Chapter 4

Research Methodology and Design

4.1 Introduction

The theoretical overview of chapters two and three dealt with the importance of
formative assessment and assessment in the South African context, as well as the
background and rationale for the use of the Dynamic Indicators of Basic Early Literacy
Skills assessments. The previous chapters form a conceptual and theoretical framework
for this research study, while this chapter presents the empirical section.

The purpose of this study is to determine how officials in an educational district, and
foundation phase teachers in a school collect assessment data, how they record the
data, and how, if at all, they make instructional decisions, based on the collected
assessment data (cf. Chapter 1).

All research is based on some underlying philosophical assumption about what

constitutes valid research and which research method(s) is/are appropriate for the
development of knowledge in a given study. In order to conduct and evaluate any
research, it is therefore important to know what these assumptions are. According to
Holliday (2002), no matter how extensive the research, different researchers will
always pursue and see very different things in the same setting (p. 7). The critical point
is that the research methodology chosen determines the outcomes of the study.
Cooperrider and Srivastva (2001) state that, Through our assumptions and choice of
method we largely create the world we later discover (p. 1). This chapter describes the
outline of a systematic and focused investigation of the empirical research process
according to the following topics: research paradigm, research approach, research
design, sampling, data collection methods, data collection procedures and data
analysis.

4.2 Methodology

The methodological design is the logic through which a researcher addresses the
research questions (Mason, 2002), and gains data for the study (Denzin & Lincoln,

149 Chapter 4: Research design and methodology

2005). Research methodology encompasses the complete research process: the
literature review, the research approach, design, procedures and data-collection
methods and data analysis used in the study (McMillan & Schumacher, 2001).
Therefore, the aim of research methodology is to understand the processes and not the
product of scientific inquiry (Cohen & Manion, 1994).

4.2.1 Literature review

Various databases were consulted in order to do an extensive literature review related

to the intellectual conundrum under investigated. The essence can be summarised as
follows:

Assessment is vital to the education process (cf. section 1.6.1). In schools the most
visible assessments are summative. Summative assessments are used to measure
what learners have learnt at the end of a unit or to promote learners. But assessment
may also serve a formative function. In classrooms, formative assessment refers to
frequent, interactive assessments of learner progress and understanding to identify
learning needs and adjust teaching appropriately. Teachers using formative assessment
approaches and techniques are better prepared to meet diverse learners needs
through differentiation and adaptation of teaching to raise levels of learner achievement
and to achieve a greater equity of learner outcomes. But there are major barriers to
wider practice, including perceived tensions between classroom-based formative
assessments, and high visibility summative tests to hold schools accountable for learner
achievement, and a lack of connection between systemic, school and classroom
approaches to assessment and evaluation. Too often highly visible summative tests
used to hold schools accountable for learner achievement drive what happens in
classrooms. Too often, information gathered through national or provincial monitoring
systems, or even in school-based evaluations is seen as irrelevant or unhelpful to the
business of teaching. Too often, information gathered in classrooms is seen as
irrelevant to the business of policy making.

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4.2.2 Empirical investigation

4.2.2.1 Research paradigm

The term paradigm originated from the Greek word paradeigma which means pattern
and was first used by Thomas Kuhn (1962) to denote a conceptual framework shared
by a community of scientists which provided them with a convenient model for
examining problems and finding solutions. Kuhn (1977) defines a paradigm as an
integrated cluster of substantive concepts, variables and problems attached with
corresponding methodological approaches and tools (p. 25). According to him, the
term paradigm refers to a research culture with a set of beliefs, values, and
assumptions that a community of researchers has in common regarding the nature and
conduct of research (Kuhn, 1977). A paradigm therefore implies a pattern, structure and
framework or system of scientific and academic ideas, values and assumptions (Olsen,
Lodwick, & Dunlop, 1992).

Social reality can be viewed as being constructed. It is based on a constant process of

interpretation and reinterpretation of the intentional, meaningful behaviour of people
including researchers (Smith, 1989, p. 85). Thus, depiction and/or interpretation of the
social inquiry is a constructive process and consequently the researcher cannot be
isolated from the phenomenon investigated (Smith, 1989). I chose to conceptualise this
study within the interpretivist paradigm. For interpretivists, the world is too complex to
be reduced to a set of observable laws and generalisability is a less important issue
than understanding the real conditions behind the reality (Gray, 2004). The main goal of
the interpretivist is to understand the meaning of the social situation from the point of
view of those who live it. The inquirer must interpret the event, understand the process
of meaning construction and reveal what meanings are embodied in peoples actions
(Schwandt, 1998).

Interpretivisms main tenet is that research can never be objectively observed from the
outside rather it must be observed from inside through the direct experience of the
people. Furthermore, uniform causal links that can be established in the study of natural
science cannot be made in the world of the classroom where teachers and learners
construct meaning. Therefore, the role of the scientist in the interpretivist paradigm is to,
understand, explain, and demystify social reality through the eyes of different
participants (Cohen et al., 2007, p. 19). Researchers in this paradigm seek to

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understand rather than explain. The purpose of this study is to understand how
educational officials at district level, a school management team at school level, and
teachers at classroom level view and implement progress monitoring assessment.

