17

CHAPTER

ALTERNATE FUELS

Environmental awarenes , stimulated fuel diversification and the high price of conventional
fuels have led to the creation of incentives to promote and further evaluate alternative fuel sources
for conventional internal combustion engines.

NATURAL GAS
Natural gas comes from the decay of ancient organisms, but it naturally takes a gaseous form
instead of a liquid form. It is often dissolved in crude oil at the high pressures existing in a reservoir.
There are also reservoirs of natural gas, known as non-associated gas, that contain only gas and
no oil. Most natural gas comes from three types of wells: natural gas-and-condensate wells, oil
wells, and coal bed methane wells. Natural gas is composed primarily of methane, the smallest and
simplest hydrocarbon.
Air cleaner

Engine 02 sensor

L-----~~lt~~----------c>
~
c
A/F sensor Silencer
~
Three catalyst

Fig. 17.1 NG vehicle layout

NG Vehicles
Methane mixes readily with air and has a high octane rating which makes it a very good spark-
ignition engine fuel. It has a high ignition temperature that makes it unsuited for use in compression-
ignition engines, though it can be made to work in such engines for heavy-duty vehicles. Diverse
engine technologies running on natural gas include: a) stoichiometric combustion, b) lean bum; c)
single point injection; and d) multi point injection. Natural gas is stored on-board as either com-
 Alternate Fuels 341
pressed natural gas (CNG) or liquefied natural gas (LNG). When used as a transportation vehicle
fuel, natural gas must be either compressed (CNG) or liquefied (LNG) to decrease its storage vol-
ume. CNG is the most common option for cars. The gas is stored in pressurized 200-270 bar cylin-
ders made of steel or composites, which are located within the boot space. Being pressurized, it is
heavier than conventional fuel tanks and increases the car total weight by around 60 kg.
Engine modifications required
Gasoline conversions to CNG, accepting the limitations that go with the low compression ratio
inherited from the original fuel, have provided the basis for large conversion programs around the
world. In the case of diesel engine conversions, some rework of the engine is needed to match the
compression ratio to that of natural gas. This work usually involves machining the pistons to lower
the compression ratio. The addition of an ignition and fuel control system are the other main modi-
fications. This results in an engine with long life and very low particulate emissions. With the use
of the advanced fuel control equipment that is now available, both converted gasoline and diesel
engines can meet today's emissions regulations easily.
Advantages
Produced at relatively low cost and is cleaner burning than gasoline or diesel fuel.
They reduce environmentally harmful emissions. Natural-gas vehicles can achieve up to
a 93 percent reduction in carbon monoxide emissions, 33 percent reduction in emissions
of various oxides of nitrogen and a 50 percent reduction in reactive hydrocarbons when
compared to gasoline vehicles.
Natural gas costs are lower than gasoline. On average, natural gas costs one-third less than
gasoline at the pump.
Natural gas is convenient and abundant.
Natural gas vehicles (NGVs) have lower maintenance costs. Because natural gas bums so
cleanly, it results in less wear and tear on the engine and extends the time between tune-ups
and oil changes.
Octane number is around 110, which makes it a very good SI engine fuel. Because of
this high octane number the flame speed is higher and engines can operate with a high
compression ratio.
No smoke
Disadvantages
Low energy density resulting in low engine performance.
Low engine volumetric efficiency because it is a gaseous fuel.
Need for large pressurized fuel storage tank. There is some safety concern with a pressur-
ized fuel tank.
Inconsistent fuel properties
Refueling is a slow process
Performance characteristics
Vehicle engines using natural gas can increase their power and efficiency by increasing the
compression ratio. Compared to typical gasoline, natural gas has a high octane rating that will sup-
port higher compression ratios. Since natural gas enters the engine entirely as a gas, while gasoline
typically enters the engine as part liquid and part gas, for the same displacement, the gasoline engine
will be able to draw more air and fuel and produce higher power. Natural gas engines can overcome
this inherent disadvantage by increasing compression ratio, cylinder displacement or increasing
volumetric efficiency.
342 Automobile Engineering
The energy efficiency of engines running on natural gas is almost equal to that of gasoline en-
gines in new cars, where dedicated injectors are used for the alternative fuel but are lower compared
with modem diesel engines. Gasoline vehicles converted to run on natural gas suffer because ofthe
engine low compression ratio, resulting in a cropping (10-15%) of delivered power while running
on natural gas. In recent bi-fuel gasoline-NG vehicles, the efficiency loss is reduced to 5-10%. CNG
dedicated engines use a higher compression ratio due to the fuel's higher octane number of 120-130.
Emission characteristics
Natural gas is composed primarily of methane which dominates its emissions characteristics.
Methane barely participates in the atmospheric reactions that produce ozone, though it does contrib-
ute to global warming when released into the atmosphere. Because of its high hydrogen-to-carbon
ratio (the highest at 4 to 1), the combustion of methane produces about 10% less carbon dioxide than
combustion of the energy-equivalent amount of gasoline or diesel fuel.
Compared to petrol, cars running on natural gas offer a CO emissions reduction of 90% to 97%,
25% reduced CO2, 35% to 60% reduced NOx emissions, and 50% to 75% reduced non-methane
hydrocarbon emissions. In addition to this, there are fewer toxic and carcinogenic pollutants, little
or no particulate matter and no evaporative emissions.

