Philosophies and strategies of

pervasive larp design

Markus Montola, Jaakko Stenros & Annika Waern

15
Design

Research
The majority of live action role-playing games are enacted either within a
strictly confined area or in the middle of nowhere, in wilderness. However,
there is also a minority of larps that are played in the streets, amongst
unsuspecting bystanders. This minority has recently been gaining wider
recognition. These pervasive larps are played all around a city, they invade
players everyday lives, and involve outsiders.
This paper maps the design space of pervasive larp. Firstly, we dis-
cuss different philosophies of pervasive role-play, looking at desired game
experiences and cultural conventions of different forms of pervasive role-
play. Secondly, we present a list of strategies that have been used success-
fully to realize such games.

197 | Montola, Stenros & Waern

 Pervasive games are games that break the usual boundaries of 1 For a reader unaware of our views

on pervasive games in general, we

games. While regular games are played at a set place and time by recommend having a look at our
certain volunteer participants, pervasive games are different: These work discussing pervasive games in
general (Montola, Stenros & Waern
games are either played out in the open, or they invade players
forthcoming, Montola 2005, Montola,
everyday lives, or they can involve outsiders and bystanders. In our Waern & Nieuwdorp 2006), the ethics
earlier work (Montola, Waern & Nieuwdorp 2006) we have defined of pervasive games (Montola, Waern,
Kuittinen & Stenros 2006) and pervasive
a pervasive game as a game that has one or more salient features games in a larger cultural context
that expand the contractual magic circle of play socially, spatially or (Stenros, Montola & Myr 2007).

temporally. 2 We have used the following pervasive

This blurring of the traditional boundaries of games usually larps as background information: Det
lngste dag (Denmark 2005), Europa
leads to the point where players are unaware of where the game ends
(Norway 2001), Ghost Express (Finland
and ordinary life begins; they often are unsure about whether a cer- 2001-2002), Helsingin Camarilla
tain object, place or person is related to the game. While this is (Finland 1995-2004), Helsinki FTZ
(Finland 1997), Isle of Saints (Finland
often a source of pleasurable gameplay, it can also occasionally be a 2001), Neonhmr (Finland 2008-),
cause of significant problems in the game.1 Pimeyden maailma (Finland 2004-
2005), Prosopopeia Bardo 1: Dr vi fll
Numerous larps and other games have influenced this paper.
(Sweden 2005), Prosopopeia Bardo
As these games are generally poorly documented and mostly exist in 2: Momentum (Sweden 2006), Rikos
oral tradition, we have not provided references to exact larps.2 This kannattaa (Finland 2006) Sanningen
om Marika (Sweden 2007), The White
paper is based on a report originally produced in the IPerG project Road (Denmark 2007) and Tre grader
(Montola, Stenros & Waern 2007). av uskyld (Denmark 2006). Many non-
pervasive larps also provided insight
for this report. These include Amerika
(Norway 2000), Carolus Rex (Sweden

Pervasive larp design philosophies 1999), En stilla middag (Sweden 2007),

Hamlet (Sweden 2002), Mellan himmel
och hav (Sweden 2003), Panopticorp
Larps can be designed in order to meet a number of goals and pur- (Norway 2003), Pelageya: Clarissie
(Finland 2005), Pitk perjantai (Finland
poses. In order to inform design, we first need to create a rudimen-
1997), Ringblomman (Sweden 2004),
tary classification of larp design philosophies: These philosophies are System Danmarc 2 (Denmark 2005)
holistic approaches to larp organization, addressing both the form and The Executive Gameseries (Finland
2001-2003). In addition, many pervasive
and the function of the game. While the vast majority of larps are games and research prototypes have
conceived for recreation and entertainment, other uses include edu- influenced our work: Uncle Roy All
Around You, The Beast, vQuest and
cation, simulation and artistic expression. These functions can be Epidemic Menace, by way of example.
further analyzed: Recreational larps, for instance, can produce plea-

Philosophies and strategies of pervasive larp design | 198

 surable play through physical exercise, social play, mental challenges and
so on.
Most of the design philosophies discussed in this paper are applica-
ble to regular larp as well as to pervasive larp. Going pervasive is one way
of creating strong experiences, but closed larps (which Martin Ericsson
(forthcoming) has called ecstatic furnaces) have their own advantages. For
example, the 360 illusion larps (Koljonen 2007) have worked out very
well in creating visceral experiences. Then again, some of the philosophies
(like hiding in cityscape) are very particular to pervasive larp.
Some of these philosophies can be combined with each other,
whereas others have conflicting goals. Below, we also discuss how we
believe the different strategies would work together with the more detailed
design strategies.