4.2.2.2 Research approach

Not everything that can be counted counts, and not everything that counts can be
counted. (Albert Einstein)

Qualitative researchers study things in their natural settings, attempting to make sense
of, or to interpret, phenomena in terms of the meanings people bring to them (Denzin,
1994). Qualitative research is intended to penetrate to the deeper significance that the
subject of the research ascribes to the topic being researched. It involves an
interpretive, naturalistic approach to its subject matter and gives priority to what the data
contribute to important research questions or existing information. Qualitative research
is characterised by its aims, which relate to understanding some aspect of social life,
and its methods which (in general) generate words, rather than numbers, as data for
analysis. The strength of qualitative research is its ability to provide complex textual
descriptions of how people experience a given research issue. It provides information
about the human side of an issue that is, the often contradictory behaviours, beliefs,
opinions, emotions, and relationships of individuals.

A qualitative approach was chosen in order to explore educational officials at district

level, and teachers experiences with formative assessment (i.e., progress monitoring
assessment) in foundation phase classrooms, primarily through the use of semi-
structured interviews, focus group interviews, and document analysis. I wish to
understand the experiences of officials and teachers with assessment and its role in
early literacy skills, which is best accomplished through use of a qualitative method. I
am studying behaviour as it occurs naturally (McMillan & Shumacher, 2010, p. 321-
322), where the situational context is very important in understanding behaviour. The
questions raised are concerned with understanding the social phenomenon from the
participants perspective. My goal is to understand officials and teachers experiences
with formative assessment in the foundation phase classroom setting. I seek to provide
rich descriptions that cannot be achieved by reducing pages of narration to numbers
(McMillan & Schumacher, 2010, p. 322).

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4.2.2.3 Research design

This study utilises a participatory action research design. Perhaps the most important
feature of action research is that it shifts its locus of control in varying degrees from
professional or academic researchers to those who have been traditionally called the
subjects of research (Kerr & Anderson, 2005). There are several terms in current use
that describe research done either by or in collaboration with teachers and/or
community members. The most common ones are action research, participatory action
research, practitioner research, emancipatory praxis, participatory rural appraisal, and
advocacy activist (Kerr & Anderson, 2005, p. 2). Although the plethora of terms coined
to describe the research reflects wide disagreement on many key issues, most agree on
the following: action research is inquiry that is done by or with insiders to an
organisation or community, but never to or on them. It is a reflective process, but is
different from isolated, spontaneous reflection in that it is deliberately and systematically
undertaken and generally requires that some form of evidence be presented to support
assertions. What constitutes evidence or, in more traditional terms, data is still being
debated. Action research is oriented to some action or cycle of actions that
organisational or community members have taken, are taking, or wish to take to
address a particular problematic issue. The idea is that changes occur either within the
setting and/or within the researchers themselves. Action research is best done in
collaboration with others who have a stake in the problem under investigation.

Several more concise definitions exist in the body of literature on action research. For
example, McKernan (1988) described it as a form of self-reflective problem solving,
which enables practitioners to better understand and solve pressing problems in social
settings (p. 6). Kemmis and McTaggart (1987), writing about education, add the goal of
social justice to their definition:

A form of collective, self-reflective enquiry undertaken by participants in social

situations in order to improve the rationality and justice of their own social or
educational practices, as well as their understanding of these practices and the
situations in which these practices are carried out. Groups of participants can be
teachers, students, principals, parents and other community members any
group with a shared concern. The approach is only Action Research when it is
collaborative, though it is important to realize that the Action Research of the

153 Chapter 4: Research design and methodology

 group is achieved through the critically examined action of the individual group
members (p. 6).

Action research was selected as the preferred design because change lies at the heart
of this study. It is through change that progress monitoring assessment can become
part of teachers classroom practice. Action research can be understood as an over-
arching term for what goes on in the classroom when the teacher decides to change
previously accepted situations (McNiff, 1988). McNiff (1988) explains further that
applied to classrooms, action research is an approach to improving education through
change, by encouraging teachers to be aware of their own practice, to be critical of that
practice and to be prepared to change it.

Macintyre (2000) states that action research is an investigation, where, as a result of

rigorous self-appraisal of current practice, the researcher focuses on a problem (or a
topic or an issue which needs to be explained), and on the basis of information (about
the up-to-date state of the art, about the people who will be involved and about the
context), plans, implements, then evaluates an action, and then draws conclusions on
the basis of the findings (Macintyre, 2000, p. 1). By up-to-date state of the art the
author implies that the choice of the topic, and possible ways of investigating the topic,
should be informed by recent literature. After considering a number of ways in which
action research could be conceptualized, McNiff concludes that it is a spontaneous,
self-recreating system of enquiry (McNiff, 2002, p. 56).

The aim of action research is to bring about practical improvement, innovation, change
or development of social practice and the practitioners better understanding of their
practices (Cohen et al., 2001, p. 227). Kemmis and McTaggart (1988) describe action
research as to plan, act, observe and reflect more carefully, more systematically and
more rigorously than one usually does in everyday life; and to use the relationships
between these moments in the process as a source of both improvement and
knowledge (p. 10).

The term action research highlights the essential features of action and research, which
involves the systematic testing of ideas in practice to improve social conditions and
increase knowledge (Hatten, Knapp, & Salonga, 1997). It implies that the research is
undertaken to evaluate a real life problem, seek and plan systematically for a solution to

154 Chapter 4: Research design and methodology

the problem, implement the solution and evaluate whether the intervention was
successful.

