IDSA Meningitis

IDSA GUIDELINES
Practice Guidelines for the Management

of Bacterial Meningitis
Allan R. Tunkel,1 Barry J. Hartman,2 Sheldon L. Kaplan,3 Bruce A. Kaufman,4 Karen L. Roos,5 W. Michael Scheld,6
and Richard J. Whitley7
1
Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania; 2Weill Cornell Medical Center, New York, New York; 3Baylor College of
Medicine, Houston, Texas; 4Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee; 5Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis; 6University of Virginia
School of Medicine, Charlottesville; and 7University of Alabama at Birmingham
Downloaded from http://cid.oxfordjournals.org/ at IDSA member on November 23, 2015

OBJECTIVES In this guideline, we will review our recommenda-
tions for the diagnosis and management of bacterial
The objective of these practice guidelines is to provide
meningitis. Recommendation categories are shown in
clinicians with recommendations for the diagnosis and
table 1. The guideline represents data published through
treatment of bacterial meningitis. Patients with bacterial
May 2004.
meningitis are usually treated by primary care and
emergency medicine physicians at the time of initial
INITIAL MANAGEMENT APPROACH
presentation, often in consultation with infectious dis-
eases specialists, neurologists, and neurosurgeons. In The initial treatment approach to the patient with sus-
contrast to many other infectious diseases, the anti- pected acute bacterial meningitis depends on early rec-
microbial therapy for bacterial meningitis is not always ognition of the meningitis syndrome, rapid diagnostic
based on randomized, prospective, double-blind clin- evaluation, and emergent antimicrobial and adjunctive
ical trials, but rather on data initially obtained from therapy [1]. Our management algorithm for infants and
experimental animal models of infections. A model children is shown in figure 1, and that for adults is
commonly utilized is the experimental rabbit model, shown in figure 2. Once there is suspicion of acute
in which animals are anesthetized and placed in a ster- bacterial meningitis, blood samples must be obtained
for culture and a lumbar puncture performed imme-
eotactic frame. In this procedure, the cisterna magna
diately to determine whether the CSF formula is con-
can be punctured for frequent sampling of CSF and
sistent with the clinical diagnosis. In some patients, the
injection of microorganisms. Frequent sampling of CSF
clinician may not emergently perform the diagnostic
permits measurement of leukocytes and chemical pa-
lumbar puncture (e.g., secondary to the inability to
rameters and quantitation of the relative penetration of
obtain CSF), even when the diagnosis of bacterial men-
antimicrobial agents into CSF and the effects of men-
ingitis is considered to be likely, or the clinician may
ingitis on this entry parameter, the relative bactericidal
be concerned that the clinical presentation is consistent
efficacy (defined as the rate of bacterial eradication) with a CNS mass lesion or another cause of increased
within purulent CSF, and CSF pharmacodynamics. Re- intracranial pressure and will thus order a CT scan of
sults obtained from these and other animal models have the head prior to lumbar puncture. In those patients
led to clinical trials of specific agents in patients with in whom lumbar puncture is delayed or a CT scan is
bacterial meningitis. performed, however, there may be a significant interval
between establishing the diagnosis of bacterial men-
ingitis and initiating appropriate therapy. In these pa-
Received 20 August 2004; accepted 25 August 2004; electronically published
6 October 2004.
tients, blood samples must be obtained for culture and
Reprints or correspondence: Dr. Allan R. Tunkel, Drexel University College of appropriate antimicrobial and adjunctive therapy given
Medicine, 2900 Queen Lane, Philadelphia, PA 19129 (allan.tunkel@drexel.edu).
prior to lumbar puncture or before the patient is sent
Clinical Infectious Diseases 2004; 39:126784
2004 by the Infectious Diseases Society of America. All rights reserved.
for CT. Delay in the initiation of therapy introduces
1058-4838/2004/3909-0001$15.00 the potential for increased morbidity and mortality, if
Practice Guidelines for Bacterial Meningitis CID 2004:39 (1 November) 1267

Table 1. Infectious Diseases Society of AmericaUnited States Public Health Service Grading System for ranking rec-
ommendations in clinical guidelines.
Category, grade Definition

Strength of recommendation
A Good evidence to support a recommendation for use; should always be offered
B Moderate evidence to support a recommendation for use; should generally be offered
C Poor evidence to support a recommendation; optional
D Moderate evidence to support a recommendation against use; should generally not be offered
E Good evidence to support a recommendation against use; should never be offered
Quality of evidence
I Evidence from 1 properly randomized, controlled trial
II Evidence from 1 well-designed clinical trial, without randomization; from cohort or case-
controlled analytic studies (preferably from 11 center); from multiple time-series; or from
dramatic results from uncontrolled experiments
III Evidence from opinions of respected authorities, based on clinical experience, descriptive
studies, or reports of expert committees