City as a backdrop
Urban pervasive games always have a relationship with the surrounding
city. Yet the attitude towards the city needs not be active: The city can just
be something in the background. Games that are not specifically designed
to be played on the streets and just happen to take place there belong in
this category, as do games where the designer simply treats the city as a
setting, a backdrop.
City as a backdrop is closer to a lack of philosophy than to a full-
blown design attitude. These games are pervasive by accident, not by
designer intent. Often the players choose an attitude towards the city from
the other philosophies one that suits their character.
Most of the city games that were played in the Nordic countries in
the 1990s belong in this category: The games just happened to take place
in the street.
Supported by: Design strategies that do not rely on a factual world
and that clearly define the game as a game, e.g. Scene-to-Scene
Play, Ludic Markers, and Ensemble Construction.

199 | Montola, Stenros & Waern

 Conflicts with: Design strategies that require players to take
an active attitude to the surrounding world, e.g. Double Life
Roletaking, Reality as a Sourcebook, Social Playground, Play as If
It Was Real, Performative Play, and Outsiders as Obstacles.

Hiding in cityscape
Many pervasive larps aim to hide themselves in cityscape. They prioritize
a way of playing that does not interfere with the outside world and avoids
causing public disturbance or involving outsiders. The advantage of this
design philosophy is that it allows the excitement of play in public places,
while keeping the social weight of gameplay low. Many people may con-
sider public pretence play embarrassing, or find transgressive public play
immoral. Thus, larps that hide in cityspace offer the most casual form of
pervasive larp.
Typically, the larps hiding in cityspace utilize settings where hiding
is an intrinsic part of the play. The wizards of Harry Potter refrain from
magic in presence of muggles, the vampires of World of Darkness mask
their true nature from mortals, spies and agents hide from everyday peo-
ple as well as from each other. Thus, bystanders are seen as a challenge,
an obstruction that needs to be avoided.
Supported by: Strategies that create a hidden layer to society, e.g.
Double Life Roletaking, Ludic Markers, Indexical Propping,
Runtime Game Mastering, Unfamiliar Surroundings, Urban
Exploration, and Outsiders as Obstacles.
Conflicts with: Design strategies that require social interaction
with outsiders, e.g. Social Playground, Pronoia and Exploration,
and Performative Play.

Philosophies and strategies of pervasive larp design | 200

 Altering perception
Games can be used to show a familiar environment from a fresh point of
view. The players become tourists in their own town as they start perceiv-
ing the world in a different way. Often the players are encouraged to visit
places they would never venture into on their own, and to have a different
type of agency and empowerment in the cityscape; they are trained to
look for openings, entrances and exits.
These types of games often draw on urban exploration and other
public space movements, but they can also be used to re-enact and teach
history. The philosophy is similar to that of societal dialogue (see below),
placing larger emphasis on city space and de-emphasising the artistic or
political message these games can be about teaching or entertainment.
Games that have used this philosophy have included the Prosopopeia
series (looking behind the scenes of a city) and The White Road (hitch-
hiking and roads).
Supported by: Design strategies that emphasise alien experiences
in everyday life, e.g. Linked Tasks, Coordinated Social Networks,
Extremely Long Duration, Onion Model of Participation, Reality
as a Sourcebook, Social Playground, Pronoia and Exploration,
Unfamiliar Surroundings, Urban Exploration, Emergent Play.
Conflicts with: Design strategies that separate game space from
real space, e.g. Scene-to-Scene Play, Ludic Markers.

Doing things for real

Doing things for real is entertaining, fun and insightful. Many larps look
for visceral, tangible experiences as their central source of pleasure. In a
traditional fantasy larp physical experience is created by simulated combat
and playing outdoors in wilderness. Hamlet served players with extrav-
agant banquets; Carolus Rex was played in a real submarine to create a
holistic 360 illusion of being there.

201 | Montola, Stenros & Waern

 Whether it means crawling through tunnels in urban exploration
style, talking with homeless people, conducting realistic crime-scene
investigation with floating condoms in the toilet or trashing cars with
jackhammers, doing things for real creates a pleasurable sense of physical
immersion.
Supported by: Design strategies that emphasise physical and
social activity in real or realistic settings, e.g. Indexical Propping,
Sensory Pleasure, Reality as a Sourcebook, Social Playground,
Pronoia and Exploration, Unfamiliar Surroundings, Urban
Exploration, Play as If It Was Real.
Conflicts With: Symbolic design strategies that tend to emphasize
distance from the action, for example Performative Play may con-
flict.

