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European Journal of Sport Science

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What is the optimal composition of an athlete's diet?

a b
Elizabeth M. Broad & Gregory R. Cox
a
Tallebudgera, Queensland, ACT, Australia
b
Department of Sports Nutrition, Australian Institute of Sport, Bruce, ACT, Australia

Available online: 25 Mar 2008

To cite this article: Elizabeth M. Broad & Gregory R. Cox (2008): What is the optimal composition of an athlete's diet?,
European Journal of Sport Science, 8:2, 57-65

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 European Journal of Sport Science, March 2008; 8(2): 57
65

REVIEW ARTICLE

What is the optimal composition of an athletes diet?

ELIZABETH M. BROAD1 & GREGORY R. COX2

1
Tallebudgera, Queensland, and 2Department of Sports Nutrition, Australian Institute of Sport, Bruce, ACT, Australia

Abstract
Designing the most suitable diet for an athlete requires an intimate knowledge of the relevant scientific literature, the
training and competition demands of the sport, the individual athletes preferences and social situation. The scientific
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literature contains an abundance of information on nutritional demands of athletes undertaking endurance or strength
training programmes, but much less information is available on sprint/power sports, team, racquet, weight-making, aesthetic
(diving, gymnastics), and skill-based events. Furthermore, most research has been undertaken on adult males, with the
assumption that females and adolescent athletes follow the same patterns of fuel usage and requirements. Consequently,
assessing the optimal composition of an athletes diet relies at best on an informed interpretation of the scientific data, plus
individually collected observations. The aims of this article are to provide an overview of the current evidence on
macronutrient requirements for day-to-day training for a range of different athletes, provide some recommendations
regarding formulating an athletes diet, and highlight areas where more research is required.

Keywords: Carbohydrate, fat, protein

Introduction at the same time, either gaining lean body mass or

losing body fat or mass. Athletes and coaches often
Designing the most suitable diet for an athlete
lack the ability to discriminate between the scientific
requires an intimate knowledge of the relevant
evidence regarding exercise training demands from
scientific literature, the nature of the training and
information directed towards the general, non-
competition demands of the athlete, and the athlete
exercising, population. The skill of a sports nutrition
him or herself. Over the past 20 years, we have
specialist lies in his or her ability to interpret the
developed a greater understanding of the macronu-
scientific evidence and design the most appropriate
trient demands of exercise of various intensities and diet for athletes to achieve all of their requirements
durations. We have also developed a greater under- simultaneously, and to alter their diet over time
standing of the biochemical and physiological factors according to changes in those goals/requirements.
that occur with exercise training, and with varying The aim of this article is to provide an overview on
conditions (heat, cool, pre-exercise diet), which the current scientific evidence on macronutrient
subsequently alter the macronutrient demands for requirements for various types of exercise with
a given exercise task. However, our understanding of the focus on day-to-day training requirements of
the issues central to the specialized discipline of athletes, and to consider how these requirements
sports nutrition is far from complete. This has at may vary under different exercise conditions. The
times created confusion about the most appropriate intention is not to provide an exhaustive review of
advice for athletes to maximize their exercise capa- the literature, as this has been undertaken elsewhere
city while concurrently promoting the greatest phy- (e.g. IOC Consensus Conference on Sports Nutri-
siological adaptations to training and protecting their tion, 2003), but to provide a practical interpretation
immune function and health. To complicate things, of this body of literature and, when appropriate,
many athletes need to alter their body composition highlight deficiencies in the current literature.

Correspondence: E. M. Broad, 44 Tallebudgera Creek Road, Tallebudgera, QLD 4228, Australia. E-mail: lizbroad@appt.net.au

ISSN 1746-1391 print/ISSN 1536-7290 online # 2008 European College of Sport Science
DOI: 10.1080/17461390801919177
 58 E. M. Broad & G. R. Cox

