Chapter 4

Eddy Current

4.1 Physics
I Current in a coil, produces magnetic field, i1 along axis.
I i1 creates a. magnetic :8.ux, t/Jp.
I Ii coil is pla.ced near a metallic (conducting but not necessarily fer-
romagnetic) .pecimen, and coil movement iI allowed, t/Jm, lux Inside
metal, changes with time.

I Faraday's law of induction: t/J". creates a aecondary circular current

within .pecimen. This is the Eddll Cun-ent.

I This eddy current creates a. secondary :8.ux, t/J., around coil.

I Net lux in coil = t/J. = ~ - fl., minusllign due to fact that two field.
oppose each other.

I Ii coil is fa.r away from specimen: t/J. = t/Jp, no change.

I Ii .ample is not ferromagnetic: </>. < t/Jp and the net :8.ux drops in value.
I Ii sample is ferromagnetic: t/J. >> t/Jp and net :8.ux increases in value.
I Ii secondary coil is used, the voltage across this coil is:

v. - -N dt/J. (4.1)
- dt
where N. iI the number of coils is the aecondary ,!:on.
73
74 CHAPTER 4. EDDY CURRENT

AC current is used to enable tPP to change with time:

Ip = Nplosinwt (4.2)
where I p is the primary current, N p is the number of coils in the
primary coil, 10 is the magnitude of the AC current and w = 21': f,
where f is the AC frequency (50 Hz to 50 kHz).
The eddy current density, J, in the specimen is governed by the diffu-
sion equation:
V 2 = tTl'-
aJ (4.3)
at
where tT is the metal's conductivity and I' is its magnetic permeability.
In a semi-infinite medium:
J(z) = Joexp[wt - z/dl (4.4)
where z is the distance in the medium measured from the surface Jo
is the current density at the surface and d is the skin depth, i.e. depth
at which J drops to 1/e = 0.368:
d = ..j1':fl'tT (4.5)
d(m) .. ";'7;f~(~Hz-:-)-I'o-:-(H--enry--:-/m~)-I'o-tT-:-(S-iem-ens----'/m-:-) (4.6)

d( ) = 50 p(pohm-cm) (4.7)
mm f(Hz)/-lr

d(inches) = 1980 p<;~-;) (4.8)

where f is the excitation frequency, tT is conductivity, p is resistivity

and /-lr is taken as unity for diamagnetic and paramagnetic materials
anel for ferromagnetic materials an average over the local B-H ~
scanned by the exciting coil is used.
The phase lag of J is given by:
fJ = :d in radian .. 57.3~ in degrees (4.9)
fJ is proportional to the thickness.
Above equation indicates that the eddy current decays exponentially
in medium and its phase shift also cha.nges with dista.nce.
J being dependant of tT and 1', discontinuities directly affect J, a.nd
the corresponding secondary field is generated in coil.
4.2. GENERAL 75

4.2 General
Source: Primary current, producing primary flux.
Modification: change in eddy current density and distribution by discon-
tinuities and inclusions.
Sensors: Same primary coil, secondary coil, or flux detector (Hall transis-
tors can provide very localized sensing or array of sensing elements).
Indication: 4>.. q", - 4>.. impedance (resistance of AC flow) of exciting coil
changes, meter deflection or digital readout, oscilloscope presentation,
strip chart recording, alarm or operational control actuation.
Interpretation: may be difficult.

4.2.1 Affecting Parameters

Frequency of primary current.
Conductivity, tT and change in tT, of inspected part.
Magnetic permeability of inspected part, p. and change in p..
Radius of the excitation (primary) coil.

Radius of sensing coil.

Number oftums in coils.
Proximity of excita.tion coil to part.
Proximity of sensing coil to part.
Part dimensions.
Proximity to edge or physical changes in part.

Above parameters need to be optimized to obta.in best response. Other af-

fecting parameters include: gra.in size, surfa.ce treatment, coating thickness,
hardness, cracks, inclusions, dents, holes, a.nd composition.