Action research is a form of staff development that encourages and develops the skills
of teachers to become more reflective practitioners, more methodical problem solvers,
and more thoughtful decision makers (Sparks & Simmons, 1989). Sagor (2000)
believed that an important purpose for action research was building the reflective
practitioner (p. 7). He explained that when reflections on the findings from each days
work inform the next days instruction, teachers cant help develop greater mastery of
the art and science of teaching (Sagor, 2000, p. 7).

In addition, Danielson and McGreal (2000), Kemmis and McTaggert (1990), McNiff
(1997), and Schon (1983; 1987) focused on the importance of teachers critically
reflecting on their practice. Each asserted that teacher introspection and on-going
discussion about their own practice were very important. The process of action research
provides a structured, disciplined approach to reflecting about the teaching and learning
process. Danielson and McGreal (2000) stated, Few activities are more powerful for
professional learning than reflection on practice (p. 24). In this study the aim is to get
teachers to reflect on their assessment practices as well as the effect of their
assessment practices on their instructional decision making.

Likewise, Schon (1983; 1987) referred to the thinking practices that occurred while in
the midst of teaching as reflection in action. He described this reflection in action as
thinking about what one is doing while one is doing it. Reflection on action evokes
thinking critically about ones actions after they have occurred. This type of reflection
helps us gain a deeper understanding of what we already know. Danielson and McGreal
(2000) elaborated on the importance of reflection for professional growth and stated,
The very act of reflection, it appears, is a highly productive vehicle for professional
learning (p. 48).

More than half a century ago, Lewin (1946) developed a theory of action research
involving an action-reflection cycle of planning, acting, observing and reflecting. Several
other models have also been put forward by those who have studied different aspects of
action research and I present some of these in Table 4.1. My purpose in so doing is to
enable the reader to analyse the principles involved in these models which should, in
turn, lead to a deeper understanding of the processes involved in action research. No

155 Chapter 4: Research design and methodology

one specific model is being recommended and the models have many similarities. An
action researcher should adopt the model which suit his or her purpose most or adapt a
model to fit his or her purpose.

The three models presented in Table 4.1 define the steps in action research similarly.
These models of action research incorporate a process of five steps. While the models
have a variety of differences, they share the steps of data collection and analysis, and
taking action on an identified focus.

Table 4.1: Five Step Action Research Process

5 Step
Sagor Model Kemmis & McTaggert Calhoun Model
Process
Model
Step 1 Problem Formulation Planning Selecting the Area of
Focus
Step 2 Data Collection Acting Collecting Data
Step 3 Data Analysis Observing Organizing Data
Step 4 Reporting of Results Reflecting Analyzing and
Interpreting Data
Step 5 Action Planning Re-planning Taking Action

Although each of the above-mentioned models uses different words, in essence, they
each include using data to act or react to a defined problem or area of concern.
According to these models, action research can be summarized as a spiraling process
that facilitates planning, acting, collecting, observing, reflecting, analyzing, reacting, and
evaluating in a manner that is systematic but flexible in nature.

I find the spiral model appealing because it offers the opportunity to visit a phenomenon
at a higher level each time, and so to progress towards greater overall understanding.
By carrying out action research using this model, one can understand a particular issue
within an educational context and make informed decisions through enhanced
understanding. It is about empowerment. To fit the purpose of my study, I developed an
action research model for the development and implementation of a school-wide
progress monitoring assessment system. In conducting this action research, I structured

156 Chapter 4: Research design and methodology

routines for continuous confrontation with the data and these routines are loosely
guided by movement through five phases of inquiry as shown in Figure 4.1.

Figure 4.1: Action Research Spiral

These five actions taken by the researcher in the action research process is discussed
below:

Identification of the problem area

The first step in any research study is deciding exactly what to study. Action research
arises from a problem, dilemma, or ambiguity in the situation in which teachers or
administrators find themselves. The problem in this study arose from concerns
expressed at national, provincial, district, school and classroom level, namely the role of
assessment in foundation phase teaching and learning (cf. section 5.2). The following
criteria were taken into account when trying to delimit the research problem. The
question(s) should:

157 Chapter 4: Research design and methodology

 Be a higher-order question not a yes/no;

Be stated in common language, avoiding jargon;

Be concise;

Be meaningful; and

Not already have an answer.

In some ways this step was the most difficult as the problem needed to be sufficiently
refined to be tractable and to ensure that the focus was on the most important issues. It
was also important to recognise which problems or issues it was feasible to focus on,
because in some cases a commonsense solution to a current difficulty can be readily
found, while in others there may be institutional constraints which render attempts at
solution beyond the scope of the stakeholders involved, for example, changing the
current National Assessment Policy. In order to identify the problem area, I had informal
conversations with the Circuit Manager in the Cloudy District, the Head of Department
of the Foundation Phase in one school, and several foundation phase teachers in a city
in the North West Province. I also read statements made by academics in the popular
media. In addition, I conducted a birds eye view of the literature in order to distinguish
between what has been done and what needs to be done; understand the structure of
the problem; unpack important variables relevant to the study; and identify relationships
between theory and practice; identify areas of controversy in the research; establish and
define the social, educational, or cultural context of the problem or question; identify
methodologies and research approaches that have been used in conducting the
research.