Daily energy requirements (sedentary activity) of 1.4 to account for most daily
activities (Manore & Thompson, 2006) plus adding
The fundamental difference in dietary intake be-
in a value for exercise energy expenditure. This is
tween an athlete and non-athlete is that athletes
estimated once a training diary has been collected
must consume adequate energy to meet the demands
and training session type, intensity, and duration
of intense training and competition (Tarnopolsky &
have been averaged and multiplied by a body mass
Gibala, 2005). Determining daily energy require-
and sport and exercise-specific expenditure figure
ments for an athlete to match the demands of
(McArdle, Katch, & Katch, 1991, p. 804). Finally,
training, while simultaneously maintaining/achieving
after weight change goals are factored into this value,
body weight and body composition targets, is a
an approximate energy intake target can be deter-
primary consideration for sports nutrition profes-
mined. Refinement of this energy intake target will
sionals when consulting an athlete.
occur following assessment of the athletes progress
towards his or her goals following implementation of
How to establish daily energy needs? a meal plan.
The basic premise behind suggesting a fuelling mix
for an athlete is underpinned by our understanding Daily patterns of energy intake of athletes
of what amount of energy intake is required to keep
Decisions how to distribute an athletes food intake
pace with their daily energy expenditure. Energy
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throughout the day will be influenced by: total energy

expenditure is difficult to measure in free living
requirements; the number of training sessions
athletes outside of a laboratory, particularly as
scheduled throughout the day; how practical/neces-
many athletes will be attempting to lose or gain
sary it is to consume energy before or during training;
weight at the same time as training to achieve the physiological and performance objectives of an
maximum adaptations to their event. Therefore, it
exercise session; appetite; and post-training nutri-
is important to have a mechanism of estimating an
tion requirements. For instance, understanding the
athletes expected energy expenditure per se, and
types of movement involved within a session,
then be able to take into consideration the addi-
the intensity of exercise to be undertaken, and the
tional goals of body composition changes, before
athletes experience/risk of gastrointestinal distress
advising the athlete on what to eat for maximum
during exercise will influence the timing, type, and
training benefit.
volume of food consumed before, during, and after
The components of energy expenditure are essen- exercise.
tially grouped in three categories:
In general, studies indicate that athletes tend to
. basal metabolic rate, which is largely related to a eat several times a day, most commonly on 5
9
persons active tissue mass, and accounts for occasions (Burke et al., 2003; Lindeman, 1990).
60
80% of daily energy expenditure; Burke et al. (2003) found a positive relationship
. thermic effect of feeding, which is essentially between energy intake (kJ kg 1) and the number of
the metabolic cost of the body dealing with the eating occasions each day for male and female
consumption of food; and athletes. This pattern of grazing can be useful in
. the energy expended in normal daily and assisting athletes to meet the additional energy
exercise activities. requirements associated with daily training. Studies
typically report that foods and fluids consumed as
This latter component is highly variable between snacks outside of main meals contribute significantly
people and between days, and includes all activity to overall daily energy intake (23
35%) (Burke
from home-life, to work and exercise, as well as et al., 2003; Butterworth, Nieman, Underwood, &
adjustments for climactic changes (heat, cold). Linsted, 1994; Saris, van Erp-Baart, Brouns,
Although some variables can be accurately mea- Westerterp, & ten Hoor, 1989).
sured in laboratory conditions, or using isotope It would appear that athletes need to be organized,
techniques, the practitioner is essentially limited to well supported, and educated about the benefits of
using prediction equations and some educated nutrition, as the time available for eating (Nogueria
refinement to come up with a figure for energy & Da Costa, 2004) and the suppression of appetite
expenditure. The Harris-Benedict equation is one after exhaustive exercise (King, Burley, & Blundell,
such predictor of resting metabolic rate, although it 1994) may limit the athletes ability or desire to
is recognized to under-predict true values in an consume adequate energy to meet daily fuel require-
active population (Frankfield, Roth-Yousey, & Com- ments. Furthermore, Blundell and King (1999)
pher, 2005; Manore & Thompson, 2006). From this suggest that there is no strong biological imperative
figure, estimated energy intake requirements are to match energy intake to activity-induced energy
derived by multiplying first by a daily activity factor expenditure. Complicating things further, many
 Optimal composition of an athletes diet 59

