simply biner is delivered to the receiver by ,lIlother section Il
by car. Fo r th is reason. three different mct hods el rc of coaxial transmissio n line. The antenna system •
dc.·scribcd.euch using a form of lest instrume nt. In the requires a fair-sizc area ror setup: minimum
even t no test equipment is available. i.I fourth method requirements a re a 2.) X 35 foot nat area that has soil
-simply relying on the ear- is possihle. In .. 11 cases. suitable for putting stakes into the g.round. Because the
adjust the recei\'er tuning knob so that the audio lone antenna syste m is se nsitive to noise. it is br.!st no t to
is in the range of ahout 500 to 2'(XX) Hz. Use procedure set it up ncar any high-tension po\\er lines or dose to
A as l method to tune up your receive r. buildings. Also for safety reasons. please kee p the
If no test equipment is available. sim ply tune by antenna away from power lines during construction
ear for the loudest audio signal. Listen 10 the tOile and operation. The best locations a rc in ru ral settings
and carefu lly adjust the tuning knub (0 keep the pitch where the inte rference is minor. Because man\' of Ihe
conslant. l f the pitch changes during the alignment. it observations occur at night. it is wise to praclice set-
indicates that the receiver has drifted of( frequency. ting up the antenna during the day to make sure the
si te is safe and easil\' accessihle.

Chapter Nine Radio Projects 243

 INSULATOR INSULATOR INSULATOA ROPE
ROPE~_
1_----,.----_ ~~=,---\ ____
r 3 FERRITE
BEADS
~ 14 COPPER
WIRE
SUPPORT RG -59

ROPE
ROPE

F
CONNECTOR
GROUND
STAKES
l b PVC
END CAP >

..Figure
--------------_.-------- ------------, ------------_. ------------- -------------_ .. _---
9 -13 Basic dipole

23'3"

<C---- -
t 1'6"
--'-'-"------+> I+-<---'-'-"'--~>, :
11 '6" I

+- /)2 of AG-59
16.2'
}J of AG -59
+

F - POWER 16.2' +
COMBIN ER

.----- ---.-"--- .- ._--- - --

Figure 9·14 Dual-dipole mite/ilia

If you want to locale your receiver indoors and cable supplied with the kit is one \\;welength: thaI is.
your an lenn a is outside or on the rooftop. and if your 9.85 me ters long (ta king into account the 66 percellt
antenna Icad will not reach. you mus t use a longer \<eloci ty factor of the RG -591U cable). The maximum
coax cable. Do not usc just ilO)' lenbr1h of coax. The recommended cable length is fi ve wavele ngths.
cable going from lhe power combiner to the rccei\'er l llere are ma ny differe nt manufacturers and
should be a multiple of half a wa"elength long. The quali ties of coaxial cable.llle 75-ohl11 cable supplied

244 Ele ctro ni c Sensors for the Evi l Genius

with the kit is manufactured bv 13c lden and has a the Jovia n L bursts. rille instaTHaneous bandwidth of
solid ce nte r conductor and \'e loci ty factor of 66 per- a n L·buTSt is very large. gre tHer than 5 M Hz. '1l1ey
cem. Radio Shack does not carry R G-59/U cable. bOl have a slow undula ting qua li ly tha i re minds ma ny
they do have RG -o and the higher grade RG -6QS liste ne rs of waves crashing on a dista nt beach .) Use a
(quad shield). which is also 75·ohm cable. Bo th of wpe recorder th at allows you to swilCh off the A Le.
these cables ha\'e a ve locity fa ctor of 78 perccnt. O ne Keep the A Le turned off.
wavelength a t 20.1 11,<1Hz in RG·6cable is II .M me te rs. Anothe r alternative fo r recording Jovian stonns is
If you arc going to put in a longer feedline. we rec· the use of a compute r or laptop to record the signals
ommend that you complete ly replace tht! existing [rom your Jupite r radio te lescope. Us ing a laptop
o ne-wavelength pie ee. rathe r than splicing another
length of cable o nto the end,
compu ter to record thc Jovian storms has the distinct
advantage of allowi m!. you to a nalyze the a udio
recording with specia l spec tra l softwa re that can help
....
you make sense of the complex signals received.
Observing Tips: Jupiter's Note that you could a lso Cleci to use an audio tape
Radio Emissions recorder 10 record the Jovian signals in the field. and
later when you return home play the tape record ing I
Most JO\'ian radio stomlS recei\'ed \~a the Jupiter into your laptop or desktop Pc. t-. fany a udio a nalyz-
radio te lescope wi ll likcly not be vcry strong. Yo u ing soft ware programs a re available on the Inte rnet.
will need to maximize your c hances of rece iving th e A nd many are fre e. Many programs a1low fast
Jovian stomlS by picking the best opportuni ties. FOlfrier tmllSform ( F F I ) and fre q ue ncy division
a nal\'sis.
- - -
selectin!! a I!.ood observin g sit e. lind lIsing I!ood
--
observing techniq ues.
D uring Ihe daytime. Earth 's ionosphe re blocks
Jupiter"s radio emissio ns. llie refore you will ha ve to Jupiter Radio Telescope
co nfin e your invcstigations to ni!!httime lis lcning. Parts List
Radio noise from e lectrical sources. such as power
lines. nuo rescent lights. comput ers. and motors. clI n Rl 5 8-ohm r esistor
--.I.
mask the signals from JO\'ian storms. R2 29'1-ohm r esi stor
ro
If possible try to select an obscrving silL' away
from buildings and po wer li nes. A lso try to use portable
power supplies such as a batte ry powe r supply. Note
..
R3

R'
l 7. 4-ohm re sisto r
29'1- o hm r esistor
l OO-ohm re s i !Sto r
o
c1'
(J)
th at JO\'inn rad io storms mav be short in duration . so R' 2 .2 K ohm re sistor
•
persistence and luck are nee ded to capture J upi ter's R7 1 0K ohm li n ear
pote n tiomet er
radio signals.
R8 2 . 2K ohm
Nigh ttime observations fro m a lCmporary fie ld
R9 . R19 l OO K ohm
setup can be dange rous. so phm earefull)'! G L't per-
RlO 22 . ohm
mission in ad\'ance to use the site. set up be fore da rk.
R11 l.SK ohm
and use cau tion when walking arou nd the site a t
R12 , R20 , R21 , R27 lK
nighl. lllc Jupitcr radio telescope has two audio o ut·
ohm
puts: one channel can be used for ordinary listening
Rl ), R1 8 27K ohm
and the second outpu t jack can be used for recording.
R14 l OO K Ohm
You can e lect 10 use a port able audio la pe recorde r.
R15 1 0K ohm po t ent i ome-
howeve r note that ne arly all cOlllmon portable tape te r / s wi t c h
recorders usc an lI//tommie r('cordillg It,\"(,/ COI/tI'O/ R16 1 0K ohm
(ALe) circuiLlllC ALe can Illask the variatio ns in R17 1 . 5K ohm

Chapter Nine Radio Pr ojec t s 245

 R22, R23 2 ohm C39 100 mF, 3S-volt DC,
electrolYtic capa citor
R24 1 ohm
R25 220 ohm C40, C41. C42. en
0.1
mF, 35-volt d ipped
R26 47 ohm ce rami c capacito r
R2B , R29, R30, R31, R32 C44 10 mF, 35- v olt DC,
1 0 ohm electrolytic capacitor
Cl 39 pF. 35-volt disc Dl IN4001 diod e
c erami c
D2, 03 IN914 diode
C2 ~-~o pF, variable
LED red LED
capacitor
C3 56 pF, 35-volt disc VOL MV209 , varactor
cerami c diocie
ZOI IN753 6 . 2-volt.
C4 22 pF, 3S-volt disc
zener diode, 400
c erami c
megawatts
CS, ca, ell, C14 0 . 01
ZD2 IN5231 , S.l-volt..
mF. 35-volt dipped
zener diode . 5 00
ceramic
megawatts
C6 4 - 40 pF, variable
Ll O . n mH, (gold. yel-
(/) capacito r
low, viol et , Silver)
C7 not used
4-l L2 1 mH , (b r own, gold ,
C9, C12, C13 47 p F, 35-
U volt disc c eramic
black , silver )

Q) L3 3.9 mH , (o range ,
CIO 270 pF, 35-volt g old. white , gold)
disc c eramic
L4 , L5 1.5 mH,
CIS 10 pF disc ce rami c adjustable inductor
C16 , C24, C25 10 mF , L6 , L7 82 mH, fixe d
35- v olt DC, induc tor
electrolytic
Ql J-310 jun c tion field
C17, C18, C21 , C23, C26 , effect , transistor
C29 0.1 mF, 35-volt (JFE.T )
dipped ce rami c
Q2 2N-3904 bipOlar , NPN
c apacitor
transistor
C19 1 mF, 35- v olt metal
polyester capacit o r Q3 2N-390 6 bipOlar , PNP
transisto r
C20 . C22 0.0 68 mF. 35-
Ul SA602~~ mixer I
volt, 5% metal film
o scillator IC
capacitor

I C27 10 mF, 35-volt DC ,

tantalum, stripe,
U2 LM387 audiO p ream-
p lifier IC
capacito r U3 LM387 audio p ream-
plifier IC
C28 22 0 pF, 35-volt
c erami c disc capa~ itor OSCI 2 0 I-lHz c rystal
oscillator module
C3 0, C31 , C33 10 mF ,
35-volt DC, elec- Jl power jack. 2.1
trolytic capac ito r millimeter
C32 330 mF , 35-volt DC, J2 F female chassis
electrolytic c apacitor jack connecto r
C34, C35 , C36 0 .1 mF , J3, J4 3.5 millimeter
35-volt dipped c eramic s t ereo ;ack, Op en c kt
capacitor Mi sce llaneous PC board .
C37 10 pF, 35-volt enclosure 5 X 7 X 2 ,
ce ramic disc c apacito r knobs , solder lugs,
C38 1 0 mF, 35-volt DC, wire
electrolytic c apacitor

246 Ele ctron i c Sensors for the Evil Genius

 Chapter Ten

Radiation Sensing

'[be radialion spectrum is usually broken down into

electromagnetic radiatio n and ionizing radiat ion. Space Radiation
Electromagne tic rad ia lion incl udes visi ble light and
longe
•
r wave bands like heat waves and radio waves. Three main sources of radia tion can be fou nd in
The bulk of the energy from the sun is in Ihis range.
We use this light 10 sec. grow pla nts. and to power
space : the firs t is from cosmic radilllioll. the second is
fTo lll solar part/de el·ellts. and the final source is radi-
I
solar cells.. The second Iype of radia tion is ca lled ioo- a tio n from the \lall AllclI bellx. Cosmic rad iation
izalion radiation.
Ionizing radial ian is usually thought of as high-
comes [rom distant parts of the universe. The word
cosmos menns universe. lnitiully cosmic radiat io n was
'",
energy and high-speed panicles. th ough sometimes as
-
vcr". short w3vc lcn\!.t h waves. Tlle partides can be
called cosmic rays. but now that we know it is really
pa rt icles not rays. It is also sometimes called galactic
,...
.L

photons. e lectrons. protons.. and ion ized e lemen ts. cosmic rtlllilllioll. \ Ve now know it is coming uni·
such as he lium and iron . The ionized e le menls h,H'e formly [rom all over space and not just from ou r
been stripped of th eir electrons. Whe n these high- galaxy. so it does not make sense to say gll/aclic. I •
speed pan icles pass thro ugh ma ile r. they can do Shie ldi ng aga inst cosmic radiat io n is difficult )
danmge. possibly dee p inside the mailer. As they go
throue.h . they leave behind them a tra il of ion ized
beca use its particles lire so high energ.y. Tlle energy of J
• cosmic radiation can pe netTa te through me ters of
panicles (tllllt is. pa rticles with missing electrons). The
number of ionized panicles per centimeter of path
shielding. Fortunate ly. the level is low enough Ihal it
is not a problem fo r a short tri p into o ute r space.
en
depends on the type of particle a nd its veloci ty. A big- Howeve r. cosmic rad ia tion could be a significant ro
ger a nd higher-speed particle will do lTlore damage. problem for long-te rn} space travelers. for exa mple ':l
The io nizing radiation nea r Ea rth comes from our those who migh t sla[f a space slatio n for more than a fJ
sun and also dista nt parts of the universe. couple years. oJ.

In this chapter. you will learn how to construct and The sun gives off a regular SO/lIr lI'iml and a few
-
. a clo ud chamber for dctecline: low-ionizine:
utilize - times a year a sollir pliMicle {'I'em (SPE). These SPEs
a lpha part icles. You will discover how to de tect ioniz- are so me times called sO/lir flares. bU I they are really
ing radiation using the )ow-cost electronic ion cham- mo re linked to COrollll/ mllss ejectiolls. SPEs se nd OUI
ber. which can be constructed using four common ly elec trons and la rger particles. Tlle e lectrons arrive
avai lable transistors. Junior scientists can construct well in ad "ance of the larger particles (on the order
their own a dva nced e lectronic io n cham be r that will of half a day). The e lectrons arc 110 \ so dangerous and
permit more serious radialio n stud y. Rock ho unds can be used 10 predict when the large r particles will
can build a battery-powered G eige r counter th at C<l n be coming. AJso o bservations o f the sun can indicale
be used for rock collectio n <lnd field radiation stud ies. when things a re happen ing. NASA has a Web page
called Space We ather Now whe re you can sec predic-
tions fo r the sun"s activity.

247
 Some of Ihe part icles from the sun get trapped and simple number. And although it soon gels:l hil Illorc
collected bv . Ihe earth's ma!!nclic
- fi eld. Inside Ihis complicated. it is slill much si mpler than dealing with
area Ihe panicles build lip to higher conccn lnllions nu,'" inform.llion.
Ihan they do in open space. The ,nmospherc has an Working wi lh radiation and radioac l in~ materials
inner concentration of protons and an ouler concen- req uires great care and ca n be hazardolli. to your
tration of electrons. Each group circles Ihe earth lik e health if pro pe r handli ng techniq ues a re not used .
a dough nlll or helt . T1IIS area is known as the Vall ivla ke sure that VOII a re \\·ell infomlcd as to radiation
A f/ell belts after the man Ihat discovered them in safety methods before handling. ntdioact i\·c substances.
1958. Probably the VII/I A llt'l t dOl/gi ll/fits docs nOI
sound as good. Below about 1.000 kilomelcrs ahi-
tude. the radiation is reduced \0 lrace levels.
Fun with a Cloud Chamber
A cloud cham her is a de\·ice u!jcd to de leCt elemen-
Radiation Sources tary particles ami other ionizing radiat ion. A cloud

on Earth chambe r consisls esse ntia ll v of a dosed con tniner

filled with a supe rsaturated vapor. for c.'\ample. water
'r
in a ir. When io nizing radiation pas<;es through the
, There a re ma nv nalUral sources of radiation on

-
E,lfIh _such as radon eas. which is often found leaking
-
from the ground in certain are:lS of the counlr"_
'
V:LpOr. it leaves a tmil of charged panicles (ions) that
se n 'e as condens.ation centers for the vapor. which
( ,
then condenses a rou nd these particles. The path of
R"dium and uranium can be found in man\' locations
c. in the Southwest. Radioactivi t"• can also be found in the radiat io n is thus ind ica ted by tmcks of tiny liquid

, Colema n-style ca mping lamp manlels. and man)'

smoke detectors em it alpha p<ln icles that can be
droplets in the supersatur;Hed vapor.
111e cloud chamber was invented in 1900 by c.T.R.
( read il\' detected. Wilson. 111C type of cloud ch;lmber he de\'is.ed. often
., called the W i/SOli clolld chamber. is filled wi th ai r o r
another gas thai is salUratcd wi th water vapor and
Radiation Caveats enclosed in a cyli nder fitted wit h a transparent win-
!
.,
., Radiatio n can be confusi ng because so many differ-
e nt te rms arc used 10 desnibe it. You can talk nbout
dow al Ihe to p a nd a piston or othc r pressu re-
regulating dc\'ic~ at the bOllom. When the pressure in
the chamber is suddenly reduced (e.g.. by lowering
! Ihe piston}. th e gas-vapor mixture is cooled, produc-
how many milliOI/ e/CCIrf}ll rofts (M eVs) of energy
part icles have and wha t their nux is (n um be rs lik e ing a supersaturated gas. Cloud chambers of this
X particles per square centimeter per second). design are also called the pillSI'd c10lld chamber,
because the\' do nOi mainta in a con tinuous stale of
- - .
Because a ran!!\;, of e ne rgies usuallv exist. -vou need
su pe rsaturation of the yapor.
tu know the shape of the distribution curve showi ng
the Jlulllb.:=r of pHrticles a l e ach energy 1evel.111cn· A morC-rL'Cl! nt design is Ihe diffllSioll clol/d dlflm -
( life also many di fre rent types of particles. so rou her (see Figurl! 10-1). In this device a large tempera-

E need to know that distribution as well . This eelS

complicated fast.
- tu re difference is maintained be tween the tOp and
bOllom of the chamber. usually b~' cooling the bot-
People gene rally worry abou t figures rela ting to tom of the chamber wit h d ry icc. The gas in the cham-
ahso,.bed rill/imiOIl dosage . Th is te rm indicates how ber. usually ai r. is sa tu rated with a vapor. usually
m uch radiation energy is absorbed per kilogram of alcohol. -I1U! air-\-apor mixture cools as it diffuscs

-
mass. Absorbed radiat ion dusage starts out as a single
-
toward the cool bOil am . becoming. supersaturated. II

.c
t
248 Electronic Sens or s for t he Evil Genius
 ,I
Because the vapor is at tc mperClture where it ()
normall y can·t e xist. it wi ll \"Cry easily conden.:,e inlo
liquid form. Whe n an e lectrically charged cosm ic ray
comes II lo ng, it ionizes the '-apor. 'Inat is.. the cosmic
ray tears away the e leclrons in some of Ihe gas atoms
along its path. This leaves these moms positi,·e ly
cha rged (because il removed e lectrons tha t have II
negative c harge). Othe r. nearhy aloms are attracted
10 this newly io nized atom, This is e noug.h 10 s tart the
conde nsntion process. So. you sec little d roplets
Figure 10-1 OiIImiol! dO/ill chllll/ber forming a long the path the particle took through
the cham ber.

