2/23/13

Thomas   Edison   favored   direct   current   (DC),   that   is,   steady  

current  that  does  not  vary  with  0me.  

Chapter  31   George   Wes0nghouse   favored   alterna0ng   current   (AC)   with  

sinusoidally  varying  voltages  and  currents.  
Alterna0ng  Current  
He  argued  that  transformers  can  be  used  to  step  the  voltage  up  
and   down   with   AC   and   not   with   DC;   low   voltages   are   safer   for  
consumer   use,   but   high   voltages   and   correspondingly   low  
currents   are   best   for   long-­‐distance   power   transmission   to  
H.D.  Young  and  R.A.  Freedman,  University  Physics  with  Modern   minimize  i2R  losses  in  the  cables.  
Physics  11th  Edi0on,  Pearson  Educa0on  Inc.,  Publishing  as  Pearson  
Addison-­‐Wesley,  1301  Sansome  St.,  San  Francisco,  CA,  2004.  

Goals:  
To   supply   an   alterna0ng   current   to   a   circuit,   a   source   of  
alterna0ng  emf  or  voltage  is  required.  
•  To  introduce  phasors  and  alterna0ng  current  .  

•  To  study  voltage,  current  and  phase  angle.   An   example   is   a   coil   of   wire   rota0ng   with   constant   angular  
velocity  in  a  magne0c  field.  
•  To  introduce  impedance  and  its  applica0on  to  
the  L-­‐R-­‐C  series  circuit.  
We   use   the   term   AC   source   for   any   device   that   supplies   a  
•  To  consider  power  in  AC  circuits.   sinusoidally  varying  voltage  (poten0al  difference)  or  current.    

•  To  consider  resonance  in  AC  circuits.  

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 2/23/13  

A  sinusoidal  voltage  might  be  described  by  a  func0on  such  as:   A  sinusoidal  current  might  be  described  as:  

v = V cosω t i = I cosω t
v − instantaneous potential i − instantaneous current
difference I − maximum current
V − maximum potential − current amplitude
difference ω − angular frequency
− voltage amplitude = 2π f
ω − angular frequency
= 2π f To  represent  sinusoidally  
varying  voltages  and  
currents,  we  will  use  
rota0ng  vector  diagrams.  

The  instantaneous  value  of  a   Phasor  Diagram   How  do  we  measure  a  sinusoidally  varying  current?  
quan0ty  that  varies  
sinusoidally  with  0me  is   A   diode   (or   rec0fier)   is   a   device   that  
represented  by  the   conducts  be^er  in  one  direc0on  than  in  
projec0on  onto  a  horizontal   the  other.  
of  a  vector  with  a  length  
equal  to  the  amplitude  of   An   ideal   diode   has   zero   resistance   for  
the  quan0ty.   one   direc0on   of   current   and   infinite  
resistance  for  the  other.  
The  vector  rotates  
counterclockwise  with   The   current   through   G   pulsates   but  
constant  angular  speed  ω.   always  has  the  same  direc0on  hence  the  
average  meter  deflec0on  is  not  zero.  
These  rota0ng  vectors  are  
called  phasors  and  diagrams   This   arrangement   of   diodes   is   called   a  
containing  them  are  called   full-­‐wave  rec0fier  circuit.  
phasor  diagrams.  