athletes are faced with the added challenge of during weeks of lighter training, or implement pre-,
organizing their food and fluid intake around during or post-exercise nutrition strategies on a daily
training, work, sponsor commitments, study, and basis for fear of gaining weight and/or body fat.
family responsibilities (Lindeman, 1990). Female athletes, involved in weight category sports
Although daily exercise/activity patterns vary for or body mass important sports, and athletes
athletes in response to daily training loads, a competing in aesthetic sports are particularly prone
common practice among sports nutrition profes- to reporting inadequate dietary energy intakes
sionals is to develop a food and fluid intake plan (Loucks, 2004). Through specific education regar-
based on an average daily energy expenditure for an ding the manipulation of pre-, during and post-
athlete, rather than design specific strategies for each exercise fuel, and recovery day/week eating, the
daily variation in training load. Although athletes
practitioner can help an athlete adjust the variations
may fail to meet estimated energy requirements on
in day-to-day energy expenditure more effectively to
heavy training days when using this model, light
maximize training adaptations while minimizing the
training days or rest days offer athletes a time to
accumulation of substantial energy deficits. This can
catch up on energy they have been unable to
be undertaken while maintaining a relatively con-
consume on high exercise/activity days.
An alternative approach is to develop a daily meal sistent base to the overall dietary prescription (e.g.
plan that can be easily manipulated by the athlete to main meals), reducing the requirement of detailed
weekly or monthly meal plans.
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compensate for daily changes in training load.

Additional energy (namely in the form of carbohy- Finally, athletes are faced with the added chal-
drate) can be included before, during or after lenge of eating socially among family members,
training to support daily exercise performance and friends, team-mates, and work colleagues (for non-
recovery between exercise sessions. Saris and collea- professional athletes). As clinical as sports nutrition
gues (1989) found that male cyclists contesting the guidelines may appear, athletes do not eat solely to
Tour de France modified their daily carbohydrate support exercise performance and promote recovery
and energy intakes to reflect daily energy expendi- between exercise sessions. Athletes must strike a
ture when supported by a professional team. Despite balance to ensure they optimize their intake to
a mean predicted energy expenditure of 25.4 MJ support training and competition performances,
daily, athletes consumed sufficient energy to main- while maintaining a flexible approach and attitude
tain body weight and body composition over the 22- towards food to engage in social activities away from
day event. Cyclists in this study consumed 94 g of sport.
carbohydrate each hour while racing, which ac-
counted for almost half (49%) of their total daily
energy intake. By comparison, Burke et al. (2003)
Guidelines for carbohydrate intake for athletes
found that male team and endurance athletes
reported consuming only 3
5% of their total Over many years, it has been repeatedly observed
energy intake during training. It is likely that the that carbohydrate, from blood glucose and muscle
striking disparity between these two studies reflects glycogen stores, is an important fuel for exercising
the organized support offered to elite cyclists by their muscle, particularly at higher exercise intensities
professional team and the emphasis on maintaining (Coyle, 1995; OBrien, Viguie, Mazzeo, & Brooks,
best performance from one day to the next 1993). A useful summary of such effects, both in
throughout the course of the event. relation to intensity of exercise and prolonged (2 h)
Failure to compensate for a large energy deficit exercise, is presented by Romijn et al. (1993). As
within a few days of when it was incurred may result the intensity of exercise increases, both energy
in excessive fatigue and reduced training potential,
expenditure and the contribution of carbohydrate
as can a cumulative energy deficit over time (e.g.
to work production increase. In contrast, over
over 2
3 weeks of heavy training). On the other
prolonged exercise, the contribution of carbohy-
hand, short-term energy (or specifically carbohy-
drate tends to fall, perhaps in relation to decreasing
drate) deficits may enhance training adaptations,
and therefore planned compensation either on the fuel stores (Romijn et al., 1993). In essence,
day or on a rest day scheduled soon after may not be carbohydrate is an essential fuel for most athletes;
warranted (see Baar and McGee, 2008, in this however, because our ability to store this commod-
issue). ity is limited (Coyle, 1995), daily consumption is
Psychological and sociological issues surrounding required to maintain adequate levels. It has also
daily food and fluid intake are also important issues been shown that at any given exercise intensity,
to consider when advising athletes. Some athletes exposure to heat increases carbohydrate utilization
may fail to adequately compensate on rest days or in unacclimated individuals (Jeukendrup, 2003).
 60 E. M. Broad & G. R. Cox

