Sociology

Introducing Sociology
Definition, Nature, Subject Matter, Sociology and

Common Sense, Importance of Sociological Study.
Definition of Sociology
The term sociology was coined by Auguste Comte ,
a French philosopher ,in 1839.
Sociology is derived from the Latin word Societus
meaning society
and the Greek word logos meaning study or
science
The meaning of sociology is thus the the science of
society
Sociology has been carried out from at least as
early as the time of Greek Philosopher Plato.
Some consider Ibn Khaldun , a 14th century Arab
Islamic scholar from North Africa, to have been the
first sociologist ,
his Muqaddima was perhaps the first work to
advance social scientific reasoning on social
cohesion and social conflict.
French philosopher of science , Auguste
Comte(1798-1857) is the father of modern
sociology.
Justified Durkheim in regarding him as the father
or founder of this science.
There are four core questions/aspects regarding
Sociology. These are:
1.What is sociology?
2.What do sociologists really do?
3.How is there work different from that of political
scientists, psychologists, or economists? and
4.What is the sociological vision?
1.What is sociology?
Sociology is the scientific study of human social
life.
Sociology is the systematic study of human
relations.
Sociology specializes in the study of human
societies.
Sociology is the study of group behavior and social
interaction, rather than the study of the individual
as such.
(William J. Goode, Principles of Sociology,
Columbia University,1977,Pp:3-4).
2.What do sociologists really do?
Sociologists seeks to understand :
A. the nature and purpose of human associations;
B. the manner in which the various kinds of
associations arise, develop, and change; and
C. the beliefs and practices that characterize them.
3.How is there work different from that of
political scientists, psychologists, or economists?
The principal task of sociology is to obtain and
interpret the facts regarding human association,
not to solve social problems.
4.What is the sociological vision?
Ultimate aim of sociology is to improve mans
adjustment to life by developing objective
knowledge concerning social phenomena which
can be used to deal effectively with social
problems.
(Samuel Koenig, Sociology, City University of New
York,1957,P-1).
Sociology has been defined in a number of ways by
different sociologists.
No single definition has yet been accepted as
completely satisfactory.
For our purpose of study a few definitions may be
cited here.
Auguste Comete, the founding father of sociology,
defines sociology as the science of social
phenomena subject to natural and invariable laws,
the discovery of which is the object of
investigation".
Kingsley Davis says that "Sociology is a general
science of society".
Ian Robertson-Society:
Sociology is the scientific study of human society
and social behavior.
Auguste Comte:
Sociology is the study of social static's and social
dynamics.
Moris Ginsberg:
Sociology is the study of human interactions and
interrelationship, their condition and
consequences.
Durkheim:
Sociology is the science of human institutions.
Park regards sociology as "the science of collective
behavior.
Marshal Jones defines sociology as "the study of

mans inter relationship to men".
Alex Inkeles says, "Sociology is the study of
systems of social action and of their inter-
relations".
Kimball Young and Raymond W. Mack say,
"Sociology is the scientific study of social aspects of
human life"
A careful examination of various definitions cited
above, makes it evident that sociologists differ in
their opinion about definition of sociology.
However, the common idea underlying all the
definitions mentioned above is that sociology is
concerned with man, his social relations and his
society.
Nature of sociology
1.Sociology is both a rational science and an empirical
science
There are two broad ways of approach to scientific
knowledge.
One, known as empiricism, is the approach that emphasizes
experience and the fact that result from observation and
experimentation.
The other, known as rationalism, stresses reason and the
theories that result from logical inference.
Nature of sociology
The empiricist collects facts; the rationalist co-
ordinates and arranges them.
Theories and facts are required in the construction
of knowledge.
In sociological inquiry both are significant.
Nature of sociology
As Immanuel Kant said, "theories without facts

are empty and facts without theories are blind".
All modern sciences, therefore, avail themselves of
both empirical and rational resources.
Sociology is not an exception.
Nature of sociology
2. Sociology is a general science and not a special social
science
The area of inquiry of sociology is general and not
specialized.
It is concerned with human interaction and human life in
general.
Other sciences like political science, history, economics etc,
also study man and human interaction, but not all about
human interaction.
Nature of sociology
They concentrate their attention on certain aspects
of human interaction and activities and specialize
themselves in those fields.
Accordingly, economics specializes itself in the
study of economic activities,
political science concentrates on political activities
and so on.
Nature of sociology
Sociology of course, does not investigate economic,
regions, political, legal, moral or any other special
kind of phenomena in relation human life and
activities as such.
It does not study each and every event that takes
place in society.
It only studies human activities in a general way.
Nature of sociology
3. Sociology is a generalization and not a
particularizing or individualizing science
Sociology tries to find out the general laws or

principles about human interactions and
association, about the nature, form, content and
structure of human groups and societies.
Nature of sociology
It tries to make generalization on the basis of the
study of some select events.
For example, a sociologists makes generalizations
about the nature of secondary groups.
Nature of sociology
He may conclude that secondary groups are
comparatively bigger in size, less stable, not
necessarily spatially limited, more specialized, and
so on.
This, he does, not by examining all the secondary
groups but by observing and studying few.
Nature of sociology
4. Sociology is relatively an abstract science and
not a concrete science
This does not mean that sociology is an art and not
a science.
Nor does it mean, it is unnecessarily complicated
and unduly difficult.
It only means that Sociology is not interested in
concrete manifestation of human events.
Nature of sociology
It is more concerned with the form of human
events and their patterns.
For example, sociology is not concerned with
particular wars and revolutions but with war and
revolution in general, as social phenomena, as
types of social conflict.
Nature of sociology
Similarly, sociology does itself to the study of this
society or that particular society or social
organization, or marriage, or religion, or group and
so on.
It is in this simple sense that sociology is an
abstract not a concrete science.
Nature of sociology
5. Sociology is a pure science and not an applied
science
A distinction is often made between pure sciences
and applied sciences.
The main aim of pure sciences is the acquisition of
knowledge and it is not bothered weather the
acquired knowledge is useful or can be put to use.
Nature of sociology
On the other hand, the aim of applied science is to
apply the acquired knowledge into life and to put it
to use.
Each pure science may have its own applied field.
For example, physics is a pure science and
engineering is its applied field.
Nature of sociology
Similarly the pure sciences such as
economics, political science, history, etc., have their
applied field such as administration, diplomacy,
social work etc.
Each pure science may have more than one
application.
Nature of sociology
Sociology is a pure science, because the immediate
aim of sociology is the acquisition of knowledge
about human society, not utilization of knowledge.
Sociologists never determine questions of public
policy and do not recommend legislators what laws
should be passed or replaced.
Nature of sociology
But the knowledge acquired by a sociologist is of
great help to administrator, the legislator, the
diplomat, the teacher, the foreman, the supervisor,
the social worker and citizen.
But sociologists themselves do not apply the
knowledge to life and use, as a matter of their duty
and profession.
Nature of sociology
6. Sociology is a categorical and not a normative
discipline
Sociology "confines itself to statements about what
is, not what should be or ought to be".
"As a science, sociology is necessarily silent about
questions of value.
It does not make any kind of value-judgments.
Nature of sociology
Its approach is neither moral nor immoral but
neutral.
It is ethically neutral.
It cannot decide the directions in which sociology
ought to go.
It makes no recommendations on maters of social
policy or legislation's or programme.
Nature of sociology
But it does not mean that sociological knowledge is
useless and serves no propose.
It only means that sociology as a discipline cannot
deal with problems of good and evil, right and
wrong, and moral or immoral.
Nature of sociology
7. Sociology is a social science and not a physical
science
Sociology belongs to the family of social sciences
and not to the family of physical sciences.
As a social science it concentrates its attention on
man, his social behavior, social activities and social
life.
Nature of sociology
As a member of the family of social sciences it is
intimately related to other social sciences like
history, political science, economics, psychology,
anthropology etc.
Nature of sociology
The fact that sociology deals with the Social
universe distinguishes from astronomy, physics,
chemistry, geology, mathematics and other physical
sciences.
Nature of sociology
8. Sociology is an independent science
Sociology has now emerged into an independent
science.
It is not treated and studied as a branch of any
other science like philosophy or political philosophy
or history.
As an independent science it has its own field of
study, boundary and method.
Subject matter of Sociology
Rural Sociology
Social organization
Urban Sociology
Medical Sociology
Criminology
Social Psychology
Economic Sociology
Sociology of Religion
Industrial Sociology
Sociology of Social Problems
Sociology of Education
Political Sociology
Sociology of the
Family
Applied sociology
Collective behaviour
Community
Comparative sociology
Crime and delinquency
Social change and disorganization
Fundamental social processes
Emphasis on social research
Cultural sociology
Demography
Deviant behaviour
Formal and complex organizations
Human ecology
Study of primary units of social life
Development, structure & function of a wide variety of

basic social institutions
Law and society
Marriage and Family
Military sociology
Social control
Sociological theory
Sociological analysis
Sociology of internet
Social organization
It is the study of the various institutions, social
groups, social stratification, social mobility,
bureaucracy, ethnic groups and relations, and other
similar subjects like family, education, politics,
religion, economy, and so on and so forth.
Social psychology
It is the study of human nature as an outcome of
group life, social attitudes, collective behavior, and
personality formation.
It deals with group life and the individual's traits,
attitudes, beliefs as influenced by group life, and it
views man with reference to group life.
Social change and disorganization
It is the study of the change in culture and social
relations and the disruption that may occur in
society, and it deals with the study of such current
problems in society such as juvenile delinquency,
criminality, drug addiction, family conflicts, divorce,
population problems, and other similar subjects.
Human ecology
It deals with the nature and behaviour of a given
population and its relationships to the group's
present social institutions.
For instance, studies of this kind have shown the
prevalence of mental illness, criminality,
delinquencies, prostitution, and drug addiction in
urban centers and other highly developed places.
Population or demography
It is the study of population number, composition,
change, and quality as they influence the
economic, political, and social system.
Sociological theory and method
It is concerned with the applicability and usefulness
of the principles and theories of group life as bases
for the regulation of man's environment, and
includes theory building and testing as bases for
the prediction and control of man's social
environment
Applied sociology
It utilizes the findings of pure sociological research
in various fields such as criminology, social work,
community development, education, industrial
relations, marriage, ethnic relations, family
counseling, and other aspects and problems of
daily life.
Sociological analysis
An analysis of human society and culture with a
sociological perspective.
Also to analyze the factors & forces underlying
historical transformations of society.
Study of primary units of social life
It is concerned with social acts and social
relationships, individual personality, groups,
communities, associations, organizations and
populations.
Development, structure & function of a wide
variety of basic social institutions
Such as the family & kinship, religion & property,
economic, political, legal, educational and scientific,
recreational & welfare, aesthetic & expressive
institutions.
Fundamental social processes
Such as cooperation & competition;
accommodation & assimilation; social conflict
including war & revolution; communication; social
differentiation & stratification; socialization; social
control & deviance (crime, suicide); social
integration & social change.
Emphasis on social research Contemporary
sociology has tended to become more and more
rational & empirical rather than philosophical &
idealistic.
Level of Analysis:
Macro-Sociology & Micro-Sociology
Micro sociology - the study of everyday behavior in
situations of face-to-face interaction.
Macro sociology - the analysis of large-scale social
systems.
The two are closely connected.
Sociology and Common Sense
Sociologists do not accept something as fact

because everyone knows it
Findings are tested by researchers, analyzed in
relation to other data, and evaluated with
sociological theory
Common sense is the knowledge people gain

about the world through their everyday
experience.
On occasion, sociological findings and common sense
do overlap, but often, sociology challenges popular
wisdom.
Common sense holds that seeing is believing.

Sociologists found that the reverse is also true:
what we believe often determines what we see;
our perceptions are filtered through the lens of
our previous experiences, attitudes, and beliefs.
1. Human beings have a natural instinct to mate

with the opposite sex( T/F).
Sociological research Findings:
Human sexual performances are learned; not
instinctive; in fact, if instinct is defined as an
inherited complex behavior pattern, human beings
do not have any instincts at all.
2.Lower class people are more likely to commit

crimes than upper-class people (T/F).
There is no evidence whatever that poor people are
more likely to commit crimes than rich ones,
although the poor do commit different kinds of
crime.
3.Husbands are more likely to kill their wives in

family fights than wives are to kill their husbands(
T/F).
Husbands and wives are equally likely to kill one
another in marital disputes. Although husbands are
usually stronger, wives are more likely to resort to
lethal weapons , such as kitchen knives.
4.One thing found in every society is romantic love

(T/F).
Romantic love may seem part of human nature to
us, but in many societies it is unknown , and in
many others it is regarded as tragic.
5. The amount of money spent on a schools

facilities has a strong effect on the academic
success of its pupils( T/F).
The amount of money spent on a schools facilities
seems to have little influence on pupils
achievement. Performance is related primarily to
pupils social class backgrounds.
Problems with common sense

