Lattice and Boolean Algebra
Lattice and Boolean Algebra
Lattice and Boolean Algebra
This chapter presents, lattice and Boolean algebra, which are basis of switching
theory. Also presented are some algebraic systems such as groups, rings, and
fields.
2.1 ALGEBRA
This book considers various algebraic systems. In this section, we present a
general form of them. An algebraic system is defined by the tuple (A, 01, , Ok;
R 1 , , Rm; C1, , Ck), where, A is a non-empty set, 0i is a function APi -+ A,
Pi is a positive integer, R j is a relation on A, and Ci is an element of A.
2.2 LATTICE
The lattice is an algebraic system (A, V, .) with two binary operations V and
" and arbitrary elements a, b, C in A satisfy the following four axioms (1)-(4):
Example 2.2
As shown in the above example, various algebraic systems satisfy the axioms of
the lattice. Note that each example is a special case of the abstract algebraic
system defined by the axioms. Such an example is called a model of the
algebraic system. In general, many models satisfy the algebraic system defined
by the axioms.
Example 2.3 The ordered set represented by the Hasse diagram in Fig. 2.1
is a distributive lattice. The ordered set represented by the Hasse diagram in
Fig. 2.2 is a lattice, but not a distributive lattice. In Fig. 2.2(a), the distributive
law is not satisfied since a . (b V c) = a . 1 = a, and a . b Va c = b V 0 = b
Let a lattice (A, V,.) have a maximum element 1 and a minimum element O.
For any element a in A, if there exists an element Xa such that a V Xa = 1
and a . Xa = 0, then the lattice is a complemented lattice. In this case, Xa
Lattice and Boolean Algebra 19
~
e
a d g
b f
o o o
(b) (a) (b)
Example 2.4
Ordered set
Lattice
- Distributive lattice-
[ Boolean algebra ]
In the above axioms, V,, and - are called Boolean sum, Boolean product,
and complement, respectively. A Boolean algebra is a distributive lattice
satisfying the conditions (6)-(10) (Fig. 2.3).
Huntington's Postulates
Boolean algebra is the algebra satisfying the ten axioms in Section 2.4.1. How-
ever, to verify whether the given algebra is Boolean algebra or not, we need
only to check the following four axioms, the Huntington's postulates.
Identities: a V 0 = a, a 1 = aj
Commutative laws: a V b = b V a, a b = b . aj
Distributive laws: a V (b. c) = (a V b) (a V c), a (b V c) = (a b) V (a c)j
Complements: a V Ii = 1, a Ii = O.
From the above four axioms, we can derive the other axioms of the Boolean
algebra.
Lattice and Boolean Algebra 21
(Ill) (O,I,2) 30
{O,I
(1,2) 6 15
(001) (2) 2 5
(000)
Example 2.5 Let A(30) be the set of positive integers that are divisor of 30.
Let a Vb =( the least common multiple of a and b), a" b =( the greatest common
divisor of a and b), and a = 30ja (the quotient obtained by dividing 30 by a).
Then, the algebraic system (A(30), V, ", -, 1,30) is a (model of the) Boolean
algebra. Fig. 2.6 shows the Hasse diagram of A(30).
(1,1,1,1)
(1,1,0,0) (0,0,1,1)
(0,0,0,0)
Theorem 2.1 Let F(Xl' X2, ... , xn) be a Boolean expression. Then, the com-
plement of the Boolean expression F(x}, X2, ... ,xn ) -is obtained from F as fol-
lows:
(1) OD = l.
(2) ID = O.
(3) If Xi is a variable, then XiD = x;(i = 1, ... , n).
(4) If A, B, and C are Boolean expressions, and A = B V C, then AD =
BDCD.
(5) If A, B, and C are Boolean expressions, and A = B . C, then AD =
BD VC D .
(6) If A and B are Boolean expressions, and A = B, then AD = (BD).
As shown in the above example, the symbols for multiplication . are often
omitted.
Example 2.9 Consider the Boolean algebra B = {O, 1, a, a}. In this case,
check whether the one-variable function B -+ B shown in Table 2.1 is a
Boolean function or not. In a Boolean function, the following relation holds
Lattice and Boolean Algebra 25
Table 2.2
Table 2.1
Xl X2 f 9 fVg fg f g
X f(x)
0 a 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1
1 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1
a a 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1
a 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 0
(Problem 2.18): f(x) = xf(O) V xf(I). By assigning the values from Ta-
ble 2.1, we have f(x) = x . a V X 1. Next, by assigning X = a, we have
f(a) = a . a Va 1 = 0 V a = a. However, as shown in Table 2.1, f(a) = a.