Carbohydrate intake guidelines in the everyday training As an alternate example, a 110-kg rugby union
diet prop who trains twice a day in both strength- and
field-based sessions incorporating high-intensity
Experts have recently refined dietary prescription
bouts of exercise would theoretically have carbohy-
regarding daily carbohydrate intakes to encourage
drate requirements of 7
12 g kg 1 day1. If we
athletes to achieve a carbohydrate intake to meet the
consider first the intake represented by the 7 g level
fuel requirements of training and to optimize re-
and multiply by the players large body mass
storation of muscle glycogen stores between training
(110 kg), the result is a theoretical requirement of
sessions (Burke, Kiens, & Ivy, 2004). It is now
770 g of carbohydrate per day. It is unlikely
widely acknowledged that general recommendations
athletes would tolerate this amount given their daily
for daily carbohydrate intake should be expressed as
training schedule. In practice, these athletes typically
grams of carbohydrate per kilogram of the athletes
manage to consume 5
6 g kg 1 day1, which in
body mass, rather than a percentage of total dietary absolute terms for a 110 kg player is 550
660 g of
energy (Burke, Cox, Cummings, & Desbrow, 2001). carbohydrate.
Suggested carbohydrate intake guidelines for ath- Little is mentioned in carbohydrate intake guide-
letes based on daily exercise patterns and expressed lines of the needs of strength or resistance training
relative to an athletes body weight have recently athletes, and only a few studies have assessed carbo-
been developed (see Table I). Interpretation of these hydrate requirements. It has been shown that resis-
guidelines into individual dietary prescription should
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tance exercise relies primarily on anaerobic energy

consider the athletes overall daily energy require- sources
phosphocreatine and glycogen (Essen-
ments, specific training volume and intensity, and Gustavsson & Tesch, 1990; McArdle et al., 1991;
requirements for growth and development (for Robergs et al., 1991)
but also on some intramyocel-
children and adolescent athletes). Without an in- lular lipids (Essen-Gustavsson & Tesch, 1990).
herent knowledge of a sport, these guidelines can be Reductions in muscle glycogen stores over a 30- to
easily misinterpreted. For example, it is common for 45-min resistance training session have been shown to
a gymnast to train for 6
7 h per day, over two be similar in magnitude to a 60-min bout of endurance
training sessions. If you consider the duration of the exercise at 70% maximum oxygen uptake (VO2max) or
training sessions alone, their carbohydrate require- 2
3 h of prolonged, lower-intensity endurance ex-
ments would be 10
12g kg 1 day1. However, ercise (Essen-Gustavsson & Tesch, 1990; Koopman
when the absolute amount of activity is calculated et al., 2006; Robergs et al., 1991). Therefore, likely
within these hours, the estimated amount of energy carbohydrate requirements for athletes undertaking
expended in that time period is quite small and resistance exercise are 6
7 g kg 1 day1.
suggested to be approximately 0.066 kcal min 1
kg 1 (McArdle et al., 1991). The net result of
true exercise energy expenditure in the sessions for Effect of chronic carbohydrate intake on daily training
an average 50-kg gymnast adds only 1200 kcal performance and training studies
(5000 kJ) to their daily energy requirements. How- Despite the focus on carbohydrate in education
ever, if the athlete consumed the amount based on messages to athletes and coaches, few studies have
training time alone (10
12 g carbohydrate kg 1 directly investigated the benefits of consuming a
day1 as suggested above), this would far exceed higher carbohydrate diet on daily training perfor-
the energy expenditure of exercise, and thus the need mance and mood-state throughout a period of
to know your sport. Although we have no defini- endurance training (Achten et al., 2004; Costill
tive assessment of carbohydrate usage during gym- et al., 1988; Kirwan et al., 1988; Lamb, Rinehardt,
nastics training, it is likely that daily requirements Bartels, Sherman, & Snook, 1990; Sherman, Doyle,
are within 5
6 g kg 1 day1. Lamb, & Strauss, 1993; Simonsen et al., 1991; Vogt
et al. 2003). Although some researchers have shown
Table I. Guidelines for carbohydrate intakes in everyday training
a better performance outcome for the high carbohy-
Activity Carbohydrate intake drate trial or training group (Achten et al., 2004;
Kirwan et al., 1988; Simonsen et al., 1991), this
Immediate recovery after 1.0
1.2 g kg 1 h 1
finding has not been universal (Lamb et al., 1990;
exercise (0
4 h)
Daily recovery: moderate-duration/ 5
7 g kg1 day1 Sherman et al., 1993; Vogt et al., 2003).
low-intensity training One possible explanation for this lack of consen-
Daily recovery: moderate to heavy 7
12 g kg 1 day1 sus from chronic training studies investigating var-
endurance training ying carbohydrate intakes is that athletes adapt to
Daily recovery: extreme exercise 10
12 g kg1 day1
lower muscle glycogen stores resulting from lower
programme (4
6 h day1)
carbohydrate intakes, such that it does not impair
Source: Burke et al. (2004). training or competition performance (Sherman &
 Optimal composition of an athletes diet 61