Collection and organisation of data

The collection of data is an important step in deciding what action needs to be taken.
Multiple sources of data are used to better understand the scope of the problem at
district, school and classroom level. During this step, decisions were made about the
data collection methods to be used in the study. I made use of semi-structured
interviews, focus group interviews and document analysis. Three data sources
(triangulation) were used for the basis of actions. Data was organised in a way that
would make it useful to identify trends and themes (cf. section 5.3).

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 Analysis and Interpretation of data

During this step, the aim is to identify and analyse major themes. I started to analyse
the data immediately after the first semi-structured interviews and focus group
interviews were held. The material to be analysed consisted of interview (individual and
focus group) transcripts as well as collected documents. I chose constant comparative
analysis to analyse my data because this method aids in identifying patterns, coding
data, and categorizing findings (cf. section 5.4).

Action based on data

Using the information from the data collection and review of current literature, I
designed a plan of action in collaboration with all district officials, the school
management team and the teachers at Happy Valley School. The plan of action was a
progress monitoring assessment and support rocket system (cf. section 5.5). It is
important to note that only one variable was changed in this study, namely the
implementation of a progress monitoring assessment and support rocket system that
could have school-wide as well as district-wide decision making implications. The
reason for only one change being made is that if several changes were made at once, it
would be difficult to determine which action was responsible for the outcome. While the
action was implemented, I continuously collected, and documented the data on the
progress monitoring assessment and support rocket system.

Evaluate results

The final step in the action research cycle was to assess the effects of the action step
that was implemented to determine whether improvement had occurred and to verify
and validate whether the data clearly provided supporting evidence for the effective
implementation of the progress monitoring assessment and support rocket system.

4.2.2.4 Sampling

Data gathering is crucial in research, as the data is meant to contribute to a better

understanding of a theoretical framework (Bernard, 2002). It then becomes imperative
that selecting the manner of obtaining data, and from whom the data will be acquired be
done with sound judgement, especially since no amount of analysis can make up for
improperly collected data (Bernard, 1986).

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The purposive sampling technique, also called judgment sampling, is the deliberate
choice of a participant due to the qualities the participant possesses. It is a nonrandom
technique that does not need underlying theories or a set number of informants. Simply
put, the researcher decides what needs to be known and sets out to find people who
can and are willing to provide the information by virtue of knowledge or experience
(Bernard, 2002; Lewis & Sheppard, 2006). Key participants are observant, reflective
members of the community of interest who know much about the topic and are both
able and willing to share their knowledge (Bernard, 2002).

The following steps were followed in the purposive sampling of participants for this

study:

1. Decide on the research problem.

2. Determine the type of information needed.

Information is held by only certain members of the community.

Information needs a high degree of interpretation regarding assessment
practices in the foundation phase.

3. Define the qualities the participants should or should not have.

4. Find your respondents based on the defined qualities.

Research about the structure of the North West Department of Education and
District and School Level (i.e., circuit manager, subject specialists, school
management team, head of department for the Foundation Phase and
Foundation Phase teachers grade R to grade 3).
Ask for help before going to the site (i.e., school and district offices) and upon
arrival at the site.

5. Keep in mind the importance of reliability and competency in assessing potential

respondents.

6. Use appropriate data gathering techniques.

7. In analyzing data and interpreting results, remember that purposive sampling is an

inherently biased method.

Document the bias.

Do not apply interpretations beyond the sampled population.

Non-probability sampling is used in qualitative research, where the researcher

purposively seeks out participants that are deemed to be the best sources of
information required. It is the most common sampling strategy in qualitative research
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and seeks cases rich in information which can be studied in great depth about issues
of central importance to the purpose of the research. The benefit of purposeful
sampling is that, as Patton (2002) puts it, Any common patterns that emerge from
great variation are of particular interest and value in capturing the core experience and
central, shared dimensions of a setting or phenomenon (p. 34).

The following boundaries and features applied in this study:

The School Management Team of the Happy Valley School (four members).

Eight teachers from the Happy Valley School (one grade R, three grade 1,
two grade 2 and two grade 3 teachers (Foundation Phase) in the Cloudy
District in the North West Province.

The circuit manager of the Cloudy District, Mrs Dedicated.

The coordinator of the General Education and Training Band, Mrs Detail.

Three subject specialists for language/literacy in the Cloudy District in the

North West Province.

The entire population of Foundation Phase learners at Happy Valley School

participated in the study, n= 82 (grade 1), n= 85 (grade 2), n= 86 (grade 3). 1

4.2.2.5 Data collection methods

The following data collection methods were used in this study: semi-structured
interviews, focus groups and document analysis. Through the use of multiple data
collection methods, I hope to triangulate the data in such a way as to enhance the
validity of this study. The methods are discussed below:

Semi-structured interviews

Interviewing is regarded as one of the most powerful ways to understand human

behaviour and for this reason, interviewing is also used in this research (Koshy, 2005).
Interviewing as a data-gathering method was also included to (Gall et al., 1996, p. 289-
290; Denzin & Lincoln, 2005, p. 697-698):

1
Although all Foundation Phase learners participated in the study, the focus was on the development of a
school wide progress monitoring assessment system that would enable teachers and all stakeholders to
make effective instructional decisions based on the analysis of DIBELS data.
161 Chapter 4: Research design and methodology
 obtain additional information;
clarify vague statements;
permit exploration of topics; and to
yield a deeply experiential account of the extent of assessment practice at
district, school and classroom levels.