Therefore, f is not a Boolean function.
where Xi may take either 0 or 1, and the value of the function is computed by
using the rule of the Boolean algebra {O, I}. Similarly, f 9 = h is also defined.
And the complement of the function is defined as follows:
Example 2.10 Consider the case of n=2. The function f maps (0,1) and
(1,0) to 1, and other combinations to 0 as shown in Table 2.2. On the other
hand, 9 maps only (1,1) to 1, and other combinations to O. In this case, f V 9
maps (0,0) to 0, and other combinations to 1. f 9 maps all the combinations
to O. f maps (0,0) and (1,1) to 1, and other combinations to O. !J maps (1,1)
to 0, and other combinations to 1.
26 CHAPTER 2
Definition 2.2
1. Constants 0 and 1 are logical expressions.
2. Variables Xl, X2, ,and Xn are logical expressions.
3. If E is a logical expression, then (E) is also a logical expression.
4. If EI and E2 are logical expressions, then (EI V E 2) and (EI . E 2 ) are also
logical expressions.
5. The logical expressions are obtained by finite applications of 1-4. In this
case, parentheses may be deleted if it does not introduce ambiguity.
(1) I 10= and 11 10= 1.
(2) If Xi is a variable, then I Xi 10= a(Xi) (i = 1,2, ... , n).
(3) If F is a logical expression, then I F 1,..= 1 <=>1 F 10= 0.
(4) If F and G are logical expressions, then I F V G 10= 1 <=> (I F 1,..= 1 or
I G1,..= 1).
(5) If F and G are logical expressions, then IF. G 10= 1 <=> (I F 1,..= 1 and
I G 1,..= 1).
Example 2.11 Let us evaluate the value of the logical expression F : X V 'fi' z.
Let the assignment a be a(x) = 0, a(y) = 0, and a(z) = 1. Then, we have
I X V 'fi' z 10= 1 <=> (I x 1,..= 1 or I 'fi' z 1,..= 1). Next, since I x 10= a(x) = 0,
we have I F 10= 1 <=>1 'fi. z 1,..= 1. Next, note that I 'fi. z 1,..= 1 <=> (I 'fi 10=
1 and I z 10= 1). Since, a(z) = 1, we have I F 10= 1 <=>1 'fi 10= 1. Finally,
since I 'fi 1,..= 1 <=> a(y) = 0, and I y 10= a(y) = 0, we have IF 1,..= 1.
be a set, and let EEl and be the operations. If x, YES, then x EEl yES and
X yES. The following axioms are basic in these algebraic systems.
AI. Associative law for addition: (x EEl y) EEl z = x EEl (y EEl z).
A2. Zero element for addition: For all x, a unique 0 element exist such
that x EEl 0 = 0 EEl x = x.
A3. Inverse element for addition: For any x, there exists an element y
such that x EEl y = y EEl x = o.
A4. Commutative law for addition: x EEl y = Y EEl x.
M1. Associative law for mUltiplication: (x y). z = X (y. z).
M2. Unit element for multiplication: For any x, a unique 1 element ex-
ists such that X 1 = 1 x = x.
M3. Inverse element for multiplication: For any x, an element y exist
such that x . y = y . x = l.
M4. Commutative law for multiplication: X Y = Y . x.
D1. Distributive law: Multiplication over addition. x(YEElz) = xyEElxz.
D2. Distributive law: Addition over multiplication. (YEElz)x = yxEElzx.
2.6.1 Semigroup
When an algebraic system (S, ., 1) satisfies the axiom MI, then it is a semigroup.
If (S, EEl, 0) satisfies the axiom AI, then it is also a semigroup. When an algebraic
system (S,, 1) satisfies axioms MI and M2, then it is a semigroup with
identity or is a monoid. If (S, EEl, 0) satisfies the axioms Al and A2, then it
is also a monoid.
Example 2.12 Let the set of non-negative integers be N = {O, 1, ... }. Then,
(N,, 1) and (N, +,0) are monoids.
2.6.2 Group
When an algebraic system (G,, 1) satisfies the axioms MI, M2, and M3, then it
is a group. When the group also satisfies M4, it is a commutative group, or
an Abelian group. In this definition, addition instead of multiplication may
be used. In other words, if an algebraic system satisfies axiom AI, A2, and A3,
then it is also a group. In this case, if it satisfies A4, then it is a commutative
group.