the g.as is kept sa tu ra teu wi th a fres h su pply of vapor

(e.g .. by an alcoho l-soa ked pad inside t h~ top o f the
chambe r). the op..:rat io n of the chambt:r can be Cloud Chamber Parts List I
essl.'llI ially continuous. One dislllJ"antage of the cloud
A c lear , see -thr ough
chamber is 1he relatively low density of the gas." hich co ntai ne r with a n Op en
limits the number of possible interactiolls between top . about 6 X 12
inches , a nd about 6
ionizing radiation and mo lecules of the gas. Fo r this
reason physicists ha" e deve lo ped o ther particle
inches high . Make sure
it i s bo x like with
••
detectors. notably the bl/bble chall/ber and the flat s irle s, r a ther
than being r ou nd .
spa/'k t'/wII/b('/,.
A s li de p r ojector o r
othe r ve r Y st r ong
lig ht
How Does the Cloud Chamber A sheet o f met al to
co v e r the top of the
Work? co ntaine r
A pi e ce o f thin ca r d-
Because so much alcohol exists in the a lcohol-soaked board ( f r om a no t e book
liner o r pad. the chambe r is saturaled wil h alco hol o r ce r e al box) the
same si ze as the metal
vapor (the gaseous fa nn of il1cohol). -nle tlry ice
keeps the boltom ,·c ry cold . "hile th..: top is still at
room temperature. Th .. higher tcmpl.'ralUre a t the top
she et
Blac k e l ect r ical tape
re l t o r tissue f o r lin -
.
means th aI the alcohol in the fe lt produces m uch ing the cont ain e r
'-a par. ,,-hich tends to fall dowll\\ a rd. The vapor fi rst A box a littl e bit big-
begins to ri ~e. then once confi ned hy Ihe chambc r g er than th e metal
s heet
walls tumbles down along thc chamber walls a nd
4 binder c l i ps
mixes with the he,wier cold a ir near the ballom of
the chamber: it then (cnds to slav the re.
11le low tempt:rature a t the bOllom means tha t
oncl;.' the vapor has fallen. it is supercooled. 111a1 is. it Constructing the Cloud
is vapor form. but at a tcmperalUre at which vapor Chamber
no nnallv. can't exist. It"s as if .'-au had made steam
First. line the sides of the containe r near the bOllom
wilh fell or tissue. This li ning will be soaked with

Chapter Ten Radiati o n Sensing 249

 alcohol when you run (he chamber, so do not usc Re move the container fTOm the box. ope n it. and
alcohol-soluble tape or glue to attach it. Next. cove r soak the felt with the a lcohol. AJso place enough
one side of the cardboard with the black electrical a lcohol on the tape so thai it is covered with a thin
tape: this will make the pan icle tracks easie r to see. layer of liquid . Clip the me tal and cardboard back
Place the card board. tape-side up, on the sheet of into place. then replace the chamber on top of the dry
mew!. then cover the container with the metal and ice. Be sure that the metal pIcHe is resting directly on
the cardboard. so that the lape is facing the inside the dry ice. Turn 0 0 the slide projeclOr lamp.
(see Figure 10-2). A I ftrst. you will see only a rain-like mist of alco·
Use Ihe binder clips to secure the cOnlaincr to the hoI. Bu t after about 15 minutes. you should begin 10
me taUcardboard top. This is to prevent air leaks. so be see the tracks of particles passing through. The tracks
sure it is tight. Tum Ihe containe r over so that the loo k a liule like spider's threads going along the
me tal is on the bot tom and the felt is at the lOp. Place chamber floo r. Turn off the room lights: it may help
Ihe containe r iOlo the box. Place the slide projector you to see the tracks in a darkened room. For a 6 X
against one side of the chamber so that it shines in. 12 inch chambe r. you should see about one track per
This is the dry configuration of the chamber. You second. Once you begin to see tracks. look for a track
won't see anything yet. but now you <I re ready to go. tha t goes slfa ight. then kinks o ff to the le ft or right
In order to opera te the cloud c hambe r. you'll need sharply. This is an indicalOr of muon decay. You might
to obta in some pure (oot70%) isopropyl alcohol and also see three tTacks 1hat meet at a single point. In
I pound of dry ice. (You can usually get dry icc a t ice these events. one track is an incoming cosmic ray. 1b.is
cream stores.) Cm the dry ice infO thin slices. Place particle hits an atomic e lectron. llle electron and the
the dry ice in the box underneath the chamber. outgoing cosmic track are the IWO other tracks. Look
between the box and the m etal pla te. Make sure tha t for a very windy, jagged track . Th is is an indicalOr of
the slice of d ry ice is shorter than the sides of lhe box. IIIllltiple scattering. as a low-energy cosmic ray
Note: Please use gloves and proper precautions when bounces orr of one atom in the air and fUllS inlO the
handl ing dry ice to avoid serious bums. next. Wh ile looking at tracks, you m.ight notice that
some tracks a re very distinct a nd thick and others are
very fai ol.

I Alcohol·Soaked liner Incoming

Cosmic
Aay

I Slide Projector

Black Tape =~:::

Cardboard Sheel
Melal Plale

Relaining Box

--------------------------------------------------_._-------------------------------------_. __ . __ .. _-_._---- ... _-_ ...

Figure 10-2 Diffllsioll clolld chamber l/i{lgram

250 Electr on ic Sensors f o r the Evi l Genius

 Once you have some experience seeing these
tracks. try some other experiments such as using a Low-Cost Ion Chamber
Polaroid camera to record the events, Or you could
place a \'ery strong magne t underneath the chamber. When ionizing radiation (ultra\'iolet light. X-rays.
You will then see the particles bend when they lire e tc,) pass through a gas. collisions with the gas mole-
ncar the magnet. You might also try to place seve ral cules produce ion pairs, typically charged molecules
plate::. of metal upriglll in th~ chamber. one behind a nd free electrons. If an e lectric fi e ld is present. the
Ihe other. With this e;.;periment you can see how ions will move apart in opposite directions along the
many plates the tracks call go through. e lectric field lines untiltiley encounter the conduc-
tors that an: producing the electric field, An ion ~
Troubleshooting Your Cloud
Chamber
chamber is a n e;.;tremely simple device that uses this
principle to detect ionizing radiation, ,
1)

llte basic chamber is simply a conducting can, usu-

all\' metal. with a wire electrode at the center. well
Like any experiments. you may find yourself having
insulated from the chamber walls. 111e chamber is
difficulties in selling up or maimaining your cloud
most commonly filled \\ ith ordina~' dry air, bUi otller
chamber. Here arc a few common problems and their
gasses like carbon dioxide or pressurized air c:m gi\'l."
possible solutions.
g.reater sensitivity. A DC voltage is applied bel ween
• . -
··1 don· t sec auvlhin!? at all!" Solution: Be sure the outer can and the center electrode to create an
,.
the light is well placed, l\'lakc sure the dry ice e lectric field that swee ps the ions to the oppositeh'
is neatly packed and in good conlact wilh the charged electrodes. lYpically, the oUier can has most
metal plate. Try adding more alcohol. of the potential wi th rc!'; pect 10 ground so tha t the cir-

• " I onl\' see mist. and no tracks:' Solution:

cuitry is near ground potential. The center wire is ,
held near zero volts. and the resulting currenl in the
\Vait.1! lakes about 15 minutes for Ihe challl-
celllt:r wire is measured.
ber to get to the right temperature,
111is voltage requirl."d 10 sweep the ions apart and
• ·' 1 waited 15 minutes, and still nothing.!'· Solu-
tion: Be sure the light is well placed and shin -
to the center wire or outer ca n before a significant
number of them recombine or stick to a ne utral mol-
:n
ing , inlO the chamber. Check thai the chamber ecule is usuaUv under 100 volts and is ofte n onl\' a 1>
is airtight. few volts. In facio if the \'olwge is abov~ a couple hun-
j
• --
··{t's airtight. and thcrc·s good light. bUI I still
,
dred volts. the speed ing electrons will produce addi- n
sce nothing:' SolUlion: if you sec only a \'ery tional ion pa irs called secol/dar)" emissiolls g.iving an •
thick mist. try openi ng the chamber.le lling e nhanced response. G c iger tubes operate at even
some vapor escape,lhen slarting over. If noth- higher voltages with a special mi.-..:ture of gasses and
ing. works. try a n<.:w container that is a litt le exhibit a sudden a nd vcry large discharge for cach
sho rter or talle r. ionizing partic!!:, But below 100 \'olts. only the ions
produced by the radiation produce uny cu rrcnt. 111e
• .. , see big clouds at the edges of the chamber:'
resu lting curre nt is extremely low in most situations.
Solution: TIlis probably means you ba\'e an air
and detecting individual X-ruys is difficult. especially
leak. Be sure that the chambe r is tightly scaled,
with ordinary air ut atmospheric pressure, Usually
the capacitance of the electronics connected to the
center wire smOOl hcs the individual pulses 100 much
-
for detcction even when fecdback is used to !.!reatl" .

Chapter Ten Rad iation S ensi n g 251

 red uce the time constant. These room-pressure cham- picoamperes of base curre nt. The 2:ain was tested
bers the refore respond to the awragc level of ioniz- with a 100.000 megohm lest resistor connected \0 a
ing radia ti on and do not provide clicks like those variable supply. A third and fourth darlingto n
produced in a G eiger cou ntcr wbe. transistor is added to the final sensing circuit. as
SenSi li\"e homemade io n chambers used for shown in Figure IO--t (TIle original proof-of-concept

-
detecting- nuclear rad ia tion a re fairl v easv. to build -
rad ia tion detector had onl\'. IWO darlinU(Qns to test
but the circuitry is tricky and should be attemptcd the principal. )
o nl y by seasoned experime nters TIle ion chamber at RC-l is constructed by using a
-l.S x -l inch diame te r peanut can. as seen in Figure
10-5. One cnd of the peanut can is removed . and the
opposite end is drilled with a ~/.,- inch hole.lllc sens-
Low-Cost Ion Chamber ing transistors and other componen ts are placed in
their own com partment. as shown in Figu re 10-6. For
Radiation Detector
Is it possible to bui ld a sensitive yet inexpensive radi-
at ion de tcctor with a couple o f transistors? 111('
.mswer is 11 defini te yes! A s imple radiilt ion detector
was fab rica ted around il sma ll ion chamber with four
darlill!.~ton tra nsistors acting as curren t ampl ifiers.. A
few extril componen ts were required illso (see the
photo in Figure 10-3).
The basis for this experiment is 11 sin gle da rlington Figure 10-4 [>1.'(//1111 call 1I.~ed to make 1/11 iOIl
s:: tra nsistor. wi th its base connected di rectly to the chamber (Collrfesy Ciwrles Wenzel)

o sense wire. In this se lUp. there was a lmost no

collector curren t. Some leakage was expected with a
" noati ng base and a gain in the tens of thousands that
can he expected from a darl ington. The M PSW-I5
NP N darlington a ppeil rs to be a good choice. ilS the
leaka2e curren! is amazingly low and the gain see ms
vcry hi!!h. perhaps 30.000 wi th only a few lens o f

Fi gure 10-5 Sensing translllitlers lind other

compol/ems of the iOIl cham her placed ill Ilteir 01V1I
comparflllellt (Col/rtesy Charles Well:el)
I

Figure 10-3 Silllple radimioll d('le{·lOr (Collrtesy Figure 10-6 £11(1 (-"lIp lIlIll COllI/ector pillS
Charles Wenzel) (Collrfesy Charles Wen:el)

252 Ele c troni c Sensors for the Evil Genius

Ihis compart men t. a Sleel wheel from Ihe cenler of a n d iagra m a re actually pins of the glass-to-me lal hcadcr
electronic componenl reel is used. bU I a ny small can or m icro phone connector. which a llow a remote 100
would work here. The small can chosen should fit uA mete r 10 be wired to the circui t. A ~ - i nch long
over the peanut can. so it can be solde red together at sensor wi re is soldered to the base o f transistor Q I.
a late r time (see Figure 10-7). A large ho le is then After a lilhe compone nls are sold e red inside the
drilled into the componen t ree l cao.so you could small C'IIl . it is picked up a nd rDlaled ISO d egrees a nd
insen ,lll eighl-pin glass-Io-metal he ader. To te that pl aced over the .\fa inch ho le in the peanut can . 111e
you could also usc an e igh t-pin microphone con nec- seilsor wi re the n goes throug h thc 3f~- in c h hole.
tor in place of the gl<,ss-to-mcla l header (see Figure almost to Ihe o pposite end of the pean ut ca n. No
10-8). 'llle header is epoxied in to the ho le in the small insulato r is used:jusl the air gap is used. But make
can: if you use a micropho ne con nector. you will need sure the se nsor wire does nm louch Ihe sides of the
to drill a suilable hole in the component re cl can. can whe n the reel can is mounled alop the peanu t
Thc ion chambe r radiation d c teclor circuit is can .11le sma ll canisle r or reel can wi ll c\'cnl ua lly be
d epictcd in Figure IO--t Note that ail ihe componen ts solde red to the peanut can as shown. The opposite or
arc solde red around Ihe e igh t- pin glass he ader o r ope n e nd o f the pean ut can is covered with a luminum I
microphone con nector. Not ice a lso that th e battery foil to keep o ut a ir c urren ts a nd e lectric fi e lds but to
and the switch a rc wired in se ries across the ra ils of allow less e ne rgc lic o r la rger particles in. Actually.
the circuit. so o nly two wires need to be brought ou t foi l is a bi t too thick. and olher choices such as r.,4yla r
for power. l lle points marked X and Y on the circuit foi l or plas tic wrap might be belle r. Whichever male-
ria l you choose. it can be held on wjlh a large rubber
ba nd. Thc chambe r is at room pressu re so the mem -
brane docs not need strength.
O nce you have built the io n chambe r circuit in the
compo ne nt o r reel can. re check you r wi ri ng to make
sure you haven' t mad e any m.ist<l kes. Now you can
tack-solde r the compone nt can housing to the pcanut
CM as shown. Solder al amy two poill1s so that you
- .------------- .. --_._.
Figure 10 -7 £ 11(1 ('1I1) inside I'iew (Colfrresy can disasse mble Ihe can if a mistake was made or if
Charles 1I'el/ ': 1.'1) the circuit doesn't work initially.

, • 00

RG·'

1.\1
'"

e,

""
~,

"
... ---------_. . --- ----- ------- --- --_.. _. _. .. ---------------------------------------
Figure 10-8 1011 chamber' (COllrtesy Charies \Vellz!'l)

Chapter Ten Radiation Sensing

 Con nect your meter to the header and then con-
neet your balle!)' power supply. A 12-\'011 DC battery Low-Cost Ion Cha m ber
source consisti ng of e ither eight A A cells or a 12-voll Radi atio n Detector Parts List
lante rn baltery can be used to get sufficien t potent in!
in the ion chamber fo r it to work e ffici ent]\,. -[be Rl 10K ohm, 1 /4-watt
r es i sto r
pcanUl can b secured to a wooden bilscplatc as
R2 , R3 2. 2 K ohm, 1 / 4-
shown. A IOggle switch can be mounted to the watt rasistor
wooden base via a small metal mou nti nc plate and R4 10K ohm, 1 / 4-watt
wired between the batten' and [he header on the ion r es i sto r
chamber. You '"li n mount twO fou r-AA battery Q l , Q4 HP SW45A dua l NPN
holders 10 the wooden base plale or simply attach t ra ns i sto r
a P -volt hmiCnl batten' to the ion chamber 02, 03 MPSA64 dua l P~P
transisto r
header connector.
Ml 1 00 uA meter
Connect the ballery and apply power to the cir-
Sl SPST to ggl e switch

, cu iL I f the meIer goes negative. switch the pickup

wire to the other transistor base andlor reve rse the Bl
(po we r )
battery
" , meter le<lds. If the Yoitm!(' 011 the 2.2 K resistors isn't RC - l r adiat i on chambe r
low. maybe under a ,·olt. try cleaning e,·crything wi lh (sae text)

-
<l solvent <lnd IhOrou2hlv-
drvinl!
. - it. If the , 'oltage is
still high. your darlingtons may not be good enough:
Miscellaneous p er f-
bOa r d c ircu i t, wi r e ,
peanut can, mountinq
try <lIlOlher Iype. Once the reading is low and steady. ha r dwa r e, b a t tery
hold a radioactive: source. such as a lantern mantle. clips, wOoe b asep l ate,

, ne<lr the foil window and wa lch the me ier quickly

climb. NOle that you could use a digil<li voltmeter
with a I-voll scale instead of the 100 uA c urre n!
etc.

(
m<!ler shown.
"' 111e ion chamber circui l actually. works vcrv . well
Rdvanced Ion Chamber
oj
( and. after giving il .5 or 10 minu les 10 se ttle down. it Rad iation Detector
" , could delect Ihe lan tern mantic from several inches
away. The circuil is somewhat te mperatur<! se nsi liv..:. Sensitive ho memade ion chambers for det..:cting
and the mete r will move up the scale slig.htly with a ny nuclear mdiation are fairl". eas\'. 10 build. but the cir-
I increase in roo m te mperature. l1le pe rfomlance of cuitf)' is tricky and should be attempted only by sea-
~ th is circuit is quile amazing. You can easily detect a soned expe rimc llIcrs. The curre nts arc likely to be
Colem.m lantern mantic and walch the meter mo,'c- well below I pA unless a serio us nuclear war is in
mcnt as the mantle is brought closer to the detection progress! Special electronics are needed at the front

, chamber.1l1is low-cost ion chamber would make a n

ideal demonstration projeci or scie nce fair project for
the junior scientist in the family.
end. 'Iypically an ion chamber detector is a type of
special electrometer ci rcuit. which produces an outpUt
( vol tage in proport ion to the input currcIlI. The elec-
tromcter musl have a ve r~y low bias o r leakage CUT-
f rent to avoid masking the desi red signal and the
intrinsic impedance of the amplifier must be
extremely high. -[be input impedance of the elec·
trometer rna\' . be fairl\' -
. low. h OWe\·.:T. usin!!. feedback
to con\'ert the tiny current into a uSHb1c voltage.