Limited experience
Biasness
Lack of evidence
Importance Of Sociology
Sociology makes a scientific study of society
Prior to the emergence of sociology the study of
society was carried on in an unscientific manner
and society had never been the central concern of
any science.
Importance of sociology
It is through the study of sociology that the truly
scientific study of the society has been possible.
Sociology because of its bearing upon many of the
problems of the present world has assumed such a
great importance that it is considered to be the
best approach to all the social sciences.
Sociology studies role of the institutions in the
development of the individuals
It is through sociology that scientific study of the
great social institutions and the relation of the
individual to each is being made.
The home and family ,the school and education,
the church and religion, the state and government
,industry and work ,the community and association,
these are institutions through which society
functions.
Sociology studies these institutions and their role in
the development of the individual and suggests
suitable measures for re-strengthening them with
a view to enable them to serve the individual
better.
Study of sociology is indispensable for
understanding and planning of society
Society is a complex phenomenon with a multitude

of intricacies (complexity).
It is impossible to understand and solve its
numerous problems without support of sociology.
It is rightly said that we cannot understand and
mend society without any knowledge of its
mechanism and construction.
Without the investigation carried out by sociology
no real effective social planning would be possible.
It helps us to determine the most efficient means
for reaching the goals agreed upon.
A certain amount of knowledge about society is
necessary before any social policies can be carried
out.
Sociology is of great importance in the solution of
social problems
The present world is suffering from many problems
which can be solved through scientific study of the
society.
It is the task of sociology to study the social
problems through the methods of scientific
research and to find out solution to them.
The scientific study of human affairs will ultimately
provide the body of knowledge and principles that
will enable us to control the conditions of social life
and improve them.
Sociology has drawn our attention to the intrinsic
worth and dignity of man
Sociology has been instrumental in changing our
attitude towards human beings.
In a specialized society we are all limited as to the
amount of the whole organization and culture that
we can experience directly.
We can hardly know the people of other areas
intimately.
In order to have insight into and appreciation of the
motives by which others live and the conditions
under which they exist a knowledge of sociology is
essential.
Sociology has changed our outlook with regard to
the problems of crime etc
It is through the study of sociology that our whole
outlook on various aspects of crime has change.
The criminals are now treated as human beings
suffering from mental deficiencies and efforts are
accordingly made to rehabilitate them as useful
members of the society.
Sociology has made great contribution to enrich
human culture
Human culture has been made richer by the
contribution of sociology.
The social phenomenon is now understood in the
light of scientific knowledge and enquiry.
By comparative study of societies and groups other
than his existence ,his life becomes richer and fuller
than it would otherwise be.
Sociology also impresses upon us the necessity of
overcoming narrow personal prejudices, ambitions
and class hatred.
Sociology is of great importance in the solution of
international problems
The progress made by physical sciences has
brought the nations of the world nearer to each
other.
But in the social field the world has been left
behind by the revolutionary progress of the
science.
The world is divided politically giving rise to stress
and conflict.
Men have failed to bring in peace.
Sociology can help us in understanding the
underlying causes and tensions.
The value of sociology lies in the fact that it keeps
us update on modern situations
It contributes to making good citizens and finding
solutions to the community problems.
It adds to the knowledge of the society.
It helps the individual find his relation to society.
They can analyse stuff and it makes it better to
know about this information because it can get you
somewhere .
Sociology is the study of the social part of us, the
pattern of interaction with other people which is
necessary to our very existence
Sociology has been described as 'the scientific
study of human group behaviour and 'the
application of scientific methods of inquiry to the
puzzles of social life.
The Development
of Sociology
THE ORIGIN, EARLY SOCIOLOGISTS , MODERN
DEVELOPMENTS AND INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION IN
EUROPE.
The Origin of sociology
Sociology emerged in the middle of the nineteen century
in Europe
Different factors led to the development of sociology:

1.Industrial Revolution
Europe was changing from agriculture to factory production
Masses of people moved to the cities in search of work
In cities people met anonymity (adverse situation), crowding, filth
(dirty), and poverty.
Industrial Revolution challenged the traditional order an opened the
door for democratic changes
Social changes undermined the traditional explanations of human
existence
2. the social upheaval( revolution) in Europe as a result of the Industrial
Revolution and the political revolutions in America and France;
3.Travel/ the development of imperialism
The Europeans had been successful in obtaining colonies
Their colonial empires exposed them to radically different

cultures
Startled (charming) by these contrasting ways of life, they

began to ask questions why cultures differed
4. Success in natural sciences
Newtons laws explained the movement of everything visible in the
universe (from planets to buildings)
It seemed logical to discover the laws underlying social phenomena

the success of the natural sciences, which created a desire to apply
scientific methods in order to find answers for the questions being
raised about the social world as well
5.THE SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTION
A BELIEF IN SCIENCE BEGAN TO REPLACE TRADITIONAL FORMS OF AUTHORITY
6.THE ECONOMIC REVOLUTION
INDUSTRIALISM AND CAPITALISM WERE CHANGING ECONOMIC PATTERNS
7.THE POLITICAL REVOLUTION

MORE DEMOCRATIC VALUES AND STANDARDS WERE BEING ADOPTED
The Father of Sociology
Early Sociologists- Auguste Comte
(1798-1857
The new social science that Comte sought to establish was first called
social physics but he coined the word sociology, a hybrid term
compounded of Latin and Greek parts
Comte first used the term sociology in print in 1838
(1798-1857)
Law of the Three Stages
Comte identified three basic stages and proceeded to argue that the
human mind, people through the maturation process, all branches of
knowledge, and the history of the world all pass successively through
these three stages.
(1798-1857)
1.The Theological Stage
2.The Metaphysical Stage
3.The Positivistic Stage
(1798-1857)
1.The Theological Stagebefore 13c)
In this stage ,the human mind is searching for the essential nature of
things, particularly their origin (where do they come from?) and their
purpose (why do they exist?).
(1798-1857)
What this comes down to is the search for absolute knowledge, it is
assumed that all phenomena are created, regulated, and given their
purposes by supernatural forces or beings (gods).
(1798-1857)
2.The Metaphysical Stage(13c-18c)
It is a transitional stage between the preceding theological stage and the
ensuing positivistic stage.
(1798-1857)
In the metaphysical stage, abstract forces replace supernatural beings as
the explanation for the original causes and purposes of things in the
world.
Mysterious forces such as nature are invoked (invite) to explain why
things are the way they are.
(1798-1857)
3.The Positivistic Stage( after 18c)
This is the final and most important stage in Comtes system.
At this stage, people give up their vain search for original causes or
purposes. people drop such nonscientific ideas as supernatural beings
and mysterious forces.
(1798-1857)
Four basic methods
Comte explicitly identified four basic methods for
sociologyfour basic ways of doing social research
in order to gain empirical knowledge of the real
social world.
The first is the observation
The second is the experiment
The third is the comparison
The forth is the historical research
(1798-1857)
1.Observation
Observations should be directed by some theory ,and when made ,they
should be connected to some law.
Direction observation and indirection observation.
(1798-1857)
2.Experiment
This method is better suited to the other sciences than it is to
sociology .It is obviously virtually impossible to interfere with, and to
attempt to control, social phenomena.
direction experiment and the indirection experiment.
(1798-1857)
3.Comparison
Three subtypes.
First, we can compare humans to lower animal
societies.
Second, we can compare societies in different parts
of the world.
Third, we can compare the different stages of
societies over time (particularly important).
(1798-1857)
4.Historical research
Most important method in sociology.
Comte wrote: necessity of historical studies as the foundation of
sociological speculation (conception)
(1798-1857)
Auguste Comte coined the term Sociology and suggested the use of
positivism applying the scientific approach to the social world but
he did not utilize this approach himself.?
(1798-1857)
A strict positivist, seeing a black sheep could not say, There is a black
sheep.
He could only say, I see a sheep, one side of which is black.
(1798-1857)
He established two specific problems for sociological investigation:
a) Social statics; and
b) Social dynamics.
A.Social statics refers to the problem of order and stability- how & why
do societies hold together and endure?
(1798-1857)
B. Social dynamics refers to the problem of social change- what makes
societies change and what shapes the nature and direction of the
changes
Early Sociologists- Herbert Spencer
(1820-1903)
Herbert Spencer viewed societies as evolutionary, coined the term the
survival of the fittest, and became known for social Darwinism.
He compared human societies to living organisms.
(1820-1903)
Like internal parts of an animal which are interdependent and contribute
to the survival of the organism, the various parts of society, such as
economy & the state, are also interdependent and work to ensure the
stability & survival of the entire system.
(1820-1903)
He believed that evolution means progress, and he strongly opposed
attempts at social reforms on the grounds that they might interfere
with a naturally evolutionary process.
Early Sociologists- Karl Marx (1818-
1883)
CLASS CONFLICT/STRUGGLE
Karl Marx, founder of the conflict Perspective, believed that class
conflict the struggle between the proletariat and the bourgeoisie
was the key to human history.
1883)
1883)
He was the most important of the 19th century thinkers, born in
Germany, but after being expelled from various countries for his
revolutionary activities, he eventually settled in England.
1883)
An erratic (not careful) genius, he wrote brilliantly on subjects as broad
& diverse as philosophy, economics, political science, and history.
1883)
He never claimed himself to be a sociologist, but his work is so rich in
sociological insights that he is now regarded as one of the most
profound and original sociological thinkers.
1883)
While Spencer saw social harmony and the inevitability of progress,
Marx saw social conflict and the inevitability of revolution.
This context, Marx claimed, would end only with the overthrow of the
ruling exploiters and the establishment of a free, humane, classless
society.
1883)
He placed special emphasis on the economic base of society.
His key works included: 1848: The Communist Manifesto (1848)(
proletarians of all countries, unite!); and Das Kapital (1867)
1883)
Social Change
The history of all hither (until) to existing society
is the history of class struggles.
Classes through history:
Free men and slaves
Patrician (noble) and plebeian (lower class)
1883)
Baron and serf (slavery)
Nobility and bourgeoisie
Bourgeoisie and proletariat
Exploiters and exploited
1883)
Successive Relations of Production:
Primitive communism
Asiatic
Ancient
Feudal
Bourgeois
Early Sociologists- Emile Durkheim
(1858-1917)
Emile Durkheim played an important role in the development of

sociology.
a) A primary goal of his was to get sociology recognized as a separate
academic discipline.
(1858-1917)
(1858-1917)
b) He was interested in understanding the social factors that influence
individual behavior;
he studied suicide rates among different groups and concluded that
social integration, the degree to which people are tied to their social
group, was a key social factor in suicide.
(1858-1917)
c) Durkheims third concern was that social research be practical;
sociologists should not only diagnose the causes of social problems but
should also develop solutions for them.
(1858-1917)
Another of Durkheims main interests was the consequences of work in
modern societies.
In his view, the growing division of labor found in industrial societies as
workers became much more specialized in their tasks led to what he
called anomie.
(1858-1917)
His key works included:
The division of labor in Society (1883):
Suicide: A Study in Sociology (1897):
and Elementary forms of Religious life (1912).
(1858-1917)
Suicide: A Study in Sociology (1897)
Whether suicide the most private act or it is instigated by the structure
of the society?
Durkheim carefully examined the available data on rates of suicide
among various social groups
(1858-1917)
If suicide is purely an act of individuals desperation one would not
expect to find any changes in the rates from year to year or society to
society
(1858-1917)
Durkheim's Method
He traveled around France and examined death certificates of suicides
(1858-1917)
Durkheim collected data on social background of suicide victims, e.g.
demographic information including age, religion, class, job, work history,
income, wealth, gender, etc.
Then Durkheim grouped people according to suicide rates and each
social factor
(1858-1917)
Durkheim discovered that suicide rates in all the
countries tended to be higher:
1. Among widowed, single, and divorced people
than among married people
2. Among people without children than among
parents
3.Among Protestants than among Catholics
What make these groups of people different?

Early Sociologists- Max Weber (1864-
1920)
Max Weber defined religion as a central force in social change.
For example, Protestantism encourages greater economic development
and was the central factor in the rise of capitalism in some countries.
1920)
1920)
Born in Germany, he took his early academic training in legal &
economic history, but gradually developed an interest in Sociology.
He emphasized Verstehen (German word for understanding or
insight) among his students in their intellectual work.
1920)
His key works included:
The Protestant ethic and the spirit of Capitalism (1904-5);
and Wirtshaft und Gesellschaft (1922).
Modern Developments
JANE ADDAMS (1860-1933)
SOCIAL WORKER
DEVELOPED PLAN TO HELP IMMIGRANTS NEW TO CITY LIFE IN AMERICA
HULL HOUSE IN CHICAGO
NOBEL PEACE PRIZE WINNER, 1931
Jane Addams
(American) (1880-1935)
Modern Developments
Jane Adams is an example; she founded Hull House, a settlement house
for the poor, and worked to bridge the gap between the powerful and
the powerless.
She is the only sociologist and Social worker to have won the Nobel
Peace prize in 1931.
Talcott Parsons
(American) (1902-1979)
Modern Developments
Talcott Parsons developed abstract models of society to show how the
parts of society harmoniously work together.
Talcott Parsons
(American) (1902-1979)
Reintroduced the theories of European sociologists while
teaching at Harvard University
Structural/Functionalist
Emphasis on empirical research--not social reform
Prominent Contributors to
Sociological Thought
1798 1857
Auguste Comte
1802 1876
Harriet Martineau
1820 1903
Herbert Spencer
1818 1883
Karl Marx
1858 1917 The time lines shown
mile Durkeim
1860 1935
here give an idea of
Jane Addams
1863 1931
relative chronology.
George Herbert Mead
1864 1920
Max Weber
1864 1929
Charles Horton Cooley
1868 1963
W.E.B. Du Bois
1902 1979
Talcott Parsons
1910
Robert Merton
1916 1962
C. Wright Mills
1922 1982
Erving Goffman
INDUSTRIAL
REVOLUTION
Capitalism and Socialism
The New Encyclopedia of
Britannica,vol.6,1988,p-304-305.
Industrial
revolution is the process of
change from an agrarian , handicraft
economy to one dominated by industry
and machine manufacture.
This process began in England in the 18th
century and there spread to other parts
of the world.
INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION
Punikar and Others,1981,
The industrial revolution began in England in the
latter half of the 18th century and since it
introduced the big machine, it came to be
known as the Machine Age or Mechanical Age.
INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION
1.Modern industrial system and world economy
2.Migration of people
3.Country side transformed into urban towns
4.Organized labor and socialist movements grew
in strength
5.creating employment opprtunities
INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION AND

CONSEQUENCES
6.increased the life span of people
7.conflicts between employers and employees
8.families ties break down
9.encourged the class of capitalists
10.the beauty of natural environment has
changed

CONSEQUENCES
11.social disequilibrium
12.mobile working force
13.cultural differences and cultural lag
14.family disorganization
15.labour treated as a commodity.

CONSEQUENCES
The Social Work Dictionary,1995:
Capitalism is an economic system in which the
production and distribution of goods and
services for consumers are controlled through
private ownership and open competitions.
CAPITALISM
Richard T. Schaefer-Sociology ,1984-413:
Capitalism is an economy in which the means of
producing are largely in private hands and the
main incentive for economic activity is the
accumulation of profits.
CAPITALISM
In general, the American economy is a model of
capitalism and the Soviet economy is generally
regarded as a model of socialism.
It is generally expectable that capitalism
developed during industrial revolution and post
industrial stage in UK, West Europe specially.
THE GROWTH OF CAPITALISM

1.Feudal society transfer into capitalist
society.
2.Feudal
slave become free and
independent labor
3.Massive
increase in the rate of
production
4.Emerging new cities and markets
5.revolutionary
change in transport and
communication system

6.development of personal and private
ownership
7.introduce of currency
8.development of trade and industry
9.geographical discover
10.development of secularism
11.development of mercantile economy
12.Laissez-Faire Policy (Adam Smith)

13.Protestant Values ( Max Weber-the
protestant ethics and spirit of capitalism)
14.logical thinking, sincerity and
unbelievable courage (Sumbert)
15.the theory of surplus of value (Karl Marx)
16.development of the national state
17.colonization
18.free enterprise and real competition.