Merging game with life

Seamlessly merging larp and life, intertwining the players ordinary lives
with content created for the game, can lead to deeply engaging pervasive
larp. In pervasive larps this has mostly been explored in the Prosopopeia
series.
Merging game and life creates a hardcore game experience. When
playing the game, players are toying with their real lives. If the concept
of the game is play yourselves but you are all highlanders, like in the
movie Highlander, you may have to be prepared to fight a deadly duel
at any time.3 These games cannot easily hide from bystanders: if another 3 While at first it would appear
that merging life and play is only
highlander attacks you in broad daylight, the hiding phase of the game is
relevant for larp, tabletop role-
over. players have produced similar
In a game that merges game and life, it is crucial that all the con- experiences as well: For example
players might play a tabletop
structed parts of the game seem natural. If the scenography, the support- role-playing game, appearing
ing characters and the props are not authentic, the players will detect (and as themselves in the diegetic
world.
sometimes get irritated by) the seam between the ordinary and the ludic
dimension. Subscribing to this philosophy constrains the game fiction.

Philosophies and strategies of pervasive larp design | 202

 Supported by: Design strategies that strive to blur the border
between game and life, e.g. Extremely Long Duration, Double
Life Roletaking, Indexical Propping, Sensory Pleasure, Reality as
a Sourcebook, Social Playground, Pronoia and Exploration and
Play as If It Was Real.
Conflicts With: Design strategies that separate play from life e.g.
Scene-to-Scene Play, Ludic Markers, Performative Play.

Societal dialogue
Some pervasive larps seek to engage in active dialogue with their social
environment. The purpose of such dialogue can be politically or artisti-
cally motivated. These games have a message that is aimed either at the
players, at bystanders, or society as a whole.
Larp is an involving and participatory form that allows players to
experience the message of the game. In traditional larp the dialogue with
society is created through the discussion generated by the game. In perva-
sive games the characters can engage the surrounding world, and bystand-
ers can have direct access to the game.
Recently, the politically aware larps have discussed issues such as
societal inequality (System Danmarc 2, Europa), gender (Mellan himmel
och hav, Ringblomman), recent history (Ground Zero, 1942 Noen stole
p) and societal control (PanoptiCorp, .laitos, Momentum).
Supported by: Design strategies that emphasise social interac-
tion with the real world, e.g. Extremely Long Duration, Reality
as a Sourcebook, Social Playground, Emergent Play, Performative
Play.
Conflicts with: Design strategies that hide the game such as
Outsiders as Obstacles

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Strategies supporting the design
philosophies
In this section, we will look at a palette of more detailed design strate-
gies that can be used to produce pervasive larps. The strategies have been
divided into four groups: structure, play attitude, ludic environment and
ordinary environment. This does not mean that a designer must choose
one strategy from each group many in the same group work very well
together. It is probably also possible for an inventive designer to combine
those which are seemingly incompatible.

Structural strategies
First, we will look into the strategies addressing structural issues of perva-
sive larps. These strategies illustrate how players are divided into groups,
how they work through the plot and how the game is paced.

Linked tasks
Linking tasks means that players must have succeeded with one task
before they can address another one. In linked collaborative tasks the
whole becomes larger than the sum of its parts.
In Momentum, a group of players were provided with mathemati-
cal data that could be used to triangulate coordinates of a hidden stash
of game props. However, because the players did their math wrong, they
ended up searching in vain in the wrong neighbourhood in Stockholm
on a rainy October night. A boring math exercise of decryption and tri-
angulation is given relevance and context, but at the same time the task
of searching for the hidden stash is enhanced by the successful triangula-
tion, as it creates a sense of accomplishment.
Yet if the game includes tasks or puzzles entailing a possibility of
failure, it is important to communicate this eventuality as well as the
actual failure, to the players in a concrete way. It is important to design

Philosophies and strategies of pervasive larp design | 204

 the result of failure as well, and not only what will happen when the play-
ers succeed.
In the Momentum example there was a twofold price for failing: The
player group lost time due to their error, and the long night wandering
in the wrong area created a strong experience of failure. In Momentum,
which strived for a feeling of playing for real, this added to the experi-
ence of realness. In a less realistic game, this would probably have been a
very unsatisfying experience.
A failure should not entirely stop the games progression, but at the
same time it must mean something to allow the players to realize that
their actions actually do have effects. Furthermore, linked tasks should be
related to each other. The triangulation task would not have been a linked
task had it been followed by a completely unrelated decryption task. The
interrelated and interdependent subtasks contribute to the feeling of tan-
gibility.