25 4 Ele c tron ic Sen so r s fo r the Ev i l Ge n i us

 Olde r ion chamber designs used special electrom- megohms. Actuall y. that is a workable value for most
e ter tubes like the 5886. which requires only 10 rnA situations- but the ci rcuit can require c:areful adjust-
at 1.25 volts for the fii<lm e nt and about 10 \'olts for me nt because tha t a mount of bootstrapping is push-
the pilltc. l llese tubes <Ire great for the experi men te r ing the limi ts of practicalit y.
because they a re relativdy immune to sta tic dis- A \ ' C f\' sensitive advanced expe rime nwi ion cham~
charge. and they consume about the same a mount of
power as a typical tra nsistor stage. Some electrome- bc r can easilv .
- -
ber is shown in Fi2Uri! 10-9. 'Inc sensi tive ion cham-
see back!!round radiation. A shorte r-J
ters usc "ibratin!! capaci tors or mechanical choppe,rs x 3 inch di ame ter peanut can is used to house the
to conver! the tiny DC c urrents into AC before se nsitive ion chambe r. A steel wheel from the center
amplifica tion to a\'oid D C bias a nd lea kage prob- of an electronic compone nt reel is used to house the
lems. Newer circuiL" typically use MOSFETs or elec-
trome ter grade JFETs in the front-end. MOSFET
op-amps usually contain protection diodes that can
electronics. This small can fits nicely on the bottom of
the peanut can as shown. A ring of wire is used for
the center electrode (see the schema tic in R gurc
,
be responsible for several picoamperes of leakage a t 10-1 I). The -t.7 uF capacitor connected to the ion
room te mperature and a fairly steep increase in leak- chamber should be a nonpolar film type with a volt- I
age us the tempe ratu re increases. but in some ion ,lge ratin!! abO\'e the voltage used (-tS volts in the
chambe r applications this extra leakage is tolerable. schematic). A nonpolar type allows the voltage polar-
Nonprotccted MO SFET front ends are easily dam- ity to be reversed for experimental purposes. 'Ine
aged by static electricity. and special low-leakage pro-
tection diodes are usually added. Low-current JFET s
insides should be washed well with a solve nt a nd then
dried with a hot air gun be fore the base is added and
,
like the 2N-t220 gi \'e respectable pe rformance. and tack-soldered. A hole is then drilled in the bottom of
the types in tended for ciectrometer applications like the peanut can for the elect rode. No insulator is uscd
the 2N411 7A arc quite impressi\'c. exhibi ting leakage - just the ai r gap,
well below 1 pA. These low-currenl JFETs have the. The input detector. a sensiti"e FETs transisto r. is
added benefi t of bei ng signillc3.mly less sensiti ve to mounted inside the chamber under the theory thal
sta tic electricity than do unprotected ivIOSFETs. Full this will eliminate the problem of connecti ng the
eleC:lroslmic discharge (ES D) precautions must be ex tre mely hi gh ~ im pedance probe to the outside
obse rved with a ny of these a pproaches! world without crea ting leakage paths to ground. The
(J)
As mentioned previously. most electrome te r c ir~ ro
cuits use feedback to red uce the eITective input
impedance a nd to direct the tiny input curre nt (J)
through a very large fecdback resistor such that a .... '
reasonable voltage is prod uced at the outpu t. The
feedback resistor must be quite large. howeve r. If the
::l
input current is I pA and the feedback resistor is 100
I.Q
megohms. the output voltage will only be 100 u\f.
Special resistors measuring in the millions of
megohms arc available but are usually difficult for
the expe rimcnte r to obtain (see
www.ohmite.comlca talog/\·_TXl m.html. for example,
or Victorcen). Lowe r val ue resistors Illay be boot-
.
strapped to increase their effective value by a large Figure 10-9 St'lISilil"l! mimllced experimcl!lnl ;011
factor. perhaps as much at J .000, bu t that facto r chamber (Collrtesl' Charles Wen zei)
would only bring 10 megohm up to a me re 10.000

Chapter Ten Radia t ion Sen sing 255

 problem with thi s concept is that the tra nsistor bodies TIle drain resistor on the_FET is a 125K resistor.
and leads compete with the wire for the free ions! This value was experimentally de te rmined by findi ng
Carefully pa inting the transistor bodies and legs with the d ra in c urren t that gives the 2N4117 A a near-zero
confo rmal coaling helps. bUI the circui t will nOi toler- te mperature coefricien l. ·1l1e test circuit is simple:
ate the coa ling around the base of the transistor-il is Connect a sensitive curre nt meier from + 10 volts 10
too conducti ve ! 11le pickup wire should be th in and the drain. ground the gale. and connect Ihe source to
ncar the cente r of the C<ln \0 k eep the c<1 pacitance ground through a 500K pOl. TIle cu rre nt is obsen'cd
low so the response lime is as short as possible. at roollltempcrature, thc n the FET is wamled and
The circuil for the second more sensitive io n the current change is nOled. llle pot is adjusted until
chambe r. shown in FiguT': 10-1 1. includt!S several lillie or no change occurs. I healed Ihe FET by touch-
impro\'crnents o\'er the original circu il. A se nsili\'c ing a warm posiril'e relllpl'NlWre coeificiem ( PTe) to
FET is now used lit the fron l e nd of Ihe detector ci r- the can. forci ng it up 10 about 65 degrees Celsius. and
cuil.;-\ Vic\areen 100.000 megohm rt!sislar. which is the final current change was below the current
the long glass tu be in Figure 10- LO. is used. Y O li may change ca used by a 100 uV gate voltage cha nge. (This
have some di fficuhy in o btaining this resistor: contact correspo nds to less than I [A ion chamber current for
IRCTechnologies D ivision (see cont act in fomlal io n 40 degrecs.) Room tempe rature may vary by + / -4
in appe ndix). See text elsewh ere. A l.e ne r diode is degrees. correspond ing 10 a variation of 0.1 fA . which
•
added to the e mit ler o f tlte 2N+-lOi to increase the is well below the -«> fA bal'kground curren t from the

,I
loop gain. a nd a 0.01 uF Miller capacitor is added to
reduce the am plifier frequency response (for stll bility
chamber. The bias curre nt that gives this wonderful
tempe rat ure compensation is 40 uA . and because the
(\) and to reduce 60 Hz gain). An op-amp (O P-07) is drai n resistor will have 5 volts across il.the desired
added to boost the OUtput by a faclor of 100. The zero resistor val ue is 5/ J6 uA = 115k. Your res ults may vary.

, pot is used to set the OUtput to a few volts because

the OP-07 ca nnot swing below I o r 2 volts without a
The output of Ihe sensitive io n chamber is a volt-
met e r because Ihis circuit has morc ga in lmd a higher
( negat ive supply. lllis pot must be able to be adjusted output than the previous circuit with the use oCthe
• to Ihe ga te voltage. and with some FETs the Yah age op-amp at U L You can e lect to usc a digital \'olt-
may no t go low enough. lllC symptom will be a high mete r. a 10-\'0It panel meter. The poten tiomete r a t
o p-a mp out put \'oitage. If you have th is situat io n. R9 acts as a z('ro sel control. TIle output of the op-
lo\\'er the 10K resistor or add a I K resistor above the amp al pin 6 is fed directly 10 a voltmeter.
•I pot. An addi tio nal l.ero pot for Ihe me te r could be Note tha t this circui t has two batteries. The 15-volt
added as in Ihe fi rst schema tic to get a near-zero ba lle ry is used 10 supply power to the transistors and
reading for the backgro und radiation. if desired. the op-amp. whereas the 45-volt battery is used 10
capture the e lectrons and is applied to the mewl
chamber. A 77.5 volt bal1ery was insufficient to cap-
I ture all of the io ns but two batteries (to ta ling 45
\ul!s) seemed to work fin e. H.igher voltages may be
desired for obsen'ing ind ividual e"ents. however.
because th e ions wi ll be swept to the electrode faster.
TIle io n chambe r II circuit was housed in the metal
can as shown in Figure IO-P:lbe opposite end of the
pean ut cun was sealed wi lh aluminum Coil 10 kee p
out ai r currents and e lectric fields but 10 allow less
Figure 10 -10 SCI1Si/il'l' ion chamber (Cl)lf rll'SI' energe tic or larger particles in .Aclually. foil is really
ClllIrier \\'ell:.eIJ too thick a nd other choices migh t be bette r. Fo r

..c=
r
2 56 El ect ron ic Se n sors f or the Evi l Ge ni us
 CH-1

(
q,
L

Cl
A2
~
A3 C2 ~'
~ A4 I
b~e ~
+
C4

I- 01
b
c
e ~3
.A 02
Al
A5< A6
I
- - - --
I
C3
"" D2 ~
)-0
I I

- - 8 1:A +

- 81
I
I
I
I
I
I
C5 - I ::0
A7
A8
.> I
PI
.,
A 1/\ -ti-
,
7
/
Ml
I
I P-
.....
Ul '6 I
f-b 41 Y I PI
-
A9 r- -'-- B2
I
it"
.....
-- o
<
Al0 +
- -
::s
-
r1
81:6
en
(I)

------ --- --- ---- ------ ----- -- --._ .. --- .. ----._-------------._------ ._--_ .. _._-- -_._--- . --------------
::s(J)
Figure 10-11 1011 chilmber If (Collrlt's), Charles Well:;eI)
.....
e xample. you could use Mylar aU ached ovcr the e nd
::s
of the can with a rubber band.l11e chamber is at
lQ
room pressure so the membrane does not need
added slrength. Linle feet a re added 10 the bouom of
Ihe can so that you could easily slip Ihe radial ion disk
underneath without dist urbing the chambe r. Ion
chamber n produces some gratifying results: A ve ry
minute radiation source gives an o utput \'oltage
cha nge o( lIhout 70 mY. which is vc ry large compared
to the meIe r wande r of about 2 mV.
------ -------------.------.-._._-- .. _-_ .. -. __ ._---
Figure 10-12 101/ chamber hOI/sed ill II melfll e (1II

Chapter Ten Radiation Sensing

 When power is firs t applied, il can take a very long Cl 4.7 uF, 50-volt
lime. maybe 20 minutes. before Ihe circuit seules electrolytic capacitor

down to a sleady reading. The 15-voll power supply C2, C3 0.0 1 uF, 35-volt
disc c apacitor
voltage should be fi ne for most ion chamber sizes. If
C4 10 uF, 35 -volt elec -
the. voltage is 100 low. the readings \ViII be low. as the
trolytic c apacitor
ions have lime to recombine before being swept to C5 O. l uF, 35-volt di~c
the electrodes. capacito r
TIle mdioaclive ele ment from a smoke deleclOr 01 IN7S1 Zener diode
can be held up to Ihe Geige r counter so yOll can 02 IN7S) Zen er diode
walch the coun t soar to about 22.000 COlli liS per lIIill- Q1 2N4117A FET transi~-

ftfes (cpm). Next try placing a piece of aluminum foil '0<

in betwi!en 10 watch the count drop 10 200 cpm. The Q2 2NHOI NPN t ran s is -
'0<
ion chamber should gi ve a readim! of 200 mY. which
~ ~

U1 OP-07 low-noise 0p-

is in pe rfect agreemen l.l didn't expect agreement in
~p

my test because the source is small relative to the HI voltmeter

Geiger tube. The Mylar window on the Geiger tube SI DPST toggle switch
blocks the alpha particles some. a nd this may account
Bl IS-volt power supplY
for the agreeme nl. These calibrations ure really
B2 4S-volt battery or
coarse! By using the Geige r coun te r to measure the powe r supp lY
background radiation. I was able to determine that CH- I ion chamber (see
the ion chamber should be indicating 13 mY. but te,.;t)
because the zero setting is a rbitrary. it was hard to Miscellaneous perf-
confirm this level. Reve rsing the polari ty on the OUler board. wire, IC
socket. ha r dware, bat-
can caused a shift of about 30 mV (after several min- tery clips. con ne c -
utes of sCllting). which is about what is expected if tors , etc.
the background is ncar 15 cpm (the range fro m plus
15 10 m inus 15 is a total of30).

Experimenting with a
Advanced Ion Chamber Geiger Counter
Parts List
Eve rything on Earth is constantly bombarded by var-
RI 100,OOO -megOhm g la ss ious kinds of nuclear radiation .1l1ese invisible parti .
re si st or (Vietoreen)
cles and rays arc collectively known as backgrol/nd
I R2 12SK ohm, 1 /4-watt
r esistor radi(lfion. Electromagnetic radiation includes e"ery-

R3 8.2K ohm, 1 /4-watt

thing [rom kilo me te rs.lang radio waves to liny X-
re ~istor rays a nd gamma rays. lberefore. the term ranilllioll
R4, R7 OK ohm, 1 / 4- can refer to the electromagnetic radiation e mitted by
watt re s i~tor a candle fl a me or the subatomic part icles emined by
RS , R6 , RIO 10K ohm, ura mum a re.
1 / 4-watt r esisto r
Backgrou nd radia l ion can stri p e lectrons away
R8 4 . 7-meqohm, 1 /4-watt
re ~ ist.or from atoms or molecules. thereby transforming them
R9 IK ohm, 1 / 4 - watt in lo ions. Therefore. background radiation is known
re s istor as ionizing mdimion. X-rays. gamma rays. and bo th

258 Electronic Sensors for the Evil Genius

alpha a nd beta particles are all form s of ionizin!! radi- be ing especially hoI. or high in concentration of ')
ation. Three forms of energy are associated wi th
radioactivity: alpha. beta. a nd gamma radiation . The
radon . For example. the radiation dose o n a hill near
Pocos de Caldas in Brazil is 800 times higher than the
r
)
classifications were originally made according to the a\'eragc. And the thorium in the beach at a nearby
penclnlling power of the radiatio n. coastal town causes a radiation dose some 560 limes
Gamma rrl\S higher titan a\·eragc.
- and X-rays . a re made of hi uh-ener QY
~--

photons and have wavelenglhs much shOrl e r than a In some 1u e as radon seeps i11l0 bllseme11ls and
wavelength of light. Onley tra\'e l ilt Ihe speed of light lowe r stories of houses. office buildings. factories. and
a nd have e no rmously high penetra ting power. They schools.. A study of some houlies in He lsinki. Finland.
can pass e nt ire ly throug.h a human body and are revealed that radonle \·els inside were more than
sto pped only hy Ihick layeP-O of soil a nd concrete. 5.000 times higher than outs ide.
Gamma rays arc able to pass through sevcral ccn- We ll waler sometimes con tai ns radon. and a Cana-
timcters of lead and other denSe materials anti can dian study fou nd th at radon increased dramat ically in
st ill be detected on the othe r side. a dosed bath room during a shower with contami-
Beta ra\'s we re found to be madt.: of electrons. na ted wa te r. i t took more than an hou r for the bath-
identical to the ekctrons found in atoms. Be ta ravs room to re turn to the level thaI it was before thc
ha\·e a net negative chan!e. Beta rays have a greater sho wer. Ho uses havc been built on o r ncar the radon-
penetrating. power than do apha rays and can pene- e mitting tailings from uranium mines. And some
Irate 3 millim\!ter.i of aluminum. A beta particle can building m ateri als emit radon. For example. bricks
I•
pass through a few centimeters of human lissue. arc some times made from radioactive slag and fly ash
Alpha rays were found in the nuclei of helium from coal-fired power plants.And radioactive sub- I
stances such as phosphogypsum <lnd alum shales I'
atoms. where t\\'o protons and two neutrons bound
tog.cther. A Ipl11l rays have a ne t positive charge. have been used to make plasterboard. blocks. ....
Alpha particles hm'e weak penetrating abi lity. a cou-
ple of inches of ai r or a few sheets of papcr can effec-
cement. ilnd o therbuilding materia ls. Ordinary sand
,lIld gnl\'el canbe slightly radioHctive. Nuclea r power
o
tively block them. Your skin protects you from alpha plants.a tmosphe ric nudear explosio ns. radioactive
radiation. but a source of alpha particles Cilll pro\'e waste. and medica l a nd dental X-ray machines are
dangerous if it is inhaled or swnllowed . a lso sources of radiation. fJl
(1)
De pe nding on where you ]j\·e. perhaps ha lf the
background radinlion passing through this page. and
Sources of Background
Radiation
throug h your body. comes from outer space. The rest
comes from soil. rocks. building mat erials. air. a nd ....
even "our own bones.

