XYZs-of-Oscilloscopes 03W 8605 7 PDF

XYZs of Oscilloscopes
PRIMER
Primer
Table of Contents The Systems and Controls of an Oscilloscope.....19 - 32

Vertical System and Controls...........................................20
Introduction..................................................................... 4 Position and Volts per Division....................................20
Input Coupling............................................................20
Signal Integrity............................................................5 - 6
Bandwidth Limit.........................................................20
The Significance of Signal Integrity.....................................5
Bandwidth Enhancement...........................................21
Why is Signal Integrity a Problem?.....................................5
Horizontal System and Controls.......................................21
Viewing the Analog Origins of Digital Signals......................6
Acquisition Controls...................................................21
The Oscilloscope......................................................7 - 12 Acquisition Modes......................................................21
Understanding Waveforms and Waveform Common horizontal controls include:..........................21
Measurements...................................................................7 Types of Acquisition Modes........................................22
Types of Waves..................................................................8 Starting and Stopping the Acquisition System............22
Sine Waves..................................................................9 Sampling....................................................................23
Square and Rectangular Waves...................................9 Sampling Controls......................................................23
Sawtooth and Triangle Waves......................................9 Real-time Sampling Method.......................................23
Step and Pulse Shapes................................................9 Equivalent-time Sampling Method..............................25
Periodic and Non-periodic Signals................................9 Position and Seconds per Division..............................27
Synchronous and Asynchronous Signals......................9 Time Base Selections.................................................27
Complex Waves.........................................................10 Zoom/Pan..................................................................27
Waveform Measurements................................................11 Search.......................................................................27
Frequency and Period................................................11 XY Mode....................................................................27
Voltage.......................................................................11 Z Axis.........................................................................27
Amplitude...................................................................11 XYZ Mode with DPO and XYZ Record Display............27
Phase.........................................................................11 Trigger System and Controls............................................28
Waveform Measurements with Digital Oscilloscopes...12 Trigger Position..........................................................30
Trigger Level and Slope..............................................30
The Types of Oscilloscopes...................................13 - 18
Trigger Modes............................................................31
Digital Storage Oscilloscopes...........................................13
Trigger Coupling.........................................................31
Digital Phosphor Oscilloscopes........................................15
Trigger Holdoff............................................................31
Mixed Domain Oscilloscopes...........................................17
Display System and Controls...........................................32
Mixed Signal Oscilloscopes..............................................17
Other Oscilloscope Controls.............................................32
Digital Sampling Oscilloscopes.........................................18
Math and Measurement Operations...........................32
Digital Timing and State Acquisitions..........................32
2 www.tektronix.com/oscilloscopes
The Complete Measurement System....................33 - 36 Operating the Oscilloscope...................................44 - 45

Probes.............................................................................33 Proper Grounding............................................................44
Passive Probes................................................................34 Setting the Controls.........................................................44
Active and Differential Probes...........................................35 Calibrating the Instrument................................................45
Logic Probes...................................................................35 Connecting the Probes....................................................45
Specialty Probes..............................................................36 Compensating the Probes...............................................45
Probe Accessories...........................................................36
Oscilloscope Measurement Techniques...............47 - 48
Performance Terms and Considerations...............36 - 43 Voltage Measurements.....................................................47
Bandwidth.......................................................................36 Time and Frequency Measurements................................48
Rise Time.........................................................................37 Pulse Width and Rise Time Measurements......................48
Sample Rate....................................................................38 Phase Shift Measurements...............................................49
Waveform Capture Rate...................................................39 Other Measurement Techniques.......................................49
Record Length.................................................................39
Written Exercises....................................................50 - 55
Triggering Capabilities......................................................40
Part I
Effective Bits....................................................................40
A: Vocabulary Exercise...............................................50
Frequency Response.......................................................40
B: Application Exercise...............................................51
Vertical Sensitivity.............................................................40
Part II
Sweep Speed..................................................................40
A: Vocabulary Exercise...............................................52
Gain Accuracy.................................................................40
B: Application Exercise...............................................53
Horizontal Accuracy (Time Base)......................................40
Answer Key.....................................................................55
Vertical Resolution (Analog-to-Digital Converter)...............40
Timing Resolution (MSO)..................................................41 Glossary..................................................................56 - 59
Connectivity.....................................................................41
Expandability...................................................................41
Ease-of-Use.....................................................................43
www.tektronix.com/oscilloscopes 3
Primer
Introduction Light Source
Nature moves in the form of a sine wave, be it an ocean

wave, earthquake, sonic boom, explosion, sound through
air, or the natural frequency of a body in motion. Energy,
vibrating particles and other invisible forces pervade our
physical universe. Even light part particle, part wave has a
fundamental frequency, which can be observed as color.
Photo Cell
Sensors can convert these forces into electrical Figure 1. An example of scientific data gathered by an oscilloscope.
signals that you can observe and study with an
oscilloscope. Oscilloscopes enable scientists, The glossary in the back of this primer will give you definitions
engineers, technicians, educators and others to of unfamiliar terms. The vocabulary and multiple-choice written
see events that change over time. exercises on oscilloscope theory and controls make this
primer a useful classroom aid. No mathematical or electronics
Oscilloscopes are indispensable tools for anyone designing, knowledge is necessary.
manufacturing or repairing electronic equipment. In todays
After reading this primer, you will be able to:
fast-paced world, engineers need the best tools available to
solve their measurement challenges quickly and accurately. As Describe how oscilloscopes work
the eyes of the engineer, oscilloscopes are the key to meeting
Describe the differences between various oscilloscopes
todays demanding measurement challenges.
Describe electrical waveform types
The usefulness of an oscilloscope is not limited to the world
of electronics. With the proper sensor, an oscilloscope can Understand basic oscilloscope controls
measure all kinds of phenomena. A sensor is a device that Take simple measurements
creates an electrical signal in response to physical stimuli,
The manual provided with your oscilloscope will give you
such as sound, mechanical stress, pressure, light, or heat. A
more specific information about how to use the oscilloscope
microphone is a sensor that converts sound into an electrical
in your work. Some oscilloscope manufacturers also provide
signal. Figure 1 shows an example of scientific data that can
a multitude of application notes to help you optimize the
be gathered by an oscilloscope.
oscilloscope for your application-specific measurements.
Oscilloscopes are used by everyone from physicists to repair
Should you need additional assistance, or have any comments
technicians. An automotive engineer uses an oscilloscope to
or questions about the material in this primer, simply contact
correlate analog data from sensors with serial data from the
your Tektronix representative, or visit www.tektronix.com.
engine control unit. A medical researcher uses an oscillscope
to measure brain waves. The possibilities are endless.
The concepts presented in this primer will provide you with a
good starting point in understanding oscilloscope basics and
operation.
Signal Integrity A processor running at a 20 MHz clock rate may well have
signals with rise times similar to those of an 800 MHz
The Significance of Signal Integrity processor. Designers have crossed a performance threshold
that means, in effect, almost every design is a high-speed
The key to any good oscilloscope system is its ability to
design.
accurately reconstruct a waveform referred to as signal
integrity. An oscilloscope is analogous to a camera that Without some precautionary measures, high-speed problems
captures signal images that we can then observe and can creep into otherwise conventional digital designs. If a
interpret. Two key issues lie at the heart of signal integrity. circuit is experiencing intermittent failures, or if it encounters
errors at voltage and temperature extremes, chances are there
When you take a picture, is it an accurate picture of what
are some hidden signal integrity problems. These can affect
actually happened?
time-to-market, product reliability, EMI compliance, and more.
Is the picture clear or fuzzy? These high-speed problems can also impact the integrity of
How many of those accurate pictures can you take per a serial data stream in a system, requiring some method of
second? correlating specific patterns in the data with the observed
characteristics of high-speed waveforms.
Taken together, the different systems and performance
capabilities of an oscilloscope contribute to its ability to deliver Why is Signal Integrity a Problem?
the highest signal integrity possible. Probes also affect the
Lets look at some of the specific causes of signal degradation
signal integrity of a measurement system.
in todays digital designs. Why are these problems so much
Signal integrity impacts many electronic design disciplines. But more prevalent today than in years past?
until a few years ago, it wasnt much of a problem for digital
The answer is speed. In the slow old days, maintaining
designers. They could rely on their logic designs to act like the
acceptable digital signal integrity meant paying attention
Boolean circuits they were. Noisy, indeterminate signals were
to details like clock distribution, signal path design, noise
something that occurred in high-speed designs something
margins, loading effects, transmission line effects, bus
for RF designers to worry about. Digital systems switched
termination, decoupling and power distribution. All of these
slowly and signals stabilized predictably.
rules still apply, but
Processor clock rates have since multiplied by orders of
Bus cycle times are up to a thousand times faster than they
magnitude. Computer applications such as 3D graphics,
were 20 years ago! Transactions that once took microseconds
video and server I/O demand vast bandwidth. Much of todays
are now measured in nanoseconds. To achieve this
telecommunications equipment is digitally based, and similarly
improvement, edge speeds too have accelerated: they are up
requires massive bandwidth. So too does digital high-definition
to 100 times faster than those of two decades ago.
TV. The current crop of microprocessor devices handles data
at rates up to 2, 3 and even 5 GS/s (gigasamples per second), This is all well and good; however, certain physical realities
while some DDR3 memory devices use clocks in excess of have kept circuit board technology from keeping up the pace.
2 GHz as well as data signals with 35 ps rise times. The propagation time of inter-chip buses has remained almost
unchanged over the decades. Geometries have shrunk,
Importantly, speed increases have trickled down to the
certainly, but there is still a need to provide circuit board real
common IC devices used in automobiles, consumer
estate for IC devices, connectors, passive components, and of
electronics, and machine controllers, to name just a few
course, the bus traces themselves. This real estate adds up to
applications.
distance, and distance means time the enemy of speed.
Primer
Its important to remember that the edge speed rise time of At the same time, the intended signal paths dont work the
a digital signal can carry much higher frequency components way they are supposed to. Ground planes and power planes,
than its repetition rate might imply. For this reason, some like the signal traces described above, become inductive and
designers deliberately seek IC devices with relatively slow act like transmission lines; power supply decoupling is far less
rise times. effective. EMI goes up as faster edge speeds produce shorter
wavelengths relative to the bus length. Crosstalk increases.
The lumped circuit model has always been the basis of most
calculations used to predict signal behavior in a circuit. But In addition, fast edge speeds require generally higher currents
when edge speeds are more than four to six times faster than to produce them. Higher currents tend to cause ground
the signal path delay, the simple lumped model no longer bounce, especially on wide buses in which many signals
applies. switch at once. Moreover, higher current increases the amount
of radiated magnetic energy and with it, crosstalk.
Circuit board traces just six inches long become transmission
lines when driven with signals exhibiting edge rates below four Viewing the Analog Origins of Digital Signals
to six nanoseconds, irrespective of the cycle rate. In effect,
new signal paths are created. These intangible connections What do all these characteristics have in common? They are
arent on the schematics, but nevertheless provide a means classic analog phenomena. To solve signal integrity problems,
for signals to influence one another in unpredictable ways. digital designers need to step into the analog domain. And to
take that step, they need tools that can show them how digital
Sometimes even the errors introduced by the and analog signals interact.
probe/instrument combination can provide Digital errors often have their roots in analog signal integrity
a significant contribution to the signal being problems. To track down the cause of the digital fault,
measured. However, by applying the square its often necessary to turn to an oscilloscope, which can
root of the sum of the squares formula to the display waveform details, edges and noise; can detect and
display transients; and can help you precisely measure
measured value, it is possible to determine
timing relationships such as setup and hold times. Modern
whether the device under test is approaching oscilloscopes can help to simplify the troubleshooting process
a rise/fall time failure. In addition, recent by triggering on specific patterns in parallel or serial data
oscilloscope tools use special filtering techniques streams and displaying the analog signal that corresponds in
to de-embed the measurement systems effects time with a specified event.
on the signal, displaying edge times and other Understanding each of the systems within your oscilloscope
signal characteristics. and how to apply them will contribute to the effective
application of the oscilloscope to tackle your specific
measurement challenge.
Y (voltage)
Y (voltage)
X (time)
Z (intensity)
X (time)
Z (intensity)
Figure 2. X, Y, and Z components of a displayed waveform.
The Oscilloscope
What is an oscilloscope and how does it work? This section
answers these fundamental questions. Figure 3. Two offset clock patterns with Z axis intensity grading.
The oscilloscope is basically a graph-displaying device it

draws a graph of an electrical signal. In most applications, the Understanding Waveforms and Waveform
graph shows how signals change over time: the vertical (Y) Measurements
axis represents voltage and the horizontal (X) axis represents
time. The intensity or brightness of the display is sometimes The generic term for a pattern that repeats over time is a
called the Z axis, as shown in Figure 2. In DPO oscilloscopes, wave sound waves, brain waves, ocean waves, and voltage
the Z axis can be represented by color grading of the display, waves are all repetitive patterns. An oscilloscope measures
as seen in Figure 3. voltage waves. Remember as mentioned earlier, that physical
phenomena such as vibrations or temperature or electrical
This simple graph can tell you many things about a signal, phenomena such as current or power can be converted to a
such as: voltage by a sensor. One cycle of a wave is the portion of the
The time and voltage values of a signal wave that repeats. A waveform is a graphic representation of
a wave. A voltage waveform shows time on the horizontal axis
The frequency of an oscillating signal
and voltage on the vertical axis.
The moving parts of a circuit represented by the signal
The frequency with which a particular portion of the signal is
occurring relative to other portions
Whether or not a malfunctioning component is distorting
the signal
How much of a signal is direct current (DC) or alternating
current (AC)
How much of the signal is noise and whether the noise is
changing with time
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Sine Wave Damped Sine Wave
Square Wave Rectangular Wave
Sawtooth Wave Triangle Wave
Step Pulse
Complex
Figure 4. Common waveforms. Figure 5. Sources of common waveforms.
Waveform shapes reveal a great deal about a signal. Any time Types of Waves
you see a change in the height of the waveform, you know
You can classify most waves into these types:
the voltage has changed. Any time there is a flat horizontal
line, you know that there is no change for that length of time. Sine waves
Straight, diagonal lines mean a linear change rise or fall of Square and rectangular waves
voltage at a steady rate. Sharp angles on a waveform indicate
sudden change. Figure 4 shows common waveforms and Sawtooth and triangle waves
Figure 5 displays sources of common waveforms. Step and pulse shapes
Periodic and non-periodic signals
Synchronous and asynchronous signals
Complex waves
Sine Waves Step and Pulse Shapes