Capitalist society is divided into three
forms:
1.Commercial capitalism:
In the 17th century, Greece, Arab, and
18th century initiatives was taken by the
East India Company.
2.Industrial capitalism:
In the 18th century, with the
development of industrial revolution,
industrial capitalism was emerged.
TYPES OF CAPITALISM
3.Financial capitalism:
In modern capitalist society, financial based
capitalism developed based on banking,
insurance ,share etc.
TYPES OF CAPITALISM
1.personal profits:
As Max Weber remarked, the outstanding
characteristics of capitalism is production for the
pursuit of profit and ever renewed profit.
Seeking self-interest or profit is considered here as
normal, normally acceptable and socially
desirable.
ELEMENTS OF CAPITALISM
2.Free competition:
Competition is regarded as necessary if
the capitalist system is to work
effectively.
JohnD.Rockfeller-A Multi-Millionaire of
USA comment: competition is not an evil
tendency in business. It is merely a
working out of law of nature and a law
of God.
3. policy of Laissez-Faire:
The government is expected to follow a policy of
Laissez-Faire/ Leave at alone/ or the policy of
non-interference .
It was developed by Adam Smith.
According to Dictionary of Sociology:
1.private ownership of land and capital
resources by individuals, partnerships and
corporations
2.operation of competition primarily for
private profit for the owners
3.much stimulation of enterprise
4.increase of inventions
5.improvement of technical process
6.high specialization of finance in particular
LEADING FEATURES OF
CAPITALISM
7.rapid enlargement of production
8.worl wide extension of commerce
9.growth of large powerful corporate
organizations producing
10.some private control of government
11.periodic depressions; and
12.increasingly powerful labor
organizations that are securing improved
status and influence of the workers.
LEADING FEATURES OF
CAPITALISM
1. capitalism over emphasizes profits and
neglects group interests and social functions
2.it provides no guarantee that profits and
economic activities will further used for the
interests of the society
3.capitalism inevitably leads to labor
exploitations
SOCIAL CONSEQUENCES OF
CAPITALISM
4.capitalism develops the birth of labor unions
which very often fights against management for
securing justice to the workers
5.capitalism does not give scope for the
customers to develop contacts or
communications with the owners particularly
when business house are owned by a large
number of stakeholders
CAPITALISM
6.minute division of labor and specialization lead
to adverse consequences and particularly to the
alienation of workers
7.widened the gulf between the rich and the
poor
8. conflicts between employers and employees
CAPITALISM
9.Workers suffer from a sense of job insecurity
10.encouraged the exploitation of the workers
11.employers are pitiless
12. develop self-centered mentality.
CAPITALISM
The Social Work Dictionary,1995:
Socialism is a system of economic organization in
which all or most of the planning is centralized,
and most of the means of production are
controlled by the government or a collective
institution.
SOCIALISM
The Dictionary of Sociology:
A social philosophy , or a system of social
organization , based on the principle of the
public ownership of the material instruments of
production and economic services.
SOCIALISM
1. Partial socialism:
Under partial socialism, workers, at least
in theory , have the choice between
public and private employment.
2.Complete socialism:
Under complete socialism, every worker(
and it is assumed that every able bodied
adult will be a worker ) must be in the
employ of society.
3.Marxism Socialism
4.National socialism
TYPES OF SOCIALISM
1.the basic objectives of socialist system
is to meet peoples needs rather than to
maximizes profits.
2.personalprofit is regarded as
fundamentally immoral, because one
persons profit is another persons loss.
3.production should not be done for
profit , it should be designed to serve
social goals.
CHARACTERISTICS OF
SOCIALISM
4.the means of production should be taken into
public ownership and run it the best interests of
society as a whole
5.a common ownership of the means of
production and distribution
6.theeconomic activities are planned by the
state
CHARACTERISTICS OF
SOCIALISM
7.absence of social class difference
8.legal system is primarily concerned with
administration , it involves important change in
criminal and property law.
CHARACTERISTICS OF
SOCIALISM
1.socialist economies are more efficient
economically
2.socialist economies do not have colonial
markets
3.socialist economies are more democratic than
capitalist societies.
4. equal opportunities for all
5. establish human rights.
CONSEQUENCES OF SOCIALISM
The Theoretical
Perspectives
SOCIOLOGICAL ANALYSIS
The Theoretical Perspectives
THEORY:
A STATEMENT OF HOW AND WHY FACTS ARE RELATED.
The sociological perspective is important because it provides a different
way of looking at familiar worlds.
It allows us to gain a new vision of social life.
Theoretical Perspectives in Sociology
Sociologists use three different theoretical perspectives to understand
social behavior.
1.The Functionalist Perspective,
2.The Conflict Perspective, and
3.The Inter-actionist Perspective.
1. The Functionalist Perspective
The central idea of Functional analysis is that society is a whole unit,

made up of interrelated parts that work together.
Sociologists Herbert Spencer and Emile Durkheim
a) To understand society, we must look at both structure, how the parts
of society fit together to make up the whole, the function, how each
part contributes to society.
b) Robert Merton used the term function to refer to the beneficial
consequences of peoples actions to keep society stable and
dysfunctions to refer to consequences that undermine stability.
Functions can be either manifest (actions that are intended) or latent
(unintended consequences).
c) In trying to explain divorce, functionalist would look at how
industrialization and urbanization both contributed to the changing
function of marriage and the family.
2. The Conflict Perspective
According to Conflict theory, society is viewed as composed of groups
competing for scarce resources.
Sociologists Karl Marx
a) Karl Marx focused on struggles between the bourgeoisie, the small
group of capitalists who own the means of production,
and the proletariat, the masses of workers exploited by the capitalists.
b) Contemporary conflict theorists have expanded this perspective to
include conflict in all relations of power and authority.
c) Divorce is seen as the outcome of the shifting balance of power
within a family; as women have gained power and try to address
inequalities in their relationships, men resist.
The main weakness of conflict theory is

its failure to explain social cohesion.
3. The Inter-actionist Perspective
The perspectives differ in their level of analysis.
Functionalists and conflict theorists provide macro-level analysis
because they examine the large-scale patterns of society.
Inter-actionist Perspective carry out micro-level analysis because they
focus on the small scale patterns of social life.
Theoretical Perspectives in
Sociology
A symbolic interactionist studying divorce would focus on the changing
meaning of marriage; family and divorce have all contributed to the
increase in the rate of divorce in society.
Each of these perspectives focuses on a different aspect of reality:
i) Functionalism, primarily on social order and stability;
ii) Conflict theory, primarily on tension and change, and
iii) Interactionist, primarily on ordinary experiences of everyday life.
Each of the perspectives has a part to play in the analysis of society.
All these perspectives could be applied. For example, to the study of
Education:
a) A functionalist approach would emphasize the functions that
education plays in maintaining the social system as a whole.
b) A conflict approach would emphasize that education is believed to be
an important avenue to social and financial success in life.
It stresses on the social class background of the pupil affecting his
academic achievement.
c) An interactionist approach would emphasize the daily activities within
school, forms of interaction between teachers and students, the
influence of student peer group over its members.
Thank you for your Patience
Scientific Methods and their
Application in Sociological
Research
FACT, CONCEPT, VARIABLES, CORRELATIONS,
CONTROL, HYPOTHESIS, ASSUMPTION, AND THEORY
The Basic Concepts of the
Social Scientific Method
Scientific Method
Science is a body of systematic knowledge.
According to encyclopedia of Britannica: Scientific
Method is a collective term denoting the various
process by the aid of which sciences are built up.
The Basic Concepts/ process
of the Social Scientific Method
Components/ process of Scientific

Method
1.Fact,
2.Concept,
3.Variables,
4.Correlations,
5.Control,
6.Hypothesis,
7.Assumption, and
8.Theory
1.Fact
Fact is what is really happened.
A fact is an empirically verified statement of
phenomena.
A fact is a logical construction of concept.
There are two types of fact:

1.Materialist fact:-war, traffic jam , fire accidents
etc.
2.Non- Materialist: fact-stress, association,
communication.
2.Concepts
A concept is a word ,a phrase, symbolizing the

phenomena and helping to communicate to
findings
There are two types of concept:

1.concept of postulation (established truth based
on logic)-population, Euclidean geometry.
2. concept of intuitional( accept/ knowledge
without conscious logic) -black color.
3.Variables
Variables are concepts whose value changes from

case to case, Constants do not change value.
Relationships among variables
Cause and effect is a relationship in which change in

one variable causes change in another.
The independent variable is the variable that causes
the change.
The dependent variable is the variable that changes.

Cause-and-effect relationships allow us to predict how
one pattern of behavior will produce another.
4.Correlation
Correlation exists when two (or more) variables change
together.
Correlation: exists when a change in one variable
coincides with a change in another.
Correlation does not necessarily indicate causation

Spurious (false) correlation means an apparent,
although false, association between two (or more)
variables caused by some other variable.
5.Control.
the ability to neutralize the effect of one variable in
order to assess relationships among other variables.
Spurious correlations can be discovered through
scientific control.
6.Hypothesis
testable statement about relationship between two or
more variables.
The hypothesis is a tentative justification, the validity of

which remains to be tested.
Example-
abuse of internet increases the cyber crime.
7.Assumption
The hypothesis is a tentative justification, the
validity of which need not to be tested.
Without any test or experiment ,we should
accept assumption in the research process.
Example-
Role of Judges is to ensure the justice.
Prison is the rehabilitation centre of criminals.
8.Theory
set of statements that seeks to explain problems,
actions, or behavior.
An attempt to explain events, forces, materials,
ideas or behavior in a comprehensive manner.
Theory is the scientific explanation of a condition that

has been observed.
Durkheims work on suicide provides a classic case of

sociological theory at work
Sociological Theories: Seek to explain problems,

actions, or behavior.
Effective theories should explain and predict.
Sociologists employ theories to examine the
relationships between observations or data that
may seem completely unrelated.
How Research and Theory Work

Together
Neither Research nor Theory can Stand Alone
Theories Must Be Tested
Findings Must be Explained with Theory

As Immanuel Kant said,

"theories without facts are empty and facts without
theories are blind".
The Methods of
Social Research
Historical, Comparative, Statistical, Case-study,
Experiments
The Methods of Social Research
Sociological Research Method is a Systematic Plan for

Conducting Research.
Research Method a systematic plan for

doing research.
Sociologists use the following methods:

Surveys
Experiments
Participant observations
Secondary Analysis
Historical,
Comparative,
Statistical,
Case-study etc.
Basically research methods can be classified into two

forms:
1.Quantitative Research Methods
Emphasis on Precise Measurement
Uses Statistics and Numbers
2.Qualitative Research Methods
Emphasis on Observing, Describing, and Interpreting
Behavior
1. The Historical method

The Historical method calls for a study of events,
processes, and institutions of past civilizations for
the purpose of finding the origins or
antecedents of contemporary social life and
thus of understanding its nature and workings.
The underlying idea is that our present forms of

social life , our customs or ways of living , have their
roots in the past and that one can best explain them
by tracing them back to their sources.
Example: Causes and impacts of Dowry in
Bangladesh: A Sociological Study.
2.The comparative method

The comparative method involves comparisons of
various kinds of groups or peoples in order to
disclose the differences as well as the similarities
in their ways of life.
The assumption here is that these divergences and

likenesses furnish important clues to mans social
behavior.
The method may be used in the study of existing

groups or of those of the past, and of groups on the
same or different levels of civilization.
Example: Use Mass Media between Urban and
Rural Areas: A Study on Bangladesh
3.The statistical method

The statistical method is used to measure social
phenomena mathematically in order to disclose
relationships and thus arrive at generalizations
regarding their nature, occurrence, and meaning.
Most of the data dealt with in sociology are

qualitative and hence do not lend themselves to
statistical treatment.
However, sociologists have been able to reduce more
and more of such data to quantative terms and thus
to deal with them statistically.
Table: Marital Status of Respondents
Marital Status Number Percentage
Married 71 71.00
Unmarried 29 29.00
Total 100 100.00

Survey Research
A survey is a research method in which subjects respond to a

series of statements or questions in a questionnaire or an
interview..
-Surveys are directed at populations, the people who are the

focus of research.
Usually we study a sample, a part of a population that

represents the whole.
Random sampling is commonly used to be sure that the
sample is actually representative of the entire population.
- Surveys may involve questionnaires, a series of written
questions a researcher presents to subjects.
Questionnaires may be closed-ended or open-ended.

- Surveys may also take the form of interviews, a series of
questions administered in person by a researcher to
respondents.
This technique uses statistical methods to analyze
data.
Research Title:
Rural- Urban Migration of Bangladesh: Causes
and Remedies
Interview Schedule
A. Socio-economic and Demographic
Information
01. Name of the Respondents and Address:
1.1.Name..
1.2.Present Address: Ward/Slum Area
City.
1.3.Permanent Address: Village.

Union
Upazila..District
Division.
1.4 Sex: a) Male b) Female
02. Age:.Year
03. Level of Education:.

04. Religion:
05. Marital Status:.
06. Occupation/ Profession:
07. Average Monthly Income:..BDT.
08. Where did you live before coming to the present

city?
08.1. Village
08.2. City
09. Was there your own home and land?
11.1. Home : a) Yes b) No
11.2 Land : a) Yes b) No
10. If Yes (11.1), please mention the nature of your

home:
10.1. Pucca 10.2. Semi- pucca 10.3. Tin made
10.4. Muddy
10.5. Others (please mention) ..
B.Factors Associated with Rural- Urban

Migration
11. Have you migrated singly or with family?
11.1. Singly 11.2. With family
12. Please mention the first time living place in the

city:
12.1. Relatives Home
12.2. Slum
12.3. Rented House
12.4. Bus station/ Rail way station
12.5. Others (please mention)
13. Major causes behind the migration in the city:
13.1.
..
13.2.
.
.
13.3.