Various kinds of background radiation Ihat a rrive

from spnce are known as cosmic rays. Only the most
e n!!rgetic of these powerful. poorly understood rays Detecting Radiation
actually reach the e arth·s surface. Nearly a ll types
~ lany different me lhods for de tccling radiation haye
strike molecules of air in the uppe r atlllosphere.
bee n de\·elo ped. Some pro\·jdc lin instantaneous indi-
\\ herl' they re lease showers of subatomic part ides.
catio n of the presence of radioactivity. Others indi-
A major source. of terrestrial background radia-
cate dose rcc~ived oyer a period of timc.
tion is radon. a n odorless. invisible gas that is heavier
than a ir. Radon is e mitted bv ura niulll and thorium in Photographic film is a g.ood example of the lalter.
It b Ihe oldesl method for de lccting. radiation a nd is
soil and rock around the eart h. with sOllle locat ions
still widelv used. Radiation can also be detected wi th

Chapter Ten Radiati o n Sensing

 an e lectroscope. ".nious kinds of sl!miconductors. and d e tects radioactivity. A 500-\'011 pote ntial is applied
by sensitive ligh t d e teclOrs thai respond to lig.ht gener- to Ihe anode (ccll ter clectrode ) through a 10
ated when rad ia tion passes through cCrlain materials.
- -
mei!ohm m ITcnt-lillliting resistor. To the cathode of
tho: tube. a lOOK ohm resistor is connected.
G e iger counters are instrume nts thai ('<In d e tect
and measure radiaaetivi t y. H . Geige r a nd E. \\I, In the initial sta te. the G/l. 1 lube has a n:ry high
~hl il e r invented lh~ G c ig~r counter in 1928. With a resistance. When a panicle passes through the G ~ I
Geiger COll nter yo u can check ma te ria ls and environ- lUbe. it ionize~ the gas molec uleS in it s path. Th is is
me nts fo r radioaCli\'iIY. Yo u cou ld I!O p rospect ing for a na logous to the "<l por trail left in a cloud cha mber
u ra niu m. or VOli could check ior radon in vour base-
o 0
by a pa rticle. In the Gi\ 1 tube. the electron libe ra tt.!d
me n!. R ad on gas wo u ld show itse lf by incrensing the fro m the atom by the particle a nd the posi ti\'e ion-
radiatio n cOunts 0\ er the bnckg rou nd radia tion. iled atom both move rapidly loward the hig.h·
G e ige r cou nters de tect mdiat ion by mc ans of n pot<:nlial e kctrodes of the Gt\1 tube. In doing so they
G eig er J\ llIelll!r ( G ~\'I ) tube. A typical G;" I tube is a collide wilb and ionire other gas alo ms. This creates n
sca led . electrically conductive tube that conta ins small conduction plll h nllo",ing a mo mentary surge o f
t argon. ai r. or m her gases nnd n single-wi re eleClrode. dectric current to pass through Ihe tube.
If a lpha particles a rc to be detccled .the lUbe is This momentary pulse o f curren t Hppears as a
•I equ ipped with a thi n window of m ica or Mylar. small volta ge pulse across R2. 'n le halogen gas
( The G;" I tube hasn't chan.!!ed much since it was quencbes tbe ionizntion nnd returns the Gi\ 1 tube to
its high-resistance st:llt.! making it re ady to d e leci
$ invented in 19)8 . TIle o pe rnting principle is the same.
A euta w:! \, drawing of the tube is shown in Filwre
o _ _
more radioacli\·ity. The output from the Geiger
10-13. The wall of the G~ l tube is a Ihin metal c"jin· coumer may be an : LIl a lo~ meier that indicales rad ia·
d e r (ca thode ) surrou nding a cenle r e lectrode tion in terms of milliml'lllg('IIS per hO/lr (mRlhr) or a
(anode) . It is constructe d with n thin mica window on digital reado u t tha t gives the number of COl/illS fJl'r
$ the fronl end. The thin mica window a llows the pas· mil/lite (cpm). In the Jaile r l 'a SC, the instrument might
( sage and de tection of alpha pnrtic1es. 'n le tube is be supplied wi lh a cn libnu ion numhe r to COil vert Ihe
•I evacuated and fill ed with n eon pl us argon p lus halo- cpm ra te to mR lhr.
4 gen gas. It is im e resting to sec how the G~ l lUbe

I Count Rate versus Dose Rate

•I I Beta
Alpha .........
i Particle Window
Eod
Each output pulse from the Gi\ l tubc i~ a count. and
Particle ~ , the counts per second give an appro.x imation of the
s tr~ngth of the radintion fie ld . In the count rate vcr·

sus dose ra te chart shown in Figure 10-14. the G M

I tube has been calibrn led using a ("('sium-137.

"l'l le Geicer counkr project shown in Figure 10-1 5

Gamma Aay ~ ~
is sensiti\'e to gamma. be ta. and alpha radiatio n
sources. The Gei!!er counter ci rcuit depicted in
Detected Aay Figure 10·16 litera lly Sla rts w;lh the 4m9 hex inverting
+
buffer a l the left of the diagram. Tht.:' hex inverters nre
- s..: t up as a square \\'n\'c gc ne rntor. The ·UK ohm
I potentiometer adjusts the width of the squa re wave.
( Fig ure 10 -13 C/frml 'oy (Irml'illg of (I Geiger
111e power MOSF ET I R FS30 switches Ihe curre nt o n
MI/ella ( G M ) lIIb e
4
,
ro
~
U
260 El ect r onic Sen sors fo r the Evi l Ge n ius
 Counl ",10 n _ Do . . ",I.

Geiger -
Counter.·.
-, -.. . ~

Counts I . .,.... _.- .......

,

•
-• -,

Do .. ",10 mR I I!.

.
Figure 10-14
. ... ----- .. ---_._..
--.-
Co/IIII mte I'en·us dose rare
- -----
Image courlcsy of Images S.I.
.. ---_ .. _--- .. _----_._-_ .... _---_._-----_ .. _-------- ... -
I
Figure 10-15 Geiger COlWler

+v
02 A4 GM

A1 A3
Ul:A
3

Ul :C Q1
03

C2 01 .--------------.r--o +v

Ul :E
A2 C6
+v A5
C7 A6
U2 U3
81 5 3 +
CB
SPK
C9
C3

-.. _.--- ... ----_._--- .... ----------._----- .. _-_ .. _-----._---_ ... _-----------------------------------------_.- ... --------
Figure 10·16 Geiger CO//l/ler circuit

Chapter Ten Radiation Sensing 261

 and off 10 the primary wind ings of the mini step-up up tra nsformerT!. diodes D1 and D3. and capaci to rs
transformer. llie output of the transfamler is fed to a C3 and C4. To this add the 5-\'011 7805 regulmor a nd
,<olt age d oubl er consisting of two high-voltage diodes capaci tor C9.
0 2 and 0 3 and two high-voltage capacitors C4 At this poilU in the construction. you need to
and C5. adju.<;, the hig h-voltage power su pply. Sel up a VO I\. I
111e high-voltage output from this stage is regu- to read 500 to 1.000 volts. Place the positive lead of
la ted 10 500 volts by using three zener d iodes stHl:ked the YO M at Ihe ju nction of C3 and D2. Appl~' power
one o n to p of the other ( D-L D5. a nd D6). Zener and usc VI to adjust peak "ohage output. You should
diod es Dol a nd D5 are 200-volt leners. a nd d iode D6 be able 10 adj ust the circuil 10 gener,lIc 700 volts or
is a lOO-\'o lt zener. Together they equal 500 \'o lts (2(10 more. Once the circuit is adjusted. tum off Ihe pm\ cr.
+ 200 + 100 "" 500). Fi \'e h u ndred volts is the o pti- Add the th ree zener diodes used for \'ullage regula-
mu m voltage for the GI>. l tube used in this projccl. tion.Apply power again . with the positive lead of the
11le 500-volt o u tpu t from the zene r diodes con- VOl>. I still a ttached to the junclion of C3 and Dl you
nects to the anode of the G M tu be through a curre nt- shou ld rcad a voltage of 500 \'olts. If you're nOi get-
ting a prope r reading. check Ih~ zener diodes to make
. IO-megohm
limiting . -
resistor R-t The IO-me!!ohm
su re you have them o ricilla ted in Ihe right direction.
resistor limi ts the CUTTent thro ugh the G M lUbe and
., helps the avala nched ion ization to be quenched. -
Finish the construction bv installing the 555 limer for
, 11le cathode of the tu be is connected to <l 100-
.
pulse stretchi ng. cu rrent-limit ing resistors. transistor.
LE D. and speaker. 11le input leads for the G\l.ltube is
kilohm resistor ( R5).111e voltage pulse acros,'i R5
con nected to a lh;-inch phone jack.
ge ne rated by the detection of rad ia tion feeds to the
base of a 2N2222 N PN transistor. through a I uF The circu it board and components may be
capacitor (C6). moun ted in any plastic enclosure large enough to

, The NP N transistor clamps the output pulse from

the GM tube to Vee a nd feeds it to an invert ing. gate
hold e\·eJ)'thing. On the lOp of the enclosure. drill two
holes: o ne for the on-off switch and the othe r for the
(
., on the 4Q..l.9. Tho! inverted pulse signal from the gate b
a trigger to the 555 timer. 'Ill e ti me r is SCt lip in
LED. Drill a la rger hole fo r the speaker. A nal piezo-
e lectric speake r with a plastic frame is lIsed as the
oj clicks or counts sou nder. The speake r is glued to the
Illonostable mode tha t stretches ou t the pu lse
( top of the plastic enclosure. Finally. drill a hole in Ihe
received on its trigge r. Th~ o ut p ut pulse from the
., timc r nashes the LED and o utputs an audible click to
side of the enclosure for the 1/,-inch phone jack.

the speaker via pi n 3.

Geiger Tube Rssembly

Circuit Construc tion
The Geiger Muller lUbe is d e licate and nceds to be
pro tected in an enclosure. However the tube enclo-
None of the specifications to the elements in this cir-
sure should allow the frolll cnd of the lUbe to remain
cuil a re critical: it may be hand wired on a prototyp-
ope n so that alpha particles can make their \\ay
ing PC bml rd or bui lt o n a prin ted circui t bmlrd. 1l1e
throug h the thi n mica window and be de tected. A
printed circuit board makes thc construction much
!luitable enclosure may he made from plastic PVC
easie r and is avai lable fo r only SI5 (see pa rts lisl).
pipe. PVC pipe about 6 inches long wi th a lh -inch
Begin construction by wiring the square-wave gen-
illSide diameter ( ID ) will accommodate the GI>. I lUbe.
$ e rator a nd p ulse-shapi ng circuit using the 4049. Place
Louvers are cut in one side of tlte PVC pipe to allow
c and wire R I. R2. R3 . VI. Cl. C2. and D I. Now con-
beta radiation access to the Gl>. l llIbe unimpeded.
oj struct the high-volt age sectio n consisli ng of the step-

262 Ele c tr o n i c S en s ors fo r the Ev il Ge n i u s

 Oblain a le ngth of shielded cable. Solde r (he cco- with the GM tube to de tect anything. The ma ntle in
ler wire of the cable to thc solder clip allachcd to the some Cole ma n lante rns is radioaCl i\'e. Bring your
center electrode of the tube. Solde r the shielded wire G eiger counter to a local hardware store a nd check
portion of the cable 10 the wire connected to Ihe the m out. Ura nium ore from a mine ral or a rock
metal wall of the GM tube. To prevcnl a shorl store should also e mit suffic ie nt radiation to trigger
between the two Gr\'1 tube wires., covcr o ne or the counter.
bOlh with shrink tubing. sil icone sealan t cement. or For <l more reliable source. you may want to pur-
corona dope. chase radioactive material. Small amounts of radioac-
In the protolype. a lA-inch phone plug is attached tive mate rials a re avai lable fo r salc e ncased in I-inch
to the opposile e nd of the cable. Before allaching the diameter by 1/f>-inch thick plastic disks. 'nle disks are ~
phone plug place a rubber gromme t with an Ollfside
diameter (00) of Y.I inch o n the shielded cable. This
will be used to d ose the PVC pipe holde r.
avai lable to the general public even withou t a license.
This ma te rial ou tputs radiation ill the microcurie
range and has been dee med by the fede ral govern-
,
fl)

me nt as safe. The cesium-137 is a good gamma ray

Insert the GM tube insidc the PVC pipe so thai
the tube lies l/~ inch away from lhe e nd with the lou- source and has a hal f-life of 30 years. I
vers. G lue the GM tube in position with silicone Turn on the Geiger counte r. If you have a radia-
sealanl ceme nt. lhe type thai is used to construct and lion so urce. bring the GM tube close to il. The radia-
repair aquariums. This type of ce ment fiU s spaces lion will cause the G eiger counte r 10 Slan clicking.
between surfaces. and whcn it cures still retai ns a The LED will pulse with each click. Each click repre-
degree o f flexibili ty. Apply the glue only to the oute r sen ts the detection of o ne of the radioactive ravs:
pe rime ter of the tOp of the GM tube and the match- alpha. beta . or gauillm . Background radiation. from
ing surface of the PVC pipe. Do the same for the bot- natural sources on E arth a nd cosmic rays will cause
tom of the lUbe. To reach inside the pvC pipe to the the Geiger counte r 10 click. In my com er o f the
bollom o f the GM tube. you witlneed to place 11 world . t ha\'e a background radi at ion thai trigge rs the
small a mount of silicone glue on a n exte nsion. When counter 12 to 14 times a minute.
this glue has cu red . you a rc ready fo r the fi nal
assembly. Slide the gromme t up to a nd inside Ihe
PVC pipe. Secure the grommet in position wit h a Surveying Your Home
generous amount of silicone sealant. This will fonn a
good strain relief. A G eiger courHe r can be used to c heck for rad ioac-
Atlach a piece of "elero to the side of the PVC tive ma te rials a round your home. First. measure the
pipe and its mat ing surface to the side of the case. ave rage backgrou nd count for at least 5 minUles.
This allows you to a ttach the GM tube wand to The n place a Ge iger counter ncar suspect ite ms for 5
the case. minutes and compare the difference. When I tried. a
background coum ave raged II cpm. a glazed brick
gave a reading of 40 cpm . a nd a cera mic tile e ntry
Radiation Sources ga\'e a reading ofl6 cpm. An operating color televi-
sion gave a reading of 28 cpm on a day whe n the
Ionization types of smoke detectors use a radioacti\'e background count ave raged 16 cpm .
alpha source. typically americium-241. To use the Ot he r household materials and items that might
americium. you need to re move it from the smoke be slightl y radioactive incl ude bricks. SlOne (espe-
detector. Alpha particles travel only a few inches in cially gra nite). a nd watches a nd clocks whose hands
open ai r. so you need to get prelly close to the source a re painted with radium impregnated luminescent

Chapter Ten Radiation Sensing 263

 paint. Earthenware may be glazed wi th orange or red o f ~'I - and X-class solar X-my nares in correlation
pigment Ihat con tains uraniulll oxide. Ionizat ion-type wit h bilckbtTOund CO Un! is a fascinating topic to study
smoke detectors have a tiny bit of radioacTive mate- a nd would make a gre,1I sck nce fair project.
rial. but I've not hcen able to delcct ils presence wi th
a Geiger COllme r.
Campi ng lant ern Ilwntlcs that contain thorium arc Commercial Geiger Counters
radioacti\'e. A Co leman m<llulc will 2ive a read inl! of
~ ~

from 0.1 to 0.2 milliroent ge ns per hour (mR/hr) when '111e Rada1crt 5U is a small sdf-contained di ,l!ital
the end wi ndow of a Geige r counter is placed directly Geiuer counter made by lnlemational ~...Iedcom.
adjacent to the m'IOI!c. Whe n the mantle is rolled into wh ich sells for about S IS5. This rugged instrumen t
a tigh t bundle. the reading will increase to around 0.5 indicates either the accum ulated count or the counts
mRlhr. Because the ("QUill ratc drops only slightly per minute. One of its most impo rta nt feat ures is an
when a piece of paper is placed between a lamp man- output jack that perm its Ihl! instrumelll to be coupled
tll! and a G -M tube. it appears that most of the radia- to an ex l~mal circuit. recorder. or compute r. This will

Ol lion is in the form of beta pa rticles emitted by the a llow you 10 colleel dOlO o\·,.:r a pe riod of time and

c
.....
rad ium-J28 byproduci of Ih e thorium in the ma ntle. a na lyze the results later. Ma ny researchers have used
this G eige r count e r a long with an j-lP-95 LX mini-
computer. The R_M -60 fro m Aware Electronics is
CI)
Using a Ge iger Counter to another G eiger COUlHe r and contains an oulpUI thai
C ca n be connected to a computer. 'I1tis coun ter with
Q) Monitor Solar Flares softwa re sells for abou t SI49.00.
Ul Solar [Jares a re explosive storms in active are as on

c the surface of the sun. Most o f the time they occur in

Geiger Counter Parts List
o the locality of sunspot d usters. 111 e duratio n of narcs
can ran!!e
, from as little as 3 minutes to as Ion!! as Rl 5.6K ohm, 1 / 4- wa tt
••
~

8 hours.. r eaistor
Flares a re classified by inte nsity. An M-e/ass pare R2 15K o hm , l / ~-wa tt
re siato r
is te n limes as inte nsc as a C·dass flare. a nd an X-
R3 lK ohm. 1 / 4-w3tt
cflls.~·plln· is ten times as inte nse as a n ~'I -class narc.
re s i , t o r
There are five different dasses of X-ra\, [lares. The
R4 10 -megohm . 1 /4- watt
purpose of this project is to de tect M- a nd X -class r e,iator
solar X-ray nares from the surface of the eart h using R5 , R7 lOOK ohm, 1/~­
a Geiger counter to de lcet changes in the back- W3tt re sisto r
ground count.1l1e background coun t of a G c iger R6 10K o hm , 1 / 4-watt
counte r is caused bv. cosmic ra\'S r eS ist o r
. a nd rad ioac ti\'c
mate rials in the earth"s crust. Cosm ic ravs come fro m RS 5K potentiometer

deep space and from solar narcs on the sun. Radium Cl 0.00 41 uF, 35- v olt
Myl ar capacitor
is fou nd in the !!round and can be localed bv. usi ng a
~ ~

C2. CS 0 . 01 uF , 35-volt
Geiger counte r to detect radon sec-pin!!: from soil a nd
disc capa c itor
rocks. For this project. I used a G e ige r counte r to
C3 100 uF o 35 - v01t
de tect the background count o n a n hourly basis. I e l ec trolyti c c apacito r
the n made graphs of the b;lckground coun t a nd of C4, C5 0.00 1 uF, 35-
both ~vl - and X-class solar X-ra\' nares. 'Ibe de tection volt disc c apa c ito r

264 Ele c tronic Sensors for the Evi l Genius

C6 1 uF, 35~ v olt tant a ~
lum c apacitor Sp ecial ized Componen ts - All
0.047 uF, 35~volt
C7
Mylar capa cito r
Available from Images 51 , Inc .
C9 220 uF, 35 - volt GM tube $S ~ . 95
elect r ol yti c c apa c itor
Mini step - up transfo r mer
01 lN91~ silicon diode 512 .00
02 , 03 lN4 007 silicon Gei ger cou nter PCB ' 10.00
diode
Radioactive sou r ces:
04, oS lN528lB ze ne r u r anium ore $14. 95;
diod'" c esium-I37 sou r ce
06 l N527lS z ener diode 59 4 . 00
07 LEO Com plete Ge ige r COu nter
kit (all components)
Ql IRF830 powe r FE!
GCK~Ol $176 . 95
t r ansistor
Q2 2N2222 transistor
Note: Other mode ls
available including I
Ul C04049 CMOS inve r te r r emote d ata logging
U2 LM7805 5~volt (see appendix for
regulator contac t information)
U3 IJ.1555 time r IC
Tl 8- to l,200-ohm,
audio inter stage
transformer
SPK-l 8 ~ ohm Spe ak e r
51 SPST power s witch
Bl 9-volt trans i stor
ra d io battery
GI- l SaO-volt Ge iger
~Iueller tube

Mis cel laneous c ha ssis ,

PC b oa r d, box, wire,
IC soc ket, batter y
c li p , ha r dwa r e, etc.