the patient does indeed have acute bacterial meningitis. The Which Patients with Suspected Bacterial Meningitis Should
choice of empirical antimicrobial therapy in this situation Undergo CT of the Head prior to Lumbar Puncture?
should be governed by the patients age and by various con- Complications associated with lumbar puncture are variable,
ditions that may have predisposed the patient to meningitis. ranging from mild alterations in comfort to life-threatening
Although the yield of CSF cultures and CSF Gram stain may brain herniation, which may occur in the patient with elevated
be diminished by antimicrobial therapy given prior to lumbar intracranial pressure [2, 3]. After lumbar puncture, there is
puncture, pretreatment blood cultures and CSF findings (i.e., normally a mild, transient lowering of lumbar CSF pressure as
elevated WBC count, diminished glucose concentration, and a result of removal of CSF and continued leakage of CSF from
elevated protein concentration) will likely provide evidence for the opening made in the arachnoid membrane that is rapidly
or against the diagnosis of bacterial meningitis (see What Spe- communicated throughout the subarachnoid space. In patients
cific CSF Diagnostic Tests Should Be Used to Determine the with intracranial, space-occupying lesions, there is a relative
Bacterial Etiology of Meningitis?, below). Once CSF analysis is pressure gradient with downward displacement of the cerebrum
performed, for patients with a positive CSF Gram stain result, and brainstem that can be increased by lumbar puncture,
thereby precipitating brain herniation. The incidence of this
targeted antimicrobial therapy can be initiated in adults with
complication is unknown. In an older study that examined the
bacterial meningitis. In children 11 month of age with bacterial
outcome of lumbar puncture in 129 patients with elevated in-
meningitis, however, empirical antimicrobial therapy with van-
tracranial pressure, 1.2% of patients with papilledema and 12%
comycin combined with either cefotaxime or ceftriaxone can
of patients without papilledema had unfavorable outcomes
be provided pending culture results; this recommendation is
within 48 h after the procedure [4]. When these data were
based on the concern that interpretation of the CSF Gram stain
combined with a review of 418 patients with papilledema, the
depends on the expertise of the person reading the slide; some
authors concluded that the actual risk of serious complications
experts would also use this strategy in adults with bacterial from lumbar puncture in the presence of papilledema was
meningitis. However, a positive CSF Gram stain result may much less than 1.2%. Two other studies suggested that an
modify this approach by the addition of another agent (e.g., incidence of brain herniation was 11%. In addition, another
ampicillin for the presence of gram-positive bacilli) to these 2 study of 302 infants and children with bacterial meningitis
standard drugs. If the Gram stain result is negative, empirical found that brain herniation developed in 6% of patients [5],
antimicrobial therapy is given, with choices of agents based on occurring within 8 h after lumbar puncture in all patients.
the patient age and certain predisposing conditions. In a recent study involving 301 adults with bacterial men-
The following sections will review in greater detail the evi- ingitis [6], the clinical features at baseline that were associated
dence for our recommendations in these algorithms. The ev- with abnormal findings of a CT scan of the head were an age
idence for these recommendations is framed in the context of of 60 years, a history of CNS disease (e.g., mass lesion, stroke,
specific questions that should be addressed in the patient with and focal infection), an immunocompromised state (e.g., that
suspected or proven bacterial meningitis. due to HIV infection or AIDS, immunosuppressive therapy, or
1268 CID 2004:39 (1 November) Tunkel et al.

Figure 1. Management algorithm for infants and children with suspected bacterial meningitis. Stat indicates that the intervention should be
done emergently. C/W, consistent with. aIncludes those associated with CSF shunts, hydrocephalus, or trauma, those occurring after neurosurgery, or
various space-occupying lesions. bPalsy of cranial nerve VI or VII is not an indication to delay lumbar puncture. cSee text for recommendations for
use of adjunctive dexamethasone in infants and children with bacterial meningitis. dSee table 4. eDexamethasone and antimicrobial therapy should
be administered immediately after CSF is obtained.
transplantation), a history of seizure 1 week before presen- What Specific CSF Diagnostic Tests Should Be Used
tation, and certain specific abnormal neurologic findings (e.g., to Determine the Bacterial Etiology of Meningitis?
an abnormal level of consciousness, an inability to answer 2 The diagnosis of bacterial meningitis rests on CSF examination
consecutive questions correctly or to follow 2 consecutive com- performed after lumbar puncture [1, 7]. Opening pressure is
mands, gaze palsy, abnormal visual fields, facial palsy, arm drift, generally in the range of 200500 mm H2O, although values
leg drift, abnormal language). None of these features was pre- may be lower in neonates, infants, and children with acute
sent at baseline in 96 of the 235 patients who underwent CT; bacterial meningitis. The CSF appearance may be cloudy, de-
the CT scan findings were normal in 93 of these patients, yield- pending on the presence of significant concentrations of WBCs,
ing a negative predictive value of 97%. Of the 3 remaining RBCs, bacteria, and/or protein. In untreated bacterial menin-
patients, only 1 had mild mass effect on CT, and all 3 underwent gitis, the WBC count is elevated, usually in the range of 1000
lumbar puncture with no evidence of brain herniation. These 5000 cells/mm3, although this range can be quite broad (!100
findings need to be validated in different populations of patients to 110,000 cells/mm3). Bacterial meningitis usually leads to a
suspected of having meningitis. On the basis of these findings, neutrophil predominance in CSF, typically between 80% and
specific guidelines are recommended for adult patients who 95%; 10% of patients with acute bacterial meningitis present
should undergo CT before lumbar puncture (table 2) (B-II). with a lymphocyte predominance (defined as 150% lympho-
In addition, some authorities would delay lumbar puncture for cytes or monocytes) in CSF. The CSF glucose concentration is
30 min in patients with short, convulsive seizures or would not !40 mg/dL in approximately 50%60% of patients; a ratio of
perform the lumbar puncture at all in those with prolonged CSF to serum glucose of 0.4 was 80% sensitive and 98%
seizure, because the seizure may be associated with transient specific for the diagnosis of bacterial meningitis in children 12
increases in intracranial pressure. This is not the practice for months of age. Because the ratio of CSF to serum glucose is
children, however, because seizures occur in up to 30% of higher in term neonates, a ratio of 0.6 is considered to be
children with bacterial meningitis before admission. abnormal in this patient group. The CSF protein concentration