.
13.4.
.
1.5.
.
C.Problems that are faced in the Urban Areas

14. Mention the common problems that are faced in
the city:
14.1..
14.2..
14.3..
14.4...
14.5...
D. Opinions of Migrated People in Solving Problems
15. In this perspective, what role the Government
Organizations and NGOs can play?
Thanks for your cordial participation

4.The case study method

The case study method may be employed in studying
a condition, group, community, institution, or
individual.
The method involves an investigation and an analysis

of all the factors entering into the case and an
examination from as many points of view as
possible.
Case Studies
Focus on Single
Event
Situation
Individual
Reveals Detail
Problem with Generalizability
Example: Impact of Micro credit on Rural Poor

Women Development and empowerment in
Bangladesh: A Case Study
5.Experiments
An experiment is a research method for investigating

cause and effect under highly controlled conditions.
-Experimental research is explanatory, meaning that it

asks not just what happens but why.
Experiment a research method for investigating cause and

effect under highly controlled conditions.
Experiments
Experimental Group
Control Group
Independent Variables
Dependent Variables
Typically, researchers conduct

experiments to test hypotheses,
unverified statements of a
relationship between variables.
Most experiments are conducted in
laboratories and employ
experimental and control groups.
Example: Cyber Crime and Use of Internet

Technology among the Young Generation: An
Experimental Study
Hypothesis: Use of Internet Technology
increases Cyber Crime tendency among the
Young Generation
Experimental Group-Young Generation (access to

internet)
Control Group-Young Generation ( no access in internet)
Independent Variable- Use of Internet Technology
Dependent Variable- Cyber Crime

Participant Observation
Participant observation is a method by which
researchers systematically observe people while
joining in their routine activities.
Participant observation research is descriptive and often
exploratory.
It is normally qualitative research, inquiry based on

subjective impressions.
William Whyte utilized this approach to study social
life in a poor neighborhood in Boston.
His research, published in the book Street Corner Society,

illustrates the value of using a key informant in field
research.
Example: Life of a RMG women workers in

Bangladesh: An Observational Study.
Secondary Analysis or Archival Research

A research method in which a researcher utilizes data
collected by others.
.
This study exemplifies a researchers power to analyze

the past using historical sources.
Example: Role of Mass Media in the Liberation
War of Bangladesh: A Content analysis.
Deciding Which Method to Use
Access to Resources
Access to Subjects
Purpose of Research
Researchers Background and Training
What should Not to do in
Research
Choose Biased Sample
Ask Biased Questions
List Biased Choices
Discard Undesirable Results
Misunderstand Subjects World
Analyze Data Incorrectly
A Sample Research Proposal
1.Research Title:
Cyber Crime and Use of Internet Technology
among the Young Generation: An Experimental
Study
2. Background of the Study
Discuss the background , perspective, conceptual
framework etc,.
A sample Research Proposal
3.Rationale of the Study

Utility and possible use of research findings.
4. Literature Review:
Review the relevant study, document, journal etc. for
better understanding about the present research area.
5.Objectives of the Study
A. General objectiveBased on research title(

present a inclusive investigation to explore the
relationship between Cyber Crime and Use of
Internet Technology among the Young
Generation of Bangladesh
B. specific Objectives-
To know the socio-economic and demographic
aspects of young generation;
To investigate causal relationship between cyber
crime and internet use; and
To gather some recommendations to address the
cyber crime etc.
6.Operational definition of concept:

Cyber Crime-
Internet Technology-
Young Generation
7.research hypothesis:
Use of Internet Technology increases Cyber Crime
tendency among the Young Generation
8.Methodology of the Study:

A. Principal method of research-experiment
method
B. research area- Dhaka City
C. population and unit of analysis-

total young generation of Dhaka city are the
population and every young generation haves or have
not access to internet facilities are the unit of
analysis.
D. sampling-purposive and non-purposive

sampling techniques.
E. data collection techniques-interview,

questionnaire, FGD etc.
F. data processing , editing and coding-
G. data Analysis-SPSS, statistical methods like,

percentage, average, dispersion, correlation, test
of hypothesis etc.
9.Report Writing and presentation

10.Time schedule
11.Budget
12.references.
Sample Question
1.Explain the concept of sociology.

2.Discuss the Nature and Subject Matter of
sociology.
Sample Question
3.make difference with examples between Sociology

and Common Sense.
4.Importance of Sociological Study for a member of
society/graduate of IIT.
Sample Question
5.Briefly describe The Development of Sociology

with mentioning the major contributions of different
sociologists.
6. Modern Developments of sociology and Industrial
Revolution in Europe
Sample Question
7.Discuss The different Theoretical Perspectives of

sociology.
8. Explain Scientific Methods and their Application
in Sociological Research
Sample Question
9.Briefly discuss with example The Methods of

Social Research
10.Construct a sample interview schedule/

questionnaire based on a research problems.
Sample Question
11.Prepare a sample research proposal on a current

social issue or information and communication
technology based aspects/ICT/IIT.
12. Describe major stages/process of sociological
Research.
The Research Process
Steps of Sociological Research
1
Concept of Research
According to Marry E. Macdonald,,
Research may be defined as systematic
investigation intended to add to available
knowledge in a form that is communicable and
verifiable.
Sociological or Social Research

According to Pauline V. Young, Scientific Social
Surveys and Research,
Social research is a method of studying ,
analyzing, and conceptualizing social life in
order to extend , correct, or verify knowledge,
whether that knowledge aid in the construction
of a theory or in the practice of an art.
According to Encyclopedia of Social Research,

volume-01:
Social research deals with the social phenomena.
It studies behavior of human beings as members
of society and their feeling, responses, attitudes
under different circumstances.
Most research in sociology-and indeed in all

science-follows the same basic, step by step
procedure.
The one outlined here is merely an ideal model, and
not all sociologists stick to it in every detail, but it
does provide the guidelines for most research
projects.
The Research Process included:

1.Select the problem,
2.Review the Literature,
3.Formulate a Hypothesis,
4.Choose a Research Design,
5.Collect the Data,

6.Analyze the Results (Use of SPSS (Statistical
Package for Social Sciences) in Sociological Research
,
7.Draw a Conclusion, and
8.Report Writing
1. Select the problem

The first step is to choose a suitable topic for a
research project.
Example-Impact of online communication among the Young
Generation of Bangladesh-A Sociological Study.
The general area selected will usually be one in which

the sociologist takes a personal interest-and
probably one for which research funds are
available.
Others considering aspects are:
Manageability
Rationality
Time management etc.
2.Review the Literature

Become familiar with existing theory and research on
the subject.
The existing sociological research bearing on the
problem must be tracked down and reviewed.
Knowledge of this literature provides background

information and saves the sociologist the labour and
embarrassment of unwittingly (unexpected)
duplicating research that has already been done.
3.Formulate a Hypothesis
State the problem as a testable hypothesis and
construct operation definitions of variables.
Hypothesis is a tentative statement that predicts a
relationship between variables( independent and
dependent variable).
Example-Young generation are more involved in

online communication
Operation definitions-Young generation, online
communication etc.
4.Choose a Research Design

The sociologist must now select one or more means
of conducting research and gathering data.
Experiment
Survey
Observational study,
Use of existing sources, or
Combination of these.
The research design the actual plan for the

collection and analysis of the data-is the crux of the
research process.
Experiment
Experimental Group
Control Group
Independent Variables
Dependent Variables
Surveys
Selecting a Sample
Random Sample
Stratified Random Sample
Asking Neutral Questions
Questionnaires
Self-Administered
Allow the Largest Sample
Low Cost
Loss of Researcher Control
Interviews
More Researcher Control
Time Consuming
Interviewer Bias
Structured Interviews
Unstructured Interviews
Establishing Rapport
Participant Observation
Researcher Participates
Problems with Generalizability
Done for Exploratory Work
Generates Hypotheses
Secondary Analysis
Analyze Data Collected by Others

Researcher Cannot Be Sure of Data
Quality
Documents
Examine Books, Newspapers, Diaries, etc.

Limited Scope
Cannot Study Topic Unless Access is Granted
5.Collect the data

Collect and record information in accordance with
the research design.
The conclusions will be no better than the data on
which they are based, so the researcher must take
great care in collecting and recording information.
6.Analyze the results

Arrange the information in orderly form and
interpret the findings.
Confirm, reject, or modify the hypothesis.
7. Draw a conclusion
Discuss the significance of the findings,
Relating them to existing theory and research, and
Defining problems for future research.
8.Report Writing
If the research makes a significance contribution to
sociological knowledge, it may be published ,
probably in the form of an article in a scholarly
journal.
It then becomes the common property of the

scientific community, whose members can attempt to
replicate the study-that is , repeat it to verify the
findings-if they wish to do so.
Steps in the conduct of Scientific
Sociological Research
29
Steps in the conduct of Scientific
Sociological Research
Research Ethics
1. Maintain objectivity and integrity in research

2. Respect subjects right to privacy and dignity
3. Protect subjects from personal harm
4. Preserve confidentiality
5. Seek informed consent
6. Acknowledge research collaboration and
assistance
7. Disclose all sources of financial support
Basic Social
Institutions
FAMILY AND MARRIAGE
Concept of Family
The family is a relatively permanent group of

people related by:
ancestry ,
marriage or
adoption,
who live together,
form an economic unit, and
take care of their young.
Concept of Family
Samuel Koenig,
The family is a kind of grouping or organization.
M.F. Nimkoff-Marriage and the Family,
Family is a more or less durable association of
husband and wife , with or without children.
Basic Function of Family
According to Samuel Koenig-Sociology:

1. the propagation of the species
2.economical function
3.religious function
4.Protective function
5.educational function
6.prestige giving
7. socialization of the individuals members
8.cultural advancement / achievement of the
group.
According to Spencer and Alex Inkels:

1.regulation of sexual behaviour
2.regulation of reproduction
3.socialization
4.protection
5.affection
According to Ian Robertson-Society:

1.Functional view:
A. regulation of sexual behaviour
B. replacement of members
C. socialization
D. care and protection
E. Social placement
F. emotional support-Family is a
heaven in a heartless world.
2. Conflict view:
A. dominance of men over women
has been expressed
B. astonishing amount of family
violence (The daily Prothom
Alo,14.03.14-Anisul haque-Apni ki
ager motoe Bou petan?/ do you
physically torture your wife as like as
past? )
C. child abuse
D. response of frustration
A Study on Factors Affecting Changes

in Family Pattern of Bangladesh-SSRC,
Ministry of Planning:
A. Fulfillment of food, clothing and

housing Child rearing
B. Providing education for family
members
C. Giving moral education
D. Proper socialization of the children
E. Providing employment opportunities

F. Providing health care
G. Proper guidance for future life of the family
members
H. Creating mutual love, sympathy, co-
operations and happiness in family
i. Giving opportunity to participate in family

decision making process
J. Providing recreational facilities
K. Arrange marriage
The Changing Pattern of
marriage and family
UN Secretary General Message on the
International Day of Family 15 May 2006:
It evident that families, the basic unit of

society, allover the world have been
undergoing many fundamental changes
and profound transformation mainly due
to:
1.comprehensive socio-economic
development and
2.technological advancement.
marriage and family
1.It is significant in this connection that both in
developed and developing countries including
Bangladesh, the average family size has
decreased( House hold size =4.4 persons)(
population census-2011);
2.young people are getting married at a later
age;
marriage and family
3.the average age of mothers at first birth has
increased;
4.infant mortality rates have declined and
couples are taking fewer children.
marriage and family
5.The alternative forms are more
common than the past in terms of
unmarried cohabitation and
marriages of migrant workers not
living in the same area or country
as their spouses.
6.The rate of divorce has increased
accompanied by remarriage many
children are living in a family with a
stepparent.
marriage and family
7.Significant numbers of both
single-parent families and single-
person households have emerged,
8.including increasing number of
older persons living alone.
9.And, in many cases traditional
agrarian life-styles based on the
extended family is being replaced
by the nuclear family.
marriage and family
10. The whole process is simply considered as
changes in families chiefly in terms of structure
and role performance.
11.Another important development in regard to
education of girl children
marriage and family
12. participation of women in formal labor force
has markedly increased over the part half
century.
It dramatically changes in the structure of family
and its role performance in socio-economic life, in
particular.
marriage and family
13. Again, another significant aspect is
vulnerability of older person.
Over 70 percent of older persons in developing
regions are living with child or grandchild. In
European countries, by contrast, the average is
around 25 percent only .
14.The process of alienation increases.
marriage and family
A Study on Factors Affecting Changes
in Family Pattern of Bangladesh-SSRC,
Ministry of Planning:
A. Expansion of institutionalized
educational activities for the children
;
B. Increased awareness about
responsibility among family members
marriage and family
C. Increasing participation of family members in
decision making process relating to family and
socio-political issues
D. Increasing participation of the women in
education, employment and decision- making
process
marriage and family
E. Extended scope and opportunities of function
for the family members
F. Increase in self-esteem among family members
G. Change in child raring process i. e. Day Care
Center in urban areas
marriage and family
H. Decrease in social problems like
dowry, early marriage, insecurity,
women oppression, family violence
etc.
i. Increased involvement of the
parents in childrens educational
activities
J. Change in basic human needs
(food, clothing, education,
recreation etc.)
Forms and Types of Family
1.Neuclear family:
A husband, his wife, and their unmarried children.
It is sometimes called the conjugal family
because it is based on marriage.
2.Extended family:
A household that is made up of the nuclear family
plus various other relatives such as grand parents.
The extended family is sometimes called the
consanguine family because the members are
tied together by blood that is birth.
3.Joint family:
Joint family is traditional in Hindu India, where
brothers continue to share property even after
their parents death.
The oldest male is the head of the family , but he
can not dispose of the familys property.
It is one type of extended family.
4. Composite family:
Composite family is formed when nuclear families
live together in a single household.
5.Polygamous family:
Polygamous family, in which there are several
wives or husbands.
There are Two types of polygamous family:

5.1. Polygany (several wives):
Refers to the marriage of a man to more than one
wife.
Often the various wives are sisters.
5.1.2.Polyandry( several men):

Refers to the marriage of a woman to more than
one husband.
This form of family is extremely rare.
Its most common form is the sharing of a women
by two or more brothers.
For example: Todas of southern India.(Poncho
Pandob)
6.Orientation family:
The one into which we are born as son or
daughter.
7.Procreation family:
The one which we create ourselves as father or
mother.
8.One person family.
Concept of Marriage
Samuel Koenig -Sociology:

Marriage is a relationship.
Bronislaw Malinowski:
Marriage is a contract for the production and
maintenance of children.
Concept of Marriage
Robert H. Lowie:
Marriage is a relatively permanent bond between
permissible mates.
Ian Robertson-Society:
Marriage is a socially approved mating
arrangement between two or more peoples.
Forms and Types of
Marriage
1.Endogamy marriage:
Requires a person to marry someone within his or
her own group.
2.Homogamy marriage:
The tendency for like to marry like.
Choose spouse someone from a similar social
class, religious beliefs and intelligence.
Forms and Types of
Marriage
3.Exogamy marriage:
Requires to a person to choose a mate from a
different group.
4.Monogamy:
Based on single mate
Forms and Types of
Marriage
5.Polygany marriage:
More than one mate.
5.1.Polygyny marriage (several wives);
5.2. polyandry marriage (several husbands).
Forms and Types of
Marriage
6.Group marriage
7.levirate marriage:
To marry wife of deceased brothers wife, if she is
child less.
8.Sororate marriage:
To marry sister of deceased wifes wife, if she died
without child..
Forms and Types of
Marriage
9.Elopement marriage :
Marriage with beloved by runway home. Chakma
society in Bangladesh.
10.Marriage by capture:
Forceful marriage; Bahamas and Bushman in
Africa .
11. Cross cousin
12. parallel cousin marriage
Function and importance
of marriage
1. regulation sexual life. marriage is
often called the license for sex life.
2.marriage regulates sexual
relations.
3.marriage also puts restrictions on
the premarital and extra-marital
sex relations.
4.marriage leads to the
establishment of the family.
of marriage
5.marriage provides for economic cooperation.
6.marriage contributes to emotional and
intellectual inter-stimulations of the partners.
of marriage
7.marriage aims at social solidarity.
8.marriage minimize the social distance between
groups and strengthen their solidarity.
Culture and
Civilization
CONCEPT, CHARACTERISTICS, ASPECTS AND
ELEMENTS , CULTURAL LAG, AND CULTURE AND
CIVILIZATION
Concept of Culture
Culture is a way of life( Sociological View-

point).
Culture is super organic. From inorganic to
organic, then to super organic (Herbert
Spencer and Kroeber (Principles of
Sociology).
Culture is super structure. Super structure
developed based on the basic structure of
society. And basic structure is the
economic foundation of society (Karl
Marx).
Concept of Culture
According to E.B.Tylor-Primitive Culture:

Culture is that complex whole which includes
knowledge, belief, art, moral, law, custom, and any
other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a
member of society.
Characteristics of Culture
1.Culture is way of life.