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 2/23/13  

Voltages  and  currents  in  an  AC  source  are  usually  described  by  its  
The   rec0fied   average   current   root-­‐mean-­‐square  value.  
(Irav)   is   defined   so   that   during  
any  whole  number  of  cycles,  the   Root-­‐mean-­‐square  Current  (Irms):  
total   charge   that   flows   is   the  
same   as   though   the   current   Instantaneous  current:   i = I cosω t
were   constant   with   a   value  
equal  to  Irav.   i 2 = I 2 cos2 ω t
1
Using  a  double-­‐angle  formula:   cos2 A = (1+ cos2A)
Irav  is  not  the  average  of  the  original  sinusoidal  current.   2
!1 $
The  total  charge  that  flows  in  0me  t  corresponds  to  the  area  under  the   i 2 = I 2 # (1+ cos2ω t )& = 1 I 2 + 1 I 2 cos2ω t
curve  of  the  i  versus  t,  this  area  must  equal  the  rectangular  area  with   "2 % 2 2
height    Irav.  Irav  is  less  than  the  maximum  current    I.   Geang  the  average,  no0ng  that:   ( cos2ω t )ave = 0
2 1 2 I (root-­‐mean-­‐square  value  of  a  
I rav = I = 0.637 I i2 = I ⇒ I rms =
sinusoidal  current)  
π 2 2

Voltages  and  currents  in  an  AC  source  are  usually  described  by  its   Ex.1   The   plate   on   the   back   of   a   personal   computer   says   that   it  
root-­‐mean-­‐square  value.   draws  2.7A  from  a  120-­‐V,  60Hz  line.  For  this  computer,  what  
are   (a)   the   average   current,   (b)   the   average   of   the   square   of  
Root-­‐mean-­‐square  Voltage  (Vrms):   the  current,  and  (c)  the  current  amplitude?  

Instantaneous  voltage:   v = V cosω t (a)   The   average   of   any   sinusoidal   alterna0ng   current,   over   any  
whole  number  of  cycles,  is  zero.  
v 2 = V 2 cos2 ω t
(b)  Note:  Irms  =  2.7A   ; (i )
2
=?
1
Using  a  double-­‐angle  formula:   cos2 A = (1+ cos2A) ave
2
2 1 2 I 2 " I %
' = (i )ave
2
!1 $ i2 = I ⇒ I rms = ⇒ ( I rms ) =$
v 2 = V 2 # (1+ cos2ω t )& = 1 V 2 + 1 V 2 cos2ω t 2 2 # 2&
"2 % 2 2 2
= ( 2.7A) = 7.3 A 2
Geang  the  average,  no0ng  that:   ( cos2ω t )ave = 0
(c)   I = ?
1 V (root-­‐mean-­‐square  value  of  a   I = 2 ( I rms ) = 2 ( 2.7A) = 3.8 A
v = V 2 ⇒ Vrms =
2

2 2 sinusoidal  voltage)  

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 2/23/13  

Resistor  in  an  AC-­‐circuit:   Inductor  in  an  AC-­‐circuit:  

i = I cosω t ; I − current  amplitude   i = I cosω t

di d ( I cosω t )
vR = iR = ( I cosω t ) R = VR cosω t vL = L = L = −Iω L sin ω t
dt dt
(amplitude  of  voltage  
VR = IR across  a  resistor,  AC  circuit)  
Using  the  iden0ty:   cos ( A + 90°) = −sin A

vL = Iω L cos (ω t + 90°)

Inductor  in  an  AC-­‐circuit:   Inductor  in  an  AC-­‐circuit:  

i = I cosω t i = I cosω t ; vL = Iω L cos (ω t + 90°)