Figure 2. Management algorithm for adults with suspected bacterial meningitis. Stat indicates that the intervention should be done emergently.
a
See table 2. bSee text for specific recommendations for use of adjunctive dexamethasone in adults with bacterial meningitis. cSee table 4. dSee table
3. eDexamethasone and antimicrobial therapy should be administered immediately after CSF is obtained.
is elevated in virtually all patients with bacterial meningitis. The one-third of cases of meningitis caused by Listeria monocyto-
results of CSF cultures are positive in 70%85% of patients genes have positive Gram stain results [11]. Although false-
who have not received prior antimicrobial therapy, but cultures positive CSF Gram stain results may result from observer mis-
may take up to 48 h for organism identification. Therefore, interpretation, reagent contamination, or use of an occluded
several rapid diagnostic tests should be considered to determine needle for lumbar puncture (in which an excised skin fragment
the bacterial etiology of meningitis. is contaminated with bacteria), the test is rapid, inexpensive,
Gram stain. Gram stain examination of CSF permits a and highly specific for the diagnosis of bacterial meningitis [3,
rapid, accurate identification of the causative bacterium in 12]. However, the yield of CSF Gram stain may be 20% lower
60%90% of patients with community-acquired bacterial men- for patients who have received prior antimicrobial therapy. We
ingitis, and it has a specificity of 97% [1]. The likelihood of recommend that all patients being evaluated for suspected men-
visualizing the bacterium on Gram stain, however, correlates ingitis undergo a Gram stain examination of CSF (A-III).
with the CSF concentration of bacteriaconcentrations of Latex agglutination. Several rapid diagnostic tests have
103 colony-forming units (CFU)/mL are associated with a been developed to aid in the etiologic diagnosis of bacterial
positive Gram stain result 25% of the time; 103 to 105 CFU/ meningitis. These tests utilize serum containing bacterial an-
mL yields a positive Gram stain result in 60% of patients, and tibodies or commercially available antisera directed against the
CSF concentrations of 1105 CFU/mL lead to positive micros- capsular polysaccharides of meningeal pathogens. Available
copy results in 97% of cases [8]. The probability of visualizing tests include counterimmunoelectrophoresis, coagglutination,
bacteria on a Gram stain can be increased up to 100-fold by and latex agglutination. Latex agglutination is simple to per-
using cytospin techniques [9]. The likelihood of having a pos- form, does not require special equipment, and is rapid (results
itive Gram stain result also depends on the specific bacterial are available in 15 min). Depending on the meningeal path-
pathogen causing meningitis [3, 10]: 90% of cases caused by ogen, latex agglutination has shown good sensitivity in detect-
Streptococcus pneumoniae, 86% of cases caused by Haemophilus ing the antigens of common meningeal pathogens [10]: 78%
influenzae, 75% of cases caused by Neisseria meningitidis, 50% 100% for H. influenzae type b, 67%100% for S. pneumoniae,
of cases caused by gram-negative bacilli, and approximately 69%100% for Streptococcus agalactiae, and 50%93% for N.

Table 2. Recommended criteria for adult patients with suspected bacterial meningitis who should undergo CT
prior to lumbar puncture (B-II).
Criterion Comment
Immunocompromised state HIV infection or AIDS, receiving immunosuppressive therapy, or after transplantation
History of CNS disease Mass lesion, stroke, or focal infection
New onset seizure Within 1 week of presentation; some authorities would not perform a lumbar punc-
ture on patients with prolonged seizures or would delay lumbar puncture for 30
min in patients with short, convulsive seizures
Papilledema Presence of venous pulsations suggests absence of increased intracranial pressure
Abnormal level of consciousness
Focal neurologic deficit Including dilated nonreactive pupil, abnormalities of ocular motility, abnormal visual
fields, gaze palsy, arm or leg drift
meningitidis. However, a negative bacterial antigen test result detect 103 gram-negative bacteria/mL of CSF and as little as
does not rule out infection caused by a specific meningeal 0.1 ng/mL of endotoxin. One study demonstrated a sensitivity