Coordinated social networks

Pervasive role-players seem to greatly enjoy the feeling of being a part of
a large network of players. Since an individual player has a very limited
view of the game, it is quite easy to create an illusion of a large network of
players. A powerful tool to arrange this is to coordinate the game commu-
nity with other social networks. For instance, when the player of a petty
criminal realizes that both her victims and pursuers are actually played by
other players, the illusion deepens, but when she realizes that there is also
a game-related wedding party going on that she has no role in at all, the
game world becomes all-encompassing. The player understands that she
does not know just how large the game really is.
Talvitie (2006, 2007) discusses methods of constructing social
networks in games. The background philosophy of his approach is based
mainly on information flow: If some characters throw a party while others
play vampires at that party, the asymmetric information makes dangers
and opportunities of vampirism very tangible. Killing a character with an
actual played history is a deeper experience than preying on a non-player

205 | Montola, Stenros & Waern

character created to be killed. Through controlling the flow of informa-
tion and social dynamics in a game, it is possible to design the ways in
which players perceive the game and the environment around them.
In Prosopopeia games the players were basically in one big group, and
the illusion of a bigger social environment was created though game mas-
ter characters, informed outsiders and NPC characters accessible through
emails and chats. (The mediated communication made it easy to hide
the fact that the various non-player characters were played by one person
on one computer.) However, Momentum split up the group, by assigning
four simultaneous tasks to the 30 players. Each task had to be accom-
plished successfully in order for the whole group to achieve their goal. The
beauty of this example is in the way actual and illusionary networks were
combined. Through splitting the players into smaller group, the players
received a tangible impression of the game taking place in many places
simultaneously.

Scene-to-Scene play
Pervasive larps, or larps in general, do not have to be continuous. Though
this is not common practice, there have been a number of games where
the action is broken down into shorter scenes that are staged at different
places or times. This brings larp closer to theatre, as each scene is much
shorter than an ordinary larp. Scene-to-scene play can enable high inten-
sity playing, with continuous emotional and physical engagement by the
players.
There are two ways of creating scene-to-scene play: continuous and
interrupted. In continuous mode the players never go off-game, but trav-
el from one place to another to stage the scenes at suitable places. Most
pervasive larps that take advantage of the city actually use this mode
the game is in the background when active play is not taking place.
Examples of this kind of playing include many Finnish city games such
as Neonhmr, Pimeyden maailma, Rikos kannattaa and Ghost Express.
In interrupted mode the playing stops between scenes and the players are
not in character as they move from setting to setting. This also enables

Philosophies and strategies of pervasive larp design | 206

 breaking up the temporal structure of the game. Games that borrow ele-
ments from freeform role-play can use these methods; one such game was
En stilla middag med familjen.
The essential aspect of scene-to-scene play is that the players must
be willing to adhere to the plot. These games are heavily game-mastered
and if the players do not play along, the game collapses.

Extremely long duration

Typically, the shortest larps run for one evening, while long games need a
weekend or a week to be played out in full. With pervasive games, there
has been experimentation with very long larps, games than run for months
and possibly indefinitely. Temporally expanded role-playing is appealing,
as it can create a strong illusion of reality.
The most significant issue pertaining to extremely long durations is
that players need to be able to fit the game together with their ordinary
lives. They need to manage to navigate somewhat easily between the game
and the ordinary. Depending on the double life strategy chosen, outsiders
and family members may become a central part of the game.
Another difficulty entailed by this strategy is the huge effort
required. The game masters need to produce a lot of content and prepare
to be actively involved in game mastering for long periods. If the players
feel that they could have received the same game experience in a shorter
time, their motivation to play will decrease. The players also need to invest
a lot of effort, time and money to participate in the game. Player invest-
ment in general is a challenge the game needs to be interesting enough
for players to sacrifice such a large part of their life to it. Finally, the game
masters if they are running the game in real time need to be on call
almost around the clock. The workforce required to do that, not to men-
tion the information system that ensures that whoever is on duty knows
all plot threads, requires a lot of dedication.
A practical approach is to segment long duration larps into high and
low intensity periods. If participants know that weekends are the most
active times and that nothing much happens on Wednesdays, they can

207 | Montola, Stenros & Waern

plan their time use, both in order to avoid stress and in order to be pres-
ent when the interesting stuff happens. The most common long-duration
larps are campaigns with set game days when playing is intensive, with far
less intensive play between games.
If the game is played between prepared larp sessions, the social net-
working sites of the internet can turn out to be very valuable: Neonhmr
for instance utilizes Facebook as a valuable communication tool, both
between characters and between players.