vL = Iω L cos (ω t + 90°) VL = Iω L ; XL = ω L ; VL = IX L
VL = Iω L (amplitude  of  the  inductor  voltage)   XL   is   a   descrip0on   of   the   self-­‐induced   emf   that  
X L = ω L (induc0ve  reactance)   opposes   any   change   in   the   current   through   the  
inductor.  
VL = IX L (amplitude  of  voltage  across  an   If   an   oscilla0ng   voltage   of   a   given   amplitude   VL   is   applied   across   the   inductor  
inductor,  AC-­‐circuit)   terminals,  the  resul0ng  current  will  have  a  smaller  amplitude  I  for  larger  values  of  XL.  
We  will  usually  describe  the  phase  of  the  voltage  rela0ve  to  the  current,   Since  XL  is  propor0onal  to  frequency,  a  high-­‐frequency  voltage  applied  to  the  inductor  
not  the  reverse.   gives   only   a   small   current,   while   a   lower-­‐frequency   voltage   of   the   same   amplitude  
gives  rise  to  a  larger  current.  
If  the  current  in  the  circuit  is:   i = I cosω t
Inductors   are   used   in   some   circuit   applica0ons,   such   as   power   supplies   and   radio-­‐
The  voltage  of  one  point  with  respect  to  another  is:   v = V cos (ω t + φ ) interference   filters,   to   block   high   frequencies   while   permiang   lower   frequencies   or  
DC  to  pass  through.  
φ − phase   angle;   it   gives   the   phase   of   the   voltage   rela0ve   to   the  
current.  0°  for  pure  resistor  and  90°  for  pure  inductor.     A  circuit  device  that  uses  an  inductor  for  this  purpose  is  called  a  low-­‐pass-­‐filter.  

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 2/23/13  

Ex.1   Suppose   you   want   the   current   amplitude   in   a   pure   inductor   in   a   radio   receiver   Capacitor  in  an  AC-­‐circuit:  
to  be  250μA  when  the  voltage  amplitude  is  3.60V  at  a  frequency  of  1.60MHz   dq
(corresponding   to   the   upper   end   of   the   AM   broadcast   band).   (a)   What   i = I cosω t =
induc0ve  reactance  is  needed?  What  inductance?  (b)  If  the  voltage  amplitude   dt
is  kept  constant,  what  will  be  the  current  amplitude  through  this  inductor  at  
16.0MHz?       Integra0ng,   dq =∫ ∫ I cosωt dt
!1$ I
VL 3.60V q = I # & sin ω t = sin ω t
(a) X L = ? ; XL = = = 14.4 ×10 −4 Ω "ω % ω
  I 250 ×10 −6 A
L =? q I
X 14.4 ×10 −4 Ω 1 Note:   vc = = sin ω t
L = L= = 1.43×10 −3 H XC = C ωC
ω 2π (1.60 ×10 6 Hz ) ωC
(capaci0ve  reactance)   Using  the  iden0ty:   cos ( A − 90°) = sin A
(b) V V VL I
I =? ; I= L = L = VC = IXC vC = cos (ω t − 90°)
  X L ω L ( 2π f ) L ωC
3.60V (amplitude  of  voltage   I
= = 250 ×10 −7 A across  an  inductor,   VC = (amplitude  of  the  capacitor  voltage)  
( )
2π "#16.0 ×10 6 Hz$% (1.43×10 −3 H )
AC-­‐circuit)  
ωC

Capacitor  in  an  AC-­‐circuit:   Capacitor  in  an  AC-­‐circuit:  

I I
i = I cosω t ; vC = cos (ω t − 90°) i = I cosω t ; vC = cos (ω t − 90°)
ωC ωC
I 1 I 1
VC = ; XC = ; VC = IXC VC = ; XC = ; VC = IXC
ωC ωC ωC ωC

XC  of  a  capacitor  is  inversely  propor0onal  both  to  C  and  to  ω;  the  greater  
the  capacitance  and  the  higher  the  frequency,  the  smaller  the  XC.  

Capacitors   tend   to   pass   high-­‐frequency   current   and   to   block   low-­‐

frequency  currents  and  DC,  just  the  opposite  of  inductors.  

A   device   that   preferen0ally   passes   signals   of   high   frequency   is   called   a  

high-­‐pass  filter.  