LIQUEFIED PETROLEUM GAS (LPG)

LPG is a generic term for fuels that include butane, propane and small amounts of other hy-
drocarbons. The common characteristic among these fuels is that they are easily liquefied by the
application of modest pressures (less than 300 psi).
Propane and butane are obtained from oil and gas wells. Propane is a type of liquefied petro-
leum gas (LPG) made from crude oil. When pressure is applied to a container of propane, the gas
becomes a liquid. When the pressure is released, the liquid propane turns into a gas.
For automobile engines, two types of LPG are used. One is propane and the other is butane.
Sometimes, a mixture of propane and butane is used as liquid petroleum gas in automobile engines.
Modifications required (Conversion)
Gasoline electronic controller LPG electronic controller

Catalytic converter

LPG Air filter

Overflow injector
return

LPG tank

Fig. 17.2 General layout of LPG equipment, devices and units installed in petrol vehicles
 Alternate Fuels 343
LPG vehicles work much like gasoline-powered vehicles with spark-ignited engines. LPG is
stored as a liquid in a separate steel or composite vessel at the pressure of lObar. LPG supply to the
engine is controlled by a regulator or vaporizer, which converts the LPG to a vapour. The vapour is
fed to a mixer located near the intake manifold, where it is metered and mixed with filtered air before
being drawn into the combustion chamber where it is burned to produce power, just like gasoline.
LPG injection engines, developed over the past 15 years, do not vaporize the LPG. Instead, the LPG
is injected into the combustion chamber in liquid form. These systems have proven to be reliable in
terms of power, engine durability, and cold starting.
Advantages
Has an octane rating of well over 100. This allows the engine compression ratio to be raised
for greater power and efficiency.
Propane bums cleanly. Less engine wear occurs. Therefore, less maintenance is required.
No fuel pump and little emission control equipment is used.
LPG mixes with air at all temperatures.
Has high anti-knock characteristics.
LPG costs are lower than gasoline. On average, costs 50% less than gasoline.
Engine may have a 50% longer life.
No smoke
Disadvantages
A special fuel system is needed to handle the pressurized liquid and gas. The system includes
special fuel tanks to hold reserve supplies of propane under pressure.
Performance characteristics
For vaporized propane fuel systems, propane enters the engine as a gas instead of part liquid
and part gas as gasoline does. By entering the engine fully vapourized, some air that could otherwise
be used for combustion is displaced. Therefore, theoretically, propane vehicles should have lower
power and slower acceleration than their gasoline counterparts, especially in bifuel configuration.
In practice, however, these differences do not always show up though power and acceleration are
typically reduced. Acceleration in terms of 0-50 mph time can be up to 10% slower. Propane should
theoretically have a cold-start advantage over gasoline since it vapourizes so quickly, even at low
temperatures.
Emission characteristics
Like natural gas, propane vehicles do not have any evaporative or running loss emissions as-
sociated with fuel. Unburned hydrocarbons from propane are easier to oxidize in oxidation catalysts
than methane, which results in low unburned hydrocarbon emissions. Being a gas, propane mixes
very well with the air before entering the engine, resulting in low carbon monoxide emissions. When
using a three-way catalyst, oxides of nitrogen emissions can also be reduced to very low levels if the
air-fuel ratio is kept at the stoichiometric value.