The sine wave is the fundamental wave shape for several Signals such as steps and pulses that occur rarely, or
reasons. It has harmonious mathematical properties it is the nonperiodically, are called single-shot or transient signals.
same sine shape you may have studied in trigonometry class. A step indicates a sudden change in voltage, similar to the
The voltage in your wall outlet varies as a sine wave. Test voltage change you would see if you turned on a power
signals produced by the oscillator circuit of a signal generator switch.
are often sine waves. Most AC power sources produce sine
A pulse indicates sudden changes in voltage, similar to
waves. (AC signifies alternating current, although the voltage
the voltage changes you would see if you turned a power
alternates too. DC stands for direct current, which means a
switch on and then off again. A pulse might represent one
steady current and voltage, such as a battery produces.)
bit of information traveling through a computer circuit or it
The damped sine wave is a special case you may see in a might be a glitch, or defect, in a circuit. A collection of pulses
circuit that oscillates, but winds down over time. traveling together creates a pulse train. Digital components
in a computer communicate with each other using pulses.
Square and Rectangular Waves
These pulses may be in the form of serial data stream or
The square wave is another common wave shape. Basically, multiple signal lines may be used to represent a value in a
a square wave is a voltage that turns on and off (or goes high parallel data bus. Pulses are also common in x-ray, radar, and
and low) at regular intervals. It is a standard wave for testing communications equipment.
amplifiers good amplifiers increase the amplitude of a square
Periodic and Non-periodic Signals
wave with minimum distortion. Television, radio and computer
circuitry often use square waves for timing signals. Repetitive signals are referred to as periodic signals, while
signals that constantly change are known as non-periodic
The rectangular wave is like the square wave except that
signals. A still picture is analogous to a periodic signal, while a
the high and low time intervals are not of equal length. It is
moving picture can be equated to a non-periodic signal.
particularly important when analyzing digital circuitry.
Synchronous and Asynchronous Signals
Sawtooth and Triangle Waves
When a timing relationship exists between two signals,
Sawtooth and triangle waves result from circuits designed
those signals are referred to as synchronous. Clock, data
to control voltages linearly, such as the horizontal sweep of
and address signals inside a computer are an example of
an analog oscilloscope or the raster scan of a television. The
synchronous signals.
transitions between voltage levels of these waves change at a
constant rate. These transitions are called ramps. Asynchronous is a term used to describe those signals
between which no timing relationship exists. Because no
time correlation exists between the act of touching a key on a
computer keyboard and the clock inside the computer, these
are considered asynchronous.
Primer
Figure 6. An NTSC composite video signal is an example of a complex wave. Figure 7. 622 Mb/s serial data eye pattern.
Complex Waves Some oscilloscopes allow for displaying certain types

of complex waveforms in special ways. For example,
Some waveforms combine the characteristics of sines,
telecommunications data may be displayed as an eye pattern
squares, steps, and pulses to produce complex waveshapes.
or a constellation diagram.
The signal information may be embedded in the form of
amplitude, phase, and/or frequency variations. For example, Telecommunications digital data signals can be displayed on
although the signal in Figure 6 is an ordinary composite video an oscilloscope as a special type of waveform referred to as
signal, it is composed of many cycles of higher-frequency an eye pattern. The name comes from the similarity of the
waveforms embedded in a lower-frequency envelope. waveform to a series of eyes, as seen in Figure 7. Eye patterns
are produced when digital data from a receiver is sampled
In this example, it is usually most important to understand
and applied to the vertical input, while the data rate is used to
the relative levels and timing relationships of the steps. To
trigger the horizontal sweep. The eye pattern displays one bit
view this signal, you need an oscilloscope that captures the
or unit interval of data with all possible edge transitions and
low-frequency envelope and blends in the higher-frequency
states superimposed in one comprehensive view.
waves in an intensity-graded fashion so that you can see
their overall combination as an image that can be visually A constellation diagram is a representation of a signal
interpreted. Digital phosphor oscilloscopes are most suited to modulated by a digital modulation scheme such as quadrature
viewing complex waves, such as video signals, illustrated in amplitude modulation or phase-shift keying.
Figure 6. Their displays provide the necessary frequency-of-
occurrence information, or intensity grading, that is essential to
understanding what the waveform is really doing.
1 2 3 0 90 180 270 360

+1 V
Frequency
3 Cycles per
Second = 3 Hz 2V 0
period
1 V
1 second
Figure 8. Frequency and period of a sine wave. Figure 9. Amplitude and degrees of a sine wave.
Waveform Measurements Voltage

Many terms are used to describe the types of measurements
that you make with your oscilloscope. This section describes Current
some of the most common measurements and terms.
Frequency and Period 0

If a signal repeats, it has a frequency. The frequency is
measured in Hertz (Hz) and equals the number of times the
signal repeats itself in one second, referred to as cycles per
second. A repetitive signal also has a period, which is the
amount of time it takes the signal to complete one cycle.
Phase = 90
Period and frequency are reciprocals of each other, so that
Figure 10. Phase shift.
1/period equals the frequency and 1/frequency equals the
period. For example, the sine wave in Figure 8 has a frequency
of 3 Hz and a period of 1/3 second. Phase
Voltage Phase is best explained by looking at a sine wave. The

voltage level of sine waves is based on circular motion. Given
Voltage is the amount of electric potential, or signal strength,
that a circle has 360, one cycle of a sine wave has 360, as
between two points in a circuit. Usually, one of these points
shown in Figure 9. Using degrees, you can refer to the phase
is ground, or zero volts, but not always. You may want to
angle of a sine wave when you want to describe how much of
measure the voltage from the maximum peak to the minimum
the period has elapsed.
peak of a waveform, referred to as the peak-to-peak voltage.
Phase shift describes the difference in timing between two
Amplitude otherwise similar signals. The waveform in Figure 10 labeled
Amplitude refers to the amount of voltage between two points current is said to be 90 out of phase with the waveform
in a circuit. Amplitude commonly refers to the maximum labeled voltage, since the waves reach similar points in their
voltage of a signal measured from ground, or zero volts. The cycles exactly 1/4 of a cycle apart (360/4 = 90). Phase shifts
waveform shown in Figure 9 has an amplitude of 1 V and a are common in electronics.
peak-to-peak voltage of 2 V.
Primer
Waveform Measurements with Digital Oscilloscopes Examples of fully automated waveform measurements:
Modern digital oscilloscopes have functions that make Period Duty Cycle + High
waveform measurements easier. They have front-panel
buttons and/or screen-based menus from which you Frequency Duty Cycle - Low
can select fully automated measurements. These include Width + Delay Minimum
amplitude, period, rise/fall time, and many more. Many digital
Width - Phase Maximum
instruments also provide mean and RMS calculations, duty
cycle, and other math operations. Automated measurements Rise time Burst width Overshoot +
appear as on-screen alphanumeric readouts. Typically these Fall time Peak-to-peak Overshoot -
readings are more accurate than is possible to obtain with
direct graticule interpretation. Amplitude Mean RMS
Extinction ratio Cycle mean Cycle RMS
Mean optical power Cycle area Jitter
1010
0001
0010
0101
ADC
Analog Oscilloscopes Digital Oscilloscopes Samples

Trace Signals Signals and Construct Displays
Figure 11. Analog oscilloscopes trace signals, while digital oscilloscopes sample signals and construct displays.
The Types of Oscilloscopes front-end components of the oscilloscope, commonly referred

to as the 3 dB point. For single-shot and transient events,
Electronic equipment can be classified into two categories: such as pulses and steps, the bandwidth can be limited by the
analog and digital. Analog equipment works with continuously oscilloscopes sample rate. Please refer to the Sample Rate
variable voltages, while digital equipment works with section under Performance Terms and Considerations for a
discrete binary numbers that represent voltage samples. more detailed discussion.
A conventional phonograph is an analog device, while a
compact disc player is a digital device. Digital Storage Oscilloscopes
Oscilloscopes can be classified similarly as analog and A conventional digital oscilloscope is known as a digital
digital types. In contrast to an analog oscilloscope, a digital storage oscilloscope (DSO). Its display typically relies on a
oscilloscope uses an analog-to-digital converter (ADC) to raster-type screen rather than the luminous phosphor found in
convert the measured voltage into digital information. It an older analog oscilloscope.
acquires the waveform as a series of samples, and stores
Digital storage oscilloscopes (DSOs) allow you to capture
these samples until it accumulates enough samples to
and view events that may happen only once known as
describe a waveform. The digital oscilloscope then re-
transients. Because the waveform information exists in digital
assembles the waveform for display on the screen, as seen in
form as a series of stored binary values, it can be analyzed,
Figure 11.
archived, printed, and otherwise processed, within the
Digital oscilloscopes can be classified into digital storage oscilloscope itself or by an external computer. The waveform
oscilloscopes (DSOs), digital phosphor oscilloscopes (DPOs), need not be continuous; it can be displayed even when the
mixed signal oscilloscopes (MSOs), and digital sampling signal disappears. Unlike analog oscilloscopes, digital storage
oscilloscopes. oscilloscopes provide permanent signal storage and extensive
waveform processing. However, DSOs typically have no real-
The digital approach means that the oscilloscope can display
time intensity grading; therefore, they cannot express varying
any frequency within its range with stability, brightness, and
levels of intensity in the live signal.
clarity. For repetitive signals, the bandwidth of the digital
oscilloscope is a function of the analog bandwidth of the
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Amp A/D Acquisition uP Display Display

DeMUX
Memory Memory
Figure 12. The serial-processing architecture of a digital storage oscilloscope (DSO).
Some of the subsystems that comprise DSOs are similar

to those in analog oscilloscopes. However, DSOs contain
additional data-processing subsystems that are used to collect
and display data for the entire waveform. A DSO employs a
serial-processing architecture to capture and display a signal
on its screen, as shown in Figure 12. A description of this
serial-processing architecture follows.
Serial-processing Architecture
Like an analog oscilloscope, a DSOs first (input) stage is
a vertical amplifier. Vertical controls allow you to adjust the
amplitude and position range at this stage. Next, the analogto-
digital converter (ADC) in the horizontal system samples the
signal at discrete points in time and converts the signals
voltage at these points into digital values called sample points.
This process is referred to as digitizing a signal. Figure 13. The digital storage oscilloscope delivers high-speed, single-shot acquisition
across multiple channels, increasing the likelihood of capturing elusive glitches
The horizontal systems sample clock determines how often and transient events.
the ADC takes a sample. This rate is referred to as the sample
rate and is expressed in samples per second (S/s). The
Depending on the capabilities of your oscilloscope, additional
sample points from the ADC are stored in acquisition memory
processing of the sample points may take place, which
as waveform points. Several sample points may comprise
enhances the display. Pre-trigger may also be available,
one waveform point. Together, the waveform points comprise
enabling you to see events before the trigger point. Most
one waveform record. The number of waveform points used
of todays digital oscilloscopes also provide a selection
to create a waveform record is called the record length. The
of automatic parametric measurements, simplifying the
trigger system determines the start and stop points of the
measurement process.
record.
As shown in Figure 13, a DSO provides high performance in a
The DSOs signal path includes a microprocessor through
single-shot, multi-channel instrument. DSOs are ideal for low-
which the measured signal passes on its way to the display.
repetition-rate or single-shot, high-speed, multichannel design
This microprocessor processes the signal, coordinates
applications. In the real world of digital design, an engineer
display activities, manages the front panel controls, and more.
usually examines four or more signals simultaneously, making
The signal then passes through the display memory and is
the DSO a critical companion.
displayed on the oscilloscope screen.
Snapshots of the Digital Phosphor contents are periodically

sent directly to the display without stopping the acquisition.
Amp Digital
A/D Display
Phosphor
Waveform math, measurements, and front panel P

control are executed by the microprocessor parallel
to the integrated acquisition/display system.
Figure 14. The parallel-processing architecture of a digital phosphor oscilloscope (DPO).
Digital Phosphor Oscilloscopes It should be noted that it is impossible to determine the
The digital phosphor oscilloscope (DPO) offers a new probability of capture by simply looking at the display update
approach to oscilloscope architecture. This architecture rate. If you rely solely on the update rate, it is easy to make
enables a DPO to deliver unique acquisition and display the mistake of believing that the oscilloscope is capturing all
capabilities to accurately reconstruct a signal. pertinent information about the waveform when, in fact, it is
not.
While a DSO uses a serial-processing architecture to capture,
display and analyze signals, a DPO employs a parallel- The digital storage oscilloscope processes captured
processing architecture to perform these functions, as waveforms serially. The speed of its microprocessor is a
shown in Figure 14. The DPO architecture dedicates unique bottleneck in this process because it limits the waveform
ASIC hardware to acquire waveform images, delivering high capture rate. The DPO rasterizes the digitized waveform data
waveform capture rates that result in a higher level of signal into a digital phosphor database. Every 1/30th of a second
visualization. This performance increases the probability of about as fast as the human eye can perceive it a snapshot
witnessing transient events that occur in digital systems, such of the signal image that is stored in the database is pipelined
as runt pulses, glitches and transition errors, and enables directly to the display system. This direct rasterization of
additional analysis capability. A description of this parallel- waveform data, and direct copy to display memory from the
processing architecture follows. database, removes the data-processing bottleneck inherent
in other architectures. The result is an enhanced real-time
Parallel-processing Architecture and lively display update. Signal details, intermittent events,
A DPOs first (input) stage is similar to that of an analog and dynamic characteristics of the signal are captured in
oscilloscope a vertical amplifier and its second stage realtime. The DPOs microprocessor works in parallel with
is similar to that of a DSO an ADC. But, the DPO differs this integrated acquisition system for display management,
significantly from its predecessors following the analog- measurement automation and instrument control, so that it
todigital conversion. does not affect the oscilloscopes acquisition speed.
For any oscilloscope analog, DSO or DPO there is always A DPO faithfully emulates the best display attributes of an
a holdoff time during which the instrument processes the most analog oscilloscope, displaying the signal in three dimensions:
recently acquired data, resets the system, and waits for the time, amplitude and the distribution of amplitude over time, all
next trigger event. During this time, the oscilloscope is blind to in real-time.
all signal activity. The probability of seeing an infrequent or low-
repetition event decreases as the holdoff time increases.
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When the digital phosphor database is fed to the

oscilloscopes display, the display reveals intensified waveform
areas, in proportion to the signals frequency of occurrence at
each point much like the intensity grading characteristics of
an analog oscilloscope. The DPO also allows the display of the
varying frequency-of-occurrence information on the display
as contrasting colors, unlike an analog oscilloscope. With a
DPO, it is easy to see the difference between a waveform that
occurs on almost every trigger and one that occurs, say, every
100th trigger.
Digital phosphor oscilloscopes (DPOs) break down the barrier
between analog and digital oscilloscope technologies. They
are equally suitable for viewing high and low frequencies,
repetitive waveforms, transients, and signal variations in
realtime. Only a DPO provides the Z (intensity) axis in real-time
that is missing from conventional DSOs.
Figure 15. Some DPOs can acquire millions of waveform in just seconds, significantly
increasing the probability of capturing intermittent and elusive events and revealing A DPO is ideal for those who need the best general-
dynamic signal behavior.
purpose design and troubleshooting tool for a wide range of
applications, as seen in Figure 15. A DPO is exemplary for
Unlike an analog oscilloscopes reliance on chemical advanced analysis, communication mask testing, digital debug
phosphor, a DPO uses a purely electronic digital phosphor of intermittent signals, repetitive digital design and timing
thats actually a continuously updated database. This applications.
database has a separate cell of information for every single
pixel in the oscilloscopes display. Each time a waveform is
captured in other words, every time the oscilloscope triggers
it is mapped into the digital phosphor databases cells. Each
cell that represents a screen location and is touched by the
waveform is reinforced with intensity information, while other
cells are not. Thus, intensity information builds up in cells
where the waveform passes most often.
Figure 16. Time-correlated display of a Zigbee radio's microprocessor SPI (MOSI) and Figure 17. The MSO provides 16 integrated digital channels, enabling the ability to view
(MISO) control lines, with measurements of drain current and voltage to the radio IC and and analyze time-correlated analog and digital signals.
the spectrum during turn-on.
Mixed Domain Oscilloscopes Mixed Signal Oscilloscopes