Chapter Ten Ra di a tio n Sensi n g 26 5

 Appendix A

Helpful Contact Information

Acculcx. ll1 c. DATAQ InSlrumcnts.lnc.

PO Box 10300
Bedford. N J-I 03110
-1-10 i\1\'ies Standish Boulevard
2.1 1 Spri ngsidc Drive
Akron. OH -1-4333
(330) 668-\ ~
>
Taunton.lvl A 02780
i\'l aker of A cculex DP-650 digital panclmcler
AID d ata loggers I
Digi-Kcy Corporation
Allegro MicroS~·sll'lIlS. Inc. PO Box 677
115 Nonhea~( Cutoff Tllier River Falls.lIllN 56701
Worcester. l\IA 01615 C1airex's ( LD71 silicon phOio diode
(508) 853·5000 phone
UGN3503U Hall effect Sensor Edmund Scient ifi c Company
101 East Glouceste r Pike
AmaScis seismic so rtwarc Ba rrington. NJ 08007
a"ailable from Dr. Alan Jones Optical filters
www.hinghamlon.cd U/faeulty/joncsiAmaSeis. htllll
EG&G Judso n
The Amateur SeislIlologist 221 Commerce Drive
2155 Verdugo Bo ulevard. P ~\'1B 52S Montgomeryvi lle. PA 18936
:"lol1lr05c. CA 91020 Interfere nce filters
(818) 249-1759 DF-5000 UV detectors
info@'amatcllrscislllologist.com
Complete AS-I s}stem and pans EyeThink.lnc.
li S Rowena Place
Ando \·e r CO fj)oration Lafavettc.
•
CO 80226
-I Commercial Drive (301 ) 5-1 I-I000
Salem. NH 03079 www.c yc tltinkcorp.com
T$ p·6001 $39.00
Haff Assuciates Low-cost silwrfsiJvcr ch loride or A glA gC L pH
PO Box 557 re ference e lectrod es
Westfo rd. ~ I A 0 1&%
Optical filtl·rs Fat Quarters Software
J-I77-1 Shoshonee Drive
~"llri e w. CA 92562
W\\'w.cit•\'Iech.coml (909) 698·7950
Pdlistor combustible gas se nsors www.fatquan crssoftwarc.com
Larrv Cochran FM-l. Fr"'I-3 magnetometer
lcochrane@'wcbtronics.com
\ VW\ V.seism icnct.com/serialtod. ht III I Figaro USA
(650) 365-7161 3703 West Lake A\'e. Suite 203
Gle n\'ie w. iL 60026
www.fi\!.aroscnsor.com
TG SS16 gas sensor

267
 Frccscale Semiconductor MicroCoatings
7700 West PUnne r Lane One Li berty Way
Maiislop PL-02 Westford. MA 01 886
Austin. TX 78729 Inte rfere nce filters
Mo torola MPX2100DP pressure se nsor
Micrometals
Genera1 Easte rn instruments 5615 E La PalmaAvC.Anaheim. CA
500 Research Drive Anaheim. CA
Wilmingto n. MA 01887 (7 14) 970-9400
(800) 334-8643
G-Cap2 capacitive bumidity sensor Mouser E lectronics
PO Box 699
Glolub Corporation Mansfield. TX 76063
307 Pine Ridge Dri,'c (800) 346-6873
Wappingers Fa lls,i\ry 12590
(845) 297-9772 fax (for credit card o rde rs) Na tional Instit ute of Standards and Technology
Infrared mOl ion detector kit and pa rts (NIST)
Washingto n, DC 20402
Ha mamatsu Corporation Publica tions available
PO Box 6910
Bridgewater. NJ 08807 National Semiconducto r
+-l 2900 Semicond uctor Drive
o Honeywelllnternatiomll r.o. Box 58090
n3 101 Columbia Road
r.·fo rristown. NJ 07962
San ta Cla ra. CA 95052

+-l http://contc nt .honeywell.comlsensinglprod info/pressu Nemototcch

s:: refdefault .asp hllp:l/www.ne mototech.com/technolog.y.htm
o S PX50D N Sensym pressure sensor (Syo SenSym In c. Pellistor combustible gas se nsors
u divisio n)
ASCXOION Sensym pressure se nsor (Syn SenSym Newark Electronics
Inc. division) 4801 North Rave nswood Avenue
Chicago. I L 6Q6...t()...4..496
Images SI, Inc. (800) 342- 1445
109 Woods of A rde n Road Honeywe ll S0 3421-002 silicon photo diode
Sta ten Island . NY 10312
(7\8) 966-3694 pho ne N uclear I)roducts Co.
(718) 966-3695 fax PO Box 1178
GCK-02 Ge iger counter kit and pans EI Montc. CA 91734
lon izinu radioactive cart ridge 3-i nch mode13CI25
IRIS H eadqua rters cartridae
1200 New York Ave. NW. SuiIe 800
Washington. DC 20005 Onset Cnnlputers
AS-J seismograph availa ble 10 qualified schools PO Bo.\: 3450
Pocasset. MA 02559
Dr. A.lan Jones (800) 564--1377
AmaScis seismic soft ware www.onsclcomp.com
www.bin gha m1o n.edulfacul ty/joncs! AmaSeis. h t ml H O BO daln loggers

Keith ley Instruments IJhilips ECG Products

Ke ithley Instru me nts.lnc. PO Box 967
28775 Aurora Road 1001 Snapps Ferry Road
Cleveland. Ohio 44139 G reenevi lle. TN 37744-0967
Pho to transistor ECG-3031

268 Electronic Sensors for the Evi l Genius

 Purd\.•
E lectro nics TWllrd~· Tcchnnlog.". ll\ c.
720 Pa lomar On\'e PO Box 2221
Sunn\'\'ale. CA 9-l0S6 D tlrien.cr 06820
(-lOS) 733· 1287 Interference fihe rs

H:ulio Jo\'e Project Vernie r

c/o D r. J am~s Thieman 8565 Southwest Beavert o n Highway
Code 633 Po rtland. OR. 97225
NASA's GS FC (503) 297-5317
G reenbelt. i\1D J0771 w\\ \ \ . \ e mle r.com

(301) 286-9790 phone

(301) 286- 1771 fax Viclnreell

Sixt h SeilsI.'
Ohmite ivlfg.. Co.
3601 H oward Street
:x:-
-I Stins(ord R oad Skok ie. IL 60076
Poole Dol'Set (8-l7) 675-2600 te lephone I
Engla nd BH I7 ORZ (R47) 675 -1 505 fax
CATI 6n5 pellislOr gas se nsor in fo@o hmite.com
wWw.sixt hse nse.com www.o hmit e.com

Spcake & CO Limited Vishay Interteclmolog,Y. Inc_

Elvie,,\ ES(atc 63 Lincoln Highway
Crick howell M alvern. PA 19355-21-13
Powvs NP8 IDF http://www.\·ishay.com!
U nit ~d King.dom U-IOi Siliconix dual matched N-Channel FETs
Fi\ I- I. Fi\ 1-3 magne tometer
ZCICX
Texas Instruments in corporated Sa les Office
12500 TI Boulevard Z c tex. lnc. ()
Dallas. T X 752-13--11 36
(ROO) 336-5236
700 Veteran s Me morial H ighway. Su ite 315
H auppiJUge. NY 11788
o
T I T LC27 I Ber lighl detector/amplifier chip
::::1
it
TOKO Coils III
www.10koam.com
l
Translronics. Inc.
"t
3109 West 9t h Street
La\\ ro.!rtce. KS 660-19
(785 )8-\1-3089
(785)8-1 1-043-1
infonnl'.!z xtronics.com
hit p:lh;t ro n ics.com
Ultrasonic listener kil Itl07

Rppendi x R He lp fu l Contact I n f orm ation 269

 Appendix B

Data Sheets

The follo wing pages include data sheets from a

number of important products: ttl
CAT-I6
CAT-25 I
Dalaq an:llog-w -digital con ven er
DP650 Acclllex LCD
A ND LCD
FM-3 magnclOmeter
Humid-l nod Humid-2-GE humidity sensors
ICL7 136-1 - atio nal Semiconductor anaiog-to- en
digital convener
::T
~rpX21 00 Motorola pressure sensor ro
ZN414mini AM radio chip ro
Honeywell pressure sensor rt
(/l

2 71
 )I
"0
"0
ro
::s
p.
....
><
to
I
t:l
''',."
.m
III
""'~ rt
III
,
.Ii
,'. en
::r'
I
r
ro
:;j: ro
i- rt
"...., ,.- en
.!~
-

Appendix B Data Sheets 273

 CAT1 6 Pol~On Rtsl~LlneCl (2-5% vlv ~oe. SOPpIn.5 200wm HMOS )

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I Rulabn Rm,ponso Dalu"

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" utLUd loa"b..lII:I ... t">.~!JtI
f,. rt<jI. , , _ M,?! '--nl m:J '9'"'''~''''.'''''' , 0;0 00.

274 Electroni c Sensors f o r the Ev il Genius

 >
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~
' ''''m rt
I I ~

!
•
en
--rt ::l"
L '---' CD
CD
!
"o rt
en
,
04~

- •-•
"

I I
,
U!&mI
I

Appendi x B Data Sheets 275

 CAT2S Polson Rnlsl~nC4! t2 S'h ¥Iv methane. 2ppm H~ )

'~
=.",
~
, ~
~

=
o ~

-=
•
o
om
'-
,
• • • • • " » • ~

fI)
CAT25 RvlaU... t Humid ity lMo Profil' (40 C a nd o.IOO~ RH)
-4-l - •,
(l)
(l)
i;;
•
..c: w

~ •
en ••
>
,
"f.-, ,
~

ro • ,
3
• jz;
-4-l
ro • " • • •... • .
Q
I Rolallvu R""'P"n ... Da\o'

,.,
, ...
HI'I'''''g'''
"" Ptq;:a"l-2.d ..
"
PIII;)a' III

'"~
"
"
A"'*YIII
BLOn.2~ (II.EK) .
'"
"" "''''
p~-

"-,
""'.... ."
C"",",_
l)i.£th)! st., ..
... " ...,-
8hrlAcaaIi
~. "
"
'''''N
,,~twQ ..
" ~ . "
"
·",,:1. It" •• , _ •• D two lM<I a•• ~ QIIIy r ", 1II0!3:''' ~,.,...:y 911> d Ol. " .. .ruM! to; .,.:10 . h, " 'to> 1119"1!PO
h t. ......... aI po:llrI . .... " ' _ S UI S . ..... _ ,.... n~ .. D _ ,,"S ;o • • ft:lI. ond ........ • on; '• ..ra.t ra ce

276 Electronic Sensors for the Ev il Genius

 Inexpensive Ana log to Digital Converter

Chart Recorder S tarter Kit for $24.95

Chart recorder perfomlancc witbout messy and
I -- •
expensive paper.

.. ....
,
More compact and a fm ction ofa tradit iona l
chart recorder price .

4-Channel. I O-Bil, ± IOV ADe.

Pro vided with a Serial Port Interfa ce Cable.

Two Di gital Inpul s For Remote Start/S Lop and

Remote Event Marker Co ntrol.

Includes WinDaqfL ite Chart Recorder So Ct-ware. Wi nDaq Wavefoml Browser Playback and
Anal ys is Software, and Documentat ion.

Provided Acti veX Contro ls all ow you to program the 01- 194 from any Windows programmin g en
env lrOllment . ::r'
ro
NEW OataqSOK 1.0 (beta) Linux Package. Free C++ So nware Developers Kit for use with the
DI-194RS and DJ-1 54 RS Starter Kit devices. C li ck here to Jearn more ...
ro
Download our Starter Kit Oata sheet
cT
(fl
Download a PDF of the DI- 194RS Starter Kit Manual
sl a rtc rki l~df.jpg (6666 b)1CS)

Question s? Check oul our Starter Kit Frequent ly Asked Questi ons Page.
Need more power? Take a look al our new starter kits and Olber dala acqu isition units:
NEW 01- 148 and 01 -158 Series Data Acquisition Starter Kits. With up to 14,400 Hz
sample rates. USB interface. and lip to ±64V FS range.
NEW 01-710 Dala Acqui sition System with stand-a lone capabi lity. Low-cost yet
powerful data acqui siti on sys tem with stand-alone option allowing you to record data directly to
memory card.

View our fu ll speclnJlll of products: C li ck here to cbeck out our se lection guide

Why order through our online store?

Click here to learn the advantages of purcha5ing your DA TAQ S tarlcr Ki t onlinc.

Part N umber Description Price

(US Doll ars) DA TAQ Slore
D1-194RS 4-channcl. IO-bil serial pan instrument with cable. Includes WinDaqfL itc chart
recorder software and WinDaq Wavefonn Browser playback and ana lysis so ftware. $ 24.95

Appendi x B Data Sheets 277

 Quamity:
N ote: \Ve do N OT accept Purchase Orders for the OI - 194RS. If your order is for thi s product
on ly, YOlim llSl pay with a credit card or PayPal. Online Ordering Frequentl y Asked Questions.

- -
Product Hi ghlight s
The DI-1 94RS is a fo ur-chann el data acqui sition modul e des igned to familimize you wilh
WinDaq chart recorder software. It provides lO-bit measurement accuracy, a ± IOV analog
measurement range, up to 240 samples/second throughput, and four analog input channe ls. It
features a seria l port interface, making insta ll ation a snap. h also features two di gital inputs that
can be used for remote start/stop and remote event marker comro l with WinDaq/Li tc so ftw are.

Ou r DI- 194RS starter kit provides a taste of the exceptional power and speed possible with
WinOaq software. A free CO demonstrates the WinDaq Waveform Browser, our pl ayback and
anal ys is software (just call and ask), but to get a hands-on illustratio n of the chart recorder and
display capab il ities of W inDaqlL ite, you need the DI- 194RS starter kit. When connected to your
pe s serial pon , the 01-194RS starter kit allows you to record, chan, and analyze dat a lIsing your
own signal s. The DI - 194RS staner kit con sists ora portable, four- channel, 2.5 x 2.5 x 1.25 inch
ND module that can be directl y connected to the serial pOlt of any pc. The module features
four, singl e-ended, bipolar ana log inputs (maximum measurement range ± lO vo lt s) and two
di gital in put ports for remot e stop/start or remote event ma rker control. It also fea tures an
onboard wavcfoml generator thai can be used as a quick, con venient input signal. The kit ships
with WinDaqfli tc chart recorder software and WinDaq Wave[oiUl Browser pl ayback and
anal ysis softw are. Data acquisition rales up to 240 samples per second are supported fo r
Windows 95, 98, N T, ME, 2000, and XP.

Self-Powered Advantage
The DI-194RS derives it s power directly fTOm the RS-232 serial port to which it is connected -
no batteri es to replace or external power supplies to connect.

WTNDAQ So fiwa re Included

The 01-] 94RS starter kit includc·s WI NDAQ/Litc recording software and WINOAQ \Vavefonn
Browser playback and analysis so ftw are.