4.2.2 Advantages
Rapid, can give informa.tion on ma.ny parameters, can be a.utomated, no
specimen contact, can give permanent record.
76 CHAPTER 4. EDDY CURRENT

4.2.3 Limitations
Manual inspection is very slow, needs an electrically conducting material,
requires complex: electronics, sensitive to many parameters, small depth of
penetration (6 to 12 mm), interpretation may be difficult.

4.3 Coils
4.3.1 Absolute Coils
A single coil is usually used both as an excitor and as a sensor.

The impedance of the coil is directly monitored.

Called absolute since measurement is not compared to anything else.

Simplest arrangement is to measure the impedance change in coil in

an impedance bridge.

A 1a.rge variety of configuratiolUl is availa.ble to accommodate clliferent

applicatiolUl: pancake or tat oil, encircling coil, robbin coil.

4.3.2 Differential coils

Two coillI that oppose each other are used.

Typie&IJ.y the IeIUIing coil it smaller, placed closer to specimen and

oriented clliferently from the primary coil.

A single measurement of the combined two windings is usually moni-

tored.

Produces better IelUlitivity since independent parts of the specimen are

compared, with a signal produced only when the part of the specimen
near one coil is clliferent from that near the other.

Some configurations: encircling coil, centre tipped, end-on or flat coil,

bobbin coil.

Localized pits and small cracks are well-defined by clliferential coils.

Not very IelUlitive to gradual changes in specimen and are suited for
thiclmess measurements.
4.4. SPECIAL EFFECTS 77

4.3.3 Combined Coils

Excitor (primary coil) and sensor (secondary coil) are separated.
Both the primary and the secondary coil may be wound a.s differential
coils.

A variety of a.rrangements are possible.

4.3.4 Frequency
Primary coil frequency a.ffects:
Depth of penetration (decreases with frequency).
Skin effect limits the depth of penetration.
Skin depth is usually used to indicate the "standard depth"
Very high frequency is used to measure the distance between the spec-
imen and the probe.
Multiple simultaneous frequencies are used to min;mi:r.e the effect of
unwanted interference, such &8 effect of support structures, elimination
of effect of holes and pitting in thickness measurements.

4.4 Special Effects

4.4.1 Edge Effect
Distortions of magnetic field at the end or edge of specimen.
Occurs when inspection at less than 3 mm from the edge of a nonmag-
netic materi8l or 150 DIm of the edge of a magnetic material. Overcome
by:
- Using a small coil.
- Enclosing coil in a magnetic shield (e.g. mu metal).

4.4.2 Fill Factor

Gap between a circular and an encircling coil a.ffects field:
Fill Fac _ Diameter of Specimen
tor - Inside Diameter of Coil (4.10)
Fill factor should approach one for best sensitivity.
78 CHAPTER 4. EDDY CURRENT

4.4.3 Lift Off

Gap between probe and surface of specimen affect sensitivity.

Field of coil is strongest close to the coil.

Attempt to maintain a constant and minimum gap (spring loading is

often used).

This "lift-oft'" effect is used to measure the thickness of a nonconductive

coating on a conductive material, or a nonmagnetic metal plating on
a magnetic substrate.

4.5 Analysis and Indication

4.5.1 Inductance
A coil has a.n inductance L and resistance R:

R= ~ (4.11)
N <KWeber) N2 A
L(Henry) = [(amp) = Constant oc -(,- (4.12)

where, ill the remtivity (ohm-m), N ill the number of t1llJl8 in coil, t/> is
magnetic iux, [ is cummt in coil, A ill the planar lUl'faee area of coil, (, is
the 1eDgth of coil and the Constant depend on the geometry of the coil.

XL =2r/=wL (4.13)

XL iI c:aIled the reactance and has units of ohm.

4.5.2 Impedance
Resistance to AC current, with i = A:
Z=R+iXL (4.14)
IZI = JR2+Xl (4.15)
XL
Phase Angle = R (4.16)

Impedance Diagram: graphics display of R, XL and Z.

4.5. ANALYSIS AND INDICATION 79

R and XL can be measured by the inspection coil circle and fed to

the x-plates and y-plates of an oscilloscope to display points on the
impedance diagram.