pathogen. of 93% and a specificity of 99.4%, compared with cultures for
Nevertheless, the routine use of latex agglutination for the gram-negative bacteria [10], although another study demon-
etiologic diagnosis of bacterial meningitis has recently been strated a sensitivity of only 71% in neonates with gram-negative
questioned. In one study of 901 CSF bacterial antigen tests meningitis [16], suggesting that the test was not sensitive
performed over a 37-month period [13], no modification of enough to serve as a screening procedure for the diagnosis of
therapy occurred in 22 of 26 patients with positive test results. gram-negative meningitis in neonates. Furthermore, this test
False-positive results, although uncommon, may occasionally does not distinguish between specific gram-negative organisms,
result in unnecessary treatment and prolonged hospitalization. a negative test result does not rule out the diagnosis of gram-
One study of 344 CSF specimens submitted for bacterial antigen negative meningitis, test results rarely influence patient treat-
assays found that 10 specimens represented true infection (by ment, and the test is not routinely available in clinical labo-
culture criteria), for a sensitivity of 70% and specificity of 99.4% ratories. Therefore, we do not recommend routine use of the
[14]; a positive CSF antigen test result did not affect clinical Limulus lysate assay for patients with meningitis (D-II).
therapy or hospital course, and there were 3 false-negative and PCR. PCR has been utilized to amplify DNA from patients
2 false-positive test results. Furthermore, in patients with cul- with meningitis caused by the common meningeal pathogens
ture-negative meningitis, CSF latex agglutination had a sen- (N. meningitidis, S. pneumoniae , H. influenzae type b, S. aga-
sitivity of only 7% in one study [15], although the denomi- lactiae, and L. monocytogenes) [1, 10]. In one study of CSF
nator included all patients with abnormal CSF findings (i.e., samples obtained from 54 patients with meningococcal disease
CSF glucose concentration of !34 mg/dL, ratio of CSF to or from patients who underwent CSF analysis and who did not
blood glucose of !0.23, CSF protein concentration of 1220 have meningococcal meningitis [17], the sensitivity and spec-
mg/dL, leukocyte count of 12000 leukocytes/mm3, or total ificity of PCR were both 91%. In another study using a sem-
neutrophil count of 11180 neutrophils/mm3). Given that bac- inested PCR strategy for simultaneous detection of N. men-
terial antigen testing does not appear to modify the decision ingitidis, H. influenzae, and streptococci in 304 clinical CSF
to administer antimicrobial therapy and that false-positive samples (including 125 samples obtained from patients with
results have been reported, the Practice Guideline Committee bacterial meningitis), the diagnostic sensitivity was 94% and
does not recommend routine use of this modality for the the specificity was 96% [18], although some false-positive re-
rapid determination of the bacterial etiology of meningitis sults were obtained. The clinical utility of PCR for the diagnosis
(D-II), although some would recommend it for patients with of bacterial meningitis was also assessed with use of a broad
a negative CSF Gram stain result (C-II). Latex agglutination range of bacterial primers. The test characteristics for broad-
may be most useful for the patient who has been pretreated based PCR demonstrated a sensitivity of 100%, a specificity of
with antimicrobial therapy and whose Gram stain and CSF 98.2%, a positive predictive value of 98.2%, and a negative
culture results are negative (B-III). predictive value of 100% [19]. Therefore, broad-based PCR may
Limulus lysate assay. Lysate prepared from the amebocyte be useful for excluding the diagnosis of bacterial meningitis,
of the horseshoe crab, Limulus polyphemus, has been suggested with the potential for influencing decisions to initiate or dis-
as a useful test for patients with suspected gram-negative men- continue antimicrobial therapy. Although PCR techniques ap-
ingitis, because a positive test result suggests the presence of pear to be promising for the etiologic diagnosis of bacterial
endotoxin in the sample [10]; a correctly performed assay can meningitis, further refinements of the available techniques may

lead to their use in patients with bacterial meningitis for whom tients, in whom the usual CSF findingselevated WBC counts
the CSF Gram stain result is negative (B-II). (total and differential), positive Gram stain results, diminished
glucose concentrations, and elevated protein concentrations
What Laboratory Testing May Be Helpful in Distinguishing are neither sensitive nor specific to reliably distinguish bacterial
Bacterial from Viral Meningitis? from a nonbacterial meningeal syndrome. Therefore, in the
In patients with CSF findings consistent with a diagnosis of postoperative neurosurgical patient, initiation of empirical an-
bacterial meningitis, but in whom the CSF Gram stain and timicrobial therapy should be considered if CSF lactate con-
culture results are negative, there is no test that is definitive for centrations are 4.0 mmol/L, pending results of additional
or against the diagnosis of bacterial meningitis. A combination studies (B-II).
of test results, however, may permit an accurate prediction of Determination of C-reactive protein (CRP) concentration.
the likelihood of bacterial versus viral meningitis. In one analy- Several acute-phase reactants have been examined for their use-
sis of 422 patients with acute bacterial or viral meningitis, a fulness in the diagnosis of acute bacterial meningitis. However,
CSF glucose concentration of !34 mg/dL, a ratio of CSF to none is diagnostic for bacterial meningitis, and they should not
blood glucose of !0.23, a CSF protein concentration of 1220 be used to determine whether an individual patient should
mg/dL, a CSF leukocyte count of 12000 leukocytes/mm3, or a receive antimicrobial therapy. CRP, which is made in the liver