A mixed domain oscilloscope (MDO) combines an RF The mixed signal oscilloscope (MSO) combines the
spectrum analyzer with a MSO or DPO to enable correlated performance of a DPO with the basic functionality of a
views of signals from the digital, analog, to RF domains. For 16-channel logic analyzer, including parallel/serial bus protocol
example, the MDO allows you to view time-correlated displays decoding and triggering. The MSO's digital channels view
of protocol, state logic, analog, and RF signals within an a digital signal as either a logic high or logic low, just like a
embedded design. This dramatically reduces both the time digital circuit views the signal. This means as long as ringing,
to insight and the measurement uncertainty between cross overshoot and ground bounce do not cause logic transitions,
domain events. these analog characteristics are not of concern to the MSO.
Just like a logic analyzer, a MSO uses a threshold voltage to
Understanding the time delay between a microprocessor
determine if the signal is logic high or logic low.
command and a RF event within an embedded RF design
simplifies test setups and brings complex measurements The MSO is the tool of choice for quickly debugging digital
to the bench. For embedded radios, such as the Zigbee circuits using its powerful digital triggering, high resolution
design shown in Figure 16, you can trigger on the turn-on acquisition capability, and analysis tools. The root cause of
of the RF event and view the command line latency of the many digital problems is quicker to pinpoint by analyzing both
microprocessor controller decoded SPI control lines, the drain the analog and digital representations of the signal, as shown
current and voltage during turn-on, and any spectral events in Figure 17, making a MSO ideal for verifying and debugging
that result. In one display, you now have a time-correlated view digital circuits.
of all the domains of the radio: protocol (digital), analog, and
RF.
Primer
Sampling
Bridge
50
Input Amp
(3 V Max)
Figure 18. The parallel-processing architecture of a digital phosphor oscilloscope (DPO).
Digital Sampling Oscilloscopes

In contrast to the digital storage and digital phosphor
oscilloscope architectures, the architecture of the digital
sampling oscilloscope reverses the position of the attenuator/
amplifier and the sampling bridge, as shown in Figure 18. The
input signal is sampled before any attenuation or amplification
is performed. A low bandwidth amplifier can then be utilized
after the sampling bridge because the signal has already been
converted to a lower frequency by the sampling gate, resulting
in a much higher bandwidth instrument.
The tradeoff for this high bandwidth, however, is that the
sampling oscilloscopes dynamic range is limited. Since there
is no attenuator/amplifier in front of the sampling gate, there
is no facility to scale the input. The sampling bridge must be
able to handle the full dynamic range of the input at all times. Figure 19. Time domain reflectometry (TDR) display from a digital sampling
Therefore, the dynamic range of most sampling oscilloscopes oscilloscope.
is limited to about 1 V peak-to-peak. Digital storage and digital

phosphor oscilloscopes, on the other hand, can handle 50 to When measuring high-frequency signals, the DSO or DPO
100 volts. may not be able to collect enough samples in one sweep.
In addition, protection diodes cannot be placed in front of A digital sampling oscilloscope is an ideal tool for accurately
the sampling bridge as this would limit the bandwidth. This capturing signals whose frequency components are much
reduces the safe input voltage for a sampling oscilloscope higher than the oscilloscopes sample rate, as seen in
to about 3 V, as compared to 500 V available on other Figure 19. This oscilloscope is capable of measuring
oscilloscopes. signals of up to an order of magnitude faster than any other
oscilloscope. It can achieve bandwidth and high-speed
timing ten times higher than other oscilloscopes for repetitive
signals. Sequential equivalent-time sampling oscilloscopes are
available with bandwidths to 80 GHz.
The Systems and Controls of an

Oscilloscope
This section briefly describes the basic systems and controls
found on analog and digital oscilloscopes. Some controls differ
between analog and digital oscilloscopes; your oscilloscope
probably has additional controls not discussed here.
A basic oscilloscope consists of four different

systems the vertical system, horizontal system,
trigger system, and display system. Understand-
ing each of these systems will enable you to
effectively apply the oscilloscope to tackle your
specific measurement challenges. Recall that
each system contributes to the oscilloscopes
ability to accurately reconstruct a signal.
The front panel of an oscilloscope is divided into three
main sections labeled vertical, horizontal, and trigger. Your
oscilloscope may have other sections, depending on the
model and type. See if you can locate these front-panel
sections in Figure 20, and on your oscilloscope, as you read
through this section.
When using an oscilloscope, you need to adjust three basic
settings to accommodate an incoming signal:
Figure 20. Front-panel control section of an oscilloscope.
Vertical: The attenuation or amplification of the signal. Use
the volts/div control to adjust the amplitude of the signal to
the desired measurement range. Common vertical controls include:
Horizontal: The time base. Use the sec/div control to set the Termination
amount of time per division represented horizontally across - 1M ohm
the screen. - 50 ohm
Trigger: The triggering of the oscilloscope. Use the trigger Coupling
level to stabilize a repeating signal, or to trigger on a single - DC
event. - AC
- GND
Bandwidth
- Limit
- Enhancement
Position
Offset
Invert On/Off
Scale
- Fixed steps
- Variable
Primer
DC Coupling of a Vp-p Sine AC Coupling of

Wave with a 2 V DC Component the Same Signal
4V 4V
0V 0V
Figure 21. AC and DC input coupling.
Vertical System and Controls Input Coupling

Vertical controls can be used to position and scale the Coupling refers to the method used to connect an electrical
waveform vertically, set the input coupling, and adjust other signal from one circuit to another. In this case, the input
signal conditioning. coupling is the connection from your test circuit to the
oscilloscope. The coupling can be set to DC, AC, or ground.
Position and Volts per Division DC coupling shows all of an input signal. AC coupling blocks
The vertical position control allows you to move the waveform the DC component of a signal so that you see the waveform
up and down exactly where you want it on the screen. centered around zero volts. Figure 21 illustrates this difference.
The AC coupling setting is useful when the entire signal
The volts-per-division setting (usually written as volts/div) is
(alternating current + direct current) is too large for the volts/
a scaling factor that varies the size of the waveform on the
div setting.
screen. If the volts/div setting is 5 volts, then each of the eight
vertical divisions represents 5 volts and the entire screen can The ground setting disconnects the input signal from the
display 40 volts from bottom to top, assuming a graticule vertical system, which lets you see where zero volts is located
with eight major divisions. If the setting is 0.5 volts/div, the on the screen. With grounded input coupling and auto trigger
screen can display 4 volts from bottom to top, and so on. The mode, you see a horizontal line on the screen that represents
maximum voltage you can display on the screen is the volts/ zero volts. Switching from DC to ground and back again is a
div setting multiplied by the number of vertical divisions. Note handy way of measuring signal voltage levels with respect to
that the probe you use, 1X or 10X, also influences the scale ground.
factor. You must divide the volts/div scale by the attenuation
Bandwidth Limit
factor of the probe if the oscilloscope does not do it for you.
Most oscilloscopes have a circuit that limits the bandwidth of
Often the volts/div scale has either a variable gain or a fine
the oscilloscope. By limiting the bandwidth, you reduce the
gain control for scaling a displayed signal to a certain number
noise that sometimes appears on the displayed waveform,
of divisions. Use this control to assist in taking rise time
resulting in a cleaner signal display. Note that, while eliminating
measurements.
noise, the bandwidth limit can also reduce or eliminate high-
frequency signal content.
Bandwidth Enhancement Common horizontal controls include:

Some oscilloscopes may provide a DSP arbitrary equalization Time Base Resolution
filter which can be used to improve the oscilloscope channel
response. This filter extends the bandwidth, flattens the XY Sample Rate
oscilloscope channel frequency response, improves phase Scale Trigger Position
linearity, and provides a better match between channels. It
Trace Separation Zoom/Pan
also decreases rise time and improves the time domain step
response. Record Length Search
Horizontal System and Controls

An oscilloscopes horizontal system is most closely associated
with its acquisition of an input signal sample rate and record
length are among the considerations here. Horizontal controls
are used to position and scale the waveform horizontally.
Acquisition Controls
Digital oscilloscopes have settings that let you control how
the acquisition system processes a signal. Look over the
acquisition options on your digital oscilloscope while you
read this description. Figure 22 shows you an example of an
acquisition menu.
Acquisition Modes
Acquisition modes control how waveform points are produced
from sample points. Sample points are the digital values
Figure 22. Example of an acquisition menu.
derived directly from the analog-to-digital converter (ADC).
The sample interval refers to the time between these sample
points. Waveform points are the digital values that are stored The sample interval and the waveform interval may, or may
in memory and displayed to construct the waveform. The time not, be the same. This fact leads to the existence of several
value difference between waveform points is referred to as the different acquisition modes in which one waveform point is
waveform interval. comprised of several sequentially acquired sample points.
Additionally, waveform points can be created from a
composite of sample points taken from multiple acquisitions,
which provides another set of acquisition modes. A description
of the most commonly used acquisition modes follows.
Primer
Sampled point
displayed by
the DSO
The glitch you will not see
Figure 23. Sample rate varies with time base settings - the slower the time based
setting, the slower the sample rate. Some digital oscilloscopes provide peak detect
mode to capture fast transients at slow sweep speeds.
Types of Acquisition Modes

Sample Mode: This is the simplest acquisition mode. The
oscilloscope creates a waveform point by saving one
sample point during each waveform interval.
Peak Detect Mode: The oscilloscope saves the minimum Figure 24. Peak detect mode enables the oscilloscope to capture extremely brief
transient anomalies.
and maximum value sample points taken during two
waveform intervals and uses these samples as the two
corresponding waveform points. Digital oscilloscopes with
Average Mode: In average mode, the oscilloscope saves
peak detect mode run the ADC at a fast sample rate, even
one sample point during each waveform interval as in
at very slow time base settings (slow time base settings
sample mode. However, waveform points from consecutive
translate into long waveform intervals) and are able to
acquisitions are then averaged together to produce the final
capture fast signal changes that would occur between
displayed waveform. Average mode reduces noise without
the waveform points if in sample mode, as shown in
loss of bandwidth, but requires a repeating signal.
Figure 23. Peak detect mode is particularly useful for
seeing narrow pulses spaced far apart in time, as Waveform Database Mode: In waveform database mode,
demonstrated in Figure 24. the oscillocope accumulates a waveform database that
provides a three-dimensional array of amplitude, time, and
Hi-Res Mode: Like peak detect, hi res mode is a way
counts.
of getting more information in cases when the ADC can
sample faster than the time base setting requires. In this Starting and Stopping the Acquisition System
case, multiple samples taken within one waveform interval
One of the greatest advantages of digital oscilloscopes is
are averaged together to produce one waveform point.
their ability to store waveforms for later viewing. To this end,
The result is a decrease in noise and an improvement in
there are usually one or more buttons on the front panel that
resolution for low-speed signals. The advantage of Hi Res
allow you to start and stop the acquisition system so you can
Mode over Average is that Hi-Res Mode can be used even
analyze waveforms at your leisure. Additionally, you may want
on a single shot event.
the oscilloscope to automatically stop acquiring after one
Envelope Mode: Envelope mode is similar to peak detect acquisition is complete or after one set of records has been
mode. However, in envelope mode, the minimum and turned into an envelope or average waveform. This feature
maximum waveform points from multiple acquisitions is commonly called single sweep or single sequence and its
are combined to form a waveform that shows min/max controls are usually found either with the other acquisition
accumulation over time. Peak detect mode is usually controls or with the trigger controls.
used to acquire the records that are combined to form the
envelope waveform.
100 ps
Sampling Controls
Some digital oscilloscopes provide you with a choice in
1 Volt
Input Signal sampling method either real-time sampling or equivalent
Sample Points
time sampling. The acquisition controls available with these
oscilloscopes will allow you to select a sample method to
acquire signals. Note that this choice makes no difference for
slow time base settings and only has an effect when the ADC
1 Volt cannot sample fast enough to fill the record with waveform
Equivalent Time
Sampled Signal points in one pass. Each sampling method has distinct
advantages, depending on the kind of measurements being
100 ps
made.
Figure 25. Basic sampling, showing sample points are connected by interpolation to Controls are typically available on modern oscilloscopes to
produce a continuous waveform.
give you the choice of three horizontal time base modes of
operations. If you are simply doing signal exploration and want
Sampling to interact with a lively signal, you will use the Automatic or
Sampling is the process of converting a portion of an input interactive default mode that provides you with the liveliest
signal into a number of discrete electrical values for the display update rate. If you want a precise measurement and
purpose of storage, processing and/or display. The magnitude the highest real-time sample rate that will give you the most
of each sampled point is equal to the amplitude of the input measurement accuracy, then the Constant Sample Rate
signal at the instant in time in which the signal is sampled. mode is for you. It will maintain the highest sample rate and
provide the best real-time resolution. The last mode is called
Sampling is like taking snapshots. Each snapshot corresponds the Manual mode because it ensures direct and independent
to a specific point in time on the waveform. These snapshots control of the sample rate and record length.
can then be arranged in the appropriate order in time so as to
reconstruct the input signal. Real-time Sampling Method
In a digital oscilloscope, an array of sampled points is Real-time sampling is ideal for signals whose frequency range
reconstructed on a display with the measured amplitude on is less than half the oscilloscopes maximum sample rate.
the vertical axis and time on the horizontal axis, as illustrated in Here, the oscilloscope can acquire more than enough points
Figure 25. in one sweep of the waveform to construct an accurate
picture, as shown in Figure 26. Real-time sampling is the only
The input waveform in Figure 25 appears as a series of dots
way to capture fast, single-shot, transient signals with a digital
on the screen. If the dots are widely spaced and difficult to
oscilloscope.
interpret as a waveform, the dots can be connected using a
process called interpolation. Interpolation connects the dots
with lines, or vectors. A number of interpolation methods
are available that can be used to produce an accurate
representation of a continuous input signal.
Primer
Waveform Constructed
with Record Points
Sampling Rate
Figure 26. Real-time sampling method.
Real Time
Sampled Display
Input Signal
Figure 27. In order to capture this 10 ns pulse in real-time, the sample rate must
be high enough to accurately define the edges. Figure 28. Undersampling of a 100 MHz sine wave introduces aliasing effects.
Real-time sampling presents the greatest challenge for Real-time sampling with interpolation, dgital oscilloscopes
digital oscilloscopes because of the sample rate needed to take discrete samples of the signal that can be displayed.
accurately digitize high-frequency transient events, as shown However, it can be difficult to visualize the signal represented
in Figure 27. These events occur only once, and must be as dots, especially because there can be only a few dots
sampled in the same time frame that they occur. representing high-frequency portions of the signal. To aid in
the visualization of signals, digital oscilloscopes typically have
If the sample rate isnt fast enough, high-frequency
interpolation display modes.
components can fold down into a lower frequency, causing
aliasing in the display, as demonstrated in Figure 28. In In simple terms, interpolation connects the dots so that
addition, real-time sampling is further complicated by the a signal that is sampled only a few times in each cycle can
high-speed memory required to store the waveform once be accurately displayed. Using real-time sampling with
it is digitized. Please refer to the Sample Rate and Record interpolation, the oscilloscope collects a few sample points
Length sections under Performance Terms and Considerations of the signal in a single pass in real-time mode and uses
for additional detail regarding the sample rate and record interpolation to fill in the gaps. Interpolation is a processing
length needed to accurately characterize high-frequency technique used to estimate what the waveform looks like
components. based on a few points.
Waveform Constructed
Sine Wave Reproduced 100 with Record Points
using Sine x/x Interpolation 90
1st Acquisition Cycle
Sine Wave Reproduced

10
using Linear Interpolation 0 2nd Acquisition Cycle
Figure 29. Linear and sin x/x interpolation.