In air (absence of specimen), Zo, is represented by a point on the

oscilloscope's display.

In the presence of a conducting material, the eddy current changes the

impedance from Zo to say Zl.

Indication: line connecting Zl to Zo, with length indicating magnitude

of change and orientation indicating phase angle of change.

Change in magnetic flux, 4>, affects L, XL and consequently Z, IZI and

Phase shift.

Phase change may be caused by changes in conductivity, permeability

or dimensions of specimen.

If conductivity changes produces a phase lag, then permeability and

dimension changes will produce a phase lead.

ElectroniCll can make phase change due to one variable be at a certain

angle, say 90 degrees from the other.

4.5.3 Voltage and Current

A current, I f1owint; through a coil produces voltages:

VR = RI (4.17)
VL = XLI (4.18)
VT = VR + jXL (4.19)
VT = 10 [sin(Wt+ 0) + jwLIin(wt + i)] (4.20)

Phasor Diagram: gaphic display of voltage phasors (VR, VL and VT).

Measurement of VR and VT or VL facilitate therefore the measurement
of R, ZR and IZI and phase angle.
80 CHAPTER 4. EDDY CURRENT

4.5.4 Testing Methods

Impedance Method
Amplitude of impedance is measured with no information on phase
change.

Balanced Bridge method is set up so that no signal through meter is

produced when coil is placed against a specimen (or part of specimen)
in good condition.

Disloca.tions, bridge unbalanced results in a voltage difference across

meter.

Phasor Testing
Zo is air is measured and point __ on oscilloscope.
Zt is measured and corresponding point is noted.
Change from Zo to Zt is calibrated using specimen of know behaviour,
to know effect of a surface crack, surface scratch, sub-surface discon-
tinuity, etc.

Differential Testing
Two inspection coils are linked e1ectricaJ1y in opposition, resulting in
a ligna! only when one of the coils crosses a discontinuity.

Reference point on oscil1oIcope will then correspond to Zo.

AA one coil approaches a discontinuity, point will move in one direction,
as the second probe come closer to discontinuity point will change
direction.

When two probes are exactly at lame distance (but at opposite direc-
tion) from the discontinuity, the point on the oscilloscope returns to
the reference point at Zo, due to the ca.nce1l.ation effect.

AA probes traverses the dislocation in the other direction, another loop

is creates on the display, with the impedan.ce point return to the Zo
location when the two probes are far away from the dislocation.

The above movement creates a loop (figure of eight) know as Lissajous

figure.
4.6. REMOTE-FIELD TESTING 81

Other variations of this technique axe ava.ila.ble.

Elliptical Testing
A pha.se shifter is used to create an ellipse, corresponding to a reference
point.

Pha.se change in coil alters shape of ellipse, via a processing unit.

Changes in dimension results in changes in tilt angle.

Changes in conductivity create change in opening of ellipse.

Other oscilloscope references a.re also used.

4.6 Remote-Field Testing

In above applica.tions, both source and sensor were in the same prox-
imity, this is called close-field inspection.

When excitor and sepa.ra.tor axe fa.r way from each other.

Eddy current then reaches sensor by difusion with medium.

Technique used is limited to a tubula.r products.

4.6.1 Schmidt Experiment

Low-frequency (30 - 120 Hz) excitor coil p1a.ced inside tube.

Sensing coil is p1a.ced inside or outside tube.

As sensing coil moves aWlLY from excitor, the sensor moves from the
direct coupling zone (DCZ), to the remote field zone (RFZ), with the
separation at about 1.9 pipe diameters from excitor col.

In DCZ, inner-sensor amplitude, voltage, drops off rapidly, until it

reaches RFZ and the degree of drop weakens.

Outer-sensor amplitude is about 10 times higher than that of inner

sensor and is less affected by transition to from DCZ to RFZ.