2.Culture is super organic. From
inorganic to organic, then to super
organic (Herbert Spencer and Kroeber
(Principles of Sociology).
3.Cultue is super structure. Super
structure developed based on the
basic structure of society. And basic
structure is the economic foundation of
society (Karl Marx).
4.Culture is closely related with

profession or occupation of individuals
member of society.
5.Culture is learned behavior.
6.Culture is what man achieved
through socialization process as a
member of society.
7.Culture is transmitted from
generation to generation.
8.Culture controlled and shaped our social as well

as biological needs.
9.Culture is the handiwork through which he
achieves his ends (Malinowski-A Scientific Theory of
Culture,1960).
10.Culture is the cumulative creation of man.
11.Culture is man made material and non-material

elements which he created for the achieve his
needs.
12.Culture is the sum of art-technique that he has
invented for the satisfaction of his wants or needs.
13.Culture is the outcome of social interaction.
14.Culture is shared behavior.

15.Culture is the social heritage of man.
16.Culture is consistent and integrated.
17.Culture is dynamic and adaptive .
18.Culture varies from society to society.
Aspects and Elements/contents
of Culture
The material and non-material

components of culture are often referred
to as the aspects and elements of culture.
According to Anthony Gidden:
1.Material Content of Culture:
Dress, boas and arrows, ploughs, factories
and machines, computers, books,
dwellings.
2.Non-material Contents of culture:
Marriage, customs, family, life, their
patterns of work, religious ceremonies and
leisure pursuits
of Culture
According to Samuel Koenig-Sociology:

1.Material Contents of culture:
The material is meant concrete objects. Like;
dwelling, articles of clothing , utensils, tools and
devices ( such as the axe and lever), and concrete
presentations of ideas , such as books and paintings.
of Culture
2. Non-Material Contents of culture:

A. The non-material is meant the ideas,
concepts and techniques behind
these objects.
B. as well as modes of thinking and
acting;
C. values and emotional reactions;
D. in general, the abstract creations of
man, such as-language and literature,
science, law and religion.
of Culture
According to Shankor Rao-Principles of Sociology:

A. material culture:
1.consists of man made objects , which has been
changed and used by man;
2.it is referred to as civilization; and
3. it is concerned with the external mechanical and
utilitarian objects.
of Culture
B. Non-material culture:
1.It is something internal;
2.reflect the inward nature of man; and
3.It includes our customs and tastes, attitudes and
our ways of acting and thinking.
Cultural Lag
Concept of Cultural Lag:

Sociologist William F. Ogburn is the
founder of the cultural lag theory.
William F.Ogburn-Social Change-1950:
Technological progress produces rapid
change in the material aspects of our
culture, but non-material aspects fail to
adjust or they do so only after on
excessive time lag. As a result many
troublesome social problems are
created.
Cultural Lag
Ogburn and Nimkoff-A Hand Book of

Sociology;1953:
The concept of cultural lag may be defined as the
strain that coexists between two correlated parts of
culture that change at unequal rates of speed.
Cultural Lag
Causes of Cultural Lag:

According to Ogburn:
1.Lack of ability of non-material aspects of culture to
adjust with material aspects of culture;
2.Lack of preparedness to accept the radical
change of society;
3.Likeness to traditional culture; and
4.behaviour, rules, customs, values and norms and
habits vary from country top country ,even
within society.
Cultural Lag
According to Elgin F. Hunt-Social

science-An Introduction to the Study of
Society:
1.According to this theory, the culture
of any society constitutes a pattern of
interrelated elements;
2.Once stability has been achieved , a
change in any one of the pattern may
creates strains and disturbances in the
closely related parts;
Cultural Lag
3.Eventually adjustment will be made to restore

harmony, but meanwhile there may be
considerable time lag during which tensions resists.
Difference between Culture and
Civilization
1.culture is non-material ;and

civilization is material aspects.
2.culture is what we are; and
civilization is what we use or have.
3.culture is inward state of man; but
civilization is outward behavior( kunt).
4.Running tide is culture; and
community of both sides are civilization
( Robi tagore).
Civilization
5.culture is our habit or thinking, art,

religion, rules etc.
On the other hand civilization is social
system developed by man.
6.culture is becoming something;
civilization is having something.
7.Advancement of culture is not
properly measure able; but the
advancement of civilization is
measurable.
Civilization
8.outcome or product of civilization i.e.

technology can easily accepted by
others society; but culture , philosophy
is not easily acceptable due to
different stages of development of a
society.
9.development of civilization is related
with urbanization ( before 5000 years);
on the other hand culture is related
with primitive society to onward
society.
Civilization
10.culture is direct technique or means ; civilization is

indirect technique.
11.essentially the civilized man is artificial ( Clive Bell-
Civilization;1947); on the other hand ,cultural man is
pure, sober or of good taste (Mathew Arnold-
Culture and Anarch-1884).v .s
Civilization
12.Culture is the steering wheel; civilization is driving

force of society.
13.The advancement or speed of culture is less than
civilization.
14.civilization of a society can be destroyed but
culture of that society is not possible to destroy (Troy
culture).
Social Evolution
STAGES IN THE EVOLUTION OF HUMAN
CIVILIZATION.
Stages in the evolution of human
civilization
1.hunting and gathering society
2.pastoral society
3.horticulture society
4.agriculture society
5.industrial society and
6.post industrial society
1.hunting and gathering
society
1.A hunting and gathering society is one relying for its subsistence on
such wild animals and vegetation as its members can hunt or gather.
2.All societies used this subsistence strategy from dawn of human
existence until only a few thousand years ago.
society
3.The San people of the Namibian desert and Aranda aborigines of the
central Australian desert are one of the few hunting and gathering
peoples that have survived into the modern world.
4.Hunting and gathering peoples live in small primary groups that rarely
exceed forty members.
society
5.each group may require several hundred square miles of territory to
support itself.
6.This groups are based on kinship, with most members being related
by ancestry or marriage.
7.In fact, the family is almost the only distinct institution in these
societies.
society
8.their needs are simple and easily satisfied , and they spend less time
working for their living than the average inhabitants of any other type
of society.
9.political institutions are absent, and
10.the social structure of these societies is necessarily very simple, and
their cultures cannot become elaborate and diversified.
2.pastoral society
1.A pastoral society is one relying for its subsistence primarily on

domesticated herd animals.
2. the first pastoral societies emerged between 10,000 and 12,000
years ago, when some hunting and gathering groups began to capture,
breed, and tend species of wild animals they had previously hunted.
2.pastoral society
3.Many pastoral societies still exist in the modern world, particularly in

Africa and the Middle East.
4.pastoralism is a much more reliable and productive strategy than
hunting and gathering.
5.An important result is that societies can grow much larger , perhaps to
include hundreds or even thousands of people.
2.pastoral society
6.Pastoralists are usually nomadic because they must constantly take

their herds to new grazing grounds.
7.Judaism and its offshoots , Christianity and Islam originated among
pastoral peoples.
8.populations become larger , political and economic institutions begin
to develop, and both social structure and culture become more
complex.
1. a horticulture society is one relying for its subsistence primarily on

the hoe cultivation of domesticated plants.
2. These societies also first appeared between 10,000 and 12,000 years
ago, when some hunters and gatherers began to deliberately sow, tend,
and harvest edible vegitation.
3.Unlike pastoralists , they have a relatively settled life, although they

must periodically move their gardens or villages short distance.
4.their subsistence strategy is typically based on a slash and burn
technology (Amazon).
5.Many horticultural societies still exist in Africa, Asia, South America,
and Australasia.
6.It provides an assured , expandable food supply and possibility of a

surplus.
7.They can produce houses, thrones, or large stone sculptures.
8. political and economic institutions become well developed as a
conquest and trade link various villages together, and population can
run to several thousand people.
9.intertribal fighting and blood feuds, cannibalism , headhunting, and
human sacrifice are found almost exclusively in a few of the more
aggressive horticulture societies.
10.large population, more complex social structures and cultures that
are richer in material artifacts.
1. An agricultural society is one relying for its subsistence primarily on
the cultivation of crops through the use of plows and draft animals.
2.the use of the plow, which was invented about 6,000 years ago,
greatly improves the productivity of the lands.
3.The same land can be cultivated almost continuously , and fully
permanent settlements become possible.
4.the potential size of agricultural societies is much greater than that of
horticulture or pastoral communities ; it can run to several million
people.
5.agricultural subsistence allows for the establishment of cities, trade ,
and business.
6.power become concentrated in the hands of a single individual, and a
hereditary monarchy tends to develop.
7.in the more advanced agricultural societies the state emerges for the
first time as a separate social institutions with an elaborate court and
government bureaucracy.
9.relirion also becomes a separate social intuitions, with full time
officials, temples, and considerable political influence.
10.agriculture societies tend to be almost constantly at war and
sometimes engage in systematic empire-building.
11.social structure and culture becomes much more diversified.
5.industrial society
The New Encyclopedia of Britannica,vol.6,1988,p-304-305.
Industrial revolution is the process of change from an agrarian ,
handicraft economy to one dominated by industry and machine
manufacture.
This process began in England in the 18th century and there spread to
other parts of the world.
Punikar and Others,1981,
The industrial revolution began in England in the latter half of the 18th
century and since it introduced the big machine, it came to be known as
the Machine Age or Mechanical Age.
1. an industrial society is one relying for its subsistence primarily on
mechanized production.
2.Europe was changing from agriculture to factory production
3.Masses of people moved to the cities in search of work
4.In cities people met anonymity (adverse situation), crowding, filth
(dirty), and poverty.
5.Industrial Revolution challenged the traditional order an opened the
door for democratic changes
6.Social changes undermined the traditional explanations of human
existence
7.Modern industrial system and world economy
8.Migration of people
9.Country side transformed into urban towns
10.Organized labor and socialist movements grew in strength
11.creating employment opportunities
12.increased the life span of people
13.conflicts between employers and employees
14.families ties break down
15.encourged the class of capitalists
16.the beauty of natural environment has changed
17.social disequilibrium
18.mobile working force
19.cultural differences and cultural lag
20.family disorganization
21.labour treated as a commodity.
22. industrialism is based on the application of scientific knowledge and
new technologies; steam engine, atomic energy, electrical power etc.
6. Post industrial Society
1. Post industrial Society, one relying for its subsistence primarily on the
production of services and information.
2.USA is regarded as the pioneer in this trend.
3. Post industrial Society produces knowledge-particularly technological
knowledge-that can be leased, sold, or used to produce goods ,
services, or still more knowledge.
4. a striking feature of the emerging post industrial societies is that the
bulk of their workers do not produce food or other goods.
5.intead,most people make their living by providing services or
information.
6.Post industrial society rely heavily on scientific innovation and
international communications and trade.
7.these exceptionally affluent societies are highly complex and
diversified, with an extraordinary number of statuses, roles, and sub
cultural life styles.
8.Post industrial societys supreme faith in technology-including
conviction that technology can be used to solve the problems that
earlier technologies have created, such as the threat of pollution or
modern weapons.
9.certain industries that still rely heavily on manual labor, like cloths
making or shipbuilding , go into decline; that can operate more cheaply
in less technologically advanced societies where wages are far lower.
10. post industrial societies have relatively varied, tolerant, and
heterogeneous cultures.
SOCIALIZATION Agents
CONCEPT OF SOCIALIZATION
Socialization is the process of social interaction through which people
acquire personality and learn the way of life of their society.
It is essential link between the individual and society- a link so vital
that neither individual nor society could survive without it.
Socialization enables the individual to learn the norms , values,
languages, skills, beliefs, and other patterns of thought and action that
are essential for social living.
Socialization enables the society to reproduce itself socially as well as
biologically , thus ensuring its continuity from generation to generation.
Socialization continues throughout the life course-
the biological and social sequence of birth,
childhood,
maturity,
old age, and
death.
At each stage in this life long process , we continually encounter new
or changing conditions, both personal and social , and must learn to
adjust to them
AGENTS OF SOCIALIZATION
The socialization process involves many different influences that affect
the individual throughout the life.
The most important of these influences are agents of socialization-

significant individuals, groups, or institutions that provide structured
situations in which socialization takes place.
AGENTS OF SOCIALIZATION
Four of these agents
The family,
the school,
the peer group,
and the mass medias-
are especially important in modern societies, for they affect almost
everyone in a powerful and lasting way.
1.THE FAMILY
1.The family is without doubt the most significant single agent of