See webpage -- http: //www.dataq.com/194.htm

278 El ectronic Se n sors f or the Ev il Genius

 Mlnialure LCD Dis play Digllal Panel Mei ers

Description
~ OP.6SO Stl'lel IS :1..1 uilr.l.<Omp.ltL k'l,\ -J'O"' tl LCD 1:I.t!ICI I~II\; onh :5111 W of
pLMtI Thi mrlC'f li hi!ll fJI 1pplJClUOM r~n~ I hl!,i\h .dubk lCD dtiJ'il> 1.11 ~

SI!LlH p.1C~e The srup-m benl ~mg oubl~ ~ :tnol r.lpiJ 1ll;U1:J!l0II of ~

, I. 1 8
1f.t[<!1 The illr~hc:L' of 1Ie;.gt. II' ff\olL3t1:~ poOI«1rCln. iltld \0\\
Ctlllll'lbYlt III Ilr bJ~ relLlbl!11 orlhali cr.1a
J'OI\ ~I COIb~mrlilXl .lll

I
~ InJlllI \club~ flll},'tS.tre l"li.l~bIt '!')!Om\', .t2VOC. :.nd t..!O\ t t A J·11mA
cutfdll IOput ~r<:T :OP-670) u also orrtl~d A~onuuc pcIbrl1l . OICtr3l!j1t rn.bcailon.
aJ)umbk d~1IJI31 ~'IIi. w tb.pI.l'I HOlD Me $UrWrJ fell\ll'H l l i DP.(,<(t ~LtS
=pI~H 1 dlLll ilc • tD~,;nllnj; AID CI'!I\nt&:I'. :md Op::r.!ld rrOf:l:ln mUm;!1 .' -!mV
ld"i.'IetlCc ItU prtCWOD IX:-It).[)C CMler'.i'1 T'IlIOI )((l,Q'\ IS ill ' " __

en
::r'
Features Technical Notes ro
· tmf"'''' ....,.. b=I prl V ! TbI: (!.1DDCI.-Dm ~D nl.il(1 c!ltre>'OUwllpm. fu DII~~ ~um. INI'UTI') u ro
• \'er) ICIWI p;>acr .... :_(WDCIi1"""l
~ 10 GND .rlllo: ~r!1 1I1"'"n1 fm:II Lbt pcMtt mm:c (tmo;llNf'UT\.,.,(iSD
mlackm:tl} a Il!r~. 10K It$lIOI"Dt'I ..orlllllb..'lIlt1 rtdI«cmmm...so: ,mn-
rt
D.fli:n:nual il:~l'oj'S"'=tP (I)
«-
•
l Dupll~ bd.d~ ~ ,,11m HOLD" lup 1-5V) Ru1IIIp ~ ~P"17ed ".'" HOlD Illo\ll
• o.t·.l)pala:t1lIXY

J Tb: ~IIllII"'W " uiC' iCI<::UhII: b~ «fl_: lilt cIe ' "'"I ;aliI pal i~ ~ III ~ II<I OP
• lkid-di"'~ r,..;. .. COM(pa 11
• (h'tr\'DIusc protro..:. ~. fu!l~ 1I1l1l1plll" adi,=lI'":-f ItI UIpD"'l funlxf CJhbrJllca Ii II"'li'* ~ .ldJllElllg
QL-u~di_1I I!ic I11III1"" """'"-led <XI w, b:ad.1'l \be Di'~ 1
~ UIIIl5C:d pEl 5/n1d k Ic::Il ~

Applicat i ons Ordering Information

~2 M;""'I~DPMlCD o:1V

DN>~ MlDJ.JIUlt DPM LCD dO\'

C. III (.:uox1QI. 10 ;U

6 • 1 · 8" - 472 - 617 6 • 'a.1 · '.8 · 210 - 0119 • IIccuh • • com

Appendix 8 Data Sheets 279

 Dimensions Connections

1 l. ! : ( !6..5 )
'1
PilING.
,
",,"- ""'"....
tT
,- , V'
(><D
-sv,....a~

•-
•• , Di'COM
PoIoer IIIfIJf) pl*Cl
[)1m "lOIllQIIIlI
,
I'''' •• ~ • r
G.B I (IIJI
i , ""
1);>1
1XlU( ..

IXXX{.. •
7Fa 10 DP co.'I,IlO _cm)
Cl JO 01' CO,\IIO I/DI OIJ
, lXXX(", calli DP CO!J 10 l1l1I (1)
!Jr JQr , D"
IXPUTl-) l'tlsilI.t 1111'" IIIjIlII

-.
--- ,• INPUTr-)
NC
~lC iIIllll IIPJI (Itt T........." Not: I)
Nil Cm ,<!(IICQ ItCJlllral
HOLD Httd IasI ~~ (ICI:Tcdullw Salt 1)
"
Specifications

CI)
+-l
(I)
(I) .Jl.lsr -!

..c::
U) ,

,- , d Y ",-,
(llO[) l (J'ID Sooo"

"""" ,
I D' I "
0 1') t
10 1..\\'

'p.;-•..,;D,-)') ,
1
"nIT i ) J
1'(" ,

HOlOIO
C-19

280 Electroni c Sensors for the Evil Genius

 FE0203
LCD Panel Display

FE0203
3 1/2 Digits, 0.5 Inch (1 2.1mm) Character Height

..
,"
I . .. " r..", Utdo.rw_ ..... 1LCoO.'_ ' -.:I UdIL
~'''''''._UIII!I-.cI
~I CI·'-' ,-, 2.. C ONN ' ...... "" •••

·"u:CI.O
I
Acuill Size

1111'1'1 • I.
en
,.,
::r
It)
112.7C)
It)
cT
I ; I'• en
1.20
{30.4!lJ

.... .... ,., .., .... ""' ..... ... ..... ..,. .......c
Pin Auignments
r..,·, ,
, .• • .,,,
.
<>•. ",,' 'M ... .
9:. 1~:. -919.J P\-rl

, , ." ~

" " " "'. - t~ - EJ • 21 N. .~

. . He . J1 .

, • "I.e " "

6
" " " .3 " ., " He02 LO
" , OJ FJ F2 3l ~

,. ,. " 0"7
" " "," " '" " " ,.."" Ne'" " ~ 1'1-

'" "
he
" '" " " " " " " " L BP

Product spocm:::atbns oontalood heloo may bo chan ged wlthoul pi'ill notic:o. _
II Is theu!fOlO advisabkll0 contact Pullfy EIeclIOOICS beloro p!'ocoqd"ng wth thg design 01 oquipmllnt IncorPQl'atng this pmcIuct.

Etedronic:l Corpoliltioo . 720 Pabmal JMinue • Sunoyiale. CA 94085

Pur~
T.t:408.523 8200· Fa><; 408.733.1287 • lOmail Opu<dyelec.onicu:om • _Pllrdyeledronics.eom ,

Rppendi x B Data Sheets 281

FGM-series
Ma netic Field Sensors

PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
Sensor Outline - FGM-3

- a'- FIB 0
2_54
16 mill a GNO III
mm •~ +fly
OIP
rt
•
- III
I 62 rnm I• I Pin Size: O.63rn m sq

App ro ximat e Outlino Oimonslons en

::r'
(l)
(l)
rt
(J)
FGM-1 Pin Layout Pin 1: f eedb8ck
Pin 2 : output
Pin 3 : gnd

CD Pin 4 : +5 volts
Pins Ut standard OIL p ac kage-
types but at 0.076 inch spacing

Rppendi x B Data Sheets 283

 ICL7136

Pinouts
(P01P) IMQFP )
TOP VIEW TOPV1EW
,. osc 1
z
,, ,
0

"
osc 2
r
0
"
• •
•w •w •zw •wz 0 Z 0
"Z , ••, • ,
osc 3 •• U U U
•• Z

" TEST
tn) " REF HI
" REF LO
"
G' CREF · "'G'
"" CRE F"
COM MON "
A>
IN HI
" IN LO
G'
(10'5) " A·'
BPIGND

'" BUFF '0'

""
,.'" "
"' G2 (HfaJ
""
( I OO's) "
" "
A> (100'.,
POOO) AB4 " G'
, MIN US) POL 8PIG ND
AI F\ GI El 02 C2 82 A2 F2 E2 Ol

2 I Intersil

288 Electronic Sensors for the Evil Geniu s

 ICL7136

Absolute Maximum Ratings Thermal Information

supply VOltage Thermal Rn lstan(;tl (Typical, Not!! 2) OJA (0CMt)
ICL7136. V' 10 V- . .. .. 15V POIP Paooge __ . .. . .. 50
Analog Input Voltage (Either Input) (Note 1) _.. V·loV· t.IOFP Package . . . _..•.... , .. __ . 75
Relerence Input VOIlage (Either Input) "_, V'!oV· Maximum Juncllon TempefalUle . __ . lSOoC
CIocklnpu I I.taxirnum Slotage Temperature Rilr.gi! .. .•• __ • -6So C to ISOOC
ICL7136 TESTloV' 1.latlmum Lead Temperature (Solderin g lOS) . . .. . 3()(lOc
(I.IQFP· lead Tips Only)
Operating Conditions
NOTE Ph-free POIPs can be used lor through hole wave solder
Temperalure Range .. O"c to 7r:PC
processing only. They are not inlenck!d for use in Rellow solder
prol;ess.II1g ilpp~Ciltion!i.

CAunon SueP'" ilbtNe _filled in 'Abschl. t.1ann<.m RJOngs ' m.q uuse pefmM»'" d.i"'V" 10 lhII devu. n.. is a !!lIeu ody,IJIlI>fJ IPId <>pMiII1Ot> allIM
dc..a ll! 1 _ Of lillY othe, cotUtt/OlI5 abg,oe 'hose m ical/xj lit rIM opetafulWll se<:OonI oIlhI, s~n IS _ iInplJ«I.
NOTES .
1 Input voltages may exceed !lie supply voltages provided the input CUHent is limned 10 :100,tA .
I
2. i1JA 15 measured ....,th the component mounled on a low effective !hermat conductJvily lest board in Iree alt. sea Tech Brief TB379 fOI details

Electr ical Specif ications (Nole 3)

I PARAMETER
I TE ST CO NDITION S MIN I TYP I MAX I UN1TS I
SYSTEM PERF ORMANCE

lero Input Readlll9 VIN" OV. Full Scale" 200mV -000.0 ~.O "000.0 Digital
Reading

RaUomebic Reading VN VREF . VREF IOOmV 999 999/ 1000 Digital fJ)
Rollovel ErrOl -VIN '" "V,N" 200mV Dillelence in Reading for Equal Posili'Je -
1000
.", ~1
"''''''''
Counls
::r
(l)
and Negative Inputs Near Fill Scale

lilleaJity Full Scale" 200mV or Full Scale" "2V 1.lilximum ±O.2 Counts (l)
Deviaoon Irom Best Straight LiIle Fit (NOla 5) " rt
_.
Common ~.Iode RejectIOn Rabo VCM '" ±IV. VIN ~ OV. Full Scale - 200mV (NOle 5)

V,t~ " OV. Fuo Scala'" 200mV (Peak· To-Peak Value

Exceeded 95~ 01 Time) (Nole 5J
Not
- SO
15
•

-
,VN

,V
(J)

leakage Currentlnpul Vr-l - OV (Nole 5) - 1 10 pA

lela Reading [}fih V~ - OV . OOC To lr:PC (NOle 5) - 0.' 1 ,vf'C
Scale Faclor Temperatum Coefficient V,N" 199mV. oDc To 700c. (Ext ReI Oppml-Oc) (Note 5J - 1 5 ppmf'c
COW.ION PIn Analog Common Voltage 25kn Betwetln Common and Positive Suppl~ (Wi!h Rasped ,-' 30 32 V
to • Supply)

Tempetature COefficient 01 Analog 25kn Between Common and PoSI~VII SUpplY(W"I!h Respect - 150 - ppmf'c
Corn~" to • Supply) (Note 5)

SUPPLY CURRENT

V' Supply Curren!

DISPLAY DRIVER
VIN - 0 (Does Nol Include Common Curren t) 16k Hz
OsciUator (Noia 6)
-
" I 100 1'"

Peal(-To-Peak Segment DrNll Voltage and V . to V- '" 9V (Nole 4 ) 4 5.5 6 V

Peak-To-Peak Backplane Drive Voltage

NOTES
3. Unless o!hef'...-ise noted. sptcilicaliOllS 3W~ to tile tCL1 136 at TA : 25"C. 'CLOCK z 481<Hz. ICLl l 36 is l!!SIed in the cltcull 01 Figul1I I.
4 . Sactr. plane drive i!I in ph;H8 ',\illl sagmenl drive lor '011" SC9menl, t80 degrees oul of phase for -on' SIgll enl Frequency is 20 times oonvel$lon rnte
Awrnge DC component i!l1ess than 50mV
5 t-kltlesloo. guaranteed by design.
6. 46kHl oscillator inc:reasesamenl by 2!¥A (Typ) .

3 intersil FI8()!S5

Rppendix B Data Sheets 289

 ICL7136

Typical Applications and Test Circuits

• _ ty

c, = O.IF
C:1 = O.4 7JIF
CJ =0047""
C4 = SOpF

•" IC11136
Cs
Rl
= O.Ol.lf
= 2<WkO
R2 ,, 180k.'1
RJ " l OOk!!
R! " l Okn
R5 = H.ID

FIGURE 1. ICL7 136 TEST CIRCUIT AND TYPICAL APPlI CATl ON WITH LCD DISPLAY COMPONENTS SELECTED FOR 200mV FUll SC ALE

fJ)
+J
Q)
Q)
~
U)

4 [ intel'kil fN3OES5

290 Electronic Sensors for the Ev il Genius

 ICL7136

Design Information Summary Sheet

• OSCILLATOR FREaUENCY • DISPLAY COUNT
fOSC = O.45/RC V
COUNT - 1000 ~ III
Cose > 50pF: Rose 0> SOIdl v REf
fose (Typ) = 48kHz
• OSCILLATOR PERIOD • CONVERSION CYCLE
lose = R C/ QAS \cve = 'ClOCK x 4000
• INTEGRATION CLOCK FREQUENCY !eve = lose x 16.000
when fOSC :: 4 8kHz : !eve = 333ms
' CLOCK = ' OSC/ 4
• COMMON MODE INPUT VOLTAGE
• INTEGRATION PER IOD
(v - .. W ) <: VIN <: (\1+ - O.SV)

•
liNT '" 1000 x (4I1ase)
GO/50Hz REJECTION CRITERION
• AUTO·ZERO CAPACITOR
O .OI~F <: CAl < I~F
I
tlNTitsOHz or ti NT/150Hz = Integer
• REFERENCE CAPACITOR
• OPTIMUM INTEGRATION CURRENT O.l jlF <: GREF" 1jlF
In-IT" lpA • VCOM
• FULL SCALE ANALOG INPUT VOLTAGE
Biased bet>.veen V+ and V-
VINFS (Typ) " 200mV or 2V
• VCOM '= V+. 2.8V
• INTEGRATE RE SISTOR Reg ulation lost whe n V + \0 V- '" =6.8V.

Rna
Vl tl FS
Inn
If VCOM IS externally pulled down 10 (V + to V -)12.
the VCO,,", circuit wUl tu rn off.
en
• POWER SUPPLY: SI NGL E 9V ::r'
• INTEGRATE CAPACITOR V+ -V· = 9V ro
GUIT -
(1IIIT){InlT)
VUlT
Digital supply is generaled internally
VTEST =- V+ ·4.5V
ro
• DISPLAY: LCD cT
• INTEGRATOR OUTPUT VOLTAGE SWING
Type: Direct drive with digilallogic supply amplilude. CIl

• VINT MAXIMUM SWING:

(V. + O. 5V) < VINT < (V+ - O. 5Y), VINT (Typ) = 2V

Typical Integrator Amplifier Output Waveform (INT Pin)

,,
,,
,,
,
.-------~
,, ,,.- -- - -- -- - -.,, -- - --- - -- - -- -- - -- -- - -
,,
,
,
AUTO ZERO PHASE
(COu/H S)
,
,
SIGNAL INTEGRATE
PHASE FIXED
DE·I NTEGRATE PHASE
0·I999COUNTS ,
,,
t n99·1DOO
,,
I 1000 COUNTS

•
• I
•~ ~ .
•
l OTAL CONVERSIO N l lME .. .oIooo x !cLOC K" 16.000 x Iosc

5 I intersil
Appendi x 8 Dat a Sheets 291
 fCL 7136

Pin Descriptions

~"--If-
~-=22=
~" digll-

C/) 22 JO
~
(l) 25

(l) JS
,.c::
en JO

" J9 IN HI

It!
~
Output
3J
It! "
Q "4_'
I
I J9 6 QSC2
OSCl
CiICUII connec bon pins

" 1

Detailed Description COMMON. Second. the reference capacitor is ch arg ed to the

reference voltage Third, a feedback loop is closed around the
Analog Section system to charge the auto-zero capa cnor eAZ to cof'r'.gensale
Figure 2 showslhe Analog Section for the ICL7136. Each for offset voltages In the buffer amptflef, Integrator. and
measurement cycle is dIVided into four phases. They are (1) comparator. Since the comparator is Included in the loop. the A·
aulo-zero (A-Z ), (2) signal integrate (INT) and (3) de- Z a ccuracy is limited only by the noise of the system, In any
integrate (DE), (4) zero integrale (Zl). case , the offsel ralalTed to the input IS less than 1 0~V

Auto-Zero Ph ase Signal Integrate Ph ase

Dunng aulO-Z!'! ro three th ingS happen First, Input high and 10\'1 During signa l Integrate. the auto-zero loop Is opened, the
are disconnected from the pau; and interna lly shorted to ana log internal short is re moved , and the internal Input high and low

6 I intersil F1~5

292 Elect ronic Sensors for the Evi l Genius

 ICL7136

ate connected to the external pins_ The converter Ihen Differen tia /Input
integr.ltes the differential voltage between IN HI and IN LO The input can accept differential VQkages anywhere within the
for a fIXed time. Th is differential voltage can be w ith in a wide
common mode range of the input amplifier, or specifically from
common made range : up to lV from either supply, If, on Ihe O.5V below the posilive supply to lV_above the negative supply
other hand . the Input signal has no return with respect to the In th is range , the system has a CMRR of 86dB typical.
converter pO'.... er supply, IN LO can be tied to analog However, care must be exercised to assure the integrator
COMMON to establish the correct common mode Voltage. AI
output does nol saturate. A worst case condition would be a
the end of thi s phase. Ihe polarity of the Integra ted signal is large positive common mode voltage with a near rull scale
determlned _ negative differential input voHage. The negative input signal
De·lntegrate Phase drives the inlegrator positive when most of ~ s s,'Iing has been
used up by the poSitive common mode Voltage. For these
The final phase is de·i ntegrale, or reference i ntegrate. Input
critical applications the integrator output S\"';ng can be reduced
low is internally connected to analog COMMON and input
10 less than the recommended XV fuB scale S\ving with little loss
high Is co nnected across the previously charged reference
of accuracy. The integrator output can swing to w~hin 0.3V of
capacitor. Circuitry within the ch ip ensures Ihat the capacito r
\"'; 11 be connected with the correcl polarity 10 cause the
integralor output to return to zero. The l ime required for Ihe
either supplywithoul loss of linearity.