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 2/23/13  

Ex.1   A   200Ω   resistor   is   connected   in   series   with   a   5.0μF   capacitor.   The   voltage   Circuit  Element   Amplitude  Rela0on   Circuit  Quan0ty   Phase  of  v  
across  the  resistor  is  vR   =  (1.20V)cos(2500rad/s)t.  (a)  Derive  an  expression  for  
the   circuit   current.   (b)   Determine   the   capaci0ve   reactance   of   the   capacitor.       Resistor   VR = IR R In  phase  with  i.  
(c)  Derive  an  expression  for  the  voltage  across  the  capacitor.  
Inductor   VL = IX L XL = ω L Leads  i  by  90°.  
v (1.20V ) cos (2500rad s) t 1
(a) i=? ; i= R = Capacitor   VC = IXC XC = Lags  i  by  90°.  
  R 200Ω ωC
= ( 6.0 ×10 A) cos ( 2500rad s ) t
−3

1 1
(b) XC = ? ; XC = = = 80Ω
  ωC ( 2500rad s) ( 5.0 ×10 −6 F )

" 2500rad π %
(c)   vC = ? ; vC = VC cos (ω t − 90°) = 0.48V cos $ t − rad '
# s 2 &
Vmax " 1.20V %
VC = IXC = XC = $ ' (80Ω) = 0.48V
Rmax # 200Ω &

i = I cosω t (a)  What  is  the  RMS  voltage?  

(b)  What  is  the  instantaneous  current?  
I = 2A
(c)  What   is   the   instantaneous   voltage  
R = 1kΩ across  the  resistor?  
2A 2
(a) Vrms = I rms R = (1kΩ) = kV = 2kV
  2 2

! 5π $ ! 5π $ ! 5π $
(b) i # t = & = I cosω t = ( 2A) cosω # & = ( 2A) cos # &
  " 6ω % " 6ω % " 6 %
" 3%
= ( 2A) $ − ' = − 3 A
# 2 &
Low-­‐frequency   sounds   are   produced   by   ! 5π $ " 5π %
the  woofer  (speaker  w/  large  diameter).   (c)   v # t = & = V cosω t = IR cosω t = ( 2A) (1kΩ) cosω $ '
" 6ω % # 6ω &
High-­‐frequency   sounds   are   produced   by  
the  tweeter  (speaker  w/  small  diameter).   # 3&
= ( 2A) (1kΩ) % − ( = − 3kV
$ 2 '

6  
 2/23/13  

The  L-­‐R-­‐C  Series  Circuit   The  L-­‐R-­‐C  Series  Circuit  

If X L > XC : Source  voltage  phasor  V  is  the  vector  
What   is   the   instantaneous   poten0al   sum  of  the  VR,  VL  and  VC  phasors.  
difference  v  across  a  and  d?   V
VL I By  Pythagorean  theorem:  
Assume  that  the  source  supplies  a  current:   φ VR 2
i = I cosω t VL −VC ωt V = VR2 + (VL −VC )
2 2
Since  in  series,  i  is  equal  all  throughout.   V= ( IR) + ( IX L − IXC )
But  the  instantaneous  voltage  would  be:   VC 2
V = I R 2 + ( X L − XC )
v = vab + vbc + vcd
2
The  phasor  VR  is  in  phase  with   ; R 2 + ( X L − XC ) = Z
Note  that  the  maximum  voltages  across   the  current  phasor.  
each  circuit  element  are:   The   phasor   V L   leads   the   V = IZ
current  by  90°.   (amplitude  of  voltage  across  an  AC  
VR = IR ; VL = IX L ; VC = IXC
The  phasor  VC  lags  the  current  
circuit,   valid   for   any   network   of  
by  90°.   resistors,  inductors  and  capacitors)  