socialization in all societies.
2.One reason for the importance of the family is that it has the main
responsibility for socialization children in the crucial early years of
life.
1.THE FAMILY
3.The family is where children establish their first close emotional ties,
learn language, and being to internalize cultural norms and values.
4.Children have an ascribed status in a subculture of race, class,
ethnicity, religion, and region- all of which may strongly influence the
nature of the later social interaction and socialization.
1.THE FAMILY
5.family teach their children to obey the rules and stay out of trouble.
6.they teach their children to rely more on self control in deciding how
to behave.
7.the values and expectations that children learn depend very much
on the social class of their parents.
2.THE SCHOOL
1.the school is an agent formally charged by society with the task of
socializing the young in particular skills and values.
2.participation in the life of the school also lessons the children's
dependency on the family and creates new skills to the wider society
beyond.
2.THE SCHOOL
3.the immediate task of the schools is to socialize the young in
cognitive skills such as reading or mathematics and to provide
knowledge about a variety of subjects, such as history or chemistry,
that may not be available in the home.
2.THE SCHOOL
4.children learn that they must be neat and clean and punctual.
5.the school socialize children for their later roles in the work force ,
where punctually and deference to superiors are highly valued.
3.THE PEER GROUP
1.As the children grow older, they spend more and more time in the
company of their peers- people of roughly equivalent age and other
social characteristics.
3.THE PEER GROUP
2.As the influence of the peer group increases, that of the parents
diminishes especially in modern industrialized societies, where most
parents work away from the home and where there has been a long
term erosion of the authority of elders.
3.THE PEER GROUP
3.Within the peer group, the young are able for the first time to
choose their own companions and to interact with others on a basis of
equality.
4.it is particularly influential during late childhood and adolescence.
3.THE PEER GROUP
5. young people at this stage are exploring their

identities, a process that may involve a reaction
against earlier behavior patterns learned in the
family and school.
6.the peer group provides new norms and values
for its members and the opportunity to interact
with others as equals.
4.THE MASS MEDIA
1.The mass media are the various forms of communication that reach a
large audience without any personal contact between the senders and
the receivers of the messages: newspapers, magazines, books,
television, radio, movies, videos, and records.
4.THE MASS MEDIA
2.This agent of socialization introduces the individual to an
extraordinarily diverse people who are known only indirectly: sports
figures, historic personages, politicians, authors, columnists, announcers,
disk jockeys, talk-show hosts, newscasters, musicians, and even
ordinary people interviewed in eyewitness news reports.
4.THE MASS MEDIA
3.The media provide instant coverage of social events and social
changes.
4.The media offer role models, viewpoints, and glimpses( at a glance)
of lifestyles that people might otherwise never have access to.
5. OTHER AGENTS
People may be influenced by many other agents of socialization
religious groups, youth organizations, and the later in life , such agents
as corporations, clubs, political movements, and retirement homes.
Social Change
SOCIAL CHANGE, EVOLUTION, PROGRESS,
DEVELOPMENT, AND FACTORS
Concept of Social Change
Greek philosopher Heraclitus point out that,
Everything changes.
A man can not step twice into the same river.
Ian Robertson-Society, define:
Social change is the alteration in patterns of culture
, social structure, and social behaviour over time.
Concept of Social Change
According to Robert L. Barker,
Social change is the variations over time in a society's laws, norms,
values, and institutional arrangements.
Nature of Social Change
1.social change is continuous;
2.social change is temporal;
3.social change is environmental;
4.social change is human change;
5.social change results interaction of a number of factors;
Nature of Social Change
6.social change may create chain reaction;
7.social change involves rate and direction of change;
8.social change may be planned or unplanned;
9.social change may be short term or long term;
10.social change is an objective term.
Social Evolution
Social evolution is used to explain the evolution of human society.
Here the term implies :
1.the evolution of mans social relations; and
2.also the evolution in human culture.
Social Progress
Herbert Spencer,
Social progress is expected and positive social change.
In general, we can explain social progress as a change or an advance
towards a desirable end.
Social Progress
Stages of social progress
1.theological ( religion based );
2.metaphysical ( theory/ philosophical); and
3.positive ( scientific).
Social Development
Encyclopedia of Social work in India,vol.3,1987,p-57:
Social development is a comprehensive concept which implies major
structural changes- political, economic, and cultural which are
introduced as a part of deliberate action to transform society.
Social Development
P.D.Kulkarni,
Social development is a systematic change ( values,
institutions, and practices ) purposefully initiated
through the instrument of social policy and
planning for improvement in the levels of living and
quality of life of the mass people particularly the
weaker section among them with their involvement
at all stages.
Factors of Social Change
Social change usually involves a complex of interacting factors-
environmental, technological, personal, cultural, political, religious,
economic and so on.
1.cultural innovation:
A. discovery ( USA, Italy);
B. invention (material computer, fax, mobile etc. and social slavery,
democracy, socialism, etc.)
C. diffusion ( development means division; for example-travel, trade,
telecommunication, etc.)
2.population:
A. population size
B. growth rate
C. current rate
D. demands for food
E. living space
F. natural resources
G. malnutrition
H .migration
i. neutrality
J. fertility and mortality
Diseases
3.Technology-computer, telecommunication, internet, etc.
4.cultural lag
5.social movement- French (1789) and Russian revolution(1917);
women emancipation in Bangladesh ( Rokeya )
6.political organization- party , alliance , group, etc.
7.physical environment
8. technological innovation
9.cultural factors
10.economic influences ( Karl Marxs economic determinism of society)
11.religious factors ( secularism, rigid and liberal etc.)
12.internal factors:
A. strain and conflict
B. social problems
C. revolution
D. cultural change
13.Social factors:
A. political alliance
B. peaceful immigration and emigration
C. military invasions
14. Non-social factors:
A. soil erosion
B. exhaustion of mineral
C. deforestation
D. natural disasters (floods and famines).
Impacts social change on Society
1.cyber crime
2.juvenile delinquency
3.rapid urbanization and slum
4.industrialization and child labour
5.cultural conflict
6.Cultural lag
7.unequal distribution of wealth and opportunities
8.class conflict / struggle
9.capitalism
10.Environment degradation /pollution
11.crime
12.civilization
13.modernization
14.globalization
15.increasing social networks
16.modern education system
17.modern treatment
18.division of labour
19.fulfill of basic human needs
20.easy access in information
21.social media
22.virtual world /life
23.increasing standard of life.
SOCIAL
STRATIFICATION
Concept, Forms and Mobility
Concept of Social
Stratification
T.B.Bottomore-Sociology,
No society is classless or un-stratified.
Robert L. Barker,
Social Stratification is the division of society
into classes ( for example, upper class,
middle class, working class, lower class, and
under class) according to such criteria as
economic level, educational level, or cultural
value orientation.
Main Forms of Social Stratification
There are four forms of Social Stratification:

1.Caste;
2.Estate;
3.Social class and status; and
4.Slavery.
1.Caste:
According to Robert l. Barker,
Caste is a highly restrictive social class.
In some societies people are born into their castes, which
thereafter limits their choices of level and type of education,
occupation, associations, and marital partners.
Major Criteria of Caste:
1.Caste systems are practiced around 3000
thousand years.
2.This is the basic criteria of Indian Hindus society.
3.According to caste system, society divided in
to four classes based on concept of ritual
pollution and purity.
Bramma, khotrio, bousho, and soudrha (others
are untouchable/scheduled).
Major Criteria of Caste:
4.every caste also divided into different sub-castes.
5.Unequal distribution of social statues is the outcome of caste
system.
6.Caste is a by born criteria.
7.Endogamy marriage is the another criteria of caste system.
2.Estate
In the middle age, European society was
divided into three estate:
1.First estate: Feudal lord, Nobility.
They enjoy the all facilities of the society.
2.Second estate: Father and clergy of the
charge.
3.Third estate: general people, mass people,
and commoners.
Characteristics of caste:
1.For every estate, rights and responsibilities was predetermined
and legally approved.
2.by born, they will include the member of the specific estate.
3.Social class and status:

Social class is a category of people in a society, ranked
according to such criteria as relative wealth, power, prestige,
educational level or family background.
In generally, we can classified our society into six

classes based on social class and status:
1.The upper class;
2.The upper-middle class;
3.The middle class;
4.The lower middle class;
5.the lower class; and
6.The working class
Max Weber classified society into two ways:

1.property class; and
2.Lack of property class.
Karl Marx also classified classified society into two ways:
1.Class for itself; and
2.class in itself.
Basic criteria of class:

According to Karl Marx, there are four basic
criteria of a class:
1.classes developed on the basis of property
and lack of property of means of production
(Bourgeoisie and proletariat);
2.they perform specific rule and every one
has specific status ;
3.Prevail inter-conflict; and
4.Awarness about own social class.
4. Slavery:
Basic Criteria of Slavery System:
This is the basic criteria of agricultural and
feudalistic society .
Developed in the western society.
Biological inferiority.
Living possession ( Aristotle)
Divided into two classes:
1.Slave; and
2.Master
Social Stratification and Social
Mobility
Social Mobility:
Movement from one social status to another.
Such movement can be either upward or downward ;
depending on whether people rise to higher statuses or fall to
lower ones.
Mobility
Types of social mobility :
Actually , there are three quite different types of social mobility,
and each has its own source:
1.exchange mobility;
2.Intergenerational mobility; and
2.structural mobility.
Mobility
1.Exchange mobility
Changes in peoples social statuses as they
exchange places with one another at
different levels of the hierarchy.
For example:
High level incompetents may lose their jobs
and fall to lower statuses, while more
competent people at lower levels are
promoted to higher statuses.
Mobility
Criteria of Exchange mobility
Exchange mobility depends on closed or open the society:
1.In a closed system there can be little exchange mobility;
2.But in an open system, there is potential for much more.
Mobility
2. Intergenerational mobility
Sociologists are specially interested in intergenerational mobility.
Movement up or down the hierarchy by family members from
one generation to the next.
Example: When a janitors child becomes doctor, or a doctors
child becomes a janitors.
Mobility
3.Structural mobility:
Changes in peoples social statuses as a result of changes in the
structure of the economy.
Mobility
Criteria of structural mobility:
1. Structural mobility depends on economic conditions;
2.in a static economy, there is little structural mobility , but in times
of economic change there may be a good deal;
3.Most mobility in all modern societies is structural mobility.
Mobility
For Example:
In times of economic recession there is a
general downward trend in mobility as
incomes shrink and workers are laid off.
college graduates , may find themselves
driving cabs or collecting unemployment
benefits;
On the other hand, there is an upward trend
in mobility as incomes rise and new jobs
created.
Factors of Social Mobility
1.social factors
2.closed or open societies
3.economic system
4.social class background
5.education
6.childhood nutrition
7.health
8.place of residence
9.age at marriage
10.the status of ones spouse
11.race
12.sex
13.height
14.physical appearance ( especially among women)
15.intelligence
16.career field
17.Willingness to take risk
18.innovative imagination
19.Luck-basically of happening to be in the right place at the
right time (Jencks.et.al,1974).
Some
Common
Social
problems
CRIME, JUVENILE DELINQUENCY, AND DRUG
ADDICTION
Concept of Social
Problems
Social problems is a condition that
was born from a society that is not an
ideal situation.
That is, as long as a society still found
the unmet needs of society equally,
then the social problems will always
exist.
In a heterogeneous society like in
Bangladesh, will certainly
encountered a lot of social problems.
Concept of Social
Problems
"A social problem is a social condition
(such as poverty) or a pattern of
behavior (such as substance abuse)
that harms some individuals or all
people in a society and that a
sufficient number of people believe
warrants public concern and
collective action to bring about
change"
(Kendall, D. Social Problems in a
Diverse Society (4th
ed). Boston: Pearson, 2007, p. 4.
Elements a Social
Problem
1. an influential group defines a social
condition as threatening its values
2. affects a large number of people
3. can be remedied by collective action
4. is rooted in the social structure
5. persists for a period of time
Types of Social Problems
However, the fact that diversity of social

problems can be categorized into four
main factors, namely as follows.
01.- Economic factors, usually in the form

of poverty, unemployment, and so on.

02.- Cultural factors, usually in the form of
divorce, juvenile delinquency, and so on.
03.- Biological factors, usually in the form of

infectious diseases, food poisoning, and so on.
04.- Psychological factors, usually in the form of

neurological disease, and so on.
Environmental Pollution
Illiteracy
Corporate Corruption
Unemployment
Poverty
Drug Abuse
Family Decline, (Increased Divorce, Family Abuse,

etc.)
Nuclear War
Crime
Racial/Ethnic/Sexual Discrimination
Health Care
Aging
Moral Decline
Weakening Institution of Religion
Concept of Crime
According to Barnes and Tietes-New Horizons in

Criminology:
Crime is a form of antisocial behavior that has
violated public sentiment to such an extent as to
be forbidden by statute.
Classification of Crime
A. according to Lombroso:
1.born criminal;
2.masked epileptic criminal;
3.emotional criminal; and
4.occasational criminal.
B. according to Sutherland and Cressey:

1.crime against person;
2.crime against property;
3.crime against public decency, public order,
and public justice.
C. W.A.Bonger-Criminality and economic

Conditions:
1.economic crimes;
2.sexual crimes;
3.political crimes; and
4.miscellaneous crimes.
Theory of Crime
1.Theory of Lombroso (Biological theoty);

2.differential association theory (Sutherland);
3.Labelling theory (Howard Baker);
4.Multiple causation theory.
Causes of Crime
1.physical structure
2.psychological causes
3.economic causes
4.geographic and natural environment
5.social and surrounding environment
6.political causes.
Way to Control Crime
1.proper treatment and rehabilitation for

physically disabled persons
2.fulfillment of the basic human needs
3.educating social values and norms
4.ensuring proper distribution of wealth and
resources
5.reducing social discrimination
Way to Control Crime
6.introducing moral education

7.ensuring transparency in politics
8.strengthening probation and parole system
9.reform in the present criminal justice system
10.proper use of law enforcing agency.
Concept of Juvenile
Delinquency
According to Cavan and Ferinand:
Juvenile delinquency consists of misbehaviour by
children and adolescents that leads to referral to
the juvenile court.
Concept of Juvenile
Delinquency
Robert L. Barker defines :
Juvenile Delinquency, in a jurisdiction, a pattern
of antisocial behaviour by juveniles that would be
regarded as criminal in nature if committed by
adults.
Causes of Juvenile
Delinquency
1.lack of religious practice (Arnold Toynbee)
2.chilhood deprivation and oppression (Bartend
Russell)
3.economic deprivation (Karl Marx)
4.problems in inter-personal adjustment
5.broken family pattern
Causes of Juvenile
Delinquency
6.lack of proper recreational facilities
7.massive poverty ( mother of crime Karl Marx)
8.child labour
9.street children
10.problemtaic criminal justice system.
Causes of Juvenile
Delinquency
11.forced labour
12.working mother family
13.lack of proper caring and raring
14.bad company
15.biological and genetic factors
Causes of Juvenile
Delinquency
16.economic condition
17.family environment
18.psychological factors
19.political situation
20.administrative causes.
Prevention of Juvenile
Delinquency
1.strengthening juvenile court
2.Develop Child Development centre
3.probation
4.parole
5.conducive family environment
Prevention of Juvenile
Delinquency
6.proper rule of society and educational
institutions
7.proper socialization
8.proper arrangement of recreation
9.change / reform in correctional services
10.rehabilitation.
What are Drugs?
There are many types of drugs

available use in Bangladesh:

1. Opium:
2. Heroin;
3. Phensidyl;
4. Tidijesic;
5. Pethidine;
6. Cannabis:
7. Ganja;
8. Chorosh;
What are Drugs?
9. Bhang;
10. Yaba;
11. Vayagra;
12. Sleeping pill:
13. Tranquilizer;
14. Seduxene;
15. Diazapam;
16. Dexpotent;
Reasons for Drug
Addiction
In brief the reasons determined through research,

include :

1.Curiosity and excitement through use

2.Despair and frustration among the youth

3.Some patients are addicts because they try to
follow the western culture of drugs and enjoyment of
life

4.All drug addicts in our country are afraid of social
stigma more than the threat from the law

5.Poverty

Reasons for Drug
Addiction
6.Continuous failure in works

7. Easy access to drugs;

8. Unemployment problem/economic
insolvency;

9. Surrounding atmosphere;

10. Estranged in love;

11. Mental stress due to family problem.

Drug addicted in
percentage:
Peoples type Addicted in percentage

1. Male 93.9 %
2. Female ( in Dhaka city) 20.6 %
3. Unmarried 64.8 %
4. Either students or unemployed (youth
generation) 56.1 %
5. Smokers 95.4 %
Drug addicted in
percentage:
6. Influenced by friends 85.7 %
7. Addicted to codeine-containing
cough syrup 65.8 %
8. Addicted to more than one drug
64.3 %
9. Took drugs in groups 65.8 %
10. A history of unprotected sex 63.8 %

Source: Journal of Health, Population
and Nutrition, 2004 (Vol. 22) (No. 1) 98-
99

Impact

1. Drug abuse can decay normal
human senses through deep feelings;

2. It creates different types of
excitement both in the body and
mind;

3. Finally, it makes a person passionate
to drugs;

Impact
4. In the long run the user has to

increase the dose day by day;

5. Rapid weight loss of addicted
person.

6. Uncertain temper, loss of appetite,
lack of sleep, hand tremors.

7. Regular onset of fever at a fixed
time. Watery eyes.
Suggestions
Educational institution, student and youth

organizations should be involved in group
discussion and meetings, with advocacy and
awareness programmes
Community leaders, politicians, sport and movie
personalities can take active part in the
campaign against drug addiction
Suggestions
Monotony and frustration may be eliminated

through sports and games, physical training and
competitive games, social work which make the
youth adjust to the environment.
Drug treatment and rehabilitation centers may be
attached to mosques and other places of worship.
Suggestions
Its is time that experienced and qualified doctors

and health professionals come to the aid of the
addict in our society, and give genuine and
prolonged treatment and care.
APPLIED SOCIOLOGY
Concept, Scope, Role of
Sociologist in Applied
Sociology
APPLIED SOCIOLOGY
Applied sociology refers to the use of sociology to solve problems.
Applied sociologists recommend practical changes to solve problems.
APPLIED SOCIOLOGY
The difference between applied sociology and pure sociology is
that
pure sociology aims to find out "What is" about how society works,
while applied sociology seeks to take what is learned in pure
sociology and use it for solving practical (social) problems.
SCOPE APPLIED SOCIOLOGY
According to Sociologist (G.R.Madan)
the main task of applied sociology is to deal with social problems.
From the point of view of applied sociology, social problems are
divided into two categories that is:
1.problems of social disorganization or social rehabilitation, and
2.problems of social reconstruction.
1.problems of social disorganization or social rehabilitation:
Deviants, defectives and dependents, crime, juvenile delinquency,
mentally defective, ills, blinds ,etc.
For the problems of this kind , measures are needed to cope with the
evil.
They are generally curative or rehabilitative in nature.
2.problems of social reconstruction;
For addressing second category problems ( child labour, street
children, youth unrest, women oppression, cyber crime etc) child
welafre, women welfare, youth welfare, labour welfare etc are
needed.
According to Groves and Moore;
Applied sociology would include problems of poverty, crime,
immigration, race, the family disorganization, the social hygiene,
mental defects, hosing, public opinion, and the organizations and
practices of modern philanthropy.
Due to economic factors as well as increasing forms of
communication globalization is now a topic of interest.
Applied sociology is now being used to analyze society and its
interactions on a global level, which includes online communities.
It addresses solutions to questions about political power on a global
level,
how economics and trade affect societies around the world,
how globalization is changing structures of societies and more
Applied sociologists work in every level of government; local, state
and national.
These scientists work every day to create a more functional society

that serves all the people equally.
They also work for community organizations,

public administration and
even businesses to solve problems of social organizations within
smaller environments.
Another role of sociologists today is to work with financial
companies such as those who issue credit cards and
internet companies such as social media websites to understand user
behavior and make for a better experience.
ROLE OF SOCIOLOGISTS IN APPLIED
SOCIOLOGY
An applied sociologist has been playing a vital role so as to fulfill four
main tasks:
1.he conducts scientific researches in various fields of human social
life about which the existing knowledge is either scanty ( insufficiency)
or erroneous.
SOCIOLOGY
2.he tries to correct popular nonsense especially with regard to
issues and problems such as racial conflicts, communal tensions and
riots, the myth of innate intelligence and inborn superiority of races,
minorities, religious conversions, etc.
SOCIOLOGY
3.he tries to make sociological predictions.
example:
A) would the suppression of obscene literature help to reduce sex
crimes and sex immorality?( prediction: No);
B) would low birth rates and small family norm increase marital
happiness?( prediction: yes).
SOCIOLOGY
4.he works as a policy consultant.
An applied sociologists provides valuable suggestions to bodies with
legislative power in framing suitable social policies.
Sociological predictions can also help to estimate the probable
effects of a social policy .
CONCEPT OF SOCIAL POLICY
Bruce s. Jansson, in his book, Social policy-from

theory to policy practice, defined
social policy as a collective strategy to address
social problems.
Social policies aims to alleviate social problems
such as hunger, poverty, and mental illness.
Social Policy are those principles , procedures, and course of action
established in statute, administrative code, and agency regulation that
affect peoples social well-being.
Examples of social policy:
Bangladesh national education policy-2010;
Bangladesh ICT policy;
Bangladesh national women and child development policy etc.
CONCEPT OF SOCIAL PLANNING
According to Kimbal Young:

Planning is a program aimed at socio-cultural change in a particular
direction with a given aim or goal in mind.
CONCEPT OF SOCIAL PLANNING
Examples of social planning:
Planning city recreational facilities, urban planning, patterning
residential zones, five year plan, perspective paln, annual budget,
short term and long term plan,
and Vision 2021/2041 is also an example of social plan in
perspective of Bangladesh.
OBJECTIVES OF SOCIAL PLANNING
1.the general goal of all social planning is to improve society, but
the definition of improvement differs , depending upon the underlying
values of the social systems.
2.The short range objective of social planning is to manipulate the
social environment in some way that will enhance or change some
designated value.
3.Men can plan to change the structure of some important
institutions.
4.It may intend to make change in the laws governing marriage,
property, divorce, punishment etc.
5.Social planning may also try to manipulate the material goods of
society.
6.Social planning also increasingly deals with social as well as
environmental concerns-poverty, education, family welfare, disaster
mangaenment,and mental health etc.
PRE-REQUISITES OF SOCIAL PLANNING
As Ogburn and Nimkoff have mentioned, the pre-requisites to

effective social planning include the following:
1.the existence of a modern as opposed to a traditional society,
including a monetized economy, considerable urbanization, a
technical and scientific intelligential
2.the existence of an adequate system of information gathering

and analysis.
3.the existence of favorable public attitudes towards planning.
4.the existence of progressive economic and political leadership.
5.more important at first are the development of responsible organs

of public administration and an educated elite followed by
popular enlightenment.
6.to carry out a plan successfully, a high degree of organization ( as
in the case army) with good discipline is required.
7. concentration of authority is needed for the successful formulation

and prosecution of a plan.
GLOBALIZATION
Information and Communication Technology
Background
Globalization is not a new phenomenon.

The development of the steam engine
and the telegraph in the late 19th and
early 20th centuries allowed for faster
travel and communication, which caused
businesses and economies to become
more interdependent.
Background
By the beginning of the 21st century, the development of the
Internet and telecommunications technologies facilitated the
rapid exchange of ideas and information,
Background
When Marshall MacLuhan publicized the notion of Global
Village in the 1960s, it was the culmination of years of the study
about developments in communication.
Background
Think Globally, Act Locally.
Only one world, Share and Care

Concept of Globalization
Globalization refers to trends in social change in the economic,
political and cultural relationships between people across the
world.
Globalization comprises interconnected economic, political and
cultural trends.
These reduce the strength of national boundaries and national
identity.
In a comprehensive study, the United Nations Development
Programme (UNDP, 1999) identified four structural changes
affecting human institutions in the later 1990s and early 2000s:
1.New global markets in services
such as banking,
insurance and transport, in particular new deregulated financial
markets, and
global consumer markets.
2.New actors
such as multinational corporations
integrating production and marketing,
the WTO,
an international criminal court,
international NGOs,
regional economic blocs and policy coordination through groups
of countries with particular interests, such as the OECD and the
G7, G8 or G10.
3.New rules and norms
such as market economic policies,
democratic regimes,
human rights conventions,
global environment conventions and
multilateral trade agreements.
4.New communication tools
such as the Internet and email linking
many people simultaneously,
cellular (mobile) phones,
fax machines,
cheap air transport and
computer-aided design.
Area of
globalization
In 2000, the International Monetary Fund (IMF) identified four basic
aspects of globalization:
1.trade and transactions,
2.capital and investment movements,
3.migration and movement of people and
4.the dissemination of knowledge.
Area of
globalization
1. Wealth production, social reproduction
2. Access to wealth and sustainability
3. Affirmation of civil society and public space
4. Political power and ethics
Source: Fisher and Ponniah (2003)
Area of
globalization
Terrorism (9/11)
Climate Change
Disease (AIDS)
International Business (WTO,WB,IMF)
International Crime (Cyber Crime,FBI,Interpol)
Area of
globalization
Human rights
Economic welfare
Labor conditions
International terrorist network
Human security
Democracy and prosperity
Area of
globalization
Civil society
Rights of the landless poor
Gender and children rights
Immoral trafficking
the greater prevalence of infectious diseases,
Area of
globalization
the emergence of international terrorist networks and
global environmental threats and
the exacerbation of food and water shortages,
have forced nations to think and act in the interests of the world at
large.
Dimensions of Globalization
According to Friedman,Roberto koehane and Joseph
S. Nye Jr-2000:
Though often defined in strictly economic terms,
Globalization has wide variety of other dimensions:
Technology
Information
Military
Environmental
Socio-political, and
Cultural.
Technological and
Information Globalization
Technological Globalization has its roots to
the earlier phases of industrial Revolution.
Currently it arose from advances in
manufacturing technology that produced :
Increases productivity;
Contributing to a decade long economic
growth; and
The dividends extend beyond the traditional
measures of productivity.
Technological and
Industrial products are:
More durable;
Use less energy; and
Often cost less than they did a decade ago.
Technological and
Technology is indeed a key component of information
globalization, yet there have been tremendous changes in the
forms of communication over time.
When Marshall McLuhan publicized the notion of Global Village in
the 1960s , it was the culmination of years of study about
developments in communication.
Technological and
For instance, the use of IT tools such as:
Faxes machines;
Emails;
internet
for business and commerce, learning and dissemination of
knowledge is so widespread that was unthinkable before.
Technological and
Similarly, the use of movies; and televisions for social awareness
and entertainment , dissemination of knowledge and information
has dramatically expanded the circle of people participate in
global communication.
Technological and
The introduction of 24 hours cable news and growing application
of internet, in particular , resulted in death of distance that has
become almost a battle cry of the information sage and is now
linked to global communication networks.
Technological and
It has generated such powerful spillover effects , often
spreading like fire and triggering further innovation and setting off
chain reaction of new innovation.
Technological and
Properly harnessed and liberally distributed , technology has the
power and potential to:
Erase not only national borders; but
Also human ones.
Technological and
Indeed , technological march has taken breathtaking speed
affecting all spheres of industrial life:
Often resembling science fiction films; and
Spreading into nanotechnology, biotechnology( including
cloning of human life and mapping human genome)
Technological and
Quantum computers and neural network;
Semiconductors;
sensors and robotics( Rise of Machine Age-Terminator-3).
Technological and
technology is an important driver of the current round of
globalization.
Through computer, television and mobile (cell) telephone
technology, international communication has become quicker
and widely available.
Technological and
This form of communication increases the globalizing effect of
rapid travel, which promotes quicker, cheaper and more
extensive movements around the globe;
increasing cross-national activities.
Technological and
There is no doubt that technology has drastically improved
communication and interaction within the world.
It is now easier than ever to visit other nations or contact people
in other states.
Technological and
As this technology develops, it becomes more flexible, allows
more interaction and will become more appropriate for
interpersonal practices.
While information once took weeks, or even months, to travel
long distances, communications are now nearly instantaneous
Technological and
According to Switzerland based study conducted by WWW
Foundation among the 86 countries in regard to the use of
internet our (Bangladesh) position is 63th.Total user28 percent.
India-48th;Pakistan-76th; and Nepal-69th.
Denmark is the 1st position. Then Finland, Norway, UK and Ireland,
and Sweden
Technological and
An estimated 4.4 billion people mostly poor, female, rural and
living in developing countries have no access to the Internet at
all.
Technological and
An important issue to address is how increasing use of information
communication technology (ICT) discriminates between rich and
poor countries,
rich and poor people and rich and poor social agencies and
educational institutions.
Technological and
Generally, the poorer, the less accessible
technological resources will be.
The quality, flexibility and usability of the
technology available is poorer, and
poorer countries or local areas are less
likely to have the infrastructure to provide
good technology,
so fewer benefits are gained from
technological advance.
Technological and
According to the IMF and OECD, the Internet revolution is
increasing the wage gap between the very highly skilled and
everyone else, making technological progress the single biggest
factor driving income inequality in both advanced and
developing countries.
Technological and
the Technological and Information
Globalization has three critical
contributions to make to fighting
inequality:
Expanding access to knowledge,
information and skills
Enabling wider political participation and
voice
Lowering barriers for small and micro-
enterprise to innovate, compete and
succeed
Technological and
The Internet may play an important role in spreading information
about social injustice and political situations that otherwise would
not become known to the world.
Support can be organized in worldwide activist or interest groups
Technological and
it can Reduce entry barriers and disrupt monopolies;
Make knowledge freely accessible to all,
lowering the costs of acquiring and disseminating information;
Technological and
Build social capital that helps people get better jobs and services;
and
Match workers to job opportunities and enable traders to
overcome geographical isolation.
Technological and
There is virtually no escape from globalization
today as a result of technology.
Television, the global economy,
multinational corporations (MNCs), and
international non-governmental organizations
(INGOs), along with e-communication, have
changed the face of culture the world over,
leading to increased interdependence.
Technological and
ICTs can contribute in health sectors in different ways:
To facilitate remote consultation, diagnosis, and treatment,
allowing physicians in remote locations to take advantage of the
professional skills and experiences of colleagues and
collaborating institutions.
Technological and
To provide ongoing training to health
workers.
To enable policy-makers and healthcare
professionals to keep abreast of the rapidly
evolving stock of medical knowledge.
To improve disease prevention by enabling
more effective monitoring and response
mechanisms.
To disseminate public health information.
Technological and
Small and medium enterprises (SMEs) in most middle- and low-
income countries are realising only small gains from ICTs, whereas
SMEs in most of the developed world have seen large benefits
from the Web.
Technological and
Farmers can use their phones to access market price information,
weather warnings, and extension advice in most rich countries,
but hardly in any low- or middle-income countries.
Technological and
Education is a bright spot, with over 80% of high-income countries
and almost 50% of low- and middle-income countries expanding
the use of technology in poor and marginalised schools.
Policymakers must
Accelerate progress towards getting everyone online.