BIODIESEL
The esterified versions of vegetable oils have been given the generic label of "biodiesel",
Initially it was believed that vegetable oils could be used directly with minimal processing and
preparation. However, extensive engine testing proved that while diesel engines operated satisfac-
torily on raw vegetable oils, combustion residues and deposits would quickly cause problems with
fuel injectors, piston rings and oil stability. By reacting the oils with methanol or ethanol, esters
(biodiesel) are formed which have much improved characteristics as fuels.
344 Automobile Engineering
The most popular types of crops from which biodiesel can be extracted include soybeans, sun-
flowers, jetropha, peanuts, rapeseed, etc.
Biodiesel is made from renewable feedstocks through simple refining processes such as transes-
terification with low molecular weight alcohols, dilution with low viscosity miscible solvents, micro
emulsification, and pyrolysis. These techniques decrease the viscosity of fuels containing vegetable
oil. It can be concluded that out of the four methods, transesterification meth~is simple and cost
effective.
Engine modifications required
Engines are designed, manufactured, and warranted for a fuel that has certain specific proper-
ties. Therefore, it is important to take endorsements from engine manufacturers for the use of bio-
diesel and their blends. For some of the caterpillar and other manufactures engines, a blend of 5%
biodiesel with diesel fuel (B5) is approved. More than 5% biodiesel in diesel fuel in not covered
under engine warranty.
Several marine engine manufacturers of Japan, the U.S. and Europe endorse the use of 100%
biodiesel (BIOO) as fuel in diesel engines. Some manufacturers warranty the newer engines and
insist on a change of hoses, seals, and rubber parts in their older engines, while other engine manu-
facturers give warranties on a case-by-case basis.
Advantages
1. Runs in any conventional, unmodified diesel engine.
2. Can be used alone or mixed in any amount with diesel fuel.
3. More lubricating than diesel fuel, so it increases the life of engines.
4. Biodegradable and non-toxic.
5. Has a high flash point, or ignition temperature, of about 300F compared to diesel fuel,
which has a flash point of 125F. This means it's safer to transport.
6. Auto ignition, fuel consumption, power output, and engine torque are relatively unaffected
by biodiesel. So basically, the engine just runs like normal (except for the smell).
7. Biodiesel is an oxygenated fuel, thus implying that their oxygen content plays a role in
making fatty compounds suitable as diesel fuel by "cleaner" burning.
8. Esters have lower viscosities than the parent oils. Accordingly, they improve the injection
process and ensure better atomization of the fuel in the combustion chamber.
9. Cetane number of esters is greater than those of both vegetable oil and No.2 diesel fuel.
10. Reduced exhaust emissions such as sulfur dioxide, hydrocarbons, particulates, carbon
monoxide and carbon dioxide by 100, 56, 55, 43 and 78 percent respectively.
11. 90% reduction in cancer risks.
12. Provides a domestic, renewable energy supply.
Disadvantages
1. Slight increase in NOx emissions (up to 10% depending upon blend).
2. Slight decrease in fuel economy on energy basis (about 10% for pure biodiesel).
3. Thickens more than diesel fuel in cold weather, may need to use blends in sub freezing
conditions.