Interviews were conducted according to a semi-structured interview schedule (cf.

chapter 5 for the interview questions) that specifies predetermined questions and
sequences for the interviewer. The structured part of the interview was developed
according to the research purpose (cf. section 1.5), and the literature review of
government documentation (cf. section 1.3).

The interview questions included the following topics:

Benchmarks for literacy;

Assessment documentation;
Recording of assessment;
Progress monitoring assessment;
Types of assessment;
Assessment feedback;
Instructional support related to assessment;
Instructional decision making based on assessment data;
Use of assessment data; and
General comments.

A semi-structured interview was chosen to allow more clarifying, probing and cross-
checking questions where the interviewer had the freedom to alter, rephrase and add
questions according to the nature of responses from interviewees (Best & Kahn, 2003;
Argarwal, 2005). The semi-structured interviews provided opportunities for the
recording of idiosyncratic and more free-flow responses.

Interview procedure
The recording of the interview data took place by means of note-taking and audio
recording as recommended by among others Gall et al. (1996), Huberman and Miles
(2002) and De Vos et al. (2005). The note-taking served as an additional recording
measure and as a back-up procedure if consent was not obtained from the interviewees

162 Chapter 4: Research design and methodology

to record the interview by means of an audio recorder. Interviews took place in the
offices of the district officials, the staffroom at Happy Valley School and in the
classroom of the Head of Department of the Foundation Phase.

There was also sensitivity to the specific situation of each respondent, because of the
school-specific circumstances and work-related priorities. Interview skills are not simple
motor skills, but involve a high order combination of observation, empathic sensitivity
and intellectual judgement of the interview situation and person being interviewed
(Denzin & Lincoln, 2005).

The initial task was to establish a friendly, secure and cooperative relationship with the
interviewee by a word of thanks for being willing to partake in the research. The
participants were assured of the confidentiality of their participation in the interview and
the background of the research and related aims were explained to provide the
interviewees with relevant and necessary information about the research. The format
and sequence of questioning were also explained before the actual interview. The pace
and time during the interview were continuously monitored (Best & Kahn, 2003; Breen,
2006). The preceding information and explanations were also included in the cover
letter that was handed to each participant (cf. Appendix T). A copy of the interview
schedule, with the contact detail of the researcher was provided to each interviewee for
possible future enquiries.

Focus group interviews

The reason for including focus group interviews as part of this research was to obtain
comments from participants at district and classroom level in a group setting where
participants could get the opportunity to discuss among themselves. The spontaneous
comments reflect the views, experiences and feelings of the participants about the
research topic and made new insights possible that further explained existing results
(Sekaran, 2006). De Vos et al. (2005) regard the strength of a focus group discussion
as the potential of group interaction to uncover additional data that could have been lost
in the case of individually gathered data.

The purpose of the focus group interviews in this research was to ensure cumulative
and more elaborative data for a fuller, deeper understanding of the research topic

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according to the research purpose (Denzin & Lincoln, 2005; De Vos et al., 2005; Breen,
2006).

Three focus group discussions were conducted for this study, namely with:

Subject specialists for language/literacy at district level;

School Management team of the Happy Valley School, responsible for
making assessment-related decisions; and
Foundation phase teachers of the Happy Valley School.

The approach during the above-mentioned focus group interviews was at first a
welcoming address followed by a brief overview of the research topic and purpose.
Caution was taken to balance the role of researcher with the role of facilitator according
to the dynamics of each particular group to ensure an interactive and participative
atmosphere in which all participants had an opportunity to share their views (Denzin &
Lincoln, 2005; Breen, 2006; Mertler, 2006).

The questions that were asked to the focus groups for discussion were based on the
research problem and research purpose as stated in chapter 1. The focus group
questions where similar to those of the semi-structure interviews (cf. section 5.3).

The group discussions were audio-recorded for the purpose of transcribing, analysis
and integration. My promoter provided academic assistance during all three focus group
discussions and during the analysis and interpretation phases of the research.

Focus group interviews are regarded as a research method that collects data through
group interaction in which participants are encouraged to share perceptions, points of
view, experiences and concerns in a non-threatening environment and without any
pressure to reach consensus (Denzin & Lincoln, 2005; De Vos et al., 2005). Focus
groups allow the investigation of a multitude of perceptions in a defined area of interest
and are fundamentally a way of listening to and learning from people to acquire ideas
and insights (Breen, 2006).

Focus group interviews are less structured compared to semi-structured interviews. This
is because of the difficulty in bringing structure in a group; however, rich data can
emerge through interaction within the group, for example, sensitive issues that could
have been missed in individual interviews, may be revealed. In a group, people develop

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and express ideas they would not have thought about on their own (Preece, Rogers, &
Sharp, 2002).