Phase difference between excitor and inner-sensor shows a la.rge jump

when pa.ssing through the transition zone.
82 CHAPTER 4. EDDY CURRENT

Isolation by conducting material between excitor and sensor coils does

not produce a significant change in above behaviour, must be a tube-
wall effect.
Current in excitor produces a circumferential eddy current in tube,
pipe wall being in effect a shorted single turn.

Eddy current diffuses through wall and eventually re-diffuses back.

At the transition zone, the dip is caused by the interaction of the two
signals that ha.ve a.bout the same amplitude but different phases.

Phase lag is found to be linearly proportional to wall thickness (36

degrees per mm or 0.92 degrees per 0.001 inch of wall ).

4.7 Work Problems

1. The skin depth is expressed in these notes in three different systems
of units. Using each of then, calcu1a.te the standa.rd depth for a. non-
ferromagnetic sta.iDless steel of resistivity 72 J.IOhm-cm lot 150 kHz and
calculate the phase lag lot 2 m depth.
2. Consider stainless steel tubing of wall thickness of 4 mm; resistivity of
1.5 x lOS Siemens/m, p = 1.3 x 10-41 Henry/m.
3. Design a. differential pickup probe system for finding:
(a.) Thinning in ferroma.gnetic tubes.
(b) Localized wall10ss over a. 500 mm2 a.rea..
4. Explain briefly how eddy current is used for:
(a.) Examination of steam genera.tor tubes in the presence of support
plates.
(b) Measurement of electrical conductivity.
(c) Metal sorting (according to material type).
(d) Thickness of coatings. How do you differentiate between a coating
and a. discontinuity?
(e) Surface conditions (corrosion, hea.t damping and ha.rdness).
 4.7. WORK PROBLEMS
83
MAGNETIC FIELD
/-- .. , , ' - ........
ALTERNATING CURRENT / /;;:-" .. : ;-... , '\
...--------{ I," ,
I" \\\
,f! \\\
III 1'1
I \ I --- - - - -- II I