Performance characteristics
Straight biodiesel has a cetane rating significantly higher than typical No.2 diesel fuel, slightly
lower heating value, slightly higher viscosity and contains approximately 10 mass percent oxygen.
The lower heating value will cause a small loss inmaximum power if the engine fuel system is not
recalibrated.
 Alternate Fuels 345
On a mass basis, neat biodiesel (100% biodiesel-B100) has approximately 13% less energy than
typical diesel fuel. This loss in energy is caused by the oxygen content ofbiodiesel of approximately
10%. Biodiesel's higher specific gravity of approximately 0.88 compared to approximately 0.82 for
diesel fuel regains some of the loss in energy on a mass basis for an overall impact of approximately
7% loss in energy per unit volume. Thus, an engine adjusted for diesel fuel should experience a loss
of power of approximately 7% when using neat biodiesel (blends with diesel fuel should experience
power losses proportionate to the blend level).
Emission characteristics
In a diesel engine, 100% biodiesel (soy methyl ester) showed a significant reduction in hydro-
carbon emissions, no significant change in carbon monoxide emissions, a slight reduction in oxides
of nitrogen emissions and reduced particulate emissions.

ALCOHOL
Ethanol (ethyl alcohol) can be made from ethylene or from fermentation of grains and sugar.
Much of it made from com, sugar beets, sugar carre and even cellulose (wood and paper).
Ethanol is a single compound and much lighter than the typical hydrocarbons that make up
gasoline. The specific gravity of ethanol is higher than gasoline. A litre of ethanol weighs 20-80 g
more per litre than typical g~oline. Ethanol's viscosity is higher than gasoline but is still less than
diesel fuel. No problems are known for handling of ethanol in cold weather due to high viscosity.
Ethanol boosted engine
Fuel
management
f--
microprocessor

Ethanol
t
tank Direct injection I Knock
sensor
I
i
Gasoline
tank
I Manifold
Engine
I ~
i
I Turbo-
charger
I
Air i
Fig. 17.3 Block diagram of ethanol boosted engine

Ethanol boosting starts with a small turbocharged engine with separate gasoline and ethanol
fuel injectors for each cylinder. The gasoline system mixes fuel and air in the motor's intake mani-
fold using port injection. The second system injects small amounts of ethanol directly into the com-
bustion chamber to control premature detonation, or knock, that results from the high temperature
and pressure of a turbocharged engine. The ethanol prevents knock by cooling the air/fuel mixture
until the engine is ready for combustion.
Engine modifications required
The use of ethanol blends in conventional gasoline vehicles is restricted to low mixtures, as
ethanol is corrosive and can degrade some of the materials in the engine and fuel system. Also the
346 Automobile Engineering
engine has to be adjusted for a higher compression ratio as compared to a pure gasoline engine, in
order to take advantage of ethanol's higher octane rating and higher oxygen content, thus allowing
an improvement in fuel efficiency and a reduction of tailpipe emissions. Stock pistons with flat or
dished tops can be replaced with domed pistons, which reduce the size of the combustion chamber
and thus increase the compression ratio.
The adaptation of the engine management systems to the ethanol is found to be specific to the
vehicle manufacturers control strategy.
Advantages
Used as fuel in dual fuel engine
Low NOx (combustion temperature is low)
Oxygenated fuel- complete combustion
No major engine modifications required
Less HC anclCO
Higher compression ratio is possible - higher efficiency
Disadvantages
Aldehyde emissions
Cold starting problem
Less availability
Low calorific value (approximately 50% of petrol or diesel)
Corrosion problem in long run (alcohol available in the market is not pure, i.e., 90-95%
alcohol + 5-10% water (this water content brings down the combustion temperature).
Performance characteristics
The oxygen content of ethanol reduces its heating value relative to gasoline. Ethanol has
between 64% and 70% of the energy per gallon that gasoline has. To produce the same amount of
power as gasoline, about 1.5 times the volume of ethanol is needed. Ethanol has good octane proper-
ties compared to gasoline which allow engines to use higher compression ratios with the benefits of
improved power and efficiency.
Emission characteristics
Alcohols have lower exhaust emissions than gasoline engines except for aldehydes. Ethanol has
lower carbon to hydrogen ratio than gasoline and diesel and they produce less CO2 For the same
power output, the CO2 produced by ethanol fired engine is about 80% of the petrol engine. Because
of high heat of vapourization, the fuels burn with lower flame temperature than gasoline and less
NOx formation occurs. The CO percentage in both cases (alcohol and gasoline) more or less remains
same.