CSF neutrophil count of 11180 neutrophils/mm3 were indi- and secreted within 6 h after an acute inflammatory reaction,
vidual predictors of bacterial, rather than viral, meningitis, with has been measured in patients with meningitis [24]. A pub-
99% certainty [20]. This model was validated in one retro- lished meta-analysis has examined the utility of measurement
spective review of adult patients with bacterial or viral men- of serum and CSF concentrations of CRP to distinguish bac-
ingitis [21], although proof of the clinical utility of this model terial from viral meningitis [25]. In this compilation of studies,
will require a prospective application. This model, howev- measurement of serum concentrations of CRP had a sensitivity
er, should not be used to make clinical decisions regarding that ranged from 69% to 99% and a specificity that ranged
the initiation of antimicrobial therapy in individual patients from 28% to 99%; in spite of these wide ranges, the OR for
with meningitis. Therefore, other diagnostic tests have been serum CRP concentration in the diagnosis of bacterial men-
examined. ingitis was 150 (95% CI, 44509). In another study published
Determination of lactate concentration. Elevated CSF lac- after the meta-analysis that included 385 consecutive patients
tate concentrations may be useful in differentiating bacterial with CSF cultureproven bacterial meningitis and 182 children
from nonbacterial meningitis in patients who have not received with proven or presumed bacterial meningitis [26], serum CRP
prior antimicrobial therapy. In one study of 78 patients with concentrations were capable of distinguishing Gram stain
acute meningitis in which CSF lactate concentrations of 14.2 negative bacterial meningitis, with a sensitivity of 96%, a spec-
mmol/L were considered to be a positive discriminative factor ificity of 93%, and a negative predictive value of 99%. CSF
for bacterial meningitis [22], the sensitivity of the test was 96%, concentrations of CRP have also been evaluated for distin-
the specificity was 100%, the positive predictive value was guishing bacterial from viral meningitis [25]; the sensitivity
100%, and the negative predictive value was 97%. However, ranged from 18% to 100%, and the specificity ranged from
despite the high sensitivity and positive predictive value of CSF 75% to 100%, with an OR of 241 (95% CI, 59980). Mea-
lactate concentrations in the diagnosis of bacterial meningitis, surement of serum CRP concentration may be helpful in pa-
the results are generally nonspecific and provide little additional tients with CSF findings consistent with meningitis, but for
diagnostic information. Furthermore, other factors (e.g., ce- whom the Gram stain result is negative and the physician is
rebral hypoxia/ischemia, anaerobic glycolysis, vascular com- considering withholding antimicrobial therapy, on the basis of
promise, and metabolism of CSF leukocytes) also may elevate the data showing that a normal CRP has a high negative pre-
CSF lactate concentrations. Therefore, measurement of CSF dictive value in the diagnosis of bacterial meningitis (B-II).
lactate concentrations is not recommended for patients with Determination of procalcitonin concentration. Elevated
suspected community-acquired bacterial meningitis (D-III). serum concentrations of the polypeptide procalcitonin, which
However, measurement of CSF lactate concentrations was are observed in patients with severe bacterial infection, were
found to be superior to use of the ratio of CSF to blood glucose shown to be useful in differentiating between bacterial and viral
for the diagnosis of bacterial meningitis in postoperative neu- meningitis [24]. In a study of 59 consecutive children hospi-
rosurgical patients, in which a CSF concentration of 4.0 mmol/ talized for meningitis [27], the sensitivity of measurements of
L was used as a cutoff value for the diagnosis [23]. The sen- the serum procalcitonin concentration (using a cutoff of 15.0
sitivity was 88%, the specificity was 98%, the positive predictive mg/L) for the diagnosis of bacterial meningitis was 94%, and
value was 96%, and the negative predictive value was 94%. CSF the specificity was 100%. In adults, serum concentrations 10.2
lactate concentrations may be valuable in this subgroup of pa- ng/mL had a sensitivity and specificity of up to 100% for the

diagnosis of bacterial meningitis [28], although false-negative ined the available published literature. In one review of 4707
results have been reported by others (sensitivity, 69%) [29]. At patients in 22 studies, the duration of symptoms before initi-
present, because measurement of serum procalcitonin concen- ation of antimicrobial therapy was assessed with regard to the
trations is not readily available in clinical laboratories, rec- subsequent development of sequelae [38]. The studies were
ommendations on its use cannot be made at this time (C-II). heterogeneous with regard to patient demographic data, study
PCR. In patients who present with acute meningitis, an numbers, causative microorganisms, and length of follow-up.
important diagnostic consideration is whether the patient has Furthermore, there was often incomplete reporting of relevant
enteroviral meningitis. Rapid detection of enteroviruses by PCR data, and not all studies contained basic study design com-
has emerged as a valuable technique that may be helpful in ponents. The author of this review suggested that, if the clinical
establishing the diagnosis of enteroviral meningitis. Enteroviral presentation was that of a nonspecific illness (i.e., general non-
RT-PCR has been tested in clinical settings by numerous in- focal symptoms), a short delay (!35 days) did not appear to
vestigators and has been found to be more sensitive than viral alter the risk of sequelae or death. However, in the case of
culture for the detection of enterovirus, with a sensitivity and fulminant meningitis, a delay in the initiation of antimicrobial
specificity of 86%100% and 92%100%, respectively [30]. In therapy seemed to be unconnected to outcome; and for patients
addition, the time to identification of the enterovirus using RT- with a history of clinically overt meningitis, an inappropriate
PCR is significantly reduced (from hours to a day), compared

delay incrementally increased the risk of permanent injury. In
with cell culture [31], which may lead to shortened patient a subsequent literature review of 27 studies (including many
hospitalization, decreased use of antimicrobial therapy for treat- of the studies in the previous review) analyzing a total of 5585
ment of presumed bacterial meningitis, and reduced need for patients up to August 1995, only 20% of all studies specifically
ancillary diagnostic tests (B-II). defined any symptoms in their analysis and could not identify
whether specific symptoms denoted a premeningitis phase
How Quickly Should Antimicrobial Therapy Be Administered or heralded the onset of bacterial seeding of the CNS [39]. The
to Patients with Suspected Bacterial Meningitis? author suggested that, because there are no pathognomonic
There are no prospective clinical data on the relationship of clinical features of bacterial meningitis, opinions based on re-
the timing of antimicrobial administration of antimicrobial views of an individual patients clinical course and symptomatic
agents to clinical outcome in patients with bacterial meningitis progression were interpretive at best and could not dictate with
[1, 32]. All existing studies examined only the duration of certainty when seeding of the CNS occurred.
symptomsnot the duration of meningitisprior to antimi- These issues have also been examined in several retrospective
crobial administration. On the basis of clinical findings, it can- studies. In one retrospective review of 305 patients hospitalized
not be determined with certainty when the seeding of the CNS in the United Kingdom with a diagnosis of bacterial meningitis
by the meningeal pathogen occurred. However, most physicians [40], 53 patients (17.4%) received an antimicrobial agent prior
would intuitively agree that the longer the duration of symp- to admission; there was only 1 death (1.9%) among the 53
toms in patients with bacterial meningitis, the more likely the patients who received an antimicrobial, compared with 30
possibility of experiencing an adverse outcome, although there deaths (12%) among the 252 who had not. These results led
are no definitive data to support this belief. This concept is the British Infection Society Working Party to recommend par-
supported by results of studies showing that poor outcome is enteral administration of appropriate antimicrobial therapy
associated with greater amounts of antigen or a larger number without delay to all adult patients in whom the diagnosis of
of microorganisms in CSF samples obtained before initiation bacterial meningitis is suspected while arranging urgent transfer
of antimicrobial therapy [33, 34] and that delayed CSF steril- to the hospital [41]. In another recent retrospective cohort
ization after 24 h of antimicrobial therapy is a risk factor for study of 269 adult patients with community-acquired bacterial
subsequent neurologic sequelae [35, 36]. The assumption that meningitis in the United States [42], 3 baseline clinical features
any delay in administration of antimicrobial therapy might be were associated with adverse outcome: hypotension, altered
associated with an adverse clinical outcome has been the basis mental status, and seizures. These 3 factors were used to create
for malpractice claims against physicians who have been ac- a prognostic model that predicted clinical outcome, in which
cused of failure to promptly diagnose and treat bacterial men- patients were stratified into 3 prognostic stages of low, inter-
ingitis [37]. mediate, or high risk for adverse outcome based on these clinical
Ethical considerations clearly preclude the design of human features. The results demonstrated that a delay in initiation of
studies to assess the outcome for patients in whom antimicro- antimicrobial therapy after patient arrival in the emergency de-
bial therapy is deliberately delayed. To address the question of partment was associated with adverse clinical outcome when the
whether a delay in diagnosis and treatment affects outcome in patients condition advanced from a low- or intermediate-risk
patients with bacterial meningitis, several large reviews exam- stage to a high-risk stage of prognostic severity. These data sup-