Differential Reference
I
outpul to return 10 zero is proportional to Ihe input signal. The reference voltage can be generated anywhere within Ihe
Spe cifically the digItal reading displayed is:
power supply voltage of Ihe converte r. The main source 01

DISPlAY READ ING eo t ooo(VVII/

R"
J. common mode error is a rOll-oVef vollage caused by Ihe
reference capacitor losing or gaining charge to stray capacity
on lis nodes. If there is a large common mode vo ltage, the
Zero Integrator Phase reference capacitor can gain charge (Increase voltage) when
The final phase is zero i'ltegralor. First, input low is shorted 10 called up to de-Integrale a positi\'e signal bullose charge
analog COMMON Second, the reference capacitor is charged
to Ihe reference vo!\age. Finally, a feedback loop is closed
(decrease voltage) when ca lled up 10 de-integrate a negative
input signal. This difference in reference for positive or en
around the syslem to IN HI to cause the integralor oulput 10
return 10 zero. Under normal conditions. Ihls phase lasts for
negative input vollage will give a roll-over error. However, by
selecti ng the reference capadlor such Ihat il is large enough
::r'
bl!t\...een 11 [0 140 dock pulses, but after a 'heavy'" o... errange in comparison 10 the slray capacil ance, this error can be held CD
convers ion, it is extended 10 740 clock pulses. 10 less Ihan 0.5 count wor.;t case. (See Component Value
Selection.)
ro
rt
Ul
STRAY I O~, I STRAY

-• - 0., R_
REF HI BUFF ER V •
CRH REF LO CRE" "
, ,.
~ ------- -------- - ------ --- ----
• "
------ '"'
------ -----
,, " " " "
,, A·Z,
INTEGRATOR

, " m
DIGITAL
SECTION
IN HI
,,'" ,~

,
, '""""
HIG H
'2'<

, COMPARATO R
, •
COMM ON '"
, INPlIT

".
,~

",.
[NLO

"- - ---- -- ---- -- ---- - -- "- ---------- ---- - ---- -- ------ - --- -
FIGURE 2. ANALO G SECTION OF [CL71 36

7 1 intersil

Appendi x B Data Sheets 293

 ICL7136

Analog COMMON y.
This pin is included pr imanly to set the common mode
voltage for battery operation or for any system where the
Y
input signals are noating w ith respect to the power supply.
REF HI
The COMMON pin sets a voltage that is approximately 2.SV
more negative than the positive supply Th is Is selected to
REF LO J-+: •••y
give a minimum end-of- life banery voltage of <lboul 6.BV. " ""
However, analog COMMON has some of the attributes of a
reference vo1\age. Whe n th e lolal supply voltage is large
Icune
J"
enough to C<!use the zener to regulate (>7V), the COMMON
vol tage will have a 1000v voltage coefficient (0 .001 %/V). low
output impedance ( ;:;1501, and a temperat ure coefficient
typically less than 150pprn"'C. FIGURE l A.

The Imitations of the on chip reference should also be

y.
recognized, however. Due to their higher thermal resistance,
plastic pans are poorer in this resped than ceramic. The
y
combination of reference Temperature CoeffICient (TC), inlernal •••
chip dissipation, and package thermal resistance can increase ICUl36 10k!}

Jl""•
noise near full scale from 25~V to 8O,Np.p. Also the 6ne arity in
going from a high dissipation counl such as 1000 (20 segroonts REF HI L&069
on) to a low dissipation count wch as 111 1 (6 segments on) Y
REF La £FERENCE
can suffer by a count or more. Devices wi th a positive TC
reference may require several counls 10 puD out of an over COMMON
rang e ccndilion. This is because over.(ange is a k)w dissipation
mode. with the three least signifICant digits blanked . Similarly, FIGURE 3B.
CI) units WIth a n ega tive TC may cycle between OV"er range and a FIGURE 3. USING AN EXTERNAL REFEREN CE
non-over range count as the die alternately healS and cools . All
+-l Ihese problems are of course eliminated if an exlernal
TEST
Q) reference is used. The TEST pin serves two functions. O n the ICL7136 it is
coupl ed to th e internally generated dIgItal supply through a
Q) The ICL7136. wIth its negligible dissipation, suffers Irom soon resistor. Thus it can be used as the nega tive supply for
.c::
u
none 0 1 these problems. In either case, an exte rnal referen ce
can easily be added, as shown In Figure 3
externally gen erated segment drivers such as decimal points
or any oth er presentation the user may wa nt to Include on
Analog COMMON i s also used as the input low return during the LCD display. F igures 4 and 5 show such an application.
auto-zero and de-integrate. If IN LO IS different from analog No more than a 1mA load should be applied.
COMMON . a common mode voltage exists in the system
and is laken care of by the excellent CMRR of the converter.
However, in some applications IN LO WIll be set at a fIXed ,. '"0
known voltage ( powe r supply common for ins tance) . In this
application, analog COMMON should be tied to the same w ,co
IM.... t
CEO
poln1. thus removing the commo n mode voltage from the ,,0<
conve rt er. Th e same holds true for the refere nce voltage. If
ICl1 tl6 "'
I re fe rence can be conveniently tied to analog COMMON, II
should b e since this removes the common mode voll age '" 1;;-1~
TEST
from the reference system. r" TOlCD
8ACKPLANE
WithIn th e IC , an alog COMMON Is tied to an N-Channel FET
tha t can sink approximately 3mA of current to hold Ihe FI GURE 4. SIMPLE INVE RTER FOR FIXED DECIMAL POINT

> voltage 2.8V below the posltJve supply (wh en a load is Irying
The second function is a "lamp lest~ When TEST is pulled

'.
to pull the common line positive). However. there is only
10IlA of source current. so COMMON may easHy be tied to a high (to V+) all se gments will be turned on and the display
more negative vo ltage thus overriding the inl ernal reference . should read'-1888". The TEST pin w ill sink abou t 5mA
under Ihese co nditions

CAU TlON: On u....

ICL7B6. iAlhfo lamp lOS! mod<I. I"" __ ." .. nl$ 1\1., • •
constanl DC vob\ll' (no loquat.." .......) . nd m;»I bum tIM! LCD
.r~loy j 1011 in Ihk rnoOe fo< w.-fiill .... u1..s

8 i n t e ....si l

294 Electronic Sen s or s for the Ev il Genius

 ICL7136

Digital Section
,.
V· .- - . Figures 6 shows the digital s!:!ction for the ICl7136 In the
[Cl7136. an inlemal digital ground is generated from a 6V
" , Zenar diode and a large P-Channel source follower. This
supply is made stJtf 10 absorb the rela tively large capacitive
ICL7136 DECIMAL ClJrrenlS when the back plane (BP) voUage is switched. The
"',<IT ,, BP frequency is the clock frequency divid!!d by aoo. For
SELECT
, three readings/second this is a 60Hz square wave with a

,,
nominal amplitude of 5V. The segment s are driven allhe
"" , CD4030
'- -. same frequency and amplitude and are In phase with BP
when OFF. but out of phase when ON. tn aU cases negligible
OC voltage ell.is\s across the segments.
FIGURE 5. EXCLU SIVE "OR" GATE FOR DE CIMAL POINT DRIVE
The polarity Indication is 'on" lor negative analog Inpuls. If IN
LO and IN HI are reversed . Ihis indication can be reversed
also, if desired.
I

OI23'-f557B'3
BACKPLANE
--- ----------------- -- ---- ;r- -.

DIGITAL

t THREE ItfVERTERS
::::::::::1:;"-; ----..; ,.
ONLY ONE INYERTER SHOWN LOGIC COtflROL
FOR CLARITY
TE ST

,.
------------- --- - --------- -- -- ------_.
Me , OSC 2

fiGU Re 6. ICL7136 DIGITAL seC n ON

9 I Intersil

Rppendl x B Data Sheets

 ICL7136

System Timing Component Value Selection

Figure 7 shows the clocking arrangement used in the
Integrating Resistor
IC L7136. Two basic clocking arra ngements can be used:
Both th e buffer amplifier and the Integrator have a class A
1. Figure eA, an external osciliator connected to DIP pin 40. output stage with 100~ 01 quiescent curren\. They can
2 . Figure 9B. an R-C oscillator using all three pins. supply 1~ of drive current with negligible nonlinearity. The
The oscill a\orfrequency is divided by fOUf belore it docks the integra ting resistor should be large enough to remain In this
decade counters. It is then lur1her divided to form the three very linear region over the input voltage rang e, but small
convert-cycle phases. These are signal integrate (1000 enough that undue leakage requirements are noi place d on
counts). reference de.-inleg ra te (0 to 2000 counts) and aulo- the PC board. For 2V full scale, 1.8MO is near optimum and
zero (1000 to 3000 coun ts). For signals less than full scale. simil arly a 1801tO for a 200mV scale.
auto-zero gets the unused portion of reference de-integrate.
Integrating Capacitor
This makes a complete measure cycle of 4 ,000 coun ts
The integrating capa citor should be selected to give th e
(16 ,000 dock pulses) independent of input voltage. For three
maximum voltage swing that ensures tolerance buitdup will
readin gs/s econd , an oscilla tor frequency of 48kHz would be
not saturate the integrator swing ( approximately 0.3V from
used.
either supply). In the ICL7136, when the analog COMMON
To achieve max imum rejection of 60H z plc!c.up, the signal is used as a reference . a nominal +2V full-scale integrator
integrate cycle should be a multiple of 60Hz. Oscillator swing is fine . For three readings/second (4 8kHz dock)
frequen cies of 240 kHz, 120kHz, aOkHz, 60kHz, 4 8kHz, nominal values for Cn-rr are 0 . 047~F and 0.5~F, respectively.
40kHz. 33'/3kHz . etc •. should be selected . For 50Hz Of cou rse . if different osclilator fre quencies are used, these
rejection , OsciUalor frequencies of 200kHz, 100kHz, values should be ch anged in inverse proportion to maintain
66213kHz , 50kHz, 40kHz, etc. would be suitable. N ote that the same ou tput S'.Ying.
40kHz (2 .5 readingslsec.) will reject both 50Hz and 60Hz
An additional requ irement 01 the integrating capacitor is thai
(also 400Hz and 440Hz).
it must have a low dielectric absorption to prevent roll-over
errors. While other typ es of capacitors are adequate for this
r-- -- ---- ------ --- - --- ---- ---,
INTERNAL TO PART ,, application, polypropylene capacitors give undeteclab!e

+4 C LOC K ,, errors a\ reasonable cost.

,, Auto-Zero Capacitor
, The size of the auto-zero capacitor has some influence on

~ .0 ____ __ 39 ______ 3& -----------, the noise of the system, For 200mV fu ll scale where noise is
very important, a O.47j..1F capacitor is recommended . On the
2V scale, a 0.047~LF capacitor increases the speed of
recovery from overload and is adequat e for noise on thIs
TEST scale.
FtGURE 7A. EXTERNAL OS CILLATOR
Reference Capacitor
,----------
, -------- ----------, A O. ' ~F capacitor gives good results In most applications.
,, INTERNAL TO PART
However. where a large common mode voltage exists (i.e ..
,
,,
the REF LO pin is not al analog COMMON ) and a 200mV
scale is used , a larg er va lue is requ ired 10 prevent roll-over
,, , error. Generally lj..1F will hold the ro ll-over error to 0.5 count

I ~ . 0 ______ 39 ______ 18 - - - - - - - - - - _
in this instance.

Oscilfator Components
R
For all rang es of frequency a 180kO res istor is
recommended and Ihe capacitor i s selected from th e
equation:
FIGURE 78. RC OSCILLATOR
FIGURE 7. CLOC K CIRCUITS
f .. ~~ For 48kH z Clock (3 Re adings/s.).

C - 50pF .

10 I intersil

296 Electronic Sensors for the Evil Genius

 ICL7136

Referen ce Voltage Typical Applications

The ana log input requ ired 10 generate fu ll sca le output 12000 The tCL7136 may be u sed in a w ide variety o f
counts) Is: VIN '" 2VREF. Thus. for the 200mV and 2V scale, configurations. The circuits wh ich follO\v show some of the
VREF should equal I OOmV and t V, respectively. However. in possibilities. and serve to illustrate the exceptional versatility
many applications where the AfD Is connected to a 01 these AID converters.
transducer, the re w itl exist a scale fa ctor olher Ihan unity
ber,'>'een the input volt age and Ihe digital reading. For The following application notes contai n very usefu l
information on understandin g and applying th is part and are
instance, in a weighing system, the designer might like to
have a full scale re ading whe n the vol1ag e from th e available from Intersi!.
transducer is O. S62V. Instea d of dfviding Ihe input dO\'m to
200mV, the designer should use the Input voltage directly
Application Notes
and sel ect VREF '" O. 341Y. Suitable va lues for integrating NOTE: DESCRIPTI ON
resistor and capacitor would be 330kQ and O.047fiF. This ANOl6 ' Selecting AiD COlwertl!r!i'
makes Ihe system slightly quieter ilnd also avoids a divider
network on the input. Another a dvantage of this system ANo n -The Integrating AID conveneI'" I
occurs w hen a digital re ading o f zero Is desired for VIN ... O. ANOia ' Oo's and Don'1S of Applying AJD COnvlll'tCfS'
Temperature and weighing systems with a variable fare are AN023 'Low COS1 Digi1al Panel Meter Designs'
exa mptes . Th is o ffset reading can be conveniently generated
AN032 'Uooelstanding the Auto·ZelO end Common Mode
by connecllng the vollage transducer between IN Ht and
Pertoanance olille ICL7136/ MI Family-
COMMON and the variab le (or fIXed ) offse t voltage ben','een
COMMON and IN LO. AN().IS -Building a Battery..()peral9d Auto Ranging DVM with
the ICl7 I OE>

AH052 'llps lor Using Single Chip J ' (2 Digit AID Converters'

TOPlN 1 +---
TO PIN 1 _ _- ,
osc 1
osc 2
osc 3
TEST
REF HI
REF HI
REFLO ,.
CREF

,.0 •
CREF
COMMO N ,.0 •
IN NI
IN LO
..,
BUFF

'"
,. ,.
c,
TO DISPLAY C,
TO DISPLAY
c, ~

c,
" TO BACKPLANE
ep/GND

Values shcr,o,ll ilfl! lor 200mV full scale, J leadIng s/sec .. lIoating
supply voltage (9V batiefY)

FI GURE 8 . ICL71J6 USING TH E INTERNAL REFERENCE FIGURE 9. RE COMMENDED COMPONENT VALUES FOR 2'0'
FULL SCALE

11 I intersll

Appendi x B Data Sheets 297

 ICL7136

TO PIN
ose I
a se2
,. ase,
CSCl DO QSe2
TO l OGIC aSC l
"" ' CO "
REF HI
REF LO
'"'0
"
A> ""
REf HI
CREF » REf LO
C REF G. ,~

CO MMON
IN HI
--
SI LIC ON NPN
n CREF
COMMON
IN LO
NPS 3104 OR
SIMILAR "' IN HI
A·Z " IN LO
BUfF "
~ A·Z
'"
,. " BU FF

GZ " '",.
" TO DISPLAY "S' G>
'"G'
" _ _ _• TO BACKPLANE " "
A silicon diode-conneded lJansislor ha s a temperature coartlcienl
"
AS.
'"
G>
01 abcu t -2 mV,.oC. CalibraHon is aChieved by placin g the sel15in g
transistor in;oo wa ler and adju sting the leroing po tentiometer lor a
",. "
000.0 reading. The sensor should IIlen be pl aced in boding water
and me scale -factor potenUome ter adjusted for a 100.0 rCildin g.
t Value depends a ll clock freq uency.
FIGURE 10. ICl11 36 USED AS A DIGITAL CENTIGRADE
FIGURE 11. CIRCUIT FOR OEVElOPINGUNDERRANGE AN D
THERMOMETER OVERRANGE SIGNAL FROM ICL 7136 OUTPUTS

asc 1 __ ~OPI N1~=;-T--

' -----------------,
ase 2
asc 3 RMS)

TEST
REF HI -'-~ AC IN

REFlO I N9U
470k Q
'm
CREF
COMMON
IN HI
.,'
~ .3kn
lNlO
A· Z
BUFF

I "."
(FOR OPTIMU M
'"',. BANDW IDTH)

GZ

" TO DIS PLAY

"
G'
BP TO BAC KPlAN E

Tes t is used <IS a common·mode reference level to ensure compa~bHily with most op amps.

FIGURE 12. AC TO DC CONVERTER WITH ICl 7 136

12 I Intersil FNm565

298 Electronic Sensors for the Evil Genius

 ICL 7136

Die Characteristics
DIE DIME NSIONS: PASSIVATI ON:
127 mils x 149 mils Type - PSG Nitride
Thickness: 1SkA :!:3kA
METALL.IZATION :
Type: AI
Thickness: 10kA !C111A

Metallization Mask Layout

ICL7136

( 14) (13) (121 ( 11) (10) (9) (8) m

I
(6) 1')

(3) C,

(2) D\

A8 ~ ( 19 ) ( I ) V'

POL (20)

BPiGND )211

(19) O SC 2

(33) osc 3
(37) TES t

V-( 26)
=~==-=--=:...=
1'0 (28) (29) (30) ( 31 ) (l2) Ill) (~ ) )35) (36)

'"' BU FF A'l. IN LO IN HI CO MM CREF. CR£f.> LO

REF
HI
REF

13 I intersil

Rppendi x B Data Sheets 299

 ICL7136

Dual-tn-Line Plastic Packages (PDJP)

E40. 6 (JEDEC MS-Dl1·AC JSSUE 8)
40 LEAD OUAl·iN·LlNE PLASTIC PA CKAGE

INOEX _ . " INCHES MILLIMETERS

MEA ""',v,~ SYM BOL MIN I MAX MIN I MAX NOTES
,
.,•
. 0.250 . 6.35
0.01 5 . 0.39 . ,
A2 0 .125 0 , ' 95 3. 18 4.95 ·
B 0 .0 14 0.022 0.356 0.558 ·
B1 0.030 0.070 0.77 1.77 B
C 0.008 0.Q15 0.204 0.38 1 ·
0 1.980 >095 "'.3 50' 5
01 0.000 . 0.13 . 5
E 0.600 0.625 15.24 15.87 6
NOTES: E1 OAB5 I 0580 12.32 I 14.73 5
1. Conuo~iflg Dimensions: INCH. In case 01conniel between English • 0. 100 sse sse
2.54 ·
1524 sse -t 6
.lnO /,Ietric dimensions, the inch dimensions controt
'A 0.600 esc
2. Dimensioning and Iolerandog per ANSI YI4 .S/,I-\ 982. . 0.700 . I 17.78 7
J Symbols ale defined in the'MO series Symbol Lisr in Section 2 2
01 Pub lication No. 95.
"L 0. 115 0.200 2 .93 I 5.08 ,
4. Dimensions A. A 1 and L are measured with the package sealed in
J EOEC sealing plane gauge GS-3.
N '0
" 9
Rev. 0 12193
5. 0 , 01 . and E 1 dlm!msions 00 nol include mold nash or protrusions.
Mold nash or protrusions shall not exceed 0.010 inch (0.25mm).
6 Eand I~A I are measuredwllllllleleadSCOrlStr.linedto be pBl"'
pendictJ rio datum I.e. I.
1. eg and ee are measured al the lead ~ps ....iIh lIle leads unoon-
strained. ee mus t be zero or grealer.
8 81 maxlmumdimensions donot lndudedambarprolrusions. Dam-
bar plOlrusions shall nol exceed 0 .010 inch (O.25mmj.
9. N is the maJUmum number 01 lefminal positions
10. Canet leads (1. N. W2 and Nfl • I ) lor EB.3, E16.3. E IIl.3. E28.3.
E42.6 'MJ ha'VQ a 9 1 dinenslonof O.OJO ·0.(l45 ~ (0.16· 1. 14mm).