5. GASOHOL,
Gasohol is gasoline (petrol) to which a small amount of alcohol has been added. Usually the
alcohol is about 10 percent of the fuel. The alcohol can be made from com or other agricultural
products. Advocates of gasohol say that it reduces our dependence on foreign sources of oil.
Gasohol can be used in engines without any changes in the fuel system. However, when fuel
with a larger percentage of alcohol is used, the carburetor or fuel injection system must be recali-
brated.
ote: 30 % ofIndia total foreign exchange earnings is utilized on oil imports.
 AlternateFuels. 347
6. HYDROGEN
Hydrogen has many characteristics that makes it the ultimate alternative fuel to fossil energy
fuels. Hydrogen can be combusted directly in internal-combustion engines or it can be used in fuel
cells to produce electricity with high efficiency.
Hydrogen is now produced primarily from the steam reformation of natural gas, though it can
be produced from almost any source containing hydrogen in its composition. Hydrogen can also be
produced from the electrolysis qf water.

Engine modifications required

One of the primary problems that have been encountered in the development of operational
hydrogen engines is premature ignition due to hot spots in the combustion chamber, such as spark
splug electrodes, exhaust valve or carbon deposits. Most modem fuel metering systems deliver the
fuel and air separately to the combustion chamber. Thus, hydrogen can be added to the air mixture
at a point where the conditions for preignition are less favourable. Techniques that thermally dilute
the charge, such as water injection or residual exhaust gas recirculation (EGR), are also often added
to hydrogen engines to help control problems of preignition. Some research works suggested that
the most effective method of solving the problems of preignition and knock would be to redesign the
combustion chamber and coolant systems to accommodate hydrogen's unique combustion properties.
Direct injection hydrogen engines need high-pressure leak free hydrogen injector to improve
hydrogen-air mixing rate and thereby thermal efficiency.
Hydrogen cannot be used directly in a diesel engine since hydrogen's auto ignition is too high.
Thus, diesel engines must be outfitted with spark plugs or use a small amount of diesel fuel to ignite
the gas.

Advantages
Clean fuel- carbon is not present -less pollution (almost zero emission)
Calorific value is better than petrol (on mass basis) - 2 to 4 times
Fuel availability. There are a number of different ways of making hydrogen, including
electrolysis of water.
Fuel leakage to environment is not a pollutant.
Disadvantages
Process is costlier
Production, storing and handling are difficult
High NOx emissions because of high flame temperature
Performance characteristics
Only experimental hydrogen vehicles have been built to date and it is not possible to derive
meaningful conclusions about vehicle performance characteristics from them. Based on the internal
combustion engine work conducted to date, hydrogen engines should be able to produce the same
amount of power that petroleum fuel engines do with superior efficiency since the lean limit of
hydrogen is much lower than petroleum or other alternative fuels. A major concern about hydrogen
vehicles will be operating range. A highly efficient drive train combined with a vehicle design that
has low aerodynamic drag and rolling resistance may be necessary to achieve practical operating range.

