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Basic principles of non-destructive testing (NDT)

Definition and importance of NDT:

Non-destructive testing is the use of physical methods which will test materials, components
and assemblies for flaws in their structure without damaging their future usefulness. NDT is
concerned with revealing flaws in the structure of a product. It, however, cannot predict where flaws
will develop due to the design itself.
All NDT methods have the following common characteristics:
(a) The application of a testing medium to the product to be tested.
(b) The changes in the testing medium due to the defects in the structure of the product.
(c) A means by which it detects these changes.
(d) Interpretation of these changes to obtain information about the flaws in the structure of the
product.

Importance of NDT:

NDT plays an important role in the quality control of a product. It is used during all the stages of
manufacturing of a product. It is used to monitor the quality of the:
(a) Raw materials which are used in the construction of the product.
(b) Fabrication processes which are used to manufacture the product.
(c) Finished product before it is put into service.
Use of NDT during all stages of manufacturing results in the following benefits:
(a) It increases the safety and reliability of the product during operation.
(b) It decreases the cost of the product by reducing scrap and conserving materials, labour and
energy.
(c) It enhances the reputation of the manufacturer as producer of quality goods.
All of the above factors boost the sales of the product which bring more economical benefits to
the manufacturer. NDT is also used widely for routine or periodic determination of quality of the
plants and structures during service. This not only increases the safety of operation but also
eliminates any forced shut down of the plants
Magnetic Particle Testing (MPT):-
Magnetic Particle Testing is also known as Magnetic particle Inspection (MPI). Magnetic
particle Inspection (MPI) is a non-destructive testing (NDT) process for detecting surface and
slightly subsurface discontinuities in ferromagnetic materials such as nickel ,iron, cobalt, and some
of their alloys. The process puts a magnetic field into the part. The piece can be magnetized by
direct or indirect magnetization.
Direct magnetization occurs when the electric current is passed through the test object and a
magnetic field is formed in the material. Indirect magnetization occurs when no electric current is
passed through the test object, but a magnetic field is applied from an outside source. The magnetic
lines of force are perpendicular to the direction of the electric current, which may be
either alternating current (AC) or some form of direct current (DC) (rectified AC).

Non-Destructive Testing for MPT

The presence of a surface or subsurface discontinuity in the material allows the magnetic flux to
leak, since air cannot support as much magnetic field per unit volume as metals. A wet horizontal
MPI machine is the most commonly used mass-production inspection machine.

This requires special equipment that works the opposite way of the magnetizing equipment. The
magnetization is normally done with a high current pulse that reaches a peak current very quickly
and instantaneously turns off leaving the part magnetized. To demagnetize a part, the current or
magnetic field needed has to be equal to or greater than the current or magnetic field used to
magnetize the part

This course contains Level 1 and 2 study material from NDT Consultancy Services and covers the
theory of Magnetic Particle Examination. Magnetic fields, flux leakage, magnetization processes,
particles/mediums, applications, basic principles, and safety considerations are addressed.
This 24-hour course exceeds the instruction outline and criteria specified in the ASNT
Recommended Practice SNT-TC-1A and ASNT Standard Topical Outlines for Qualification of
Nondestructive Testing.

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 (2) Use for 01.07.2017

Learn About NDT methods:

The methods of NDT range from the simple to the complicated. Visual inspection is the
Simplest of all. Surface imperfections invisible to the eye may be revealed by penetrant
or Magnetic methods. If really serious surface defects are found, there is often little
point in Proceeding to more complicated examinations of the interior by ultrasonic or
radiography. NDT Methods may be divided into groups for the purposes of these notes:
conventional and nonconventional.
To the first group may belong the methods which are commonly used and include visual
or optical inspection, dye penetrant testing, magnetic particle testing, eddy current
testing, Radiographic testing and ultrasonic testing. The second group of NDT methods
is those used only for specialized applications and consequently are limited in use.
Some of these methods which are being mentioned here merely as a curiosity for the
reader include neutron radiography, acoustic emission, thermal and infrared testing,
strain sensing, microwave techniques, leak testing, holography etc. It must also be
remembered that no one of these methods can give us Solutions to all the possible
problems, i.e. they are not optional alternatives but rather
Complementary to each other. The basic principles, typical applications, advantages
and limitations of the methods of group one will now be briefly described.