Level the playing field by preventing price discrimination in
Internet traffic, balancing the rights of copyright holders with
those of Web users, and protecting online service providers from
liability for content posted by third parties
Policymakers must
Invest in high-quality public education for all to ensure that

technological progress doesnt leave some groups behind.
Promote participation in democracy and protect freedom of
opinion.
Reference
Globalization and International Social Work- Postmodern Change
and Challenge
MALCOLM PAYNE
and
GURID AGA ASKELAND
Diakonhjemmet University College, Norway.
Globalization
INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION
TECHNOLOGY
Concept of globalization
Globalization is not a new

phenomenon.
The development of the steam
engine and the telegraph in the late
19th and early 20th centuries
allowed for faster travel and
communication, which caused
businesses and economies to
become more interdependent.
By the beginning of the 21st century, the

development of the Internet and
telecommunications technologies facilitated the
rapid exchange of ideas and information,
When Marshall MacLuhan publicized the notion of

Global Village in the 1960s, it was the culmination
of years of the study about developments in
communication.
Think Globally, Act Locally.

Think Locally, Act Globally.
Only one world, Share and Care

Globalization refers to trends in social change in the

economic, political and cultural relationships
between people across the world.
Globalization comprises interconnected economic,
political and cultural trends.
Areas of globalization
United Nations Development Programme (UNDP,

1999) identified four structural areas in Globalization
1.New global markets in services

such as banking,
insurance and transport, in particular new
deregulated financial markets, and
global consumer markets.
2.New actors
such as multinational corporations
integrating production and marketing,
the WTO,
an international criminal court,
international NGOs,
regional economic blocs and policy coordination
through groups of countries with particular interests,
such as the OECD and the G7, G8 or G10.
3.New rules and norms

such as market economic policies,
democratic regimes,
human rights conventions,
global environment conventions and
multilateral trade agreements.
4.New communication tools

such as the Internet and email
linking many people simultaneously,
cellular (mobile) phones,
fax machines,
cheap air transport and
computer-aided design.
Impact of
globalization on society
Terrorism (9/11)
Climate Change
Disease (AIDS)
International Business (WTO,WB,IMF)
International Crime (Cyber Crime,FBI,Interpol)
Impact of
Human rights
Economic welfare
Labor conditions
International terrorist network
Human security
Democracy and prosperity
Impact of
Civil society
Rights of the landless poor
Gender and children rights
Immoral trafficking
the greater prevalence of infectious diseases,
Impact of
the emergence of international terrorist networks

and
global environmental threats and
the exacerbation of food and water shortages,
have forced nations to think and act in the interests
of the world at large.
The Rise of Information and
Communication Technology
Technological Globalization has its roots to the

earlier phases of industrial Revolution.
Currently it arose from advances in manufacturing
technology that produced Increases productivity.
Industrial products are:

More durable;
Use less energy; and
Often cost less than they did a decade ago.
Technology is indeed a key component of

information globalization, yet there have been
tremendous changes in the forms of
communication over time.
When Marshall McLuhan publicized the notion of
Global Village in the 1960s , it was the culmination
of years of study about developments in
communication.
For instance, the use of IT tools such as:

Faxes machines;
Emails;
internet
for business and commerce, learning and
dissemination of knowledge is so widespread that
was unthinkable before.
Similarly, the use of movies; and televisions for social

awareness and entertainment , dissemination of
knowledge and information has dramatically
expanded the circle of people participate in global
communication.
The introduction of 24 hours cable news and

growing application of internet, in particular ,
resulted in death of distance that has become
almost a battle cry of the information sage and is
now linked to global communication networks.
It has generated such powerful spillover effects ,

often spreading like fire and triggering further
innovation and setting off chain reaction of new
innovation.
Quantum computers and neural network;

Semiconductors;
sensors and robotics( Rise of Machine Age-
Terminator-3).
Dimensions of Globalization
According to Friedman,Roberto
koehane and Joseph S. Nye Jr-2000:
Though often defined in strictly
economic terms, Globalization has
wide variety of other dimensions:
Technology
Information
Military
Environmental
Socio-political, and
Cultural.
Impact of Technological and
Information Globalization on
society
the Information Globalization has three

critical contributions to make to
fighting inequality:
Expanding access to knowledge,
information and skills
Enabling wider political participation
and voice
Lowering barriers for small and micro-
enterprise to innovate, compete and
succeed
society
it can Reduce entry barriers and disrupt

monopolies;
Make knowledge freely accessible to all,
lowering the costs of acquiring and disseminating
information;
society
Build social capital that helps people get better jobs

and services; and
Match workers to job opportunities and enable
traders to overcome geographical isolation.
society
ICTs can contribute in health sectors in different

ways:
To facilitate remote consultation, diagnosis, and
treatment,
allowing physicians in remote locations to take
advantage of the professional skills and experiences
of colleagues and collaborating institutions.
society
To provide ongoing training to health

workers.
To enable policy-makers and healthcare
professionals to keep abreast of the rapidly
evolving stock of medical knowledge.
To improve disease prevention by
enabling more effective monitoring and
response mechanisms.
To disseminate public health information.

society
Small and medium enterprises (SMEs) in most

middle- and low-income countries are realising only
small gains from ICTs, whereas SMEs in most of the
developed world have seen large benefits from the
Web.
society
Farmers can use their phones to access market

price information, weather warnings, and extension
advice in most rich countries, but hardly in any low-
or middle-income countries.
society
Education is a bright spot, with over 80% of high-

income countries and almost 50% of low- and
middle-income countries expanding the use of
technology in poor and marginalised schools.
society
technology is an important driver of the current

round of globalization.
Through computer, television and mobile (cell)
telephone technology, international
communication has become quicker and widely
available.
society
This form of communication increases the

globalizing effect of rapid travel, which promotes
quicker, cheaper and more extensive movements
around the globe;
increasing cross-national activities.
society
There is no doubt that technology has drastically

improved communication and interaction within the
world.
It is now easier than ever to visit other nations or
contact people in other states.
society
As this technology develops, it becomes more

flexible, allows more interaction and will become
more appropriate for interpersonal practices.
While information once took weeks, or even months,
to travel long distances, communications are now
nearly instantaneous.
society
An important issue to address is how increasing use

of information communication technology (ICT)
discriminates between rich and poor countries,
rich and poor people and rich and poor social
agencies and educational institutions.
society
Generally, the poorer, the less accessible

technological resources will be.
The quality, flexibility and usability of the technology
available is poorer, and poorer countries or local
areas are less likely to have the infrastructure to
provide good technology,
so fewer benefits are gained from technological
advance.
society
The Internet may play an important role in spreading

information about social injustice and political
situations that otherwise would not become known
to the world.
Support can be organized in worldwide activist or
interest groups
society
There is virtually no escape from

globalization today as a result of
technology.
Television, the global economy,
multinational corporations (MNCs), and
international non-governmental
organizations (INGOs), along with e-
communication, have changed the
face of culture the world over, leading
to increased interdependence.
TECHNOLOGY AND Influence of Technology on
Social Life and Social
SOCIETY Institution
CONCEPT OF TECHNOLOGY
A major source of social change is technology, the practical
applications of scientific or other knowledge.
Ernest Greenwood The Principle of
Science,1954,
The term technology refers to all disciplines
designed to achieve controlled changes in natural
relationships by means of procedures that are
scientifically based.
Science in applied form is known as technology.
New Standard of Encyclopedia,
Technology is the use of scientific knowledge to develop and produce
goods and services useful to men.
In a word, we can define technology is the practice of science in
practical field.
TECHNOLOGICAL INNOVATION
A recent U.S.Air Force recruitment slogan declares
technology is taking over the world. Keep up with it or youre going to
be left behind.
As the slogan correctly implies, technological

innovation and social change are intimately
connected, particularly in in the modern world.
Modern technology has certainly offered
admirable achievements , but it has also created
dismaying problems.
Examples of Technological Innovation :
Aircraft and antibiotics, computers, internet, plastics, assembly lines,
communications, synthetic fabrics, and sky scrapers, mobile, fax, etc.
Most technological innovations are based on existing scientific
knowledge and technology.
The more advanced a society is in this respect , therefore, the faster
place of technological change is likely to be.
The more rapid the technological change, the more rapid is the social
change that it generates.
TECHNOLOGICAL FIX (ALVIN WEINBERG-
1966)
Major technological changes are introduced in the
belief that they will help to solve problems, they
often do so quite successfully.
But in solving problems of one kind, technological
changes sometimes generate new and different
problems, including some that were not froe seen.
1966)
The response to this situation is usually what Alvin Weinberg(1966)
called the technological fix-the use of technology to solve problems,
including those that prior technology has created.
1966)
The result may be a complex cycle in which one new technology after
another is applied to an ever more complicated situation, with the
whole process taking us farther and further from the original problem
and its solution.
1966
Thus an old problem leads to a new problem, which in turn generates
a new technological fix, which still leaves other complications
unaddressed.
EFFECTS OF TECHNOLOGICAL FACTORS
ON SOCIAL LIFE
1.cyber crime
2.juvenile delinquency
3.rapid urbanization and slum
4.industrialization and child labour
5.cultural conflict
6.Cultural lag
7.unequal distribution of wealth and opportunities
ON SOCIAL LIFE
8.class conflict / struggle
9.capitalism
10.Environment degradation /pollution
11.crime
12.civilization
13.modernization
14.globalization
15.increasing social networks
ON SOCIAL LIFE
16.modern education system
17.modern treatment
18.division of labour
19.fulfill of basic human needs
20.easy access in information
21.social media
22.virtual world /life
23.increasing standard of life.
INFLUENCE OF TECHNOLOGY ON SOCIAL
INSTITUTION
Durkheim defines,
sociology is the science of social institutions.
Morris Ginsberg,
Institutions may be described as recognized and
established usages governing the relations
between individuals and groups.
INSTITUTION
For example: family, religious institution,
educational institution, government, economics,
social welfare system etc.
Social institutions in general are the special
province of sociology, rather than of the other
social sciences.
it is evident that the great social institutions are
affected by changing technology.
INSTITUTION
Marriage and family:
The inventions affecting the birth rate are

reducing the size of the family,
increasing the number of divorces and
separations and
rendering marriage more unstable.
INSTITUTION
Religious institutions:
Religious institutions have been least affected by
modern inventions,
although the Religious institutions are much less a
central comprehensive social organization in
modern cities than it was in rural areas several
generations ago.
INSTITUTION
Religious institutions have, moreover, been profoundly affected by
discoveries in science, which have changed the nature of religious
rituals and creeds.
INSTITUTION
State:
The modern state has been influenced by two sets of inventions:
the production inventions and
the communication inventions.

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Introducing Sociology

Definition, Nature, Subject Matter, Sociology and

Marshal Jones defines sociology as "the study of

As Immanuel Kant said, "theories without facts

Sociology tries to find out the general laws or

Development, structure & function of a wide variety of

Sociologists do not accept something as fact

Common sense is the knowledge people gain

Common sense holds that seeing is believing.

1. Human beings have a natural instinct to mate

2.Lower class people are more likely to commit

3.Husbands are more likely to kill their wives in

4.One thing found in every society is romantic love

5. The amount of money spent on a schools

Problems with common sense

Society is a complex phenomenon with a multitude

Different factors led to the development of sociology:

Their colonial empires exposed them to radically different

Startled (charming) by these contrasting ways of life, they

It seemed logical to discover the laws underlying social phenomena

7.THE POLITICAL REVOLUTION

Emile Durkheim played an important role in the development of

What make these groups of people different?

INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION AND

INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION AND

INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION AND

THE GROWTH OF CAPITALISM

THE GROWTH OF CAPITALISM

THE GROWTH OF CAPITALISM

THE GROWTH OF CAPITALISM

The central idea of Functional analysis is that society is a whole unit,

The main weakness of conflict theory is

Components/ process of Scientific

There are two types of fact:

A concept is a word ,a phrase, symbolizing the

There are two types of concept:

Variables are concepts whose value changes from

Relationships among variables

Cause and effect is a relationship in which change in

The dependent variable is the variable that changes.

Correlation does not necessarily indicate causation

The hypothesis is a tentative justification, the validity of

Theory is the scientific explanation of a condition that

Durkheims work on suicide provides a classic case of

Sociological Theories: Seek to explain problems,

How Research and Theory Work

Theories Must Be Tested

Findings Must be Explained with Theory

As Immanuel Kant said,

Sociological Research Method is a Systematic Plan for

Research Method a systematic plan for

Sociologists use the following methods:

Basically research methods can be classified into two

1. The Historical method

The underlying idea is that our present forms of

2.The comparative method

The assumption here is that these divergences and

The method may be used in the study of existing

3.The statistical method