Lattice and Boolean Algebra 29
EB 0 I 2 0 I 2
0 0 I 2 0 0 0 0
I I 2 0 I 0 I 2
2 2 0 I 2 0 2 I
Example 2.13
2.6.3 Ring
When an algebraic system (R, EB,', O) satisfies the axioms AI-A4, MI, DI and
D2, then it is a ring. If the ring satisfies M4, then it is a commutative ring.
If a ring satisfies M2, then it is a ring with identity.
Example 2.14
1. Let Z be the set of integers. Then, (Z, +, " O) is a commutative ring with
a unit element.
2. Let R[X] be the set of polynomials of X whose coefficients are real num-
bers. Then, (R[X], +,', O) is a commutative ring. In this case the zero
element is a polynomial where all the coefficients are Os.
3. Let M be the set of square matrices whose elements are integers. Then,
(M, +, " O) is a ring. However, it is not commutative with respect to the
multiplication. For example, let
Ml = [6 6] , and M2 = [~ g].
2.6.4 Field
When an algebraic system (F, +",0, I) satisfies the axioms AI-A4, MI, M2,
M4, DI, D2 and the following axiom M3*, then it is a field.
30 CHAPTER 2
serrugroup
Group
E
Ring
Field
~
Figure 2.8 Relation of algebraic systems.
Example 2.15
Fig. 2.8 shows the relations among semigroup, group, ring, and field.
Bibliographical Notes
Lattice theory is extensively described in the textbook [28]. A good, but formal
reference book on Boolean algebra is [46].
Exercises 31
:0: <~d'~
a
f e f
(a) (b) (c)
Figure 2.9
a b
d e
o
o
Figure 2.10
Figure 2.11
Exercises
2.1 Among the Hasse diagrams in Fig. 2.9, find a lattice. For each lattice show
the operation tables.
2.3 Does the Hasse diagram in Fig. 2.11 represent a modular lattice? Does it
represent a distributive lattice?
2.4 Show that a distributive lattice is a modular lattice (See Exercise 2.2).
2.5 Let A be the set of positive integers that are divisors of 6. For x, yEA,
define the operations as follows:
x . y = GC D( x, y) : The greatest common divisor of x and y.
x V y = LCM(x, y) : The least common multiple of x and y.
32 2 LATTICE AND BOOLEAN ALGEBRA
2.7 Consider the algebra on the set A = {O, 1, a} that are defined in the
following tables.
V 0 1 a o1 a
0 0 1 a
1 1 1 1
a a 1 a
o0 o0
1 0 1 a
a 0 a a
1 0
a a
0~
1
Check whether each of the axioms in the Huntington's postulates holds.
2.8 Define the operations., V, and - (complement) so that the Boolean algebra
holds on a set A = {O, 1, a, b}.
2.9 Show that the following two algebras are isomorphic each other.
Algebra 1: (A, V,, -,0 A,!A). Let A be the set of positive integers that are
divisors of 120. For x, yEA, define as follows:
X Y = GCD(x,y) : the greatest common divisor of x and y.
x V y = LCM(x, y) : the least common multiple of x and y.
x = 120/x : the quotient of 120 divided by x.
=
IA 120, OA 1. =
Algebra 2: (B, V,, -, OB, IB). Let B = {O, 1,2, 3} x {O, I} x {O, I}. Then, the
vector x= (XI,X2,X3) that satisfies Xl E {0,1,2,3},x2 E {0,1},x3 E {0,1} is
an element of B. Let x = (Xl, X2, X3) and Y = (Yb Y2, Y3) be an element of B,
define the algebra as follows:
X y = (min(xI, Yd, min(x2,Y2), min(x3, Y3.
xV y = (max(xl, YI), max(x2, Y2), max(x3, Y3.
x = (3 - Xl, 1 - X2, 1 - X3).
IB = =
(3,1,1), OB (0,0,0).
+ 0 1 a b o1 a b
o 0 1 a b o 0 000
1 lOb a 1 0 1 a b
a abO 1 a 0 a b 1
b b a 1 0 bOb 1 a
2.12 (M) Prove the De Morgan's laws by using the Huntington's postulates.
2.16 In a Boolean algebra, prove the following without using truth tables: If
a V b = a V c and ab = ac, then b = c.
2.17 Let Z4 = {O, 1,2, 3}. Let addition $ and multiplication be modulo 4
operations. Is (Z4' $,,0,1) a field?
Note that the proof of Theorem 3.1 in Section 3.4 is for logic function. Show
that it is true for a general Boolean function.