Double life roletaking

When a game merges with life or goes on for a long time, there is a risk of
the game world getting in conflict with the real world. This conflict needs
to be mitigated in order both to maintain the enjoyability of the game and
to not interfere excessively with ordinary life.
Double life means that while on a surface level players seem ordi-
nary (perhaps they are even playing themselves in a fictional context) but
they have a secret identity. For instance, a spy game could start with an
email from a (fictional) intelligence agency that recruits the player as an
agent. This way, the player becomes a character in the diegesis of the game.
In Killer the player is also the character.
Prosopopeia-series used a Possession Model to create double lives. In
these games, the players played themselves believing that it is possible to
be possessed by ghosts, and they also played a ghost possessing them. The
diegetic duplicate characters were possessed by ghosts of the long-dead
people. This allowed the game to hide while still merging game with life:
When a player went to work, she could just suppress the spirit for the time
being. When the player focused on playing, the possessing spirit gave her
goals, motivations and character to be role-played.
Many pervasive larps are played with vampire characters, as inspired
by White Wolfs World of Darkness. Contrary to the first impression, these
characters are always based on a very different philosophy: If your diegetic
duplicate is turned into a vampire, the change restricts your everyday life

Philosophies and strategies of pervasive larp design | 208

 so much that the benefits of the double lives are lost. Especially a lethal
allergy to sunlight makes hiding in plain sight very difficult.

Onion model of participation

Larp is a demanding form of play and expression, involving and initiating
new players in challenges. The onion model of participation is one solu-
tion to the problem: In this structure the pervasive larp is surrounded by
games and mass media offering other less demanding play modes. (See
Dena 2008a, 2008b for tiered participation in alternate reality games.)
For instance, the outer layer of Sanningen om Marika was a televi-
sion series shown nationally in Sweden. A small fraction of the viewers
also participated in an alternate reality game played on the Internet, and a
tiny cluster of alternate reality gamers participated in larp-like live events.
The model allows the organizers to stage real world events with a
manageable number of participants while still offering content to a much
larger audience., This is possible especially since some of the online con-
tent can be recordings and recounts of the live events. Another advantage
is that the model allows participants to choose their own level of involve-
ment and mode of participation.

Ludic environment strategies

The strategies relating to ludic environment explicate design approaches to
the diegetic game world. How is this world built? What is the driving idea
behind it? As these games take place in the vast ordinary world, the game
world often consists of ludic bubbles spread in the environment bubbles
that require constant engagement and maintenance work.

Ludic markers
One of the central decisions of a pervasive larp is whether to use ludic
markers or not, and which ones to use. Ludic markers are symbols that
explicitly denote some object, person or place as a part of the game.

209 | Montola, Stenros & Waern

 Rikos kannattaa required all players to constantly show a badge and
all the Neonhmr players have to use white armbands, making sure that
players would always be able to distinguish between players and outsiders.
Symbols can be also used to designate certain areas as particular gaming
zones: While players of a typical street larp can venture to any restau-
rant to have lunch, they should be considerate of other people in public
and semi-public places. Many players would not even want to play in an
overtly extrovert manner in a space where that is frowned upon; it may be
thought of as embarrassing or inconsiderate. Therefore, symbols are often
used to designate secluded or more permissive areas as game zones, spaces
where characters can more liberally act out scenes that would attract atten-
tion in other public places. Often these areas are secluded, but in large cit-
ies there are also squares, parks or marketplaces where social attitudes are
more permissive. These are the typical areas for street artists, beggars, and
people handing out flyers. Adding a few pervasive players into the mix
will not surprise or shock anyone.
Carefully placed symbols can also serve as game clues. If players are
supposed to break down a door, ludic markers can be used to guide them
to the right door. It is usually advisable to design the markers in a way
that fits the games theme and content.
The main danger entailed in ludic markers is careless use. Game
masters should be extremely careful to remove unnecessary markers and
to not put them into inappropriate places. If players erroneously believe
that a place or a person belongs to the game, they are likely to take liber-
ties in their behaviour. If players think that game masters expect them
to break down a door and this door is marked, they probably will do so.
Badly designed ludic markers will also break the illusion of a game world.
The off-game rune of Swedish larps fits well into a fantasy setting, but is
less appropriate in a modern agent story.

Philosophies and strategies of pervasive larp design | 210

 Indexical propping
An indexical prop is a game object that represents itself in the diegesis
(Montola & Jonsson 2006). In some game settings, a plastic gun can be
a symbol for a robbery, or an iconic representation of a real gun. In an
indexically propped larp, a plastic gun represents a plastic gun.
If indexicality goes far enough in both props and scenography, this
creates an aesthetics where everything feels like a prop and thus nothing is
really considered a prop. A great advantage of this method is that it allows
players to solve puzzles and tackle other challenges in a real and tangible
way. Players can freely toy with anything they encounter.
In games that merge life and play, indexicality can go even fur-
ther. Even though in a regular urban larp a jacket may signify another
specimen of a perfectly identical jacket, in Prosopopeia the jacket signified
exactly the same jacket owned by the exact same person: The indexicality
included the social and historical context of the prop.