Document analysis

Document analysis is a systematic procedure for reviewing or evaluating documents,

both printed and electronic material (Bowen, 2009). Documents contain text (words) and
images that have been recorded without a researchers intervention. Document analysis
is often used in combination with other qualitative research methods as a means of
triangulation, the combination of methodologies in the study of the same phenomenon
(Denzin, 1970, p. 291). By triangulating data, the researcher attempts to provide a
confluence of evidence that breeds credibility (Eisner, 1991, p. 10). By examining
information collected through different methods, the researcher can corroborate findings
across data sets and thus reduce the impact of potential biases that can exist in a single
study. Document analysis yields dataexcerpts, quotations, or entire passagesthat
are then organised into major themes, categories, and case examples specifically
through content analysis (Labuschagne, 2003) (cf. section 5.3.4). Merriam (1988)
pointed out, Documents of all types can help the researcher uncover meaning, develop
understanding, and discover insights relevant to the research problem (p. 118).

Atkinson and Coffey (1997) advise researchers to consider carefully whether and how
documents can serve particular research purposes. As the authors emphasise:

We should not use documentary sources as surrogates for other kinds of data.
We cannot, for instance, learn through records alone how an organization
actually operates day-by-day. Equally, we cannot treat recordshowever
officialas firm evidence of what they report. That strong reservation does not
mean that we should ignore or downgrade documentary data. On the contrary,
our recognition of their existence as social facts alerts us to the necessity to treat
them very seriously indeed. We have to approach them for what they are and
what they are used to accomplish (p. 47).

Documents, therefore, provide background and context, additional questions to be

asked, supplementary data, a means of tracking change and development, and
verification of findings from other data sources. Moreover, documents may be the most
effective means of gathering data when events can no longer be observed or when
respondents have forgotten the details.
165 Chapter 4: Research design and methodology
The following documents were collected for analysis in this study:

School Level
The Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statement (CAPS): English Home
Language for Grade R to Grade 3 (Foundation Phase) (cf. Appendix B);
Records of teachers assessment planning (cf. Appendix L);
Records of teachers assessment recording (cf. Appendix P);
Records of assessment tasks (cf. Appendix K); and
Records of learner report cards (cf. Appendix Q).

District Level
The National Assessment Protocol (cf. Appendix A);
Action Plan to 2014: Towards the Realisation of Schooling 2025 (cf. Appendix D);
Annual National Assessments 2012: A Guideline for the interpretation and use of
ANA results (cf. Appendix C); and
Records of assessment analysis procedures (cf. Appendix J).

4.2.2.6 Data collection procedure

In this study I chose to conduct a 16 month action research project at the Happy Valley
School in the Cloudy District. I worked with the foundation phase teachers as well as
foundation phase district officials of the Cloudy District in the North West Province. The
time and dates of site visits were scheduled according to the participants' convenience,
the school schedule, and my own time availability. Within this time period, semi-
structured interviews and focus group interviews were conducted and document
analysis was done.

Figure 4.2 provides a graphic illustration of the data collection process used during my
action research. The action research timeline (cf. Figure 4.2) provides an overview of
the action research project. The timeline depicts how I used the elements of action
research (cf. Figure 4.1) and notes both what was reflected on during each stage and
when and what type of qualitative data was collected and analysed.

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Figure 4.2: The Data Collection Timeline

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4.2.2.7 Data analysis

Qualitative data are in the form of text and the act of analysis involves the
deconstruction of the textual data into manageable categories, patterns and
relationships (Neuman, 1997; Mouton, 2002). The aim of the qualitative analysis of
this research was to examine the various elements of the captured data to clarify
concepts and constructs and to identify patterns, themes and relationships according
to the research purpose.

Partington (2003) states that there is little standardisation with no absolutes where a
specific type of qualitative data relates to a specific type of analysis. No single
qualitative data analysis approach is widely accepted (Neuman, 1997). Each
qualitative data analysis will to some extent be a uniquely designed event. With the
preceding in mind, the qualitative data analysis of this research (responses from the
interviews and focus group discussions and an analysis of the documents) was done
according to a qualitative content analysis process as recommended by Gall et al.
(1996, p. 322), Henning et al. (2004, p. 104-109), De Vos et al. (2005, p. 334) and
Roberts et al. (2006, p. 43). The qualitative content analysis involved the following
procedures:

Recording of data by means of note taking and audio recording of

responses.
Responses from the interviews and focus groups were transcribed
verbatim.
The entire transcribed text and field notes were read at first to obtain an
overall impression of the content and context.
Codes are names or labels assigned to specific units or segments of
related meaning identified within the field notes and transcripts (Neuman,
1997; Henning et al., 2004). The coding process for the field notes and
transcripts consisted of three coding steps as described by Neuman
(1997) and Thietart (2007), namely: open coding, axial coding and
selective coding.
Open coding involved the identification and naming of segments of
meaning from the field notes and transcripts in relation to the
research topic. The focus of open coding was on wording, phrasing,

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 context, consistency, frequency, extensiveness and specificity of
comments. The segments of meaning from the field notes and
transcripts were clearly marked (highlighted) and labelled in a
descriptive manner.
Axial coding was done by reviewing and examining the initial codes
that were identified during the previous procedure. Categories and
patterns were identified during this step and organised in terms of
causality, context and coherence.
Selective coding as final coding procedure involved the selective
scanning of all the codes that were identified for comparison, contrast
and linkage to the research topic as well as for a central theme or
key linkage that might occur.
The codes were eventually evaluated for relevance to the research
purpose.
Related codes were then listed in categories according to the research
purpose and theoretical framework from the literature study.
The analysis process was further informed by inquisitive questions to
identify thematic relationships from the various categories. Questions
included among others (Henning et al., 2004):
- What was the relationship (-s) in meaning between all the categories?
- What can be deduced from the categories as a whole?
- What meaning was missing?
- What was foregrounded in the analysis?
- What has moved to the background?
- What alternative explanations were possible?
- How were the research aims addressed by the various categories (p.
106)?