L-.
\
~\ \
\

\ '
,,~
\
::::':::...-_

.... .. ".... .,/

"I :I I

/ I /
/
I

" _." , __ / I
,,-" --- /

,/" MAGNETIC FIELD OF EDDY CURRENTS

...... \1111 11 '
\'1 11 ,
\\1'1 1, .
\ \I I
l
~~~.
.EDDY CURRENTS
,
IN METAL SURFACE UNDER THE COIL
./ ./

.,.gure 4.1: Udy Current

4.8 Graphs
 84 CHAPTER 4. EDDY CURRENT

PANCAKE OR FLAT COIL

ENCIRCLING COIL

,.. ,.

BOBBIN COIL

: ~fJJfj
Figure 4.2: Single Coils
4.7. WORK PROBLEMS 85

PRIMARY SECONDARY

,....
'
'liDffii~1
I~'

SECONDARY PRIMARY

PRIMARY EXCITING (PRIMARY)

~..-SECONDARY

SENSING COIL (SECONDARY)

Figure 4.3: Dual Coils

 86
CHAPTER 4. EDDY CURRENT

~ .I~-I)

ENCIRCLING COIL CENTER TIPPED

DIFFERENTIAL
ENCIRLING COIL

I ..
I
I F=~ ?
,-P
........
, ~
I

END-DN OR FLAT COIL BOBBIN COIL

Figure 4.4: Dilferntial Coils

4.7. WORK PROBLEMS 87

EXCITING COIL
(PRIMARY COIL)
SENSING OR
SECONDARY COIL

EXCITING COIL
. SENSING COIL
(DIFFERENTIALLY
WOUND)

SPECIMEN

I
EXCITING COILS

I I
I :
I

, SENSING COILS
\ I

REFERENCE
OR Figure 4.5: Multiple Coils
STANDARD
 88 CHAPTER 4. EDDY CURRENT

"i t
VR R

VT -.J
t
OSCILLATOR VL wL

" '"
'"

Figure 4.6: Equivalent Circuit

4.7. WORK PROBLEMS 89

AMPLITUDE

TIME

VL LEADS I BY 900

, ......
/ \
I \
I
I
I
I

\ TIME
\
\
\ I
\ /
'-
Figure 4.7: Current and Voltage Through Inductance
 CHAPTER 4. EDDY CURRENT
90

AMPLITUDE

,1" \
\
,
\

"'"' ,, \

I TIME
J

Figure 4.8: Voltage Components in Inductance

4.7. WORK PROBLEMS 91

.-.. '~ .
,'.'.
"i.

I.

o Ro
RESISTANCE, R~
~~

Figure 4.9: Impedance Diagram

92
CHAPTER 4. EDDY CURRENT

PHASOR DIAGRAM

AJ------v p

VL .--_
(= tool)

O"-----..I..-~B:---..
VR (=IR)

,.. ,.
"

Figure 4.10: Phasor Diagram

 4.7. WORK PROBLEMS
93

Air Surface

Air
-Iron Ingot
Zo
I '
Crack
Sub-surface
ZO~::==::
,"
-
Stainless steel
_ Titanium
Scratch discontinuity
-Magnesium
Metal
-Copper
Z1 no defects

(a) (b)
VCCUll' point siJ1lll on oscilloscope screen. The chanaes in the impedance pll1le can he r=>pized irone
flOlor only is vll}"inc. (I) Electrical c:onductivity changes in specimen (aU Olher raetors constant). The impedance
_point will chanp as shown. Theinspeclion coil and system needs to be calibrated using metals ofknown con-
ductivity. (b) Various defeclS (all Olher factors constant). The various changes are leCognized by experience and by
calibntioll with kIIown defeclS.

Figure 4.11: Impedance Display on Oscilloscope

 94 CHAPTER 4. EDDY CURRENT

2 3

COnduc:ling specimen Conducting apec:imen Conducting specimen

with discontinUity
(0)

(II)
l ,
2

OsciIlosoope acreen appearance

DiffemlliaileSlins (impedance plane). The IWO inspeelioncoils are linkedelectrically in opposition. The
cirtui, becomes unMlanced ifone coil moves opposile 0 discon'inuity. (0) Three differen, positions. 1.2. and 3. of
.... coils aslhey ..., mo-' aIonpide !he specimen willi diSClOftlinuity; in Ihis case. from left to right. (b) Cone-
'fIOlldins view of !he oscilloscope screen indicaling the direction and manner ofthe formation ofthe Ussajous fig-
ure (Ref286).

Figure 4.12: Impedance Pla.ne (Differential Testing)

4.7. WORK PROBLEMS 95

KINK 1/4 t 10 NOTCH

-8-
1/2 t 10 NOTCH HOLE

1/2 t 00 NOTCH TUBE SUPPORT

Figure 4.13: Oacil108COpe Presenta.tion for 'lUbe Inspection

 96 CHAPTER 4. EDDY CURRENT

Ener&y now path

,----------------,
Cl
Remote
field zone
couplilll zone
Cl

Remote field I<presentalioll. The enet&Y now path is indieated. (Alltr Schmidt (1).)

270

i
~
u
Oil
180 c
Phase- ~
inner 'Nail
if

90
10- 6 Direct
eouplins Remote field
zone zone

10- 1 o
0 1 2 3 4 S 6 7 I
Pipe diameters (rom exciter coil

AIllpIiIUde and pIwc ldalioll lor I<aI and mnole field eddy c:urrenlS in a lerromaanetie lube.
(04/'<1' Schmidt (2~)

Figure 4.14: Schmidt'. Experiment

4.7. WORK PROBLEMS 97

Casing B, Phase shift (deg)

Inspection head 1.

Exciter coil

Pickup coil

Couplin!

I
I
3115 f-t-t-H+-t--t--t--t--t--1
"1

(a)
(b)

PIwe 'hifltdql

IT t-ICasiD,
II
collar
I !
i

.j'
n
Pi,
I
Pi.
I I
(cl

(a) Simples' RFEC 1)'1.... ill wen c:asiJIa. (~) Typieal data lrom cosine over period 01 time. (c)
Dewlop....., 01 pi.tiJI&.

Figure 4.15: A Remote Field Inspection System

98 CHAPTER 4. EDDY CURRENT