Emission characteristics
When hydrogen is oxidized in fuel cells, the only emission is water vapour. When hydrogen is
combusted in internal combustion engines, water vapour is again the major emission, though some
 348 Automobile Engineering
oxides of nitrogen may be formed if combustion temperatures are high enough. Therefore, the use of
hydrogen as a transportation vehicle fuel would result in few or no emissions that would contribute
to ozone formation.
Like CNG or propane vehicles, hydrogen vehicles should not produce evaporative emissions
- since the fuel system would be closed. ~ven if hydrogen is released (eg. fuel spills or vehicle main
tenance) it rises quickly (being lighter than air) and does not cause any reactions in the atmosphere.

7. ELECTRIC VEHICLE (EV)

The conventional internal combustion electric vehicle (ICE V) employs a combustion engine for
propulsion. Its energy source is liquid petrol or diesel. In contrast, the electric vehicle (EV) employs
an electric motor and the corresponding energy sources are batteries, fuel cells, capacitors and/or
flywheels.

User inputs
~~
Accel. Brake
pedal pedal

Power Electronic ~A~cc~e~le~ra~ti.9i0n~I--;:M;:O:to::r:-t

Transmission
Converter
L...- --' Regenerative

Braking

Fig. 17.4 Block diagram of an electric vehicle

An electric vehicle consists of a battery that provides energy, an electric motor that drives the
wheels, and a controller that regulates the energy flow to the motor.
Previously, the EV was mainly converted from the ICEV, simply replacing the combustion en-
gine by the electric motor while retaining all the other components. This converted EV has been fad-
ing out because of the drawback of heavy weight, loss ~fle~jbility and degradation of performance .
At present, the modem EV is purposely built. This purpose built EV is based on original body and
frame designs to satisfy the structural requirements unique to EVs and to make use of the greater
flexibility of electric propulsion.
Fig. 17.4 shows the general configuration of the EV, consisting of three major subsystems-
electric propulsion, energy source and auxiliary. The electric propulsion subsystem comprises the
electronic controller, power converter, electric motor, mechanical transmission and driving wheels.
There are no gearbox and clutch in these vehicles.
Automobile manufacturers have identified three types of rechargeable battery as suitable for
electric car use. Those types are lead-acid batteries, nickel metal hydride (NiMH) batteries, and
lithium-ion (Li-ion) batteries and the space occupied by these heavy batteries is large. Operational
problems include the limited range of the vehicle and its comparatively low maximum speed.
Advantages
1. The running cost is 40 paise per kilometer
2. Zero emission vehicle
3. While running, it does not produce noise and vibrations
4. As there are no gears and clutch in these vehicles, they are extremely reliable, safe and easy
to drive and manoeuvre in the congested cities
5. Easier to service and maintenance
6. They are ideal for stop-start conditions.
 Alternate Fuels 349
Disadvantages
I. The vehicle range is limited on one charge. The vehicle can run 80 Ian on a single charge
2. The top speed is limited
3. It is heavy and bulky

Note: Reva electric car company of Bangalore had already launched the electric vehicle in India.

HYBRID ELECTRIC VEHICLES (HEV)