The qualitative analysis process was concluded by the description of

thematic relationships and patterns of relevance to the research (cf.
section 5.4).

The process outlined above of qualitative analysis served as a framework to ensure

that the initial data (interviews and focus group discussions as well as the document
analysis) were systematised by thematic organisation to form part of the final data.

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The outlined process enabled a systematic and logic step-by-step approach for the
analysis of the qualitative data and allowed the researcher to go beyond mere
descriptive, comparative and explanatory ends to discover the rationale and
motivation for responses (Thitart, 2007). The qualitative analysis process was
approached like a spiral or circular process and not as a fixed linear action. The
content analysis approach implied that the various steps of analysis were regarded
as procedural guidelines and not as rigid steps like that of a recipe (De Vos et al.,
2005).

The identified themes were further used as basis for reasoning, argumentation and
the formulation of syntheses and conclusions to develop a progress monitoring
assessment and support rocket system (cf. section 5.5).

4.3 The role of the researcher

In qualitative research, the researcher stands central to the data collected (Wood,
2012). The researcher collects the data by means of semi-structured interviews,
focus group interviews, and the analysis of relevant documents. The following
implications are relevant for the role of the researcher:

As the primary instrument of data collection and analysis, I should become

immersed in the phenomena under investigation (McMillian & Shumacher,
2000);
As an active participant in the research, I should adopt an exploratory, non-
judgemental orientation by trying to learn what is going on in particular
situations or contexts and, through analysis and interpretation, arrive at an
understanding of the distinctive orientations, perspectives or beliefs of the
people concerned (Biggerstaff & Thompson, 2008; McMillian & Schumacher,
2000); and
Introspection and the acknowledgement of own biases, interest, perspectives
and values are typical reflexive qualities of a good qualitative researcher
(Cresswell, 2003).

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The positionality perspective taken in this study is that of outsider in collaboration
with insiders. The issue of what each stakeholder wants out of the research needs to
be negotiated carefully if reciprocity is to be achieved. I approached the study from a
We know. They know perspective and not a We know. They dont know
perspective (Kerr & Anderson, 2005). My positionality can, therefore, be described
as one of cooperation local people (departmental officials, teachers) work together
with outsiders (research team) to determine priorities; the responsibility remains with
outsiders for directing the process. The relationship status is that of doing research
with insiders.

4.4 Trustworthiness

According to Huberman and Miles (2002) and Tobin and Begley (2004), it is
inappropriate to transfer terminology across paradigms. The authors suggest
alternative ways to demonstrate reliability and validity outside the linguistic confines
of a quantitative research paradigm. The trend that rather emphasises the use of
rigour to assure reliability and validity in qualitative research was followed in this
section of the research (Tobin & Begley, 2004; Twycross & Shields, 2005). Rigour
refers to the demonstration of integrity and competence in qualitative research by
adherence to detail and accuracy to assure authenticity and trustworthiness of the
research process. As such the rigour of the qualitative section relates to the overall
planning and implementation of the planned research design (cf. par. 4.2.2.3)
conducted in a logical, systematic manner to ensure the authenticity and
trustworthiness of procedures according to the following criteria (Tobin & Begley,
2004; Roberts et al., 2006, p. 43; Freeman et al., 2007, p. 28-29):

Credibility: Engagement with the data (recordings, notes and

transcripts) was done intensively to demonstrate clear links between the
data and interpretations. The use and indication of verbatim examples
of participants responses reflect for example the range and tone of the
gathered responses. The credibility of the research was further
increased by the presence and academic assistance of an experienced
researcher (my promoter) during 50% of the interviews. After completion
of the decoding process, the results were again submitted to my

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 promoter for an independent evaluation of my documentation and
interpretation of data. Regular discussions were held and adjustments
were made according to suggestions and recommendations.

Dependability: Care was taken to ensure that the research process

was logical, traceable, and clearly documented in a reflexive manner by
giving a detailed account of the research process.

Transferability: This indicates the extent to which the findings can be

applied in other contexts or with other participants (Babbie & Mouton, 2001).
The strategies for achieving transferability comprises of thorough
descriptions and purposive sampling (Babbie & Mouton, 2001). To ensure
thorough descriptions, detailed descriptions of data are provided. Purposive
sampling was applied within this study because of its propensity to
maximise the variety of the information that can be obtained within a specific
context (Babbie & Mouton, 2001).