Table 3. Recommendations for antimicrobial therapy in adult patients with presumptive pathogen identification by
positive Gram stain.
Microorganism Recommended therapy Alternative therapies

c
Streptococcus pneumoniae Vancomycin plus a third-generation Meropenem (C-III), fluoroquinolone (B-II)
a,b
cephalosporin
Neisseria meningitidis Third-generation cephalosporina Penicillin G, ampicillin, chloramphenicol, fluoro-
quinolone, aztreonam
Listeria monocytogenes Ampicillind or penicillin Gd Trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole, meropenem (B-III)
Streptococcus agalactiae Ampicillind or penicillin Gd Third-generation cephalosporina (B-III)
a
Haemophilus influenzae Third-generation cephalosporin (A-I) Chloramphenicol, cefepime (A-I), meropenem (A-I),
fluoroquinolone
Escherichia coli Third-generation cephalosporina (A-II) Cefepime, meropenem, aztreonam, fluoroquino-
lone, trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole
NOTE. All recommendations are A-III, unless otherwise indicated. In children, ampicillin is added to the standard therapeutic regimen
of cefotaxime or ceftriaxone plus vancomycin when L. monocytogenes is considered and to an aminoglycoside if a gram-negative enteric
pathogen is of concern.
a
Ceftriaxone or cefotaxime.

b
Some experts would add rifampin if dexamethasone is also given (B-III).
c
Gatifloxaxin or moxifloxacin.
d
Addition of an aminoglycoside should be considered.
port the assumption that treatment of bacterial meningitis before gency, and appropriate therapy (see What Specific Antimicro-
it advances to a high level of clinical severity improves outcome. bial Agents Should Be Used in Patients with Suspected or
What evidence-based recommendations can be made with Proven Bacterial Meningitis?, below) should be initiated as soon
regard to the timing of antimicrobial administration in patients as possible after the diagnosis is considered to be likely.
who present with suspected or proven bacterial meningitis? The
key factor would appear to be the need to administer anti- What Specific Antimicrobial Agents Should Be Used
microbial therapy before the patients clinical condition ad- in Patients with Suspected or Proven Bacterial Meningitis?
vances to a high level of clinical severity, at which point the Once the diagnosis of bacterial meningitis is established by CSF
patient is less likely to have a full recovery after treatment with analysis, antimicrobial therapy should be initiated. Targeted
appropriate antimicrobial therapy. However, the outcome of antimicrobial therapy is based on presumptive pathogen iden-
bacterial meningitis is multifactorial and does not always cor-
tification by CSF Gram stain (table 3), although (as stated
relate with duration of symptoms, because some patients who
above) the combination of vancomycin plus either ceftriaxone
receive diagnoses and are treated within a few hours of arrival
or cefotaxime is used for infants and childrenand recom-
develop significant sequelae, whereas others who are symptom-
mended by some experts for adultswith suspected bacterial
atic for days have a seemingly normal outcome. Therefore, it
meningitis. Empirical antimicrobial therapy is initiated either
is not possible to ascertain when the high level of clinical se-
when the lumbar puncture is delayed (e.g., in those patients
verity is reached. The logical and intuitive approach is to ad-
sent for CT of the head [see Which Patients with Suspected
minister antimicrobial therapy as soon as possible after the
Bacterial Meningitis Should Undergo CT of the Head prior to
diagnosis of bacterial meningitis is suspected or proven. This
Lumbar Puncture?, above]) or for patients with purulent men-
may include administration prior to hospital admission if the
ingitis and a negative CSF Gram stain result (table 4). The
patient initially presents outside the hospital. This concept has
choice of specific antimicrobial agents for targeted or empirical
been supported by 2 recent retrospective studies [43, 44]. One
therapy is based on the current knowledge of antimicrobial
demonstrated a reduction in mortality with early administra-
susceptibility patterns of these pathogens. For initial therapy,
tion of antimicrobial therapy [43], and the other showed a
benefit in terms of neurologic outcome and survival in patients the assumption should be that antimicrobial resistance is likely.
who received antimicrobial therapy before the patients level of Evidence-based recommendations for specific agents and dos-
consciousness deteriorated to !10 on the Glasgow Coma Scale ages are reviewed in tables 5 and 6, respectively.
[44]. However, on the basis of the available evidence, we think
that there are inadequate data to delineate specific guidelines What Is the Role of Adjunctive Dexamethasone Therapy in
on the interval between the initial physician encounter and the Patients with Bacterial Meningitis?
administration of the first dose of antimicrobial therapy (C- Consideration should be given to administration of adjunctive
III). That being said, bacterial meningitis is a neurologic emer- dexamethasone in certain patients with suspected or proven