Wimer, 1991). Several methodological differences Carbohydrate intake guidelines for recovery between
between studies, and the difficulties associated in training sessions
detecting small differences in performance that are
The guidelines for carbohydrate intake in the recov-
likely to be important in real-life sport and everyday
ery period, as outlined in Table I, assume that the
training, are further explanations for this disparity in
athlete is training at least once a day, and under-
research findings. The calibre of the athlete, the
duration of the study (5
35 days), and the mode of taking a form of exercise that impacts substantially
exercise (swimming, running, cycling, rowing) have upon muscle glycogen stores. It is well documented
varied across previous studies. The shorter time that muscle glycogen resynthesis is faster in the first
frame employed in many of the chronic training 2 h after exercise compared with a longer delay
studies (5
10 days) may provide insufficient time for (Friedman, Neufer, & Dohm, 1991), and for ath-
differences in training to translate into metabolic letes training again within 12 h this provides the
adaptations or performance changes. Differences in advantage to refuelling muscles in preparation for
the dietary methodology implemented further com- the next training bout. This muscle glycogen re-
plicate interpretation of previous study findings, synthesis is specific to the muscle groups in which
with, for example, the daily amount of carbohydrate glycogen stores have been depleted by the exercise
provided to participants varying between studies in bout. Thus if the subsequent exercise bout involves
the moderate and high carbohydrate treatment different muscle groups (for example, swimming vs.
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groups. This inconsistency has resulted in an overlap running in a triathlete, or upper vs. lower body
between what was considered high and moderate muscles in resistance training), the need for rapid
intakes of carbohydrate in existing studies. muscle glycogen replenishment is less important.
One important methodological issue overlooked Recent research has questioned whether active
when feeding individuals higher carbohydrate diets is muscle glycogen restoration is potentially dampen-
the effect of consuming the additional carbohydrate ing the biochemical adaptations to exercise training
during the scheduled daily exercise sessions. Studies (see Baar & McGee, 2008, in this issue). Training in
have either failed to mention when the additional a glycogen-depleted state increases the rates of
carbohydrate was consumed throughout the day transcription and translation of key mitochondrial
(Costill et al., 1988) or have had participants and fat transport/energetic enzymes (Volek, Krae-
consume the additional carbohydrate outside of mer, Bush, Incledon, & Boetes,1997), giving rise to
scheduled exercise times (Achten et al., 2004; suggestions that training in a higher fat/lower carbo-
Kirwan et al., 1988; Lamb et al., 1990; Sherman hydrate environment may provide benefits in terms
et al., 1993; Simonsen et al., 1991). Exercise of training adaptations. Although studies investigat-
performance trials, which doubled as training ses- ing performance differences when training on a high
sions scheduled throughout the dietary intervention fat diet have generally shown no benefits to exercise
periods, were performed under conditions of low performance compared with training on a high
carbohydrate availability (overnight fast, consuming
carbohydrate diet (and potentially some negative
water only during the exercise) in the high carbohy-
impact: Burke et al., 2004), a more acute glycogen
drate group or treatment in some previous studies
deficit (e.g. for 2
3 training sessions a week) is a
(Achten et al., 2004; Kirwan et al., 1988). Failure to
relatively untested notion. Whether this needs to be
incorporate the additional carbohydrate during daily
deliberately manipulated or is currently already
exercise bouts may mask the full potential of con-
undertaken inevitably by athletes in heavy training
suming the additional amount, given the acknow-
ledged acute benefits of consuming carbohydrate phases is open for debate. Any attempt to mani-
before and during exercise in prolonging continuous pulate muscle glycogen stores to maximize training
exercise capacity and performance. adaptations must account for practical issues, such
Some previous studies have manipulated daily as the need to undertake quality training sessions at
energy intake to ensure body weight maintenance specific times in a training programme (especially
throughout the dietary treatment period. However, in an environment such as a team sport, where
other studies have routinely set daily carbohydrate pressure for selection for the next game can be an
intakes in the moderate and high carbohydrate issue). Furthermore, there is evidence to suggest
groups/treatments independent of daily training that maintaining an adequate carbohydrate intake
volume. For example, despite daily fluctuations in (8.5 vs. 5.4 g kg 1 day1) helps maintain running
training load over the 11-day dietary intervention speed and reduce symptoms of stress during heavy
period, Achten et al. (2004) set daily carbohydrate phases of training (Achten et al., 2004), indicating
intakes of 5 g kg 1 day1 and 8 g kg 1 day1 that the timing of trialling of some training sessions
for the moderate and high carbohydrate treatments, in a glycogen-depleted state needs to be carefully
respectively. selected.
 62 E. M. Broad & G. R. Cox