14 I intersil

300 Electroni c Sen s ors f o r the Ev il Genius

 ICL7136

Metric Plastic Quad Flatpack Packages (MQFP)

r
~;::=== 0 044.1 Ox 10 (JEOEC MS-022A8 ISSUE B)
01 44 LEAD METRIC PLASTIC QUAD FLATPACK PACKAGE
INCHES
I MILLIMETERS
SYMBOL MIN MAX I MIN MAX NOTES

• ~

0.096 I ~

2"
0_25
~

"A2 0.004 0010 010 ~

0.011 0083 lOS 2_10 ~

b 00 12 0.018 030 0_4 5 6

: ~ --+-- b1 0.012 0.Q1 6

I 030 0 40 ~

0 0.5 15 052·' I 13.06 13_32 3

01 I 0:," 0.399 ,aB I 10 12 ' .5 I
• I 0516 om 13 10 I 13-30 3

• "l
0390
0029
0.398
0,"0
'.90
0"
10.10
1.03
U
~

N 7

• "
0.032 sse
"
O.BOsse ~

Rev 2 4199
NOTES
1 Controlling dimensIOn l.ttlLII.IETER. Co",. erted Inch
olmenSlOils ilrc nOl necessariy exael
2 AU dimensions and tolerances per ANSI YI4 51.1·1982.
3 Olmensioos 0 alld E to be delermllled a t sea ~ng plane ~ .

1
=={ '" ..
<I Ol!T1ensioos 01 and El to be delermined a t datum plane
[iD
o"·r>
~
5 O,rnenslOlls 01 and E 1 do nor indocle mold proUUSlOn.
Allowable protrusion Is O_25mm (0.010 inch) per Side
6 Ormtlflsion b does no t include dambal protnJsion !\JIO'.'o'abic
Gambar protrusion sl'lall be O.06mm (OJ)03 inch) lotal.
7. "N" is !he /lumber of lermilliil POSItIOns

A11lntersU us prodUClS are manufactured. assembled and tested utilizing IS09000 qualtty systems.
Intersi! Corporauon"s quality certifica tions can be vrewed al \'fI'l\v.lnlersll.com'd esignlquaJfly
IlTer~ ~oduas .7.0 sold !If o._1Pf1OO on;o,:
IM/f_ Cotpor..-.#! ~ ......_ /he "'1'" ro IfW:e dw"9"" WI arCUI Ouqll . ..",......,.. ,.,r>d Of ~kalO<ll' .., ""11.........Il0<l
,<)/>0" ka)nt.TY/Y /h<J "Jmt IS CJJdiantKllO vwJr IIJai data $MtlIS /lf8 CURlrr bebe pOontJ ordets. InVnlOr..,., futni!hfd by Irr~r is lHtW.-..d 10 be aca.ma and
......-_ Hooo,_ ,.., ~"'Y is a.........d by 'rcMSi Of IS Sl.r.S01"lmu for iI.!.IM ".". for .. "" ~ 01 pM.'U or ott.... .~,.,. of /hid JDlI_ ../JdI tTMy ,O$IJI
from to UW. No ~ Of fr.IrrN by ;mp«.bYJ or IIIfhMme utdeI any poc;,'" or ~.", ,;gin oIlrrelfllor '$ $<Ibstd".at ....
For in formation regarding Intersi! Corporation and its products. see 'Mw/.inlersil com

15 I intel""sil

Appendix B Data Sheets 301

MOTOROLA Freesca le Se miconductor, Inc. O rde r th is documlllfli
SEMICONDUCTOR TE CHNICAL DATA by MPX21001D

100 kPa 100

On-Chip Temperature SERIES
Compensated & Calibrated
Silicon Pressure Sensors 010100 kPa (0 t o 14.5 psi)
The MPX210Q series device is a silicon piezoresistive pressure sensor providing a 40 mV FUll SCALE SPAN
highly accurate and linear voltage output - d irectly proportional to the applied pressure. (TYPI CAL)
The sensor Is a single, monolithic silicon diaphragm with the strain gauge and a thin-film
resistor network Integrated on-chip. The chip is laser trimmed for precise span and oll'set
ca libration and temperature compensation . UNIBOOY PACKAGE I
Features
• Temperature Compensated Over O' C to +85~C
• Easy-Io-Use Chip Carrier Package Options
• Available in Abso lute. Differential and Gauge Configurallons
• Raliometric to Supply Voltage
• ±O.2S% linearity (MPX21 QOD)
MPX 2100AID
Application Examples CASE 344
• PumpfMotot Controllers
• RoboUcs
• Level Indicators
en
• Medical OiagnosUcs ::r'
• Pressure S\vltching (l)
• Barometers (l)
• Altimeters
rt"
Figure 1 illustrates a block diagram of the internal circuitry on the stand-alone (fl
pressure sensor chip. MPX2100AP/GP
CASE 344B
",
r --
I
----------,I
THm AIJoI
I I,
I SENSISG
TE.VPffiATlJRE
CO!.lP E!<SATIO~l
I
.~.

I """'"
~;D

c.w~n:m
• '~.
I OR""'" I
I _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ .1I
MPX21DODP
CASE344 C

G~D
Figure 1. Temperatura Compensated Pressure Senso r Schamatfc

VOLTAGE OUTPUT versus APPLIED DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE

The differential voltage output of the sensor Is directly proportional to the differenilal
pressure applied.
The absolu te sensor has a buill- in reference vacuum. The output voltage will decrease
as va cuum, relative to ambien t, is drawn on the pressure (P1) side.
The ou tpu t voU age of the differential or gauge sensor increases with increasing MPX2100ASX!GSX
pressure applied to the pressure (P1) side relaUve to the vacuum (P2) side. Similarly. CASE 344F
output voltage increases as Increasing vacuum is applied 10 the vacuum (P2) side
relative to the pressure (P1 ) side.
PIN NUMBER
1 G"" v,
2 -vw:
NOTE: Pin 1 is noled by the notch in
the lead,

Rppen dix B Dat a Sheets 3 03

GEe PLESSEY . u Q,o
I S E M l e o N 0 U C TOR S 1 _ _ _ _ _ _ _-'-_ _ _ __ _ _ __ __ _ __ _ _ _

,
ZN414Z, ZN415E, ZN416E
AM RADIO RECEIVERS
•
• . .-
FEATURES
,
ZN41~Z
• Single c:ell 'operatig" p.l to 1.6 volt ,operating range) ,
• low curtent consumption I
• '50kHz to 3MHz frequency range
,., G1'IOUND
(i.e . full coverage o~ medium and lo"ng wavebands)
.• Easy to assemble. -no alignment necessary
. ' Simple and effective AGe action
• 'Will drive crystal
.. earphone direct (ZN414ZI
• Will drive headphones direct (ZN415E and ZN41 6E) PLASTIC CTo.92)

• Excellent. audio quality

,. en
•
•
Typical power gain of .72d8 (ZN414ZI
Minimum of external components required .
::r
(1)
ZN415E
ZN416E (1)
rt
•
UJ

\ - -- _. . -
. -
GENERA~ DESCRIPTION . '.-

,
,The ZN414Z is 8 10 transistor tuned radio frequency (TRF) circuit OP8
packaged in 8 3-pin TO·S2 plastic package for simplicity and space · . ,

economy.
•
The circuit provides a complete R.F. amplifier . detector and AGe circuit which requires only six
external components to give a high quality A .M. tuner. Effective AGe acti()O is available and is
simply adjusted by selecting one 8)(ternal resistor value. Excellent audio quality can be achieved .
and current consumption is extremely low. No setting· up or alignment is required and the circuit
is completely stable in use.

The ZN415E retains all the features of the ZN414Z but also incorporates 8 buffer stage giving
sufficient output to drive headphones directly from the 8 pin Dll.

Similarly the ZN4 1 6E is a buffered output version of the ZN414Z giving typically 1 20m V (f .m .s .1
output into a 640 load . The SamB package and pinning is used fo r the ZN416E as the ZN41SE .

Appendi x B Data Sheets 309

 1414Z141SEl416E

EVICE SPECIFICATIONS T amb = 25°C . Vee = 1.4V , Parameters apply to all types unless
lherwi se stated , •

Parameter Min, Typ Max , Units

•
Supply voltage. Vee 1.1 1.3 1.6 .... olt s

Supp ly current. Is ZN4 14Z 0.3 0 .5

with 640 ZN415E 2.3 rnA
headphones f ZN416E 4
3
5
•

""put freQue!' c:y ~ange 0 , 15 , 3 .0 MHz

Input resistance - 4 .0 •
- MO
-
Threshold sensitivity (Dependant on Q
,

of com
' '-' ,
50
- 4.0 - kHz
• •
.
Total harmoniC distortio n •
- 3.0 -
.. .
AGe 'range
•
•
20 - dB

Power gain flN414Z1 ' ' , 72 '. dB

.
---~~~------------~ ~ ....;..-'---+~~----+---- .
, ' '

voltag~ gain .of output stage ' ZN415f . ' 16B dB

I _ ZN416E •

Output voltage into 640 load ZN414Z 60

before clipping . ZN4 1 5E • 120 mVpp
•
ZN416E 340

Upper cU,t-~fI frequency ?f output sta g e'1

No capacita'r, IZN415E and ZN416E) I
20 - kHz

With O:cjl~F between pin 7 and OV IZN415EI 6 kHz '

With O,Ol~F b'etween pin 7 and OV IZN416E} 10 kHz
•
Lower C1Jt-o ff frequency of output stage
O. 'I'F between pins 2 and 3 for ZN41 Sf )
, 0.471'F between pins 2 and 3 for ZN416E f , - 50 - Hz

.. .
ZN414Z 40
Quiescent output vo ltage ZN4t5E 80 mV
ZN416E 200
Operating temperanJre range o 70 ·c
Maximum storage temp erature - 65 125 ·c

310 Electronic Sensors for the Evi l Genius

 ZN4 14Z/41 SEl4 16E

<. •

,- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -::"'::-::"'::I:J--t~·· .•
I ---
I I
I
I
I
I
I I
- IL _ _ _ _ _ ______ _
----
T~ ZN41U 1$ witNn I~ clott~ QA'O

ZN414Z Sy;stem Diagram ,

- - -- ---------
.. lOOk
I
I
I

I
L ___ _ --- "--'

THE ZNI. 15£ IS WITHIN THE DOTTED AREA

ZN415E System Diagram

•
-- ------- - - _._---
lOOk
I
I "
I

I
I I
I I
L ___ _ __ .J

THE: Wl.I6E IS WITHIN THE 001 IUJ AREA

ZN416E System Diagram

Rppendi x B Data Sheets 311

ZN414Z141SE/~16E

LAVOUT REQUIREMENTS
A s w ith any h igh gain RF . device. certain baSIC la yout ru les must be. adhered to if stable and reliable
operation is to be obtained . These are liste d below : .
1 . The outpu t dec oupling capacitor should be soldered as near as possible to the output and ear th
leads of the ZN414Z . Furthermore. its vall(~ toge ther w ith th e AGe resis t or !RAGe) should be
calculated at ... 4kHz, i.e .: .
C 1----:_ =
!farad s l = ::--,::--,-
2w.R AGC . 4 . 10 3 ,
2. All lead s should be kepI as short as possible. especially those in close proximity to the ZN414Z .
•
3, The tuning assembly should be some distance from the battery. loudspeaker and their associated
leads .
4. The 'earthy' side of the tuning capacitor should be connect ed to the junction of the 100kO
resistor and the 0.01 J.l F capacitor. " I
- . .,.-

OPERATING NOTES ,
lal Selectivity
•
To obtain good selec tivity, essential with any T .R.F. device. the ZN414Z must be fed from an
efficient, high '0' coil and capacitor tuning network . With suitable components the selectivity is
comparable to superhet designs. except that a-very strong' signal in proximity to the receiver may
swamp the device un less the ferrite rod aerial is rotat ed to .. null ·o ut~ the strong signal.
Two other factors affect the apparent selectivity of the device. Firstly. the gain of the ZN414Z
is voltage sensitive (see previous page) 50 that, in strong signal areas. less supply voltage will be
needed to obtain correct AGe action . Incorrect adjustment of the AGe causes a strong station
to occupy a much wider bandwidth than ne cessary and in extreme cases can cause the AF s tage s
to saturate before the AG e ca n limit RF ga in. This gives the effect of swamping together w ith
reduced AF output. All the above factors have to be c onsidered if optimum performance is to be
obtained.

(bl Ferrite aerial size

Because o f the gain variation available by altering suppty voltage. the siz.e of the ferrite rod is relatively
unimportant. However. the ratio of aerial rod length to diameter should ideally be large to give
the rece iver better directional propertie s, Successful receivers have been constructed with f errit e
rod aerials of 4cm 11.5") and up to 20cm IS") .

314 Electronic Sensors for the Evil Genius

 2N414Z/41 SE/'l1 GE

DRIVE CIRCUITS
~

Three types o f drive circui t ate sho wn. each has been us~d success fu lly. The choice is largely
an economic one. but circ uit 3 is recom mended wherever possi ble. ha ving severa l advantag es
over th e ot l:ler circuits. Values f or 9V supplies arc st\o...,.n, simple calc ulation s will give va lues f or
other $up plles . t

1. Aesi slive Divider (ZN414Z) •

• •

• • •
ttl
•

• •
. • ••
I
.

, ."", ,

Current consumption = 2mA

en
~
R"", (l)
680A
(l)
To lN4'\04Z output
rt
J..
en

Note: Replacing the 6800 resistor with a 500n resistor and <l 250n preset. sensit ivi ty may b e
adjusted and w ill enable op timum rece pt io n to be realised under most condit ions .

_ . _ .- ..

Appendi x B Data S heets 315

 Z N41 4V415E14 16E

2. D iode Dri ve (ZN414Z l

•
• • •

\. •

"
,.,, 1'1 .
•
.

D 1 = D 2 :: Any gene r ;;!1 purpose silicon diode

• Rp :::: Opt ion al sensitivi t y" cp ntrol , a

0, •
•
. .. recomm ended value bO e ing 2500 . .

'pF . + °2 Current consu m ption =,.SmA

nr.-t p ZSOtl.
"AGe

, • •
•
... To aU.14l D.JI.p.,rt

CI)
+-l
Q)
Q) 3. Transistor Drive (ZN414Z and ZN415E)

.c
CI)

""'"'
(1 3k)

lTX300

Cu rren t consu mpt io n is virtua ll y that which

. is laken by the ZN414Z (O.3mA) o r the
ZN415E C2.3mA) .
Component values sh own in brackets a re for
"'"
po escl
(2k~
the Z N415E.

To ZN414l ou lpul

3 16 Ele ctro nic Sensor s f or the Evi l Genius

 ZN414Z/415E1416E

I
RECOMMENDED CIR C UITS
,J
(a) Earphone radi o
The ZN414Z will drive a ~e n sit i ve earpiece directly . In th'IS case. an earpiece of equivalent imped ance
(l)
to RAGe i s substituted for R AGC in the basic t u ner c i(cui L Unfortunately . the cost of a sensi tive ::l
earpiece is high , and u nless an ult ra·OV n iature radio is wanted . it is co nsiderabl y cheaper to use
~
a low cost crys tal earpiece and add a single gain stage. One f urt her advantage o f t h i s tech n iq ue
is that provi sion for a vo lume con trol can be m ade . A su itable Clrcui l i s shown below . ....
.><

I
...,'

It _ 80 turns of O.3mm dia. enamelled copper wire o n a Scm or 7 . 5 c m tong ferrit e rod . 00 not
expec t to adhere rigidly t o the coil·capacitor details given. Any value o f L\ and C, which will give
a h igh ' Q ' at th e desi red frequ ency may be used.
Volume Control : a 2500 potentio m e ter in se ries with a 1000 fixe d resist or substituted for the 2700
em itter resiSlOr provides an effective volume con trol.

(bl Domestic portable receive r

The circui t shown is capable o f excellent Quality. an d i ts cos t relati ve to co nventional de signs is
much l o wer.
]l,,,,
- - ----,-- - - - - ..,

Ro,

""'.
U 'oC h 15OpI="
"" <.So

,"0
ZH
(, =001
jF ""
"".

The complete Circuit di agram of the T riffid receiver

Rppendix B Data Sheets 317

• Combustible gas sniffer

• low·cost ion chamber

• Advanced ion chamber

ISBN 0-07 · 147036- 0