The  L-­‐R-­‐C  Series  Circuit   The  L-­‐R-­‐C  Series  Circuit  

If X L > XC : VL −VC IX L − IXC
tan φ = =
Z = R + ( X L − XC ) 2 2
V VR IR
VL I 1
(Impedance)   -­‐   the   ra0o   of   the   voltage   amplitude   across   φ X − XC
ωL −
VR tan φ = L = ωC
the   circuit   to   the   current   amplitude   in   VL −VC ωt R R
the  circuit.  
" 1 %
" 1 % (Impedance   of   an   LRC   circuit,   only  
2
VC $ωL − '
2 φ = tan $ ω C'
−1
Z = R + $ω L − '
# ωC & valid  for  LRC  series  circuit)   $ R '
# &
What   is   the   angle   by   which   the   (phase  angle  of  an  LRC  series  
Similar  to    V
         =
       IR
           of  DC  circuits.   source  voltage  leads  the  current?   circuit)  
Just  as  direct  current  tends  to  follow  the  path  of  least  resistance,   So  if  the  instantaneous  current  is:   i = I cos ω t
alterna0ng  current  tends  to  follow  the  path  of  lowest  impedance.  
The  instantaneous  voltage  is:   v = V cos (ω t + φ ) = IZ cos (ω t + φ )

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 2/23/13  

The  L-­‐R-­‐C  Series  Circuit  

All  the  expressions  that  we  developed  for  an  LRC  
If X L > XC : If X L < XC : series  circuit  is  valid  even  if:  
V I
I VR L=0
VL
φ VR VL φ V R=0
VL −VC ωt ωt C =∞
VL −VC
VC VC Note  that  quan00es  are  described  in  terms  of  the  
root  mean  square.  
X L − XC > 0 X L − XC < 0
V IZ
tan φ > 0 tan φ < 0 =
φ − posi0ve   angle   from   φ − nega0ve   angle   from   2 2
0°  to  90°.   0°  to  -­‐90°.   Vrms = I rms Z
The   source   voltage   phasor   The   source   voltage   phasor   lags  
leads  the  current  source.   the  current  source.  

For  a  pure  resistor:  

Power  in  AC  Circuits     The  power  curve  is  symmetrical  

about   a   value   equal   to   ½   its  
maximum  value  VI.  
The  instantaneous  power  delivered  for  an  AC   p = iv
circuit  is  given  by:  
P = IV
1 I V
Pave = VI =
p = vi ; i = I cosω t 2 2 2
Pave = I rmsVrms = I rms ( I rms R)
2

Pave = ( I rms )
2 (V )
R = rms
2

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 2/23/13  

For  a  pure  inductor:   For  a  pure  capacitor:  

VL  leads  current  I  by  90°.   VC  lags  current  I  by  90°.  

T h e   p o w e r   c u r v e   i s   T h e   p o w e r   c u r v e   i s  
symmetrical   about   the   symmetrical   about   the  
horizontal  axis,  it  is  posi0ve   horizontal  axis,  it  is  posi0ve  
half   the   0me   and   nega0ve   half   the   0me   and   nega0ve  
half  the  0me.   half  the  0me.  

Pave = 0 Pave = 0

General  form:   General  form:  

p = iv = [ I cosω t ]!"V cos (ω t + φ )#$ 1 I V

Pave = IV cos φ = cos φ = I rmsVrms cos φ
= [ I cosω t ] V [ cosω t cos φ − sin ω t sin φ ] 2 2 2
= IV "#cos2 ω t cos φ − cosω t sin ω t sin φ $% (average  power  into  a  general  AC  circuit)  

1 ⇒ cos φ − power factor

; sin ω t cosω t = sin 2ω t
2
" % φ power  factor   Pave
1
p = IV $cos2 ω t cos φ − sin 2ω t sin φ ' Pure  resistor  
# 2 & 0 1 I rmsVrms
2
; averageof cos ω t =
1 Pure  inductor   +90° 0 0
2
averageof sin 2ω t = 0 Pure  capacitor   −90° 0 0
___ R R
1 LRC  in  series   I rmsVrms
Pave = IV cos φ Z Z
2