Summary Dietary fat intake to support daily training

requirements
In summary, including adequate carbohydrate for
training requirements remains a priority when de- Fat is an abundant source of fuel stored in the
signing an optimal diet for an athlete. The choice of human body, and can be utilized by exercising
carbohydrate sources should be such that they muscle, with maximal rates of fat oxidation occur-
combine other nutrient requirements as well
such ring at exercise of 60% VO2max (Romijn et al.,
as those that are useful sources of protein, antiox- 1993). Dietary fat is also a source of essential fatty
idants, and micronutrients. Where carbohydrate acids and fat soluble vitamins (Burke, 1996; McAr-
requirements are high (e.g. 8 g kg 1 day1), dle, Katch, & Katch, 1999). The recommended
the inclusion of more refined carbohydrate sources is levels of dietary fat intake for athletes are around 20

also beneficial so as not to dampen the appetite 25% of total energy intake (Burke, 1996), primarily
excessively, allowing attainment of total energy based on prioritizing carbohydrate and protein
requirements. It is important to take advantage of within total energy requirements. Athletes, however,
are frequently reported to consume more than this
faster muscle glycogen replenishment rates in the
(Burke et al., 2003). Lower dietary fat intakes are
1
2 h after a training session, especially when
correlated with reduced resting serum testosterone
undertaking a phase of very heavy training. How-
concentrations in males (Hamalainen, Adlercreutz,
ever, there may be times during other training phases
Puska, & Pietinen, 1984; Reed, Cheng, Simmonds,
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(e.g. base preparation) when allowing this to lapse is