A hybrid is a vehicle that has two or more power sources to propel it. An example that is often
seen is a moped. The petrol engine is one power source and the rider provides the second power
source by 'pedal power'. Other vehicles that are classed as hybrid include some trains (diesel and
electric) and submarines (nuclear and electric).
Although very quite in operation and producing almost zero emissions, the disadvantages ofthe
electric vehicle is often the heavy weight of batteries required to propel it, and also the very short
distance which can be covered before it is necessary to recharge the batteries.
Petrol engine cars are both lightweight and can cover extensive distances before they need to
refill the fuel tank, Refilling the fuel tank is very rapid compared with the time taken to recharge batt-
teries. The disadvantages of the petrol engine are high emissions and high fuel consumption when
compared to electric power.
A hybrid car combines the low emissions and fuel consumption of an electric vehicle and pro-
vides a lightweight vehicle that can travel a long distance. The hybrid vehicle effectively makes use
of .ine or both of the power sources to propel the vehicle. Depending on how the hybrid system is
designed, the petrol engine simply function as a means of driving a generator. The generator then
charges the batteries that power the electric motors, which provide power to the vehicle transmis-
sion. Alternative designs allow the petrol engine and/or the electric motors to be selected to provide
power to the vehicle transmission system.
Research has shown that the average driver of a vehicle uses the maximum power of an engine
less than I % of the overall driving time. Therefore, the size of the petrol engine used in the current
range of hybrid cars provides sufficient power to be acceptable to most drivers.
A typical hybrid car contains the following components.
Petrol engine: The engine is similar to those fitted to conventional vehicles e.g. four cylinders, four-
stroke normally aspirated, etc. However, the capacity of the engine used is usually relatively small. These
engines are lightweight and very fuel efficient. They typically produce approximately 70 brake
horsepower which is supplemented with a electric motor rated typically at approximately 50 horse
power.
Electric motor: The electric motor is used to propel the car, however with the use of electronic
technology, the motor can also function as a generator to recharge the batteries.
Transmission: The transmission can be either manual or automatic.
Fuel tank: The fuel tank is used to store petrol for the petrol engine.
Batteries: The batteries provide the energy source for the electric motor, either recharged by an
external power source or recharged by the generator or electric motor when it is functioning as a
generator.
HEV Configurations
The two power sources are combined in one of two forms, either in parallel or in series.
The parallel hybrid connects the petrol engine and the electric motor to the gearbox, so both
power sources can apply their energy to the gearbox independently or simultaneously.The series
 /

350 Automobile Engineering

hybrid utilizes the power of the petrol engine and electric motor in a different manner, the power
of the petrol engine is applied to a generator, which is then used to either charge the batteries or to
directly power an electric motor. The electric motor then applies power to the gearbox. Note that
on series applications, the petrol engine is never used to directly supply power to the gearbox. The
power sources are connected in series, hence the name series hybrid.

Generator ~1..... _...JK

__ M_ot_o_r Wheel)

Series HEV configuration

G-- L--
Engine
--'

Transmission ( Wheel)

Motor
Generator

Parallel HEV configuration

Fig. 17.5 HEV configurations

The hybrid car offers high efficiency yet it also has high performance. It utilizes the power of
the electric motor to supplement the energy provided by the petrol engine during situations such as
accelerating from a standstill or driving up hills.
The hybrid car can reduce the waste of energy and the production of emissions in many driving
situations, e.g. the petrol engine is switched off while the car is stationary. The car generally oper-
ates on battery power alone, but when additional power is required for accelerating or if the batteries
require charging, the petrol engine starts and supplements the battery power. Battery power alone
can accelerate the car to around 42 kilometers per hour. Additionally, a separate starter motor is no
longer required to start the petrol engine because the hybrid car uses the electric motor to start the
engine when the vehicle is moving.
The initial cost of a hybrid car is normally higher than that of a conventional petrol engine car,
however the emission levels and fuel consumption are lower than petrol engine vehicles. Due to the
high efficiency and low emissions, some governments and local authorities encourage the use of
hybrid cars with special tax reductions and waiving of levies and tolls.
Advantages
1. Low exhaust emission levels
2. Operating range of the hybrid vehicle is comparable with that of conventional vehicles
Disadvantages
1. Bulky and heavy
2. Require very complicated control systems
3. Cost is very high

FUEL CELL
A fuel cell is an electrochemical energy conversion device. A fuel cell converts the chemicals
hydrogen and oxygen into water and in the process it produces electricity (DC voltage) with water
 Alternate Fuels. 351
and heat as its by-product. In principle, a fuel cell operates like a battery. Unlike battery, a fuel cell
does not run down or require recharging. It will produce electricity as long as fuel is supplied.
There are different types of fuel cells, each using a different chemistry. Fuel cells are usually
classified by the type of electrolyte they use.
Alkaline fuel cell
Phosphoric fuel cell
Solid oxide fuel cell
Molten carbonate fuel cell
Construction
A fuel cell consists of two electrodes sandwiched around an electrolyte. Oxygen passes over
one electrode and hydrogen over the other.
The pressurized hydrogen gas (H) entering the fuel cell on the anode side, which is negative
post of the fuel cell. It conducts the electrons that are free from the hydrogen molecules so that
they can be used in an external circuit. It has channels etched into it that disperse the hydrogen gas
equally over the surface of the catalyst.
'\\ I /