Sensory pleasure
Computer and console games have long strived to produce maximal
audiovisual enjoyment for players. Pervasive games should not forget this
strategy a pervasive larp can expand sensory pleasure to all five senses.
Sensory enjoyment comes in many shapes and sizes, ranging from a good
dinner to a moonlit lake and beyond. Creating sensory pleasures requires
considerable effort and resources, but it significantly enhances the experi-
ence.
One way to achieve sensory pleasure is creating an overall aesthet-
ics for the game. This would mean that locations would be chosen with
the aesthetic value in mind, and all props, scenographed locations and
character costumes would have to be designed so that they reflect a coher-
ent aesthetics. If this approach is used, it is important to design also all
marketing material such as the game website so that it introduces
the theme to the players. It should be remembered that emphasizing a
genre might conflict with a realistic playing style; if everything looks and

211 | Montola, Stenros & Waern

feels like 1980s cyberpunk, then the players are prone to act in a manner
stipulated by stereotypical cyberpunk fiction.
Depending on the design philosophy, unpleasant experiences can
also be utilized. Finding a game artefact from an actual junkyard or walk-
ing through the town in a rainstorm can be enjoyable, though physically
unpleasant experiences.
Sensory pleasure is a good choice especially to larpwrights creat-
ing events for less experienced players. An inviting aesthetic can soften
the otherwise possibly stressful experience, and coax hesitant players into
play.

Reality as a sourcebook
Pervasive games can use the environment they are set in as an endless
source of game content. A clever design allows players to use reality as the
all-encompassing sourcebook for the game world, inviting them to spend
time poring over books in a library or navigating numerous websites.
Especially pervasive puzzle games often use reality in this way. Players
might need to learn Morse or read up on local history in order to solve a
riddle.
One approach is to use historic sources on myths, fables and super-
stitions and make these come true in the real world. For instance, in the
world of Momentum, Enochian occultism was real. The game masters had
read up on the subject and included pointers to that material in the game,
effectively introducing a vast resource for constructing very hard puzzles
for the players.
When the internet reality is used as a sourcebook, it can also quite
easily be extended by means of fabricated content. It is relatively easy to
clone and alter an entire website. A game that relies on both fabricated
and real world information blurs the line between diegetic and authentic
content which can be a powerful experience for the players.

Philosophies and strategies of pervasive larp design | 212

 Runtime game mastering
Runtime game mastering is the process of influencing the flow of a game
4 Runtime game mastering is in real time.4 Most larps are game mastered to a greater extent. In perva-
also known as puppet mastering sive larp, game masters need to use a sensory system to acquire information
in the alternate reality game
culture (see McGonigal 2006b). about the state of the game; an actuation system, to change the state of the
game; and a decision-making system, to determine the preferred changes.
This can sometimes be done in a very simple way by a game master who
participates in the larp as one of the characters. In classic tabletop role-
playing games, all three functions are embodied in one person, while per-
vasive larps often require technological tools.
In Isle of Saints the players were expected to independently report
their activities (extradiegetically) to game masters with cellular phones,
both revealing their plans and describing the past events. As self-report-
5 Jonsson & al 2007b provide a full ing can distract the game experience, Momentum5 selected four players as
description of Momentum game
undercover controllers who acted as spies for the game masters and actuat-
mastering. See also Jonsson and
Waern 2008 ed changes by secretly guiding the players. In general, having informants
in the player group often proves very useful, as it is very difficult to under-
stand a larp situation through sensory equipment only.
Surveillance technology can be somewhat useful for game master-
ing. Hidden microphones can provide accurate information on the game,
if the microphones can tap into crucial player discussions. Video feeds are
less useful, as they mainly reveal which players are in a certain location or
when a player arrives or departs. The use of surveillance technology is of
course legally regulated.
Online play is an immensely valuable way to create both sensing
and actuation. Momentum used several online characters played by the
game masters, who maintained several simultaneous discussions with
players via instant messaging, chats and emails. The players never knew
who played these characters, nor that they sometimes were even played by
the same person.

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Ordinary environment strategies
A pervasive larp can take very different attitudes towards the public space
around it. The relationship between the game and the city is one of the
most definitive aspects of pervasive larp design. The everyday environment
that envelopes the play can be approached as a background, a playground,
a feedback machine, and as an obstacle.