Richmond, & James, 1987; Volek et al., 1997) and
more appropriate for encouraging optimal training females (Goldin et al., 1994; Ingram, Bennett, Will-
adaptations. cox, & de Klerk, 1987), as well as with serum
oestrogen concentrations in females (Bagga et al.,
1995; Ingram et al., 1987). Yet it is recognized that
Protein requirements to support daily training
athletes may restrict dietary fat, either for cultural
requirements
reasons (Onywera, Kiplamai, Boit, & Pitsiladis,
There has been much debate about the optimal 2004) or in an attempt to maintain low body fat,
protein intake for athletes. The general consensus especially in such sports as endurance running
now appears to be within the range of 1.2
1.7 g (Horvath, Eagan, Leddy, & Pendergast, 2000;
kg 1 day1, regardless of type of exercise (resis- Loucks, 2007) and aesthetic sports (Jonnalagadda,
tance vs. endurance) (Tarnopolsky, 2000; Tipton & Bernadot, & Nelson, 1998). By doing so, they
Wolfe, 2004). Dietary intake surveys of athletes generally also consume a low total energy intake
frequently report that protein requirements are (Loucks, 2007), which as outlined by Loucks (2004)
more than adequately met (Burke et al., 2003; can result in menstrual dysfunction and its asso-
Tarnopolsky, 2006). However, some athletes have ciated disorders in females, growth hormone resis-
become over-zealous with their focus on consuming tance, an exacerbation of lower testosterone
protein, and reduce carbohydrate intake in an concentrations (Loucks, 2004), plus have a negative
influence on immune function (Venkatraman,
attempt to reduce their body fat (personal observa-
Leddy, & Pendergast, 2000). The dietary fat re-
tion). Although there are no convincing arguments
quirements of athletes have received little attention
regarding the danger of excessive protein intakes, it is
in the scientific literature.
known that excess protein cannot be stored and that
Recent investigations have highlighted the poten-
it is simply oxidized (Tipton & Wolfe, 2004). Protein
tial role of intramuscular triglyceride (IMTG) stores
intakes higher than recommended may well be as a source of fuel for exercising muscle. Early
consumed as part of a balanced, high-energy diet, indications are that this fuel depot, both within and
and we currently have no evidence to suggest that between muscle fibres, could contribute up to 50%
this should be discouraged. However, if higher of total fatty acid fuel (Stellingwerff et al., 2007).
protein intakes result in an insufficient carbohydrate Intramuscular triglyceride contributes to exercise
intake, increasing the likelihood of a negative impact fuels in resistance training (Essen-Gustavsson &
on training capability when training loads are high, Tesch, 1990; Koopman et al., 2006) as well as
then this aspect of the athletes diet must be endurance exercise (Stellingwerff et al., 2007; van
addressed. The role of dietary protein in recovery Loon et al., 2003), with female athletes having higher
after exercise and optimizing muscle hypertrophy is stores (Roepstorff, Vistisen, & Kiens, 2005). It is
discussed elsewhere in this issue (Tarnopolsky, 2008; now known that dietary fat intake influences IMTG
Tipton, 2008). concentrations. Coyle and colleagues found that a
 Optimal composition of an athletes diet 63

2% fat diet for 7 days reduced total fat oxidation Only one study has shown a reduced glycogen
during 1 h exercise at 67% VO2max by 27% due to utilization during resistance exercise in women
the reduction in IMTG stores alone compared with a compared with men (Bell & Jacobs, 1989). It would
22% fat diet (Coyle, Jeukendrup, Oseto, Hodgkin- appear that female-specific nutritional recommenda-
son, & Zderic, 2001). In contrast, increasing dietary tions are warranted, although further research is
fat intake from 22% to 60% total energy intake for required.
2 days increased IMTG concentrations by 36%,
which was then responsible for a 72% increase in fat
oxidation during 1 h exercise at 50% VO2peak Conclusions
(Zderic, Davidson, Schenk, Byerley, & Coyle,
2004). It is thus important for exercising individuals, Many variables require assimilation when formulat-
especially females, to ensure dietary fat intake is no ing the optimal diet for an athlete. The diet must be
lower than 20
25% total energy intake in order to specific to the type, intensity, frequency, and dura-
promote higher fat oxidation, and conserve muscle tion of the training undertaken, and be specific to
glycogen, during exercise bouts. Indeed, once car- each individual athletes food preferences and social
bohydrate and protein requirements are adequately situation. Achieving daily carbohydrate and protein
met, there is no reason why the remainder of total requirements to support training and health should
energy intake cannot be derived from fat to ensure always be a high priority, without excessive reduction
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adequate IMTG stores. Some athletes may therefore of dietary fat. An athletes daily food and fluid intake
require active encouragement not to over-restrict will vary across a training season, according to the
dietary fat intake. priorities of optimizing training adaptations (inclu-
ding changes in lean muscle mass or body fat) and
sustaining a high training load. More research is
Differences between the sexes in macronutrient
required in many areas of sports nutrition to assist in
requirements for training
understanding the specific macronutrient require-
The majority of scientific studies on macronutrient ments for individual sports. Further research should
requirements of athletes have been undertaken on also be directed at females to better understand
males, partly due to the complexity of controlling for potential differences that may assist between the
menstrual cycle variations. It can therefore be sexes. And lastly, the interaction of nutrient avai-
assumed that guidelines pertaining to macronutrient lability on daily exercise performance and the
requirements during exercise have been based on favoured metabolic adaptations that occur within
male data, generally without reference to possible muscle in response to daily training warrants further
variations for female athletes. investigation.
The limited research available indicates that
females utilize more fat, and less carbohydrate, as a
fuel at the same relative exercise intensity as males
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