3rd Acquisition Cycle
Linear interpolation connects sample points with straight

lines. This approach is limited to reconstructing straightedged
nth Acquisition Cycle
signals, as illustrated in Figure 29, which better lends itself to Figure 30. Some oscilloscopes use equivalent-time sampling to capture and display
square waves. very fast, repetitive signals.
The more versatile sin x/x interpolation connects sample

points with curves, as shown in Figure 29. Sin x/x interpolation digitizers (samplers) take advantage of the fact that most
is a mathematical process in which points are calculated to fill naturally occurring and man-made events are repetitive.
in the time between the real samples. This form of interpolation Equivalent-time sampling constructs a picture of a repetitive
lends itself to curved and irregular signal shapes, which are signal by capturing a little bit of information from each
far more common in the real world than pure square waves repetition. The waveform slowly builds up like a string of
and pulses. Consequently, sin x/x interpolation is the preferred lights, illuminating one-by-one. This allows the oscilloscope to
method for applications where the sample rate is 3 to 5 times accurately capture signals whose frequency components are
the system bandwidth. much higher than the oscilloscopes sample rate.
There are two types of equivalent-time sampling methods:
Equivalent-time Sampling Method
random and sequential. Each has its advantages. Random
When measuring high-frequency signals, the oscilloscope equivalent-time sampling allows display of the input signal
may not be able to collect enough samples in one sweep. prior to the trigger point, without the use of a delay line.
Equivalent-time sampling can be used to accurately acquire Sequential equivalent-time sampling provides much greater
signals whose frequency exceeds half the oscilloscopes time resolution and accuracy. Both require that the input signal
sample rate, as illustrated in Figure 30. Equivalent-time be repetitive.
Primer
Equivalent Time Sequential

Sampled Display
Figure 31. In random equivalent-time sampling, the sampling clock runs asynchronously Figure 32. In sequential equivalent-time sampling, the single sample is taken for each
with the input signal and the trigger. recognized trigger after a time delay which is incremented after each cycle.
Random Equivalent-time Sampling Sequential Equivalent-time Sampling

Random equivalent-time digitizers (samplers) utilize an The sequential equivalent-time sampler acquires one sample
internal clock that runs asynchronously with respect to the per trigger, independent of the time/div setting, or sweep
input signal and the signal trigger, as illustrated in Figure 31. speed, as illustrated in Figure 32. When a trigger is detected,
Samples are taken continuously, independent of the trigger a sample is taken after a very short, but well-defined, delay.
position, and are displayed based on the time difference When the next trigger occurs, a small time increment delta t
between the sample and the trigger. Although samples are is added to this delay and the digitizer takes another sample.
taken sequentially in time, they are random with respect to the This process is repeated many times, with delta t added
trigger hence the name random equivalent-time sampling. to each previous acquisition, until the time window is filled.
Sample points appear randomly along the waveform when Sample points appear from left to right in sequence along the
displayed on the oscilloscope screen. waveform when displayed on the oscilloscope screen.
The ability to acquire and display samples prior to the trigger Technologically speaking, it is easier to generate a very short,
point is the key advantage of this sampling technique, very precise delta t than it is to accurately measure the
eliminating the need for external pretrigger signals or delay vertical and horizontal positions of a sample relative to the
lines. Depending on the sample rate and the time window trigger point, as required by random samplers. This precisely
of the display, random sampling may also allow more than measured delay is what gives sequential samplers their
one sample to be acquired per triggered event. However, at unmatched time resolution. Since, with sequential sampling,
faster sweep speeds, the acquisition window narrows until the the sample is taken after the trigger level is detected, the
digitizer cannot sample on every trigger. It is at these faster trigger point cannot be displayed without an analog delay line,
sweep speeds that very precise timing measurements are which may, in turn, reduce the bandwidth of the instrument. If
often made, and where the extraordinary time resolution of an external pretrigger can be supplied, bandwidth will not be
the sequential equivalent-time sampler is most beneficial. The affected.
bandwidth limit for random equivalent-time sampling is less
than for sequential-time sampling.
Position and Seconds per Division Search

The horizontal position control moves the waveform left and Some oscilloscopes offer search and mark capabilities,
right to exactly where you want it on the screen. enabling you to quickly navigate through long acquisitions
looking for user-defined events.
The seconds-per-division setting (usually written as sec/div)
lets you select the rate at which the waveform is drawn across XY Mode
the screen (also known as the time base setting or sweep
Most oscilloscopes have an XY mode that lets you display an
speed). This setting is a scale factor. If the setting is 1 ms,
input signal, rather than the time base, on the horizontal axis.
each horizontal division represents 1 ms and the total screen
This mode of operation opens up a whole new area of phase
width represents 10 ms, or ten divisions. Changing the sec/div
shift measurement techniques, explained in the Measurement
setting enables you to look at longer and shorter time intervals
Techniques section of this primer.
of the input signal.
As with the vertical volts/div scale, the horizontal sec/div scale Z Axis
may have variable timing, allowing you to set the horizontal A digital phosphor oscilloscope (DPO) has a high display
time scale between the discrete settings. sample density and an innate ability to capture intensity
information. With its intensity axis (Z axis), the DPO is able to
Time Base Selections
provide a three-dimensional, real-time display similar to that
Your oscilloscope has a time base, which is usually referred of an analog oscilloscope. As you look at the waveform trace
to as the main time base. Many oscilloscopes also have what on a DPO, you can see brightened areas the areas where
is called a delayed time base a time base with a sweep that a signal occurs most often. This display makes it easy to
can start (or be triggered to start) relative to a pre-determined distinguish the basic signal shape from a transient that occurs
time on the main time base sweep. Using a delayed time only once in a while the basic signal would appear much
base sweep allows you to see events more clearly and to brighter. One application of the Z axis is to feed special timed
see events that are not visible solely with the main time base signals into the separate Z input to create highlighted marker
sweep. dots at known intervals in the waveform.
The delayed time base requires the setting of a time delay and XYZ Mode with DPO and XYZ Record Display
the possible use of delayed trigger modes and other settings
not described in this primer. Refer to the manual supplied Some DPOs can use the Z input to create an XY display
with your oscilloscope for information on how to use these with intensity grading. In this case, the DPO samples the
features. instantaneous data value at the Z input and uses that value
to qualify a specific part of the waveform. Once you have
Zoom/Pan qualified samples, these samples can accumulate, resulting in
Your oscilloscope may have special horizontal magnification an intensity-graded XYZ display. XYZ mode is especially useful
settings that let you display a magnified section of the for displaying the polar patterns commonly used in testing
waveform on-screen. Some oscilloscopes add pan functions wireless communication devices a constellation diagram,
to the zoom capability. Knobs are used to adjust zoom factor for example. Another method of displaying XYZ data is XYZ
or scale and the pan of the zoom box across the waveform. record display. In this mode the data from the acquisition
memory is used rather than the DPO database.
Primer
Other advanced trigger functions include:

Pattern Lock Triggering: Pattern lock triggering adds a
new dimension to NRZ serial pattern triggering by enabling
the oscilloscope to take synchronized acquisitions of a long
serial test pattern with outstanding time base accuracy.
Pattern lock triggering can be used to remove random
jitter from long serial data patterns. Effects of specific bit
transitions can be investigated, and averaging can be used
with mask testing.
Serial Pattern Triggering: Serial pattern triggering can
be used to debug serial architectures. It provides a trigger
Figure 33. Untriggered display.
on the serial pattern of an NRZ serial data stream with
built-in clock recovery and correlates events across the
Trigger System and Controls physical and link layer. The instrument can recover the clock
An oscilloscopes trigger function synchronizes the horizontal signal, identify transitions, and allow you to set the desired
sweep at the correct point of the signal, essential for clear encoded words for the serial pattern trigger to capture.
signal characterization. Trigger controls allow you to stabilize A & B Triggering: Some trigger systems offer multiple
repetitive waveforms and capture single-shot waveforms. trigger types only on a single event (A event), with
The trigger makes repetitive waveforms appear static on the delayed trigger (B event) selection limited to edge type
oscilloscope display by repeatedly displaying the same portion triggering and often do not provide a way to reset the
of the input signal. Imagine the jumble on the screen that trigger sequence if the B event doesnt occur. Modern
would result if each sweep started at a different place on the oscilloscopes can provide the full suite of advanced trigger
signal, as illustrated in Figure 33. types on both A and B triggers, logic qualification to control
Edge triggering, available in analog and digital oscilloscopes, when to look for these events, and reset triggering to begin
is the basic and most common type. In addition to threshold the trigger sequence again after a specified time, state, or
triggering offered by both analog and digital oscilloscopes, transition so that even events in the most complex signals
many digital oscilloscopes offer numerous specialized trigger can be captured.
settings not offered by analog instruments. These triggers Search & Mark Triggering: Hardware triggers watch for
respond to specific conditions in the incoming signal, making one event type at a time, but Search can scan for multiple
it easy to detect, for example, a pulse that is narrower than it event types simultaneously. For example, scan for setup or
should be. Such a condition would be impossible to detect hold time violations on multiple channels. Individual marks
with a voltage threshold trigger alone. can be placed by Search indicating events that meet search
Advanced trigger controls enable you to isolate specific criteria.
events of interest to optimize the oscilloscopes sample rate Trigger Correction: Since the trigger and data acquisition
and record length. Advanced triggering capabilities in some systems share different paths there is some inherent time
oscilloscopes give you highly selective control. You can delay between the trigger position and the data acquired.
trigger on pulses defined by amplitude (such as runt pulses), This results in skew and trigger jitter. With a trigger
qualified by time (pulse width, glitch, slew rate, setup-andhold, correction system the instrument adjusts the trigger position
and time-out), and delineated by logic state or pattern (logic and compensates for the difference of delay there is
triggering). between the trigger path and the data acquisition path. This
will eliminate virtually any trigger jitter at the trigger point. In
this mode, the trigger point can be used as a measurement
reference.
Slew Rate Triggering. High frequency signals Runt Pulse Triggering. Runt triggering allows
with slew rates faster than expected or needed you to capture and examine pulses that cross
can radiate troublesome energy. Slew rate one logic threshold, but not both.
triggering surpasses conventional edge triggering
by adding the element of time and allowing you
to selectively trigger on fast or slow edges.
Glitch Triggering. Glitch triggering allows you Logic Triggering. Logic triggering allows you to
to trigger on digital pulses when they are shorter trigger on any logical combination of available
Trigger When:
or longer than a user-defined time limit. This input channels especially useful in verifying the
trigger control enables you to examine the operation of digital logic.
causes of even rare glitches and their effects
Time:
on other signals.
Pulse Width Triggering. Using pulse width Setup-and-Hold Triggering. Only setup-andhold
triggering, you can monitor a signal indefinitely triggering lets you deterministically trap
and trigger on the first occurrence of a pulse a single violation of setup-and-hold time that
whose duration (pulse width) is outside the would almost certainly be missed by using other
allowable limits. trigger modes. This trigger mode makes it easy
to capture specific signal quality and timing
details when a synchronous data signal fails
to meet setup-and-hold specifications.
Time-out Triggering. Time-out triggering lets Communication Triggering. Optionally available

you trigger on an event without waiting for the on certain oscilloscope models, these trigger
trigger pulse to end, by triggering based on a modes address the need to acquire a wide
specified time lapse. variety of Alternate-Mark Inversion (AMI),
Code-Mark Inversion (CMI), and Non-Return
to Zero (NRZ) communication signals.
Figure 34. Common trigger types.
Serial Triggering on Specific Standard Signals I2C, Optional trigger controls in some oscilloscopes are designed
CAN, LIN, etc.) - Some oscilloscopes provide the ability specifically to examine communications signals as well.
to trigger on specific signal types for standard serial data Figure 34 highlights a few of these common trigger types
signals such as CAN, LIN, I2C, SPI, and others. The in more detail. The intuitive user interface available in some
decode of these signal types is also available on many oscilloscopes also allows rapid setup of trigger parameters
oscilloscopes today. with wide flexibility in the test setup to maximize your
productivity.
Parallel Bus Triggering - Multiple parallel buses can be
defined and displayed at one time to easily view decoded
parallel bus data over time. By specifying which channels
are the clock and data lines, you can create a parallel bus
display on some oscilloscopes that automatically decodes
bus content. Countless hours can be saved by using
parallel bus triggers to simplify capture and analysis.
Primer
Triggering on the Negative Pre-trigger viewing is a valuable troubleshooting aid. If a

Slope with the Level Set to 3 V
problem occurs intermittently, you can trigger on the
Positive
Slope Negative problem, record the events that led up to it and, possibly,
Slope
find the cause.
Zero Volts 3V
Input Signal Trigger Level and Slope
The trigger level and slope controls provide the basic trigger
point definition and determine how a waveform is displayed,
Triggering on the Positive Slope as illustrated in Figure 35.
with the Level Set to 3 V
The trigger circuit acts as a comparator. You select the slope
and voltage level on one input of the comparator. When the
3V trigger signal on the other comparator input matches your
settings, the oscilloscope generates a trigger.
The slope control determines whether the trigger point is on
Figure 35. Positive and negative slope triggering. the rising or the falling edge of a signal. A rising edge is a
positive slope and a falling edge is a negative slope. The level
Trigger Position control determines where on the edge the trigger point occurs.
Horizontal trigger position control is only available on digital Trigger Sources

oscilloscopes. The trigger position control may be located The oscilloscope does not necessarily need to trigger on the
in the horizontal control section of your oscilloscope. It signal being displayed. Several sources can trigger the sweep:
actually represents the horizontal position of the trigger in the
Any input channel
waveform record.
An external source other than the signal applied to an input
Varying the horizontal trigger position allows you to capture
channel
what a signal did before a trigger event, known as pre-trigger
viewing. Thus, it determines the length of viewable signal both The power source signal
preceding and following a trigger point. A signal internally defined by the oscilloscope, from one or
Digital oscilloscopes can provide pre-trigger viewing more input channels
because they constantly process the input signal, whether Most of the time, you can leave the oscilloscope set to
or not a trigger has been received. A steady stream of data trigger on the channel displayed. Some oscilloscopes provide
flows through the oscilloscope; the trigger merely tells the a trigger output that delivers the trigger signal to another
oscilloscope to save the present data in memory. instrument.
In contrast, analog oscilloscopes only display the signal that The oscilloscope can use an alternate trigger source,
is, write it on the CRT after receiving the trigger. Thus, pre- whether or not it is displayed, so you should be careful not
trigger viewing is not available in analog oscilloscopes, with to unwittingly trigger on channel 1 while displaying channel 2,
the exception of a small amount of pre-trigger provided by a for example.
delay line in the vertical system.
Acquisition Interval Acquisition Interval
Trigger Level
Trigger Point
Holdoff Holdoff Holdoff
New triggers are not recognized during the holdoff time.