1.1.3. Visual testing (VT)

. Visual testing requires adequate illumination of the test surface and proper eye-sight of
the tester. Often overlooked in any listing of NDT methods, visual inspection is one of
the most common and most powerful means of non-destructive testing . To be most
effective visual Inspection does however, merit special attention because it requires
training (knowledge of Product and process, anticipated service conditions, acceptance
criteria, record keeping, for Example) and it has its own range of equipment and
instrumentation. It is also a fact that all Defects found by other NDT methods ultimately
must be substantiated by visual inspection.
Visual testing can be classified as direct visual testing, remote visual testing and
translucent visual testing. The most common NDT methods MT and PT are indeed
simply scientific ways of enhancing the indication to make it more visible. Often the
equipment needed is simple Figure
1.1 a portable light, a mirror on stem, a 2 or 4 hand lens, one illuminated magnifier
with
Magnification 5x or 10. For internal inspection, light lens systems such as borescopes
allow Remote surfaces to be examined. More sophisticated devices of this nature using
fibre optics permit the introduction of the device into very small access holes and
channels. Most of these Systems provide for the attachment of a camera to permit
permanent recording.

Figure 1.1: Various optical aids used in visual inspection.

(a) Mirror on stem: may be flat for normal view or concave for limited magnification.
(b) Hand magnifying glass (magnification usually 23).
(c) Illuminated magnifier; field of view more restricted than D (magnification 510).
(d) Inspection glass, usually fitted with a scale for measurement; the front surface is placed in
contact with the work (magnification 510).
(e) Borescope or intrascope with built-in illumination (magnification 23).

The applications of visual testing include:

(1) Checking of the surface condition of the test specimen.
(2) Checking of alignment of mating surfaces.
(3) Checking of shape of the component.
(4) Checking for evidence of leaking.
(5) Checking for internal side defects.

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 (3)
Liquid penetrant testing (LPT)

This is a method which can be employed for the detection of open-to-surface

discontinuities in any industrial product which is made from a non-porous material. This
method is widely used for testing of non-magnetic materials. In this method a liquid
penetrant is applied to the surface of the product for a certain predetermined time, after
which the excess penetrant is removed from the surface. The surface is then dried and
a developer is applied to it. The penetrant which remains in the discontinuity is
absorbed by the developer to indicate the presence as well as the location, size and
nature of the discontinuity. The process is illustrated in Figure 1.2.
Penetrants used are either visible dye penetrant or fluorescent dye penetrant. The
inspection for the presence of visible dye indications is made under white light while
inspection of presence of indications by fluorescent dye penetrant is made under
ultraviolet (or black) light under darkened conditions. The liquid penetrant processes are
further sub-divided according to the method of washing of the specimen. The penetrants
can be:
(i) water-washable, (ii) postemulsifiable,
i.e. an emulsifier is added to the excess penetrant on surface of the specimen to make it
water-washable, and (iii) solvent removable, i.e. the excess penetrant is needed to be
dissolved in a solvent to remove it from the test specimen surface. In order of
decreasing sensitivity and decreasing cost, the liquid penetrant processes can be listed
as:
(1) Post emulsifiable fluorescent dye penetrant.
(2) Solvent removable fluorescent dye penetrant.
(3) Water washable fluorescent dye penetrant.
(4) Post emulsifiable visible dye penetrant.
(5) Solvent removable visible dye penetrant.
(6) Water washable visible dye penetrant.
Some of the advantages of liquid penetrant testing are as follows:
(1) Relatively low cost.
(2) Highly portable NDT method.
(3) Highly sensitive to fine, tight discontinuities.
(4) Fairly simple method.
(5) Can be used on a variety of materials.
(6) All surface discontinuities are detected in one operation, regardless of orientation.
Some of the limitations of liquid penetrant testing are as follows:
(1) Test surface must be free of all contaminants (dirt, oil, grease, paint, rust, etc.).
(2) Detects surface discontinuities only.
(3) Cannot be used on porous specimens and is difficult to use on very rough surfaces.
(4) Removal of all penetrant materials, following the test, is often required.
(5) There is no easy method to produce permanent record.