Social playground
Larps that treat their environment as a social playground take an active
stance towards bystanders. These games encourage, even require players to
speak with outsiders, playing on the conflict between the diegetic world
view of the player and the everyday view of the outsiders.
Players can be gently coaxed into interacting with outsiders in sever-
al ways. The game masters may plant instructed players among a crowd of
non-players, or leave important information with real outsiders. The player
character can also inspire players to interact with outsiders: for instance, a
detective character might ask people near a murder site whether they saw
something strange an hour ago, or an animal-rights activist could engage
in a provocative discussion with a bystander wearing a fur coat.
While on the one hand it can be stressful, social play with out-
siders can reward the player with feelings of fun and insight about the
social conventions. Playing the part of a vampire or a madman may serve
as an alibi for social experimentation and breaking of conventions. Jane
McGonigal (2006a) states that if people are given specific instructions to
act in a certain way in public environment, they will surprise themselves
with their own daring and ingenuity, and also find that the environment
is surprisingly receptive to these advances. Games offer the possibility to
commit the forbidden actions one wants, while still granting immunity
against it as its not real (Poremba 2007). Socially expanded role-play-
ing can provide empowerment to act against social constraints. The social
playground approach is an especially valuable tool for a designer wishing
to use game as a political or artistic device

Philosophies and strategies of pervasive larp design | 214

 Pronoia and exploration
Games where players can never be certain about who is part of the game
and who is not, and where the game actively engages players wherever
they go, create a sense of positive paranoia, called pronoia (McGonigal
2006c). It is the feeling that the universe is plotting behind your back to
make your life/game better for you.
When players understand that their game is situated in the social,
historical and physical context of a real, living urban environment, they
seem to love exploring both content and context to the fullest, curiously
disregarding boundaries to find how far they can push and still find rec-
ognizable parts of the game. The exploration fun lies in the feeling that
the entire world is part of the play and wherever the player goes, more
content turns up.
The totality of the surrounding world needs to be demonstrated in
order to create a good illusion. As Koljonen (2007) points out, a plausible
universe should deliver surprises: To make the player accept the border of
the game as something else than the border of the fiction, it is the duty of
the truly illusionist game master to demonstrate that characters, plots and
information could, and sometimes will, cross them. Pronoia emerges as
players start seeing the game everywhere.

Unfamiliar surroundings
People have clear ideas about what is the correct kind of behaviour in a
certain public space. Breaking these societal norms can be difficult for
many people. If the game design is supposed to support transgressions, it
helps if players are placed in unfamiliar surroundings (with people they
trust, see ensemble building). A player is more prone to act in a weird way
in a city that she is not familiar with and, more importantly, where the
bystanders are not familiar with her. Large cities provide a certain ano-
nymity, and that anonymity awards a wider range of agency.
It is also possible to use the unfamiliar surroundings as a starting
point; to stage a game in a strange setting, creating the conventions and
style of play there, and then move the game to an area that players are

215 | Montola, Stenros & Waern

more familiar with. In this way, players would be disposed to routines
that they would never have established in the familiar settings.

Urban exploration
Urban exploration as a term covers all the activities where participants
examine the normally unseen parts of human civilization. This activ-
ity usually takes the form of infiltrating abandoned structures, off-limits
areas, catacombs, sewers and other tunnel systems. The customary rule is
to take nothing but pictures, leave nothing but footprints (Ninjalicious
2005). Urban exploration and pervasive larp can easily be combined. The
thrill of going to places that usually are unseen is transferred to the game.
Urban Exploration is far from safe; visiting many of these places is
either illegal, dangerous, or both. Minor bruising is a possible consequence
in almost all interesting environments, whereas major hazards include a
risk of falling from high places or getting exposed to chemicals in sew-
ers. Consulting guide books (e.g. Ninjalicious 2005), experts, and local
authorities is advised. Players need to know what they are signing up for
and they need to be properly equipped and prepared they should have
double flashlights, gloves and clothes that stand wear and tear. A compass
may come in handy in tunnels.

Emergent play
Emergent play happens when players take the game to unexpected and
unplanned directions. In tabletop role-playing games and non-pervasive
larps, emergent play happens only on the players initiative. In pervasive
games, on the contrary, environment and non-players drive emergence.
From the game masters perspective, while emergence is a free
and inexhaustible source of game content, it also needs to be designed.
The designer can try to either curb or encourage emergence by driving
the players to think and act outside the box, or by trying to contain the
game as much as possible (in Rikos kannattaa the players were forbidden
from disrupting non-players and thus had limited interaction with them).
Especially social play with non-players seems to display considerable

Philosophies and strategies of pervasive larp design | 216

 authenticity and realness, and many players have considered it highly plea-
surable and thrilling (e.g. Montola & Jonsson 2006, McGonigal 2003).