Figure 36. Trigger holdoff.
Trigger Modes Trigger Coupling

The trigger mode determines whether or not the oscilloscope Just as you can select either AC or DC coupling for the vertical
draws a waveform based on a signal condition. Common system, you can choose the kind of coupling for the trigger
trigger modes include normal and auto. signal.
In normal mode the oscilloscope only sweeps if the input Besides AC and DC coupling, your oscilloscope may also
signal reaches the set trigger point; otherwise (on an analog have high frequency rejection, low frequency rejection, and
oscilloscope) the screen is blank or (on a digital oscilloscope) noise rejection trigger coupling. These special settings are
frozen on the last acquired waveform. Normal mode can be useful for eliminating noise from the trigger signal to prevent
disorienting since you may not see the signal at first if the level false triggering.
control is not adjusted correctly.
Trigger Holdoff
Auto mode causes the oscilloscope to sweep, even without
Sometimes getting an oscilloscope to trigger on the correct
a trigger. If no signal is present, a timer in the oscilloscope
part of a signal requires great skill. Many oscilloscopes have
triggers the sweep. This ensures that the display will not
special features to make this task easier.
disappear if the signal does not cause a trigger.
Trigger holdoff is an adjustable period of time after a valid
In practice, you will probably use both modes: normal mode
trigger during which the oscilloscope cannot trigger. This
because it lets you see just the signal of interest, even when
feature is useful when you are triggering on complex waveform
triggers occur at a slow rate, and auto mode because it
shapes, so that the oscilloscope only triggers on an eligible
requires less adjustment.
trigger point. Figure 36 shows how using trigger holdoff helps
Many oscilloscopes also include special modes for single create a usable display.
sweeps, triggering on video signals, or automatically setting
the trigger level.
Primer
Channel 1 Display
ADD Mode: Channel 1

and Channel 2 Combined
Channel 2 Display
Figure 38. Adding channels.
with analog oscilloscopes is possible by using the channel

invert function on one signal and then using the add operation.
Figure 37. An oscilloscope graticule.
Digital oscilloscopes typically have a subtraction operation
available. Figure 38 illustrates a third waveform created by
Display System and Controls combining two different signals.
An oscilloscopes front panel includes a display screen and Using the power of their internal processors, digital
the knobs, buttons, switches, and indicators used to control oscilloscopes offer many advanced math operations:
signal acquisition and display. As mentioned at the front of this multiplication, division, integration, Fast Fourier Transform, and
section, front-panel controls are usually divided into vertical, more. This advanced signal processing capability can also
horizontal and trigger sections. The front panel also includes perform functions such as the insertion of a filter block which
input connectors. can be used de-embed the characteristics of the fixture on
the device under test or implement a filter block with desired
Take a look at the oscilloscope display. Notice the grid
frequency response such as a low pass filter. The processing
markings on the screen these markings create the graticule.
block is flexible not dedicated; it can perform as an arbitrary
Each vertical and horizontal line constitutes a major division.
filter instead, for example for simulation of pre-emphasis/de-
The graticule is usually laid out in an 8-by-10 or 10-by-10
emphasis schemes.
division pattern. Labeling on the oscilloscope controls (such
as volts/div and sec/div) always refers to major divisions. Digital Timing and State Acquisitions
The tick marks on the center horizontal and vertical graticule
Digital channels provided by a mixed signal oscilloscope
lines, as shown in Figure 37, are called minor divisions. Many
enable acquisition capabilities similar to those found on
oscilloscopes display on the screen how many volts each
logic analyzers. There are two major digital acquisition
vertical division represents and how many seconds each
techniques. The first technique is timing acquisition in which
horizontal division represents.
the MSO samples the digital signal at uniformly spaced times
Other Oscilloscope Controls determined by the MSO's sample rate. At each sample point,
the MSO stores the signal's logic state and creates a timing
Math and Measurement Operations diagram of the signal. The second digital acquisition technique
Your oscilloscope may also have operations that allow is state acquisition. State acquisition defines special times
you to add waveforms together, creating a new waveform that the digital signal's logic state is valid and stable. This is
display. Analog oscilloscopes combine the signals while common in synchronous and clocked digital circuits. A clock
digital oscilloscopes create new waveforms mathematically. signal defines the time when the signal state is valid. For
Subtracting waveforms is another math operation. Subtraction example, the input signal stable time is around
the rising clock edge for a D-Flip-Flop with rising edge

clocking. The output signal stable time is around the falling
clock edge for a D-Flip-Flop with rising edge clocking. Since
the clock period of a synchronous circuit may not be fixed, the
time between state acquisitions may not be uniform as it is in
a timing acquisition.
A mixed signal oscilloscope's digital channels acquire
signals similar to how a logic analyzer acquires signals in
timing acquisition mode. The MSO then decodes the timing
acquisition into a clocked bus display, and event table which
is similar to the logic analyzer's state acquisition display,
providing you with important information during debug.
We have described the basic oscilloscope controls that a Figure 39. Dense devices and systems require small form factor probes.
beginner needs to know about. Your oscilloscope may have

other controls for various functions. Some of these may To ensure accurate reconstruction of your
include:
signal, try to choose a probe that, when
Automatic parametric measurements paired with your oscilloscope, exceeds the
Measurement cursors signal bandwidth by 5 times.
Keypads for mathematical operations or data entry Probes actually become part of the circuit, introducing
Printing capabilities resistive, capacitive and inductive loading that inevitably alters
the measurement. For the most accurate results, the goal is
Interfaces for connecting your oscilloscope to a computer
to select a probe with minimal loading. An ideal pairing of the
or directly to the Internet
probe with the oscilloscope will minimize this loading, and
Look over the other options available to you and read your enable you to access all of the power, features and capabilities
oscilloscopes manual to find out more about these other of your oscilloscope.
controls.
Another connectivity consideration is the probes form factor.
Small form factor probes provide easier access to todays
The Complete Measurement System densely packed circuitry, as shown in Figure 39.
Probes A brief description of the types of probes follows. Please refer
Even the most advanced instrument can only be as precise as to the Tektronix ABCs of Probes primer for more information
the data that goes into it. A probe functions in conjunction with about this essential component of the overall measurement
an oscilloscope as part of the measurement system. Precision system.
measurements start at the probe tip. The right probes
matched to the oscilloscope and the device-undertest (DUT)
not only allow the signal to be brought to the oscilloscope
cleanly, they also amplify and preserve the signal for the
greatest signal integrity and measurement accuracy.
Primer
Because it attenuates the signal, the 10X attenuator probe

makes it difficult to look at signals less than 10 millivolts peak-
to-peak. The 1X probe is similar to the 10X attenuator probe
but lacks the attenuation circuitry. Without this circuitry, more
interference is introduced to the circuit being tested.
Use the 10X attenuator probe as your general-purpose probe,
but keep the 1X probe accessible to measure slow-speed,
low-amplitude signals. Some probes have a convenient
feature for switching between 1X and 10X attenuation at the
probe tip. If your probe has this feature, make sure you are
using the correct setting before taking measurements.
Many oscilloscopes can automatically detect whether you
are using a 1X or 10X probe and adjust their screen readouts
Figure 40. A typical passive probe with accessories.
accordingly. However with some oscilloscopes, you must set
the type of probe you are using or read from the proper 1X or
10X marking on the volts/div control.
Passive Probes
The 10X attenuator probe works by balancing the probes
For measuring typical signal and voltage levels, passive electrical properties against the oscilloscopes electrical
probes provide ease-of-use and a wide range of measurement properties. Before using a 10X attenuator probe you need
capabilities at an affordable price. The pairing of a passive to adjust this balance for your particular oscilloscope. This
voltage probe with a current probe will provide you with an adjustment is known as compensating the probe and is
ideal solution for measuring power. described in more detail in the Operating the Oscilloscope
Most passive probes have some attenuation factor, such as section of this primer.
10X, 100X, and so on. By convention, attenuation factors, Passive probes, such as the one shown in Figure 40, provide
such as for the 10X attenuator probe, have the X after the excellent general-purpose probing solutions. However,
factor. In contrast, magnification factors like X10 have the general-purpose passive probes cannot accurately measure
X first. signals with extremely fast rise times, and may excessively
The 10X (read as ten times) attenuator probe reduces load sensitive circuits. The steady increase in signal clock
circuit loading in comparison to a 1X probe and is an rates and edge speeds demands higher speed probes with
excellent general-purpose passive probe. Circuit loading less loading effects. High-speed active and differential probes
becomes more pronounced for higher frequency and/or provide ideal solutions when measuring high-speed and/or
higher impedance signal sources, so be sure to analyze these differential signals.
signal/probe loading interactions before selecting a probe.
The 10X attenuator probe improves the accuracy of your
measurements, but also reduces the signals amplitude at the
oscilloscope input by a factor of 10.
Figure 41. High-performance probes are critical when measuring the fast clocks and Figure 42. Differential probes can separate common-mode noise from the signal
edges found in todays computer buses and data transmission lines. content of interest in todays fast, low-voltage applications - especially important as
digital signals continue to fall below typical noise thresholds found in integrated circuits.
Active and Differential Probes

Increasing signal speeds and lower-voltage logic families
make accurate measurement results difficult to achieve. Signal
fidelity and device loading are critical issues. A complete
measurement solution at these high speeds includes
high-speed, high-fidelity probing solutions to match the
performance of the oscilloscope, as shown in Figure 41.
Active and differential probes use specially developed
integrated circuits to preserve the signal during access and
transmission to the oscilloscope, ensuring signal integrity. For
measuring signals with fast rise times, a high-speed active
or differential probe will provide more accurate results, as
highlighted in Figure 42.
Newer probe types provide the advantage of being able to
Figure 43. Logic probes for a mixed signal oscilloscope (MSO) simplify digital
use one setup, and get three types of measurements without
connectivity to your device.
adjusting probe tip connections. These probes can make
differential, single-ended and common mode measurements
from the same probe setup. it easy to identify. The common ground uses an automotive
style connector making it easy to create custom grounds
Logic Probes for connecting to the device-under-test. When connecting
to square pins, you can use an adapter that attaches to
The logic probe shown in Figure 43 offers two eight-channel
the probe head extending the probe ground flush with the
pods. Each channel ends with a probe tip featuring a recessed
probe tip so you can attach to a header. These probes offer
ground for simplified connection to the device-under-test. The
outstanding electrical characteristics with minimal capacitive
coax on the first channel of each pod is colored blue making
loading.
Primer
} 3%
100
Like the basic systems of an oscilloscope, the
95
performance considerations of an oscilloscope
90
significantly affect its ability to achieve the
85
required signal integrity.
80
75 Learning a new skill often involves learning a new vocabulary.

70 (-3dB) This idea holds true for learning how to use an oscilloscope.
1.0
0.6
0.2
0.3
0.7
0.1
0.8
0.5
0.4
0.9
This section describes some useful measurement and oscil-
Normalized Frequency (f/f 3dB )
loscope performance terms. These terms are used to describe
Figure 44. Oscilloscope bandwidth is the frequency at which a sinusoidal input signal
the criteria essential to choosing the right oscilloscope for your
is attenuated to 70.7% of the signals true amplitude, known as the -3 dB point.
application. Understanding these terms will help you to evalu-
ate and compare your oscilloscope with other models.
Specialty Probes
In addition to the previously mentioned probe types, there are Bandwidth
also a variety of other specialty probes and probing systems. Bandwidth determines an oscilloscopes fundamental ability to
These include current, high-voltage, and optical probes, just to measure a signal. As signal frequency increases, the capability
name a few. of the oscilloscope to accurately display the signal decreases.
This specification indicates the frequency range that the
Probe Accessories
oscilloscope can accurately measure.
Many modern oscilloscopes provide special automated
Oscilloscope bandwidth is specified as the frequency at which
features built into the input and mating probe connectors. In
a sinusoidal input signal is attenuated to 70.7% of the signals
the case of intelligent probe interfaces, the act of connecting
true amplitude, known as the 3 dB point, a term based on a
the probe to the instrument notifies the oscilloscope about
logarithmic scale, as seen in Figure 44.
the probes attenuation factor, which in turn scales the display
so that the probes attenuation is figured into the readout on Without adequate bandwidth, your oscilloscope will not
the screen. Some probe interfaces also recognize the type of be able to resolve high-frequency changes. Amplitude will
probe that is, passive, active or current. The interface may be distorted. Edges will vanish. Details will be lost. Without
act as a DC power source for probes. Active probes have their adequate bandwidth, all the features, bells and whistles in your
own amplifier and buffer circuitry that requires DC power. oscilloscope will mean nothing.
Ground lead and probe tip accessories are also available to To determine the oscilloscope bandwidth needed to accurately
improve signal integrity when measuring high-speed signals. characterize signal amplitude in your specific application, apply
Ground lead adapters provide spacing flexibility between the 5 Times Rule.
probe tip and ground lead connections to the DUT, while
Highest Frequency
maintaining very short lead lengths from probe tip to DUT. Oscilloscope Bandwidth x5
Component of Signal
Please refer to the Tektronix ABCs of Probes primer for more
information about probes and probe accessories.
Performance Terms and Considerations

As previously mentioned, an oscilloscope is analogous to a
camera that captures signal images that we can observe and
interpret. Shutter speed, lighting conditions, aperture and the
ASA rating of the film all affect the cameras ability to capture
an image clearly and accurately.
Figure 45. The higher the bandwidth, the more accurate the reproduction of your signal, Figure 46. Rise time characterization of a high-speed digital signal.
as illustrated with a signal captured at 250 MHz, 1 GHz and 4 GHz bandwidth
levels.
An oscilloscope selected using the 5 Times Rule will give you Rise time describes the useful frequency range of an
less than 2% error in your measurements typically sufficient oscilloscope. To calculate the oscilloscope rise time required
for todays applications. However, as signal speeds increase, for your signal type, use the following equation:
it may not be possible to achieve this rule of thumb. Always
1
keep in mind that higher bandwidth will likely provide more Oscilloscope Rise Time Fastest Rise Time of Signal x
5
accurate reproduction of your signal, as demonstrated in
Figure 45. Note that this basis for oscilloscope rise time selection is
Some oscilloscopes provide a method of enhancing the similar to that for bandwidth. As in the case of bandwidth,
bandwidth through digital signal processing. A DSP arbitrary achieving this rule of thumb may not always be possible given
equalization filter can be used to improve the oscilloscope the extreme speeds of todays signals. Always remember
channel response. This filter extends the bandwidth, flattens that an oscilloscope with faster rise time will more accurately
the oscilloscopes channel frequency response, improves capture the critical details of fast transitions.
phase linearity, and provides a better match between In some applications, you may know only the rise time of a
channels. It also decreases rise time and improves the time- signal. A constant allows you to relate the bandwidth and rise
domain step response. time of the oscilloscope, using the equation:
Rise Time K
Bandwidth =
In the digital world, rise time measurements are critical. Rise Rise Time
time may be a more appropriate performance consideration
where k is a value between 0.35 and 0.45, depending
when you expect to measure digital signals, such as pulses on the shape of the oscilloscopes frequency response
and steps. As shown in Figure 46, your oscilloscope must curve and pulse rise time response. Oscilloscopes with
have sufficient rise time to accurately capture the details of a bandwidth of <1 GHz typically have a 0.35 value,
rapid transitions. while oscilloscopes with a bandwidth of > 1 GHz
usually have a value between 0.40 and 0.45.
Primer
Typical Signal Calculated Signal

Logic Family Rise Time Bandwidth
TTL 2 ns 175 MHz
CMOS 1.5 ns 230 MHz
GTL 1 ns 350 MHz
LVDS 400 ps 875 MHz
ECL 100 ps 3.5 GHz
GaAs 40 ps 8.75 GHz
Figure 47. Some logic families produce inherently faster rise times than others.
Some logic families produce inherently faster rise times than

others, as illustrated in Figure 47.
Sample Rate
Figure 48. A higher sample rate provides greater signal resolution, ensuring that youll
Sample rate specified in samples per second (S/s) refers see intermittent events.
to how frequently a digital oscilloscope takes a snapshot or

sample of the signal, analogous to the frames on a movie In reality, accurate reconstruction of a signal depends on both
camera. The faster an oscilloscope samples (i.e., the higher the sample rate and the interpolation method used to fill in
the sample rate), the greater the resolution and detail of the the spaces between the samples. Some oscilloscopes let you
displayed waveform and the less likely that critical information select either sin (x)/x interpolation for measuring sinusoidal
or events will be lost, as shown in Figure 48. The minimum signals, or linear interpolation for square waves, pulses and
sample rate may also be important if you need to look at other signal types.
slowly changing signals over longer periods of time. Typically,
the displayed sample rate changes with changes made to
the horizontal scale control to maintain a constant number of For accurate reconstruction using sin(x)/x
waveform points in the displayed waveform record. interpolation, your oscilloscope should have
How do you calculate your sample rate requirements? The a sample rate at least 2.5 times the highest
method differs based on the type of waveform you are frequency component of your signal. Using
measuring, and the method of signal reconstruction used by linear interpolation, the sample rate should be
the oscilloscope. at least 10 times the highest frequency signal
In order to accurately reconstruct a signal and avoid aliasing, component.
the Nyquist theorem states that the signal must be sampled
at least twice as fast as its highest frequency component. This
theorem, however, assumes an infinite record length and a Some measurement systems with sample rates to 10 GS/s
continuous signal. Since no oscilloscope offers infinite record and bandwidths to 3+ GHz have been optimized for capturing
length and, by definition, glitches are not continuous, sampling very fast, single-shot and transient events by oversampling up
at only twice the rate of highest frequency component is to 5 times the bandwidth.
usually insufficient.
Figure 49. A DPO provides an ideal solution for non-repetitive, high-speed, Figure 50. A DPO enables a superior level of insight into signal behavior by
multi-channel digital design applications. delivering vastly greater waveform capture rates and three-dimensional display,
making it the best general-purpose design and troubleshooting tool for a wide
range of applications.
Waveform Capture Rate