bacterial meningitis. The rationale for use is derived from ex- dose. Mortality was 22% in the treated group and 28% in the
perimental animal models of infection, which have shown that control group (P p .87). At follow-up examination up until
the subarachnoid space inflammatory response during bacterial the age of 2 years, 30% of the dexamethasone-treated patients
meningitis is a major factor contributing to morbidity and and 39% of the control group had neurologic sequelae. The
mortality [1]. Attenuation of this inflammatory response may study size was small and underpowered. At present, there are
be effective in decreasing many of the pathophysiologic con- insufficient data to make a recommendation on the use of
sequences of bacterial meningitis, such as cerebral edema, in- adjunctive dexamethasone in neonates with bacterial meningitis
creased intracranial pressure, altered cerebral blood flow, ce- (C-I).
rebral vasculitis, and neuronal injury, as mediated by pro- Infants and children. There have been 15 published trials
inflammatory cytokine expression [4547]. on the use of adjunctive dexamethasone in infants and children
On the basis of these experimental observations, numerous with bacterial meningitis [4963]. Three of the trials were ret-
clinical trials were undertaken to assess the efficacy of adjunc- rospective [54, 60, 62]. The remainder were prospective; all
tive dexamethasone in patients with bacterial meningitis. Stud- were randomized, and all but 1 [59] were placebo controlled.
ies have varied such that: (1) not all were placebo controlled, In a meta-analysis of clinical studies published during 1988
(2) various antimicrobial agents were used (some of which may 1996 [64], adjunctive dexamethasone (0.15 mg/kg every 6 h
not have been adequate for the treatment of bacterial menin- for 24 days) had confirmed benefit for H. influenzae type b

gitis), (3) dexamethasone was administered at different times meningitis and, if commenced with or before antimicrobial
in relation to the first antimicrobial dose, and (4) patients had therapy, suggested benefit for pneumococcal meningitis in chil-
varying levels of illness severity. In making evidence-based rec- dren. Evidence of clinical benefit was greatest for hearing out-
ommendations, it is prudent to analyze the data according to comes. In patients with meningitis caused by H. influenzae type
patient age. b, dexamethasone reduced hearing impairment overall (com-
Neonates. There is only 1 published trial that has evaluated bined OR, 0.31; 95% CI, 0.140.69), whereas in patients with
the efficacy of adjunctive dexamethasone in neonates with bac- pneumococcal meningitis, dexamethasone only suggested pro-
terial meningitis [48]. In this randomizedbut not placebo- tection for severe hearing loss if given early (combined OR,
controlledtrial involving 52 full-term neonates, patients were 0.09; 95% CI, 0.00.71). Since publication of the meta-analysis,
given dexamethasone 1015 min before the first antimicrobial 2 additional studies of adjunctive dexamethasone have been
Table 4. Recommendations for empirical antimicrobial therapy for purulent meningitis based on patient age and specific predisposing
condition (A-III).
Predisposing factor Common bacterial pathogens Antimicrobial therapy

Age
!1 month Streptococcus agalactiae, Escherichia coli, Listeria Ampicillin plus cefotaxime or ampicillin plus an
monocytogenes, Klebsiella species aminoglycoside
123 months Streptococcus pneumoniae, Neisseria meningitidis, Vancomycin plus a third-generation cephalosporina,b
S. agalactiae, Haemophilus influenzae, E. coli
a,b
250 years N . meningitidis, S. pneumoniae Vancomycin plus a third-generation cephalosporin
150 years S. pneumoniae, N. meningitidis, L. monocytogenes, Vancomycin plus ampicillin plus a third-generation
a,b
aerobic gram-negative bacilli cephalosporin
Head trauma
Basilar skull fracture S. pneumoniae, H. influenzae, group A b-hemolytic Vancomycin plus a third-generation cephalosporina
streptococci
Penetrating trauma Staphylococcus aureus, coagulase-negative staphylo- Vancomycin plus cefepime, vancomycin plus ceftazi-
cocci (especially Staphylococcus epidermidis), aer- dime, or vancomycin plus meropenem
obic gram-negative bacilli (including Pseudomonas
aeruginosa)
Postneurosurgery Aerobic gram-negative bacilli (including P. aeruginosa), Vancomycin plus cefepime, vancomycin plus ceftazi-
S . aureus, coagulase-negative staphylococci (es- dime, or vancomycin plus meropenem
pecially S. epidermidis)
CSF shunt Coagulase-negative staphylococci (especially S. epi- Vancomycin plus cefepime,c vancomycin plus ceftazi-
c c
dermidis), S. aureus, aerobic gram-negative bacilli dime, or vancomycin plus meropenem
(including P. aeruginosa), Propionibacterium acnes
a
b
Some experts would add rifampin if dexamethasone is also given.
c
In infants and children, vancomycin alone is reasonable unless Gram stains reveal the presence of gram-negative bacilli.