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 2/23/13  

Resonance  in  AC  circuits  

Much  of  the  prac0cal  importance  of  LRC  series  circuits  arises  from  the   Recall:  
way   in   which   such   circuits   respond   to   sources   of   different   angular  
frequency  ω.   In  a  DC  circuit:   In  an  AC  circuit:  
One   type   of   tuning   circuit   used   in   radio   receivers   is   simply   an   LRC  
series  circuit.    
I
A  radio  signal  of  any  given  frequency  produces  a  current  of  the  same  
frequency   in   the   receiver   circuit,   but   the   amplitude   of   the   current   is  
greatest   if   the   signal   frequency   equals   the   par0cular   frequency   to  
which  the  receiver  circuit  is  tuned.  
V = IR
This  effect  is  called  resonance.   V = IZ
V
I= ; V − constant V
The   circuit   is   designed   so   that   signals   at   other   than   the   tuned   R I=
frequency   produce   currents   that   are   too   small   to   make   an   audible   Z
I  is  highest  if  R  is  minimum.  
sound  come  out  of  the  radio’s  speakers.   I  is  highest  if  Z  is  minimum.  

Resonance  in  AC  circuits  

So  at  resonance  for  LRC  circuits,  
Note:  The  maximum  value  of  I  in  an  AC  circuit  occurs  at  the  frequency   2
at  which  the  impedance  Z  is  minimum.   Z = R 2 + ( X L − XC ) ;          Z  is  minimum  if   X L = XC

Resonance     Z=R
–  the  peaking  of  the  current  amplitude  at  a  certain  frequency.   1
ω0 = (resonance  angular  frequency  for  an  LRC  in  series)  
LC
Resonance  angular  frequency  (ω0)    
–  the  angular  frequency  at  which  the  resonance  peak  occurs.   The  current  at  any  instant  is  the  same  in  L  and  C.  VL  leads  I  by  90°.  VC  
lags  I  by  90°.  vL  and  vC  differ  in  phase  by  180°,  they  have  opposite  signs  
2 at  each  instant.  
Z = R 2 + ( X L − XC ) ;          Z  is  minimum  if   X L = XC
1 At  resonance  since  VL  =  VC,  the  instantaneous  voltage  across  L  and  C  add  
ω0 L = to  zero  at  each  instant  and  the  total  voltage  across  the  LC  combina0on  is  
ω 0C
zero.  The  circuit  behaves  as  if  the  L  and  C  weren’t  there  at  all.  
1
ω 02 =
LC The  voltage  across  the  resistor  is  then  equal  to  the  source  voltage.  

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 2/23/13  

Consider   an   LRC   circuit   with   L   =   40H,   R   =   2Ω,   C   =   1mF   and   resonance  

angular  frequency  ω0    =  5rad/s  connected  in  series  across  an  AC  source  
The  shape  of  the  response  curve   with  8V  peak  voltage.  (a)  What  is  the  peak  current  that  the  circuit  can  
is   important   in   the   design   of   have?  (b)  What  is  the  total  average  power  dissipated  in  the  circuit?  
radio   and   television   receiving  
circuits.  
(a)   V = IZ ; I = V = V = 8V = 4A
The   sharply   peaked   curve   is   Z R 2Ω
what   makes   it   possible   to  
2
discriminate   between   two   2 " 1 %
s t a 0 o n s   b r o a d c a s 0 n g   o n   Z = R 2 + ( X L − XC ) = R 2 + $ω L − '
# ωC &
adjacent  frequency  bands.  
2
Graph   of   current   amplitude   I   as   a   But   if   the   peak   is   too   sharp,   " %
$" % '
func0on   of   angular   frequency   for   an   some   of   the   informa0on   in   the   2
= ( 2Ω) + $$ 5
rad 1 '
' ( 40H ) −
LRC   series   circuit   with   V=100V,   received   signal   is   lost,   such   as   $# s & " rad % '
$ $5 ' (1mF ) '
L=2.0H,   C=0.50μF   and   R=200Ω,   the   high-­‐frequency   sounds   in   # # s & &
500Ω,  2000Ω.   music.  
= 4Ω2 + ( 200Ω2 − 200Ω2 ) = 2Ω

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