All oscilloscopes blink. That is, they open their eyes a given Most digital phosphor oscilloscopes (DPOs) employ a parallel-
number of times per second to capture the signal, and close processing architecture to deliver vastly greater waveform
their eyes in between. This is the waveform capture rate, capture rates. As seen in Figure 49, some DPOs can acquire
expressed as waveforms per second (wfms/s). While the millions of waveforms in just seconds, significantly increasing
sample rate indicates how frequently the oscilloscope samples the probability of capturing intermittent and elusive events and
the input signal within one waveform, or cycle, the waveform allowing you to see the problems in your signal more quickly.
capture rate refers to how quickly an oscilloscope acquires Moreover, the DPOs ability to acquire and display three
waveforms. dimensions of signal behavior in real time amplitude, time
and distribution of amplitude over time results in a superior
Waveform capture rates vary greatly, depending on the type
level of insight into signal behavior, as shown in Figure 50.
and performance level of the oscilloscope. Oscilloscopes with
high waveform capture rates provide significantly more visual Record Length
insight into signal behavior, and dramatically increase the
Record length, expressed as the number of points that
probability that the oscilloscope will quickly capture transient
comprise a complete waveform record, determines the
anomalies such as jitter, runt pulses, glitches and transition
amount of data that can be captured with each channel. Since
errors.
an oscilloscope can store only a limited number of samples,
Digital storage oscilloscopes (DSOs) employ a serial the waveform duration (time) will be inversely proportional to
processing architecture to capture from 10 to 5,000 wfms/s. the oscilloscopes sample rate.
Some DSOs provide a special mode that bursts multiple
captures into long memory, temporarily delivering higher Record Length
Time Interval =
waveform capture rates followed by long processing dead Sample Rate
times that reduce the probability of capturing rare, intermittent
events.
Primer
Frequency Response
Bandwidth alone is not enough to ensure that an oscilloscope
can accurately capture a high frequency signal. The goal of
oscilloscope design is a specific type of frequency response:
Maximally Flat Envelope Delay (MFED). A frequency response
of this type delivers excellent pulse fidelity with minimum
overshoot and ringing. Since a digital oscilloscope is
composed of real amplifiers, attenuators, ADCs, interconnects,
and relays, MFED response is a goal that can only be
approached. Pulse fidelity varies considerably with model and
manufacturer.
Vertical Sensitivity
Vertical sensitivity indicates how much the vertical amplifier
can amplify a weak signal usually measured in millivolts
Figure 51. Capturing the high frequency detail of this modulated 85 MHz carrier
requires high resolution sampling (100 ps). Seeing the signals complete modulation (mV) per division. The smallest voltage detected by a general-
envelope requires a long time duration (1 ms). Using long record length (10 MB), the purpose oscilloscope is typically about 1 mV per vertical
oscilloscope can display both.
screen division.
Modern oscilloscopes allow you to select record length to Sweep Speed

optimize the level of detail needed for your application. If you
Sweep speed indicates how fast the trace can sweep across
are analyzing an extremely stable sinusoidal signal, you may
the oscilloscope screen, enabling you to see fine details.
need only a 500 point record length, but if you are isolating the
The sweep speed of an oscilloscope is represented by time
causes of timing anomalies in a complex digital data stream,
(seconds) per division.
you may need a million points or more for a given record
length, as demonstrated in Figure 51. Gain Accuracy
Triggering Capabilities Gain accuracy indicates how accurately the vertical system
attenuates or amplifies a signal, usually represented as a
An oscilloscopes trigger function synchronizes the horizontal
percentage error.
sweep at the correct point of the signal, essential for clear
signal characterization. Trigger controls allow you to stabilize Horizontal Accuracy (Time Base)
repetitive waveforms and capture single-shot waveforms.
Horizontal, or time base, accuracy indicates how accurately
Please refer to the Trigger section under Performance Terms the horizontal system displays the timing of a signal, usually
and Considerations for more information regarding triggering represented as a percentage error.
capabilities.
Vertical Resolution (Analog-to-Digital Converter)
Effective Bits
Vertical resolution of the ADC, and therefore, the digital
Effective bits represent a measure of a digital oscilloscope's oscilloscope, indicates how precisely it can convert input
ability to accurately reconstruct a sinewave signals shape. voltages into digital values. Vertical resolution is measured
This measurement compares the oscilloscope's actual error to in bits. Calculation techniques can improve the effective
that of a theoretical ideal digitizer. Because the actual errors resolution, as exemplified with hi-res acquisition mode.
include noise and distortion, the frequency and amplitude of
the signal must be specified.
Figure 52. The MSO provides 16 integrated digital channels, enabling the ability to Figure 53. Todays oscilloscopes provide a wide array of communications interfaces,
view and analyze time-correlated analog and digital signals. A high speed timing such as a standard Centronics port and optional Ethernet/RS-232, GPIB/RS-232, and
acquisition provides more resolution to reveal narrow events such as glitches. VGA/RS-232 modules. There is even a USB port (not shown) on the front panel.
Timing Resolution (MSO)

An important MSO acquisition specification is the timing
resolution used for capturing digital signals. Acquiring a signal
with better timing resolution provides a more accurate timing
measurement of when the signal changes. For example, a
500 MS/s acquisition rate has 2 ns timing resolution and the
acquired signal edge uncertainty is 2 ns. A smaller timing
resolution of 60.6 ps (16.5 GS/s) decreases the signal edge
uncertainty to 60.6 ps and captures faster changing signals.
Some MSOs internally acquire digital signals with two types
of acquisitions at the same time. The first acquisition is with
standard timing resolution, and the second acquisition uses
a high speed resolution. The standard resolution is used over
a longer record length while the high speed timing acquisition
offers more resolution around a narrow point of interest, as Figure 54. Analysis software packages are specifically designed to meet jitter and eye
shown in Figure 52. measurement needs of today's high-speed digital designers.
Connectivity Access network printing and file sharing resources

The need to analyze measurement results remains of utmost Access the Windows desktop
importance. The need to document and share information
and measurement results easily and frequently has also Run third-party analysis and documentation software
grown in importance. The connectivity of an oscilloscope Link to networks
delivers advanced analysis capabilities and simplifies the
Access the Internet
documentation and sharing of results. As shown in Figure 53,
standard interfaces (GPIB, RS-232, USB, Ethernet) and Send and receive e-mail
network communication modules enable some oscilloscopes
to deliver a vast array of functionality and control.
Expandability
An oscilloscope should be able to accommodate your needs
Some advanced oscilloscopes also let you:
as they change. Some oscilloscopes allow you to:
Create, edit and share documents on the oscilloscope
all while working with the instrument in your particular
environment
Primer
Figure 55. Serial bus analysis is accelerated with automated trigger, decode, and Figure 57. Advanced DDR analysis tools automate complex memory tasks like
search on serial packet context. separating read/write bursts and performing JEDEC measurements.
Figure 56. Automatically trigger, decode, and search on clocked or unclocked Figure 58. Video application modules make the oscilloscope a fast, tell-all tool for
parallel bus data. video troubleshooting.
Add memory to channels to analyze longer record lengths

Add application-specific measurement capabilities
Complement the power of the oscilloscope with a full range
of probes and modules
Work with popular third-party analysis and productivity
Windows-compatible software
Add accessories, such as battery packs and rackmounts
Application modules and software may enable you to
transform your oscilloscope into a highly specialized analysis
tool capable of performing functions such as jitter and
timing analysis, microprocessor memory system verification,
communications standards testing, disk drive measurements,
video measurements, power measurements and much more.
Figure 59. Advanced analysis and productivity software, such as MATLAB, can be Figures 54 - 59 highlight a few of these examples.
installed in Windows-based oscilloscopes to accomplish local signal analysis.
Figure 61. Use graphical control windows to access even the most sophisiticated
functions with confidence and ease.
Figure 60. Traditional, analog-style knobs control position, scale, intensity, etc.
precisely as you would expect.
Ease-of-Use
Oscilloscopes should be easy to learn and easy to use,
helping you work at peak efficiency and productivity. Allowing
you to focus on your design, rather than the measurement
tools. Just as there is no one typical car driver, there is no
one typical oscilloscope user. Regardless of whether you
prefer a traditional instrument interface, or that of a Windows
interface, it is important to have flexibility in your oscilloscopes
operation.
Many oscilloscopes offer a balance between performance and
simplicity by providing the user with many ways to operate
the instrument. A front-panel layout, in Figure 60, provides Figure 62. Touch-sensitive display naturally solves issues with cluttered benches and
carts, while providing access to clear, on-screen buttons.
dedicated vertical, horizontal and trigger controls. An icon-
rich graphical user interface, as shown in Figure 61, helps
you understand and intuitively use advanced capabilities. the oscilloscope as they do driving a car, while giving full-
Touch-sensitive displays solve issues with cluttered benches time users easy access to the oscilloscopes most advanced
and carts, while providing access to clear, onscreen buttons, features. In addition, many oscilloscopes are portable, such
as seen in Figure 62. Online help provides a convenient, as the one shown in Figure 63, making the oscilloscope
built-in reference manual. Intuitive controls allow even efficient in many different operating environments in the
occasional oscilloscope users to feel as comfortable driving lab or in the field.
Primer
Figure 63. The portability of many oscilloscopes makes the instrument efficient in Figure 64. Typical wrist-type grounding strap.
many operating environments.
Operating the Oscilloscope Grounding is also necessary for taking accurate

measurements with your oscilloscope. The oscilloscope needs
This section briefly describes how to set up and start using to share the same ground as any circuits you are testing.
an oscilloscope specifically, how to properly ground the
oscilloscope and yourself, set the oscilloscope controls, Some oscilloscopes do not require separate connection to
calibrate the oscilloscope, connect the probes, and earth ground. These oscilloscopes have insulated cases and
compensate the probes. controls, which keeps any possible shock hazard away from
the user.
Proper grounding is an important step when setting up to
take measurements or work on a circuit. Proper grounding of If you are working with integrated circuits (ICs), you also need
the oscilloscope protects you from a hazardous shock and to ground yourself. Integrated circuits have tiny conduction
grounding yourself protects your circuits from damage. paths that can be damaged by static electricity that builds up
on your body. You can ruin an expensive IC simply by walking
Proper Grounding across a carpet or taking off a sweater and then touching the
leads of the IC. To solve this problem, wear a grounding strap,
To ground the oscilloscope means to connect it to an
as shows in Figure 64. This strap safely sends static charges
electrically neutral reference point, such as earth ground.
on your body to earth ground.
Ground your oscilloscope by plugging its three-pronged power
cord into an outlet grounded to earth ground. Setting the Controls
Grounding the oscilloscope is necessary for safety. If a high After plugging in the oscilloscope, take a look at the front
voltage contacts the case of an ungrounded oscilloscope panel. As described previously, the front panel is typically
any part of the case, including knobs that appear insulated divided into three main sections labeled vertical, horizontal,
it can give you a shock. However, with a properly grounded and trigger. Your oscilloscope may have other sections,
oscilloscope, the current travels through the grounding path to depending on the model and type.
earth ground rather than through you to earth ground.
Notice the input connectors on your oscilloscope this is
where you attach the probes. Most oscilloscopes have at
least two input channels and each channel can display a
waveform on the screen. Multiple channels are useful for Connecting the Probes
comparing waveforms. As mentioned earlier, MSOs also have
Now you are ready to connect a probe to your oscilloscope. A
digital inputs as well.
probe, if well-matched to the oscilloscope, will enable you to
Some oscilloscopes have AUTOSET and/or DEFAULT buttons access all of the power and performance in the oscilloscope
that can set up the controls in one step to accommodate a and will ensure the integrity of the signal you are measuring.
signal. If your oscilloscope does not have this capability, it is
Measuring a signal requires two connections: the probe tip
helpful to set the controls to standard positions before taking
connection and the ground connection. Probes often come
measurements.
with a clip attachment for grounding the probe to the circuit
General instructions to manually set up the oscilloscope in under test. In practice, you attach the grounding clip to a
standard positions are as follows: known ground in the circuit, such as the metal chassis of a
Set the oscilloscope to display channel 1 product you are repairing, and touch the probe tip to a test
point in the circuit
Set the vertical volts/division scale and position controls to
midrange positions Compensating the Probes
Turn off the variable volts/division Passive attenuation voltage probes must be compensated
Turn off all magnification settings to the oscilloscope. Before using a passive probe, you need
to compensate it to balance its electrical properties to a
Set the channel 1 input coupling to DC particular oscilloscope.
Set the trigger mode to auto You should get into the habit of compensating the probe every
Set the trigger source to channel 1 time you set up your oscilloscope. A poorly adjusted probe
can make your measurements less accurate. Figure 65
Turn trigger holdoff to minimum or off
illustrates the effects on a 1 MHz test signal when using
Set the horizontal time/division and position controls to a probe that is not properly compensated.
mid-range positions
Most oscilloscopes have a square wave reference signal
Adjust channel 1 volts/division such that the signal occupies available at a terminal on the front panel used to compensate
as much of the 10 vertical divisions as possible without the probe. General instructions to compensate the probe are
clipping or signal distortion as follows:
Calibrating the Instrument Attach the probe to a vertical channel
In addition to proper oscilloscope setup, periodic instrument Connect the probe tip to the probe compensation, i.e.
self-calibration is recommended for accurate measurements. square wave reference signal
Calibration is needed if the ambient temperature has changed Attach the ground clip of the probe to ground
more than 5 C (9 F) since the last self-calibration or once
View the square wave reference signal
a week. In the oscilloscope menu this can sometimes be
initiated as Signal Path Compensation. Refer to the manual Make the proper adjustments on the probe so that the
that accompanied your oscilloscope for more detailed corners of the square wave are square
instructions.
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Probe
Undercompensated.
Probe Adjustment Signal Probe Adjustment Signal
Probe Compensated
Correctly.
Probe Adjustment Signal Note Proper Amplitude
Probe
Overcompensated.
Probe Adjustment Signal Note Increased Amplitude
Figure 65. The effects of improper probe compensation.
When you compensate the probe, always attach any oscilloscope has the same electrical properties as it does
accessory tips you will use and connect the probe to the when you take measurements.
vertical channel you plan to use. This will ensure that the
Oscilloscope Measurement Techniques