'Q~ ~
e- from air

e-
Electric circuit
e- O2
/'
O2
H+ H+ O2
H+ ~+
Polymer H+
Electrolyte
thode Catalyst
Membrane

H20
Exhaust

Oxygen (or air) enters through the cathode, which is the positive post of fuel cell. The cathode
also has channels etched into it that distribute the oxygen to the surface of the catalyst. It also con-
ducts the electrons back from the external circuit to the catalyst where they can combine with the
hydrogen ions and oxygen to form water.
The electrolyte is the proton exchange membrane. This specially treated material only conducts
positively charged ions. The membrane blocks electrons.
The catalyst is a special material that facilitates the reaction of oxygen and hydrogen. It is usu-
ally made of platinum powder very thinly coated onto carbon paper or cloth. The catalyst is rough
and porous so that the maximum surface area of the platinum can be exposed to the hydrogen or
oxygen. The platinum-coated side of the catalyst faces the Polymer Electrolyte Membrane [PEM].
Working principle
When a hydrogen molecule comes in contact with the platinum on the catalyst, it splits into two
H+ ions and two electrons (e), The electrons are conducted through the anode, where they make
their way through the external circuit (doing useful work such as turning a motor) and return to the
cathode side of the fuel cell.
352 Automobile Engineering

Anode side 2H2 ~ 4H+ + 4e-

Cathode side 02 + 4H+ + 4e- ~ 2Hp
Net reaction 2H2 + 02 ~ 2Hp
Meanwhile, on the cathode side of the fuel cell, oxygen gas (0) is being forced through the
catalyst, where it forms two oxygen atoms. Each of these atoms has a strong negative charge. This
negative charge attracts the two H+ ions through the membrane, where they combine with an oxygen
atom and two of the electrons from the external circuit to form water.
This reaction in a single fuel cell produces only about 0.7 Volts. To get this voltage up to a
reasonable level, many separate fuel cells must be combined to form a fuel-cell stack.
Advantages
1. There are no emissions from the vehicle
2. The noise levels are very low
3. The vehicle is vibration free
4. Operating range is comparable to conventional vehicles
5. Highly efficient
Disadvantages
1. Storage and handling with some primary fuels such as hydrogen and natural gas is difficult
2. It is difficult to match the electrical output to fluctuating vehicle demand
3. Complicated controls are needed
Applications
Fuel cells are powering:
Buses, trains, planes, scooters, even bicycles
Vacuum cleaners, cellular phones, laptop computers
Hospitals, banks, schools, police stations, credit card centers, etc.

Review Questions
1. What is the need for alternate fuels?
2. List out the merits of alcohol as fuel?
3. List out the demerits of alcohol as fuel?
4. Compare the properties of alcohols and gasoline as engine fuels.
5. Discuss the suitability ofvegetabJe oils as fuel for diesel engines.
6. What is biodieseJ? Why it is used?
7. Compare CNG and LPG with Diesel as fuel.
8. List out the merits of LPG as fuel?
9. List out the demerits ofCNG (or LNG) as fuel?
10. Discuss the basic idea of an electric vehicles? What are its components?
11. What parameters of a battery are important for automotive applications?
12. What is meant by hybrid car?
13. Indicate the different types of hybrid vehicles.
14. List out the merits of hydrogen as fuel?
15. List out the demerits of hydrogen as fuel?
16. What is gasohol?
17. What is fuel cell?