Introduction

to

Logic
Logic is the scientific study of

reasoning.
As some of us may know, philosophy is all about arguments and

reasoning.Logic allows us to test validity of the arguments in Philosophy

rigorously.Modern philosophy assumes familiarity with logic, why? Because in

order for the statements or arguments of the Philosophers to be accepted, it

must go through questioning or testing of its validity. It is used in linguistics,

mathematics, computer science, etc. Logic is compulsory for it leads us to find

the truth or facts behind every question we encounter, especially questions

asked by philosophers. Logic comes from the Greek "logos", which has a variety

of meanings including word, thought, idea, argument, account, reason or

principle.It is also calledthe study of the principles and criteria of valid inference

and demonstration. It attempts to distinguish good reasoning from bad

reasoning.For Aristotle, logic is "new and necessary reasoning."

"new" because it allows us to learn what we do not know

"necessary" because its conclusions are inescapable.

 It asks questions like "What is correct reasoning?", "What distinguishes a

good argument from a bad one?", "How can we detect a fallacy in

reasoning?"

Logical Systems

consistency - which means that none of the theorems of the

system contradict one another.

soundness - which means that the system's rules of proof will

never allow a false inference from a true premise.

completeness - which means that there are no true

sentences in the system that cannot, at least in principle, be
proved in the system.

Aristotle espoused two principles of great importance

in logic:

Law of Excluded Middle - that every

statement is either true or false.

Law of Non-Contradiction - that

no statement is both true and false.
Aristotle and Plato- Logic is the

study of argument.

Immanuel Kant - Logic is the science of

judgement.

Types of Logic
1.) Formal Logic
2.) Informal Logic
3.) Symbolic Logic: Propositional, Predicate and
Mathematical Logic
4.) Deductive Logic
5.) Inductive Logic
6.) Modal Logic

NOTE:

PREMISE is an introduction or explanation laid down that serves as a ground

for argument or a conclusion.

CONCLUSION is the final decision or judgment inferred from the premise(s).

1.) Formal Logic

Formal Logic is what we think of as traditional logic or philosophical logic,

namely the study of inference with purely formal and explicit content (i.e. it can

be expressed as a particular application of a wholly abstract rule).

Formalism is the philosophical theory that formal statements (logical or

mathematical) have no intrinsic meaning but that its symbols (which are

regarded as physical entities) exhibit a form that has useful applications.

 EXAMPLE:

Both Ben and Ann wanted to go but only one is allowed to visit Jess in the

hospital. If Ben is going, then Ann wont go.

2.) Informal Logic

Informal Logic is a recent discipline which studies natural language arguments, and

attempts to develop a logic to assess, analyse and improve ordinary language (or

"everyday") reasoning.

It focuses on the reasoning and argument one finds in personal exchange, advertising,

political debate, legal argument, and the social commentary that characterizes

newspapers, television, the Internet and other forms of mass media.

EXAMPLE: (during a debate)

My opponent wants to sever the Danish church from the state for his

personal sake. His motion is an attempt to take over the church and

further his ecumenical theology by his usual mafia methods.

3.) Symbolic Logic

Symbolic Logic is the study of symbolic abstractions that capture the formal features

of logical inference. It deals with the relations of symbols to each other, often using

complex mathematical calculus. Its sub-branches:

a.) Predicate Logic: a system in which formulae contain quantifiable

variables.Predicate Logic allows sentences to be analysed into subject and argument in

several different ways.Predicate logic was designed as a form of mathematics, and as

such is capable of all sorts of mathematical reasoning beyond the powers of term or

syllogistic logic.

EXAMPLE:

All ravens fly. Peter is a raven. So, Peter flies.

b.) Propositional Logic (or Sentential Logic)

is concerned only with sentential connectives and logical operators (such as "and",

"or", "not", "if ... then ...", "because" and "necessarily).It is a system in which

formulae representing propositions can be formed by combining atomic propositions

using logical connectives, and a system of formal proof rules allows certain formulae

to be established as theorems.

EXAMPLE:

If ABC is a 30-60-90 triangle and 90 is a right angle.

Then, ABC is a triangle with a right angle.

c.) Mathematical Logic

Both the application of the techniques of formal logic to mathematics and

mathematical reasoning, and, conversely, the application of mathematical

techniques to the representation and analysis of formal logic.

EXAMPLE:

If A, then not B. If B, then not A.

 4.) Deductive Logic

Deductive Logic is concerned with the validity of argument.

One might deny the initial premises, and therefore deny the conclusion. But

anyone who accepts the premises must accept the conclusion.

EXAMPLE:

All squares are rectangle. All rectangles have four sides.

Therefore: All squares have four sides.

5.) Inductive Logic

Inductive Logic is the process of deriving a reliable generalization from

observations (i.e. from the particular to the general).

EXAMPLE:

All observed crows are black.

Therefore:

All crows are black.

6.) Modal Logic

Modal Logic is any system of formal logic that attempts to deal

with modalities (expressions associated with notions

ofpossibility, probability and necessity). Modal Logic, therefore, deals with terms

such as "eventually", "formerly", "possibly", "can", "could", "might", "may", "must",

etc.
 EXAMPLE:

I may get burned if I lie in the sun for too long.

So, if I lie in the sun for too long, I would possibly get burned.

Logical Fallacy

A logical fallacy is any sort of mistake in reasoning or inference,

or, essentially, anything that causes an argument to go wrong.

1) Affirming the Consequent - poorly formed argument without reasonable

premise.

2) Arguing from ignorance inference of truth to argument just because it is not

known to be false.

3) Begging the question/Circular reasoning conclusion is among the premises.

4) Complex Question Fallacy involves questionable assumption.

5) Cum Hoc Fallacy poorly assumed correlation of two things.

6) False Dilemma/Bifurcation Fallacy requiring a choice between only two

choices when another is available.

7) Generalisation Fallacy To broad of an application of a premise.

8) No True Scotsman Fallacy reinterpretation of evidence.

9) Post Hoc Fallacy assumption of cause and effect.

10) Slippery Slope Fallacy false assumption of consequences of action.

11) Subjectivist Fallacy lack of questioning of premises.

12) TuQuoque Fallacy the concept of someone else did it so I can

Summary
LOGIC
Logic is the study of reasoning and the theory of validity of arguments.

It is very useful in Philosophy for it leads philosophers to finding the truth

through testing the validities of the answers. There are 3 logical systems

which are all very important when we study logic especially on arguments.

These are: consistency, soundness and completeness. The Law of Excluded

Middle and Law of Non-Contradiction is of great importance to logic,

according to Aristotle. The types of Logic are: Formal Logic, Informal Logic,

Symbolic Logic (Predicate, Propositional and Mathematical), Deductive

Logic, Inductive Logic and Modal Logic. Just like every situations, there are

what we call mistakes in reasoning that causes an argument to go wrong,

which are what we call Logical Fallacies like : Affirming the Consequent,

Arguing from ignorance, Begging the question/Circular reasoning , Complex

Question Fallacy , Cum Hoc Fallacy , False Dilemma/Bifurcation Fallacy ,

Generalisation Fallacy , No True Scotsman Fallacy , Post Hoc Fallacy ,

Slippery Slope Fallacy , Subjectivist Fallacy , and TuQuoque Fallacy. As far

as our group is concerned, logic is very important. But, when anybody is

studying about it, especially us students, we must be very careful in

delivering and understanding of facts, cause facts can be bluffs if it isnt well-

explained or well-delivered.