Play attitude strategies

Equally important as the approach to the city is the attitude adopted by
players towards themselves and towards bystanders. Players can see
themselves as performers, simulators or just players, and the non-players
can be regarded as an audience, an obstacle or as co-creators.

Play as if it was real

Playing the game as if it was real is both an instruction to players and
a serious consideration for game masters. The gist of the strategy is that
the larp is not a Hollywood action movie but a down-to-earth event: As
the players have (probably) never been engaged in a car chase or a shoot-
out, the characters probably would not do so either not diegetically, and
especially not physically.
This strategy works well together with indexical propping. Its main
drawbacks are the heavy constraints to game fiction and the limits it plac-
es on performative character play. In art, realism is just another aesthetic
choice. In a film noir setting, it might make sense to beat up a bartender
to get him to snitch about someone you suspect to be a spy, but a game
may crave a realism that is often out of the question. If the game wants
to incorporate elements from genre fiction, surrealism, absurdism or any
other unrealistic style, it must be done with care.

Performative play
Many pervasive games incorporate performative play, playing for an audi-
ence, e.g. in a fashion explored by street theatre and invisible theatre (see
Boal 2002). In these games, the bystanders are not unaware players but just
spectators. Performative play ranges from zombie walks and flash mobs
to invisible theatre and games like Pac-Manhattan. There are times when
pervasive role-playing games also adopt a more performative attitude, by

217 | Montola, Stenros & Waern

having the characters perform. In Momentum the players conducted elab-
orate and theatrical rituals as well as a fully fledged demonstration, which
bystanders could witness.
Turning the whole game into a performance (or an installation),
instead of simply treating a single player as a performer, is also possible.
Amerika and System Danmarc 2 are examples of games that also were
art pieces staged in public in Oslo and Copenhagen. The trick here is to
assign a clear role to the spectators so that the players can relate to them.
Experiences of staging a larp in public while just telling the players to
ignore spectators have not been encouraging.

Outsiders as obstacles
Using outsiders as obstacles is one of the most basic strategies in street
larp. It fits well into fictional contexts featuring agents, supernatural ele-
ments, spies, and so on. The basic idea is that such characters want to stay
hidden in urban areas. Cold war agents would not start a shootout in
broad daylight even if it was important for national security.
There are two ways of using this strategy. The soft way is used in
Killer assassination games. If a player commits a murder with outsider
presence, she is punished by the referees. The latter might form a detective
squad and try to arrest the player.
The hard way is to create a game rule that absolutely forbids being
seen by witnesses. If this rule is still broken accidents do happen the
sanctions can be diegetic or extradiegetic. In Vampire larps, revealing
ones presence to mortals is punishable by death in game, and it is often
also considered bad playing by other players.
In order to enforce this strategy, game masters need a way of obtain-
ing information about transgressions. Most of the time, game masters can
trust larpers to provide such information themselves.

Philosophies and strategies of pervasive larp design | 218

 Ensemble construction
Playing in public requires more courage than playing in private. It is also
easier to slip out of the game when faced with the numerous distraction of
a busy street than in an area specifically reserved for playing. Turning the
players into an ensemble where they trust each other and actively support
each others play is a common strategy which encourages more liberated
play.
One way to create an ensemble is to let the players meet in advance,
e.g. in a series of pre-game workshops. In addition to having the function
of introducing the players to each other, to the diegetic world and rules
of the game, these meetings include trust exercises, discussions, shared
character building exercises, etc. Playing a game together always creates a
secret society of players (Huizinga 1938).
Ensemble construction techniques may conflict slightly with coor-
dinated social network strategies, since trust and familiarity are cen-
tral building blocks of a good ensemble. Many social network strategies
exploit the fact that players have a very limited perspective on the game:
Organizing ensemble construction workshops before the game would
reveal such secrets to all participants.

Conclusion
Pervasive larp is a diverse and powerful form of expression that can be
used for various purposes, ranging from entertainment to artistic expres-
sion and from education to societal exploration. A large repertoire of
design patterns has been used in such games, allowing a wide variety of
different games to be created. We have here presented several design phi-
losophies of larps that treat their environment in several ways, ranging
from indifferent (City as a Backdrop) and secretive (Hiding in Cityscape),
to embracing (Doing Things for Real) and involving (Societal Dialogue).
We can even argue that there is a certain philosophical progression detect-
able in the design philosophies from City as Backdrop and Hiding in

219 | Montola, Stenros & Waern

Cityscape towards Societal Dialogue: The larp communities wanting to
proceed toward the rarer forms of pervasive larps need to both learn new
strategies and to unlearn others.

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