This section reviews basic measurement techniques. The two
Voltage Peak
most basic measurements you can make are voltage and time
Voltage
measurements. Just about every other measurement is based Peak-to-Peak
on one of these two fundamental techniques.
This section discusses methods for taking RMS Voltage
Zero Volts
measurements visually with the oscilloscope
Figure 66. Voltage peak (Vp ) and peak-to-peak voltage (Vp-p ).
screen. This is a common technique with
analog instruments, and also may be useful
for at-a-glance interpretation of digital
oscilloscope displays.
Take Amplitude
Measurements
Note that most digital oscilloscopes include automated at Center Vertical
measurement tools that simplify and accelerate common Graticule Line
analysis tasks, thus improving the reliability and confidence

of your measurements. However, knowing how to make
measurements manually as described here will help you
Figure 67. Measure voltage on the center vertical graticule line.
understand and check the automatic measurements.
Voltage Measurements Another handy formula is the power law, which states that the
power of a DC signal equals the voltage times the current.
Voltage is the amount of electric potential, expressed in volts,
Calculations are more complicated for AC signals, but the
between two points in a circuit. Usually one of these points
point here is that measuring the voltage is the first step toward
is ground (zero volts), but not always. Voltages can also be
calculating other quantities. Figure 66 shows the voltage of
measured from peak-to-peak from the maximum point of
one peak (Vp ) and the peak-to-peak voltage (Vpp ).
a signal to its minimum point. You must be careful to specify
which voltage you mean. The most basic method of taking voltage measurements is
to count the number of divisions a waveform spans on the
The oscilloscope is primarily a voltage-measuring device.
oscilloscopes vertical scale. Adjusting the signal to cover
Once you have measured the voltage, other quantities are just
most of the display vertically makes for the best voltage
a calculation away. For example, Ohms law states that voltage
measurements, as shown in Figure 67. The more display area
between two points in a circuit equals the current times the
you use, the more accurately you can read the measurement.
resistance. From any two of these quantities you can calculate
the third using the following formula: Many oscilloscopes have cursors that let you make waveform
measurements automatically, without having to count graticule
Voltage = Current x Resistance marks. A cursor is simply a line that you can move across
the display. Two horizontal cursor lines can be moved up
Voltage
Current = and down to bracket a waveforms amplitude for voltage
Resistance
measurements, and two vertical lines move right and left for
Voltage time measurements. A readout shows the voltage or time at
Resistance =
Current their positions.
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Rise Time Fall Time

100%
90%
Voltage
50%
Pulse Width
Take Time Measurements 10%

at Center Horizontal Graticule Line 0%
Figure 68. Measure time on the center horizontal graticule line. Figure 69. Rise time and pulse width measurement points.
Time and Frequency Measurements Standard pulse measurements are pulse rise time and pulse
width. Rise time is the amount of time a pulse takes to go from
You can make time measurements using the horizontal
a low to high voltage. By convention, the rise time is measured
scale of the oscilloscope. Time measurements include
from 10% to 90% of the full voltage of the pulse. This
measuring the period and pulse width of pulses. Frequency
eliminates any irregularities at the pulses transition corners.
is the reciprocal of the period, so once you know the period,
Pulse width is the amount of time the pulse takes to go from
the frequency is one divided by the period. Like voltage
low to high and back to low again. By convention, the pulse
measurements, time measurements are more accurate when
width is measured at 50% of full voltage. Figure 69 illustrates
you adjust the portion of the signal to be measured to cover a
these measurement points.
large area of the display, as illustrated in Figure 68.
Pulse measurements often require fine-tuning the triggering. To
Pulse Width and Rise Time Measurements become an expert at capturing pulses, you should learn how
In many applications, the details of a pulses shape are to use trigger holdoff and how to set the digital oscilloscope
important. Pulses can become distorted and cause a digital to capture pretrigger data, as described in the Systems and
circuit to malfunction, and the timing of pulses in a pulse train Controls of an Oscilloscope section. Horizontal magnification
is often significant. is another useful feature for measuring pulses, since it allows
you to see fine details of a fast pulse.
X:Y Ratio Phase Shift

Frequency
1:1
0 45 90 180 270 360
1:2
0 22 30 45 90 135 180
1:3
0 15 30 60 90 120
1:4
0 11 15 22 30 45 67 30 90
Figure 70. Lissajous patterns.
Phase Shift Measurements DPOs, on the other hand, are able to acquire and display
a genuine XY mode image in real-time, using a continuous
One method for measuring phase shift the difference in
stream of digitized data. DPOs can also display an XYZ image
timing between two otherwise identical periodic signals is to
with intensified areas. Unlike XY displays on DSOs and DPOs,
use XY mode. This measurement technique involves inputting
these displays on analog oscilloscopes are typically limited to
one signal into the vertical system as usual and then another
a few megahertz of bandwidth.
signal into the horizontal system called an XY measurement
because both the X and Y axis are tracing voltages. The Other Measurement Techniques
waveform that results from this arrangement is called a
This section has covered basic measurement techniques.
Lissajous pattern (named for French physicist Jules Antoine
Other measurement techniques involve setting up the
Lissajous and pronounced LEEsazhoo). From the shape
oscilloscope to test electrical components on an assembly
of the Lissajous pattern, you can tell the phase difference
line, capturing elusive transient signals, and many others.
between the two signals. You can also tell their frequency
The measurement techniques you will use will depend on
ratio. Figure 70 shows Lissajous patterns for various frequency
your application, but you have learned enough to get started.
ratios and phase shifts.
Practice using your oscilloscope and read more about it. Soon
The XY measurement technique originated with analog its operation will be second nature to you.
oscilloscopes. DSOs may have difficulty creating real-time XY
displays. Some DSOs create an XY image by accumulating
triggered data points over time, then displaying two channels
as an XY display.
Primer
Written Exercises Part I covers information presented in

these sections:
This section contains written exercises that cover information
in this primer. These are divided into two parts, Part I and The Oscilloscope
Part II, with vocabulary and application exercises for each. Performance Terms and Considerations
Check how well you have absorbed the information in these
sections by verifying your responses against the answer key at
Part II covers information presented in sections:
the end of this section on page 55. The Systems and Controls of an Oscilloscope
Operating the Oscilloscope
Measurement Techniques
Part I A: Vocabulary Exercise

Write the letter of the definitions in the right column next to the correct words in the left column.
Term Definition
1. ___ Acquisition A The unit of electric potential difference.
2. ___ Analog B A performance measurement indicating the precision of an ADC, measured in bits.
3. ___ Bandwidth C Term used when referring to degree points of a signals period.
4. ___ Digital Phosphor D The number of times a signal repeats in one second.
5. ___ Frequency E The amount of time it takes a wave to complete one cycle.
6. ___ Glitch F A stored digital value that represents the voltage of a signal at a specific point in time on
the display.
7. ___ Period G A common waveform shape that has a rising edge, a width, and a falling edge.
8. ___ Phase H A performance measurement indicating the rising edge speed of a pulse.
9. ___ Pulse I Oscilloscope circuitry that controls the timing of the sweep.
10. ___ Waveform Point J An intermittent spike in a circuit.
11. ___ Rise Time K A signal measured by an oscilloscope that only occurs once.
12. ___ Sample Point L The oscilloscopes process of collecting sample points from the ADC, processing them, and
storing them in memory.
13. ___ Digital Storage M Something that operates with continuously changing values.
14. ___ Time Base N Digital oscilloscope that captures 3 dimensions of signal information in real-time.
15. ___ Transient O Digital oscilloscope with serial processing.
16. ___ ADC Resolution P A sine wave frequency range, defined by the 3 dB point.
17. ___ Volt Q The raw data from an ADC used to calculate and display waveform points.
Part I B: Application Exercise

Circle the best answers for each statement. Some statements have more than one right answer.
1. With an oscilloscope you can: 5. On an oscilloscope display:

a. Calculate the frequency of a signal. a. Voltage is on the vertical axis and time is on the
horizontal axis.
b. Find malfunctioning electrical components.
b. A straight diagonal trace means voltage is changing at
c. Analyze signal details.
a steady rate.
d. All the above.
c. A flat horizontal trace means voltage is constant.
2. The difference between analog and digitizing d. All the above.
oscilloscopes is:
6. All repeating waves have the following properties:
a. Analog oscilloscopes do not have on-screen menus.
a. A frequency measured in Hertz.
b. Analog oscilloscopes apply a measurement voltage
directly to the display system, while digital b. A period measured in seconds.
oscilloscopes first convert the voltage into digital
c. A bandwidth measured in Hertz.
values.
d. All the above.
c. Analog oscilloscopes measure analogs, whereas
digitizing oscilloscopes measure digits. 7. If you probe inside a computer with an oscilloscope,
d. Analog oscilloscopes do not have an acquisition you are likely to find the following types of signals:
system. a. Pulse trains.
3. An oscilloscopes vertical section does the following: b. Ramp waves.
a. Acquires sample points with an ADC. c. Sine waves.
b. Starts a horizontal sweep. d. All the above.
c. Lets you adjust the brightness of the display. 8. When evaluating the performance of an analog
d. Attenuates or amplifies the input signal. oscilloscope, some things you might consider are:
a. The bandwidth.
4. The time base control of the oscilloscope does the
following: b. The vertical sensitivity.
a. Adjusts the vertical scale. c. The ADC resolution.
b. Shows you the current time of day. d. The sweep speed.
c. Sets the amount of time represented by the horizontal 9. The difference between digital storage oscilloscopes
width of the screen. (DSO) and digital phosphor oscilloscopes (DPO) is:
d. Sends a clock pulse to the probe. a. The DSO has a higher bandwidth.
b. The DPO captures three dimensions of waveform
information in real-time.
c. The DSO has a color display.
d. The DSO captures more signal details.
Primer
Part II A: Vocabulary Exercise

Write the letter of the definitions in the right column next to the correct words in the left column.
Term Definition
1. ___ Averaging Mode A The unintentional interaction of the probe and oscilloscope with the circuit being tested which
distorts a signal.
2. ___ Circuit Loading B A conductor that connects electrical currents to the Earth.
3. ___ Compensation C A sampling mode in which the digital oscilloscope collects as many samples as it can as the
signal occurs, then constructs a display, using interpolation if necessary.
4. ___ Coupling D A sampling mode in which the digital oscilloscope constructs a picture of a repetitive signal
by capturing a little bit of information from each repetition.
5. ___ Earth Ground E A device that converts a specific physical quantity such as sound, pressure, strain, or light
intensity into an electrical signal.
6. ___ Equivalent-Time F A test device for injecting a signal into a circuit input.
7. ___ Graticule G A processing technique used by digital oscilloscopes to eliminate noise in a displayed signal.
8. ___ Interpolation H The method of connecting two circuits together.
9. ___ Real Time I A connect-the-dots processing technique to estimate what a fast waveform looks like
based on only a few sampled points.
10. ___ Signal Generator J The grid lines on a screen for measuring oscilloscope traces.
11. ___ Single Sweep K A trigger mode that triggers the sweep once, must be reset to accept another trigger event.
12. ___ Sensor L A probe adjustment for 10X attenuator probes that balances the electrical properties of the
probe with the electrical properties of the oscilloscope.
Part II B: Application Exercise

Circle the best answers for each statement. Some statements have more than one right answer.
1. To operate an oscilloscope safely, you should: 6. The volts per division control is used to:
a. Ground the oscilloscope with the proper three- a. Scale a waveform vertically.
pronged power cord.
b. Position a waveform vertically.
b. Learn to recognize potentially dangerous electrical
c. Attenuate or amplify an input signal.
components.
d. Set the numbers of volts each division represents.
c. Avoid touching exposed connections in a circuit being
tested even if the power is off. 7. Setting the vertical input coupling to ground does
d. All the above. the following:
a. Disconnects the input signal from the oscilloscope.
2. Grounding an oscilloscope is necessary:
b. Causes a horizontal line to appear with auto trigger.
a. For safety reasons.
c. Lets you see where zero volts is on the screen.
b. To provide a reference point for making
measurements. d. All the above.
c. To align the trace with the screens horizontal axis. 8. The trigger is necessary to:
d. All the above. a. Stabilize repeating waveforms on the screen.
3. Circuit loading is caused by: b. Capture single-shot waveforms.
a. An input signal having too large a voltage. c. Mark a particular point of an acquisition.
b. The probe and oscilloscope interacting with the circuit d. All the above.
being tested.
9. The difference between auto and normal trigger
c. A 10X attenuator probe being uncompensated. mode is:
d. Putting too much weight on a circuit. a. In normal mode the oscilloscope only sweeps once
and then stops.
4. Compensating a probe is necessary to:
b. In normal mode the oscilloscope only sweeps if the
a. Balance the electrical properties of the 10X attenuator
input signal reaches the trigger point; otherwise the
probe with the oscilloscope.
screen is blank.
b. Prevent damaging the circuit being tested.
c. Auto mode makes the oscilloscope sweep
c. Improve the accuracy of your measurements. continuously even without being triggered.
d. All the above. d. All the above.
5. The trace rotation control is useful for: 10. The acquisition mode that best reduces noise in a
repeating signal is:
a. Scaling waveforms on the screen.
a. Sample mode.
b. Detecting sine wave signals.
b. Peak detect mode.
c. Aligning the waveform trace with the screens
horizontal axis on an analog oscilloscope. c. Envelope mode.
d. Measuring pulse width. d. Averaging mode.
Primer
11. The two most basic measurements you can make 14. By convention, pulse width is measured:
with an oscilloscope are:
a. At 10% of the pulses peak-to-peak (pk-pk) voltage.
a. Time and frequency measurements.
b. At 50% of the pulses peak-to-peak (pk-pk) voltage.
b. Time and voltage measurements.
c. At 90% of the pulses peak-to-peak (pk-pk) voltage.
c. Voltage and pulse width measurements.
d. At 10% and 90% of the pulses peak-to-peak (pk-pk)
d. Pulse width and phase shift measurements. voltage.
12. If the volts/division is set at 0.5, the largest signal 15. You attach a probe to your test circuit but the screen
that can fit on the screen (assuming an 8 x 10 division is blank. You should:
screen) is: a. Check that the screen intensity is turned up.
a. 62.5 millivolts peak-to-peak. b. Check that the oscilloscope is set to display the
b. 8 volts peak-to-peak. channel that the probe is connected to.
c. 4 volts peak-to-peak. c. Set the trigger mode to auto since norm mode blanks
the screen.
d. 0.5 volts peak-to-peak.
d. Set the vertical input coupling to AC and set the volts/
13. If the seconds/division is set at 0.1 ms, the amount of division to its largest value since a large DC signal may
time represented by the width of the screen is: go off the top or bottom of the screen.
a. 0.1 ms. e. Check that the probe isnt shorted and make sure it is
properly grounded.
b. 1 ms.
f. Check that the oscilloscope is set to trigger on the
c. 1 second.
input channel you are using.
d. 0.1 kHz.
g. All of the above.
Answer Key
This section provides the answers to all written exercises in the previous section.
Part IA: Vocabulary Exercise Answers

1. L 5. D 9. G 13. O
2. M 6. J 10. F 14. I
3. P 7. E 11. H 15. K
4. N 8. C 12. Q 16. B
17. A
Part IB: Application Exercise Answers