Confirmability: An audit process was implemented by working forward as

well as backward through the research process to ensure that the data and
interpretations of the findings were not figments of imagination, but clearly
derived, sound and confirmed findings. The intention during the interpretation
process was not to generalise findings to a population, but to identify generic
accepted principles and trends related to the research topic. Confirmability,
therefore, constitutes the degree to which my own biases are excluded from
the finding (Babbie & Mouton, 2001). Accordingly, a confirmability audit trail
was developed by leaving an adequate trail for following up the conclusions,
interpretations and recommendations. To ensure that such a trail was
adequate, six classes of data was reviewed. These include raw data,
reduction and analysis products of data, reconstruction and synthesis
products, and process notes.

The description of the research process of what was done, how it was done and why
it was done as well as the implementation according to criteria for qualitative
research ensured that the authenticity and trustworthiness of the research was
increased. The stated criteria did not serve as a restrictive checklist for the
qualitative research process, but were regarded as parameters to generate

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informational knowledge in accordance to the research aims (Freeman et al., 2007).
The legitimacy of the interview was thus assured by a clear conceptualisation, a
purposeful design of an interview schedule, as well as a set plan or protocol to
conduct the interview. The consistency of responses was checked by restating
questions in different forms at various stages of the interview (Anderson, 1998; Best
& Kahn, 2003).

4.5 Ethical aspects

Codes for conduct in research came out of atrocious abuses that came to light
during the Nuremberg war crime trials at the end of World War II. When the
biomedical experiments conducted by physicians and scientists on prisoners in
concentration camps were exposed, there was a startling new awareness of the
vulnerability of those held captive, who were subjected to experiments they never
consented to, conducted by those in power or in positions of authority. The result
was the Nuremberg Code, which became the prototype of many later codes
intended to assure that research involving human subjects would be carried out in an
ethical manner (National Commission, 1979, p. 1).

The history of research abuses led to the creation of ethics policies focusing on the
protection of human subjects from exploitation or exposure to unacceptable levels of
risk through their participation in research. Three basic principles are set forth in the
Belmont Report to provide an analytical framework toward the resolution of ethical
problems that develop with research involving human subjects: (a) respect for
persons, (b) beneficence, and (c) justice. The principles provide a framework within
which to think about risks to human subjects participating in research; in addition,
they provide a basis on which specific rules may be formulated, criticized, and
interpreted (National Commission, 1979, p. 3).

Respect for persons represents flip sides of the same idea: that individuals are
autonomous persons, capable and entitled to personal decision making in terms of
participating or not in the research process, conversely, if their autonomy is
diminished, they are persons in need of protection in terms of their possible
participation in the research process (National Commission, 1979).

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In terms of respecting potential research participants, the researcher is obliged to be
forthcoming in terms of imparting the information necessary whereby the potential
participant can consent to participate based on being apprised of relevant
information; part of the relevant information is a complete description of what the
participant might expect if agreeing to be involved in the research. This has typically
involved a spelling-out of the procedures of the research focus groups, interviews,
anything that the participant will be asked to do as part of the research. The idea is
that the potential participant is fully informed as to what to expect in the research
process.

The principle of justice in research speaks to the fair distribution of the burdens and
benefits of research in the selection and recruitment of participants (Mastoianni &
Kahn, 2001). The principle of beneficence speaks to the maximising of benefits and
the minimising of risks in the research process. According to the Belmont Report,
researchers are to adhere to two general rules: (a) do no harm, and (b) maximise the
possible benefits and minimise possible harms (National Commission, 1979, p. 6).
Essentially, we must actively attempt not only to avoid harms, but to benefit those
studied, to augment, not merely respect, their autonomy (Cassell, 1982, p. 27).

The researcher dealt with ethical issues in the following manner:

a. Informed consent

The Researcher informed the participants of the purpose, nature, data collection
methods, and extend of the research prior to commencement. Further, the
researcher explained to them their typical roles. In line with this, the researcher
obtained their informed consent in writing (cf. Appendix T; Appendix U).

b. Harm and risk

In this research study the researcher guaranteed that no participants were put in
a situation where they might be harmed as a result of their participation, physical
or psychological (Trochim, 2000).

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 c. Honesty and trust

Adhering strictly to all the ethical guidelines serves as standards about the
honesty and trustworthiness of the data collected and the accompanying data
analysis.

d. Privacy, confidentiality, and anonymity

In this study the researcher ensured that the confidentiality and anonymity of the
participants would be maintained through the removal of any identifying
characteristics before widespread dissemination of information. The researcher
made it clear that the participants names would not be used for any other
purposes, nor will information be shared that reveals their identity in any way.

e. Voluntary participation

Despite all the above mentioned precautions, it was made clear to the
participants that the research was only for academic purposes and their
participation in it was absolutely voluntary. No one was forced to participate.

f. Ethical clearance

Ethical clearance was obtained from the North-West University ethical

committee:

Number: NWU-00063-12-A2;

Approval date: 2012/08/07

Expiry date: 2017/08/06 (cf. Appendix V).

4.6 Summary

This chapter introduced the research methodology and methods for this study. A
qualitative approach was adopted to investigate the key issues in relation to this
investigation, followed by a detailed description of the implementation of research
methods. This description included information about aims of the study, participant
selection, data collection and data analysis procedures for this study. The ethical
considerations for this study have also been outlined in this chapter.

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The primary focus of this chapter has been to provide descriptions for the research
process and its applicability to the research questions at hand. The following
chapter reports in detail on the findings of this action research study using a
structured narrative format.

176 Chapter 4: Research design and methodology