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Magnetic particle testing (MT)

Magnetic particle testing is used for the testing of materials which can be easily
magnetized. This method is capable of detecting open to surface and just below the
surface flaws. In this method the test specimen is first magnetized either by using a
permanent or an electromagnet or by passing electric current through or around the
specimen. The magnetic field thus introduced into the specimen is composed of
magnetic lines of force. Whenever there is a flaw which interrupts the flow of magnetic
lines of force, some of these lines must exit and reenter the specimen. These points of
exit and re-entry form opposite magnetic poles. Whenever minute magnetic particles
are sprinkled onto the surface of such a specimen, these particles are attracted by
these magnetic poles to create a visual indication approximating the size and shape of
the flaw. Figure 1.3 illustrates the basic principles of this method.
Figure 1.3: Basic principle of magnetic particle testing.

Depending on the application, there are different magnetization techniques used in

magnetic particle testing. These techniques can be grouped into the following two
categories:
(a) Direct current techniques: These are the techniques in which the current flows
through the
test specimen and the magnetic field produced by this flow of current is used for the
detection of defects. These techniques are shown in Figure 1.4 (a, b & c).
(b) Magnetic flux flow techniques: In these techniques magnetic flux is induced into the
specimen either by the use of a permanent magnet or by flowing current through a coil
or a
conductor. These techniques are shown in Figure 1.4 (dg).
Figure 1.4:
Figure 1.4: Different magnetizations used in magnetic particle testing.

Advantages of magnetic particle testing include the following:

(1) It does not need very stringent pre-cleaning operation.
(2) Best method for the detection of fine, shallow surface cracks in ferromagnetic
material.
(3) Fast and relatively simple NDT method.
(4) Generally inexpensive.
(5) Will work through thin coating.
(6) Few limitations regarding the size/shape of test specimens.
(7) Highly portable NDT method.
(8) It is quicker.
Some of the limitations of magnetic particle testing include the following:
(1) Material must be ferromagnetic.
(2) Orientation and strength of magnetic field is critical.
(3) Detects surface and near-to-surface discontinuities only.
(4) Large currents sometimes required.
(5) Burning of test parts a possibility.
(6) Parts must often be demagnetized, which may be difficult.

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Eddy current testing (ET)

This method is widely used to detect surface flaws, to sort materials, to measure thin
walls from one surface only, to measure thin coatings and in some applications to
measure case depth. This method is applicable to electrically conductive materials only.
In the method eddy currents are produced in the product by bringing it close to an
alternating current carrying coil. The alternating magnetic field of the coil is modified by
the magnetic fields of the eddy currents. This modification, which depends on the
condition of the part near to the coil, is then shown as a meter reading or cathode ray
tube presentation.
Figure 1.5 gives the basic principles of eddy current testing. There are three types of
probes Figure 1.6 used in eddy current testing. Internal probes are usually used for the
in-service testing of heat exchanger tubes. Encircling probes are commonly used for the
testing of rods and tubes during manufacturing. The uses of surface probes include
the location of cracks, sorting of materials, measurement of wall and coating thickness,
and case depth measurement. This method may be used for:
(1) For the detection of defects in tubings.
(2) For sorting materials.
(3) For measurement of thin wall thickness from one surface only.
(4) For measuring thin coatings.
(5) For measuring case depth.

Figure 1.5: (a) Generation of eddy currents in the test specimen.

Figure 1.5: (b) Distortion of eddy currents due to defect.

Some of the advantages of eddy current testing include:
(1) Does not require couplant.
(2) It gives instantaneous response.
(3) Has uncomplicated steps during set-up.
(4) Is extremely sensitive to flaws.
(5) Is very repeatable.
(6) High scanning speeds can be used.
(7) Is very accurate for dimensional analysis of flaws or coating thickness.

(b) Encircling Coil

 Some of the limitations of eddy current testing include the following:

(1) The theory requires a good academic background in electrical principles and in
mathematics.
(2) Extremely sensitive to surface variations and therefore requires a good surface.
(3) It is applicable to conductor materials only.
(4) Can be used on non-magnetic and magnetic material but is not reliable on carbon
steel for the detection of subsurface flaws.
(5) Its depth of penetration is limited.
(6) Crack tightness and orientation of eddy current flow to a crack or linear discontinuity
will affect detectability.

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