1. D 3. D 5. D 7. A
2. B,D 4. C 6. A,B 8. A,B,D
9. B
Part IIA: Vocabulary Exercise Answers

1. G 4. H 7. J 10. F
2. A 5. B 8. I 11. K
3. L 6. D 9. C 12. E
Part IIB: Application Exercise Answers

1. D 5. C 9. B,C 13. B
2. A,B 6. A,C,D 10. D 14. B
3. B 7. D 11. B 15. G
4. A,C 8. D 12. C
Primer
Glossary Cursor An onscreen marker that you can align with a

waveform to make more accurate measurements.
A
D
Acquisition Mode Modes that control how waveform
points are produced from sample points. Some types include Delayed Time Base A time base with a sweep that can
sample, peak detect, hi res, envelope, average, and waveform start (or be triggered to start) relative to a pre-determined time
data base. on the main time base sweep. Allows you to see events more
clearly and to see events that are not visible solely with the
Alternating Current (AC) A signal in which the current and main time base sweep.
voltage vary in a repeating pattern over time. Also used to
indicate signal coupling type. Digital Signal A signal whose voltage samples are
represented by discrete binary numbers.
Amplification An increase in signal amplitude during its
transmission from one point to another. Digital Oscilloscope A type of oscilloscope that uses an
analog-to-digital converter (ADC) to convert the measured
Amplitude The magnitude of a quantity or strength of a voltage into digital information. Types include: digital
signal. In electronics, amplitude usually refers to either voltage storage, digital phosphor, mixed signal, and digital sampling
or power. oscilloscopes.
Analog-to-Digital Converter (ADC) A digital electronic Digital Phosphor Oscilloscope (DPO) A type of digital
component that converts an electrical signal into discrete oscilloscope that closely models the display characteristics
binary values. of an analog oscilloscope while providing traditional digital
Analog Oscilloscope An instrument that creates a oscilloscope benefits (waveform storage, automated
waveform display by applying the input signal (conditioned measurements, etc.) The DPO uses a parallel-processing
and amplified) to the vertical axis of an electron beam moving architecture to pass the signal to the raster-type display, which
across a cathode-ray tube (CRT) screen horizontally from left provides intensity-graded viewing of signal characteristics
to right. A chemical phosphor coated on the CRT creates a in real time. The DPO displays signals in three dimensions:
glowing trace wherever the beam hits. amplitude, time and the distribution of amplitude over time.
Analog Signal A signal with continuously variable voltages. Digital Sampling Oscilloscope A type of digital
oscilloscope that employs equivalent-time sampling method
Attenuation A decrease in signal amplitude during its
to capture and display samples of a signal, ideal for accurately
transmission from one point to another.
capturing signals whose frequency components are much
Averaging A processing technique used by digital higher than the oscilloscopes sample rate.
oscilloscopes to reduce noise in a displayed signal.
Digital Signal Processing The application of algorithms to
improve the accuracy of measured signals.
B
Digital Storage Oscilloscope (DSO) A digital oscilloscope
Bandwidth A frequency range, usually limited by 3 dB.
that acquires signals via digital sampling (using an analog-to-
digital converter). It uses a serial-processing architecture to
C control acquisition, user interface, and the raster display.
Circuit Loading The unintentional interaction of the probe
Digitize The process by which an analog-to-digital converter
and oscilloscope with the circuit being tested, distorting the
(ADC) in the horizontal system samples a signal at discrete
signal.
points in time and converts the signals voltage at these points
Compensation A probe adjustment for passive attenuation into digital values called sample points.
probes that balances the capacitance of the probe with the
Direct Current (DC) A signal with a constant voltage and/or
capacitance of the oscilloscope.
current. Also used to indicate signal coupling type.
Coupling The method of connecting two circuits together.
Division Measurement markings on the oscilloscope
Circuits connected with a wire are directly coupled (DC);
graticule indicating major and minor marks.
circuits connected through a capacitor or transformer are
indirectly (AC) coupled.
E H
Earth Ground A conductor that will connect electrical Hertz (Hz) One cycle per second; the unit of frequency.
currents to the Earth.
Horizontal Accuracy (Time Base) An indication of how
Effective Bits A measure of a digital oscilloscope's ability accurately the horizontal system displays the timing of a
to accurately reconstruct a sine wave signals shape. This signal, usually represented as a percentage error.
measurement compares the oscilloscope's actual error to that
Horizontal Sweep The action of the horizontal system that
of a theoretical ideal digitizer.
causes a waveform to be drawn.
Envelope The outline of a signals highest and lowest points
acquired over many displayed waveform repetitions. I
Equivalent-time Sampling A sampling mode in which Intensity Grading Frequency-of-occurrence information
the oscilloscope constructs a picture of a repetitive signal by that is essential to understanding what the waveform is really
capturing a little bit of information from each repetition. Two doing.
types of equivalent-time sampling: random and sequential.
Interpolation A connect-the-dots processing technique to
estimate what a fast waveform looks like based on only a few
F sampled points. Two types: linear and sin x/x.
Focus The analog oscilloscope control that adjusts
the cathode-ray tube (CRT) electron beam to control the K
sharpness of the display.
Kilohertz (kHz) 1,000 Hertz; a unit of frequency.
Frequency The number of times a signal repeats in one
second, measured in Hertz (cycles per second). The frequency L
equals 1/period.
Loading The unintentional interaction of the probe and
Frequency Response Frequency response curves of an oscilloscope with the circuit being tested which distorts a
oscilloscope define the accuracy in amplitude representation signal.
of the input signal in function of the signals frequency. In
Logic Analyzer An instrument used to make the logic
order to obtain maximum signal fidelity, it is important that the
states of many digital signals visible over time. It analyzes the
oscilloscope has a flat (stable) frequency response across the
digital data and can represent the data as real-time software
entire specified oscilloscopes bandwidth.
execution, data flow values, state sequences, etc.
G M
Gain Accuracy An indication of how accurately the vertical
Megahertz (MHz) 1,000,000 Hertz; a unit of frequency.
system attenuates or amplifies a signal, usually represented as
a percentage error. Megasamples per second (MS/s) A sample rate unit equal
to one million samples per second.
Gigahertz (GHz) 1,000,000,000 Hertz; a unit of frequency.
Microsecond (s) A unit of time equivalent to 0.000001
Glitch An intermittent, high-speed error in a circuit.
seconds.
Graticule The grid lines on a display for measuring
Millisecond (ms) A unit of time equivalent to 0.001 seconds.
oscilloscope traces.
Mixed Domain Oscilloscope (MDO) - A type of digital
Ground
oscilloscope that combines an RF spectrum analyzer with a
1. A conducting connection by which an electric circuit or MSO or DPO to enable correlated views of signals from the
equipment is connected to the earth to establish and digital, analog, to RF domains.
maintain a reference voltage level.
Mixed Signal Oscilloscope (MSO) A type of digital
2. The voltage reference point in a circuit. oscilloscope that combines the basic functionality of a
16-channel logic analyzer with the trusted performance of a
4-channel digital phosphor oscilloscope.
Primer
N R
Nanosecond (ns) A unit of time equivalent to 0.000000001 Ramps Transitions between voltage levels of sine waves that
seconds. change at a constant rate.
Noise An unwanted voltage or current in an electrical circuit. Raster A type of display.
Real-time Sampling A sampling mode in which the
O oscilloscope collects as many samples as possible from one
Oscilloscope An instrument used to make voltage triggered acquisition. Ideal for signals whose frequency range
changes visible over time. The word oscilloscope comes from is less than half the oscilloscopes maximum sample rate.
oscillate, since oscilloscopes are often used to measure Record Length The number of waveform points used to
oscillating voltages. create a record of a signal.
P Rise Time The time taken for the leading edge of a pulse
to rise from its low to its high values, typically measured from
Peak (Vp) The maximum voltage level measured from a zero 10% to 90%.
reference point.
Peak Detection An acquisition mode available with digital S
oscilloscopes that enables you to observe signal details that Sampling The conversion of a portion of an input signal
may otherwise be missed, particularly useful for seeing narrow into a number of discrete electrical values for the purpose of
pulses spaced far apart in time. storage, processing and/or display by an oscilloscope. Two
Peak-to-peak (Vp-p) The voltage measured from the types: real-time sampling and equivalent-time sampling.
maximum point of a signal to its minimum point. Sample Point The raw data from an ADC used to calculate
Period The amount of time it takes a wave to complete one waveform points.
cycle. The period equals 1/frequency. Sample Rate Refers to how frequently a digital oscilloscope
Phase The amount of time that passes from the beginning takes a sample of the signal, specified in samples per second
of a cycle to the beginning of the next cycle, measured in (S/s).
degrees. Sensor A device that converts a specific physical quantity
Phase Shift The difference in timing between two otherwise such as sound, pressure, strain, or light intensity into an
similar signals. electrical signal.
Pre-trigger Viewing The ability of a digital oscilloscope to Signal Integrity The accurate reconstruction of a signal,
capture what a signal did before a trigger event. Determines determined by the systems and performance considerations
the length of viewable signal both preceding and following a of an oscilloscope, in addition to the probe used to acquire the
trigger point. signal.
Probe An oscilloscope input device, usually having a pointed Signal Source A test device used to inject a signal
metal tip for making electrical contact with a circuit element, into a circuit input; the circuits output is then read by an
a lead to connect to the circuits ground reference, and a oscilloscope. Also known as a signal generator.
flexible cable for transmitting the signal and ground to the
oscilloscope.
Pulse A common waveform shape that has a fast rising
edge, a width, and a fast falling edge.
Pulse Train A collection of pulses traveling together.
Pulse Width The amount of time the pulse takes to go from
low to high and back to low again, conventionally measured at
50% of full voltage.
Sine Wave A common curved wave shape that is V

mathematically defined.
Vertical Resolution (Analog-to-Digital Converter) An
Single Shot A signal measured by an oscilloscope that only indication of how precisely an analog-to-digital converter
occurs once (also called a transient event). (ADC) in a digital oscilloscope can convert input voltages
Single Sweep A trigger mode to display one triggered into digital values, measured in bits. Calculation techniques,
screen of a signal and then stop. such as hi res acquisition mode, can improve the effective
resolution.
Slope On a graph or an oscilloscope display, the ratio of
a vertical distance to a horizontal distance. A positive slope Vertical Sensitivity An indication of how much the vertical
increases from left to right, while a negative slope decreases amplifier can amplify a weak signal usually measured in
from left to right. millivolts (mV) per division.
Square Wave A common wave shape consisting of Volt The unit of electric potential difference.
repeating square pulses. Voltage The difference in electric potential, expressed in
Sweep One horizontal pass of an anlog oscilloscopes volts, between two points.
electron beam from left to right across the CRT screen.
Sweep Speed Same as the time base.
W
Wave The generic term for a pattern that repeats over time.
T Common types include: sine, square, rectangular, sawtooth,
triangle, step, pulse, periodic, non-periodic, synchronous,
Time Base Oscilloscope circuitry that controls the timing
asynchronous.
of the sweep. The time base is set by the seconds/division
control. Waveform A graphic representation of a voltage varying
over time.
Trace The visible shapes drawn on a CRT by the movement
of the electron beam. Waveform Capture Rate Refers to how quickly an
oscilloscope acquires waveforms, expressed as waveforms
Transient A signal measured by an oscilloscope that only
per second (wfms/s).
occurs once (also called a singleshot event).
Waveform Point A digital value that represents the voltage
Trigger The circuit that references a horizontal sweep on an
of a signal at a specific point in time. Waveform points are
oscilloscope.
calculated from sample points and stored in memory.
Trigger Holdoff A control that allows you to adjust
Writing Speed The ability of an analog oscilloscope to
the period of time after a valid trigger during which the
provide a visible trace of the movement of a signal from one
oscilloscope cannot trigger.
point to another. This ability is restrictive for low-repetition
Trigger Level The voltage level that a trigger source signal signals that have fast-moving details, such as digital logic
must reach before the trigger circuit initiates a sweep. signals.
Trigger Mode A mode that determines whether or not the XY Mode A measuremenbt technique that involves inputting
oscilloscope draws a waveform if it does not detect a trigger. one signal into the vertical system, as usual, and one into the
Common trigger modes include normal and auto. horizontal system to trace voltages on both the X and Y axis.
Trigger Slope The slope that a trigger source signal must
reach before the trigger circuit initiates a sweep. Z
Z Axis The display attribute on an oscilloscope that shows
brightness variations as the trace is formed.
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Norway 800 16098
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Poland +41 52 675 3777
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Republic of Korea 001 800 8255 2835
Russia / CIS +7 (495) 6647564
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Spain 00800 2255 4835
Sweden 00800 2255 4835
Switzerland 00800 2255 4835
Taiwan 886 (2) 2656 6688
United Kingdom / Ireland 00800 2255 4835
USA 1 800 833 9200
Rev. 01/16
WWW.TEK.COM
For Further Information

Tektronix maintains a comprehensive, constantly expanding collection of application notes, technical briefs and other resources to help engineers working on the cutting edge of technology.
Please visit www.tek.com
Copyright 2016, Tektronix. All rights reserved. Tektronix products are covered by U.S. and foreign patents, issued and pending. Information in this publication supersedes that in all
previously published material. Specification and price change privileges reserved. TEKTRONIX and TEK are registered trademarks of Tektronix, Inc. All other trade names referenced are
the service marks, trademarks or registered trademarks of their respective companies.
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XYZs of Oscilloscopes

Table of Contents The Systems and Controls of an Oscilloscope.....19 - 32

The Complete Measurement System....................33 - 36 Operating the Oscilloscope...................................44 - 45

Introduction Light Source

Nature moves in the form of a sine wave, be it an ocean

The oscilloscope is basically a graph-displaying device it

Sine Wave Damped Sine Wave

Square Wave Rectangular Wave

Sawtooth Wave Triangle Wave

Sine Waves Step and Pulse Shapes

Complex Waves Some oscilloscopes allow for displaying certain types

1 2 3 0 90 180 270 360

Waveform Measurements Voltage

Frequency and Period 0

Voltage Phase is best explained by looking at a sine wave. The

Analog Oscilloscopes Digital Oscilloscopes Samples

The Types of Oscilloscopes front-end components of the oscilloscope, commonly referred

Amp A/D Acquisition uP Display Display

Figure 12. The serial-processing architecture of a digital storage oscilloscope (DSO).

Some of the subsystems that comprise DSOs are similar

Snapshots of the Digital Phosphor contents are periodically

Waveform math, measurements, and front panel P

Figure 14. The parallel-processing architecture of a digital phosphor oscilloscope (DPO).

Digital Phosphor Oscilloscopes It should be noted that it is impossible to determine the

When the digital phosphor database is fed to the

Mixed Domain Oscilloscopes Mixed Signal Oscilloscopes

Figure 18. The parallel-processing architecture of a digital phosphor oscilloscope (DPO).

Digital Sampling Oscilloscopes

is limited to about 1 V peak-to-peak. Digital storage and digital

The Systems and Controls of an

A basic oscilloscope consists of four different

DC Coupling of a Vp-p Sine AC Coupling of

Figure 21. AC and DC input coupling.

Vertical System and Controls Input Coupling

Bandwidth Enhancement Common horizontal controls include:

Horizontal System and Controls

The glitch you will not see

Types of Acquisition Modes

Figure 26. Real-time sampling method.

1st Acquisition Cycle

Sine Wave Reproduced

Figure 29. Linear and sin x/x interpolation.

Linear interpolation connects sample points with straight

The more versatile sin x/x interpolation connects sample

Equivalent Time Sequential

Random Equivalent-time Sampling Sequential Equivalent-time Sampling

Position and Seconds per Division Search

Other advanced trigger functions include:

Time-out Triggering. Time-out triggering lets Communication Triggering. Optionally available

Figure 34. Common trigger types.

Triggering on the Negative Pre-trigger viewing is a valuable troubleshooting aid. If a

Horizontal trigger position control is only available on digital Trigger Sources

Acquisition Interval Acquisition Interval

Holdoff Holdoff Holdoff

New triggers are not recognized during the holdoff time.

Trigger Modes Trigger Coupling

ADD Mode: Channel 1