Table 5. Recommendations for specific antimicrobial therapy in bacterial meningitis based on isolated pathogen and susceptibility
testing.
Microorganism, susceptibility Standard therapy Alternative therapies

Streptococcus pneumoniae
Penicillin MIC
a
!0.1 mg/mL Penicillin G or ampicillin Third-generation cephalosporin, chloramphenicol
b a
0.11.0 mg/mL Third-generation cephalosporin Cefepime (B-II), meropenem (B-II)
d
2.0 mg/mL Vancomycin plus a third-generation Fluoroquinolone (B-II)
a,c
cephalosporin
d
Cefotaxime or ceftriaxone Vancomycin plus a third-generation Fluoroquinolone (B-II)
MIC 1.0 mg/mL cephalosporina,c
Neisseria meningitidis
Penicillin MIC
!0.1 mg/mL Penicillin G or ampicillin Third-generation cephalosporin,a chloramphenicol
0.11.0 mg/mL Third-generation cephalosporina Chloramphenicol, fluoroquinolone, meropenem
Listeria monocytogenes Ampicillin or penicillin Ge Trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole, meropenem (B-III)

Ampicillin or penicillin Ge
a
Streptococcus agalactiae Third-generation cephalosporin (B-III)
Escherichia coli and Third-generation cephalosporin (A-II) Aztreonam, fluoroquinolone, meropenem, trimethoprim-
other Enterobacteriaceaeg sulfamethoxazole, ampicillin
Pseudomonas aeruginosag Cefepimee or ceftazidimee (A-II) Aztreonam,e ciprofloxacin,e meropeneme
Haemophilus influenzae
b-Lactamase negative Ampicillin Third-generation cephalosporin,a cefepime, chlor-
amphenicol, fluoroquinolone
b-Lactamase positive Third-generation cephalosporin (A-I) Cefepime (A-I), chloramphenicol, fluoroquinolone
Staphylococcus aureus
Methicillin susceptible Nafcillin or oxacillin Vancomycin, meropenem (B-III)
Methicillin resistant Vancomycinf Trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole, linezolid (B-III)
Staphylococcus epidermidis Vancomycinf Linezolid (B-III)
Enterococcus species
Ampicillin susceptible Ampicillin plus gentamicin
Ampicillin resistant Vancomycin plus gentamicin
Ampicillin and vancomycin resistant Linezolid (B-III)
NOTE. All recommendations are A-III, unless otherwise indicated.

a
b
Ceftriaxone/cefotaxime-susceptible isolates.
c
Consider addition of rifampin if the MIC of ceftriaxone is 12 mg/mL.
d
Gatifloxacin or moxifloxacin.
e
Addition of an aminoglycoside should be considered.
f
Consider addition of rifampin.
g
Choice of a specific antimicrobial agent must be guided by in vitro susceptibility test results.
published [62, 63]. The first was a retrospective study involving [63], the overall number of deaths (31% vs. 31%; P p .93) and
children with pneumococcal meningitis and showed that, in presence of sequelae at final outcome (28% vs. 28%; P p .97)
the dexamethasone group, there was a higher incidence of mod- were not significantly different in the children who received
erate or severe hearing loss (46% vs. 23%; P p .016) or any adjunctive dexamethasone. However, the Malawian children
neurologic deficits (55% vs. 33%; P p .02) [62]. However, chil- enrolled in this trial had severe disease associated with mal-
dren in the dexamethasone group more frequently required nutrition and HIV infection, and they presented after a delay,
intubation and mechanical ventilation and had a lower initial which resulted in very high case-fatality rates and significant
CSF glucose concentration. Furthermore, there were no data long-term morbidity [65]. Adjunctive dexamethasone does not
on use of specific antimicrobial agents in each group, and the reverse the CNS damage that develops as a result of existent
dexamethasone was given later than in other studies (i.e., within cerebral edema, increased intracranial pressure, or neuronal
60 min of the first antimicrobial dose). Thus, it is possible that injury that is present at diagnosis. Furthermore, more than one-
the clinical benefit was not as optimal as was anticipated. In a third of children received antimicrobial therapy before admis-
recently published randomized, placebo-controlled, double- sion, and 130% were given second-line antimicrobial therapy
blind trial of adjunctive dexamethasone in children in Malawi because of inadequate clinical or microbiologic response.

Table 6. Recommended dosages of antimicrobial therapy in patients with bacterial meningitis (A-III).
Total daily dose (dosing interval in hours)

Neonates, age in days
a a
Antimicrobial agent 07 828 Infants and children Adults
b
Amikacin 1520 mg/kg (12) 30 mg/kg (8) 2030 mg/kg (8) 15 mg/kg (8)
Ampicillin 150 mg/kg (8) 200 mg/kg (68) 300 mg/kg (6) 12 g (4)
Aztreonam 68 g (68)
Cefepime 150 mg/kg (8) 6 g (8)
Cefotaxime 100150 mg/kg (812) 150200 mg/kg (68) 225300 mg/kg (68) 812 g (46)
Ceftazidime 100150 mg/kg (812) 150 mg/kg (8) 150 mg/kg (8) 6 g (8)
Ceftriaxone 80100 mg/kg (1224) 4 g (1224)
Chloramphenicol 25 mg/kg (24) 50 mg/kg (1224) 75100 mg/kg (6) 46 g (6)c
Ciprofloxacin 8001200 mg (812)
d
Gatifloxacin 400 mg (24)
b
Gentamicin 5 mg/kg (12) 7.5 mg/kg (8) 7.5 mg/kg (8) 5 mg/kg (8)

Meropenem 120 mg/kg (8) 6 g (8)
Moxifloxacin 400 mg (24)d
Nafcillin 75 mg/kg (812) 100150 mg/kg (68) 200 mg/kg (6) 912 g (4)
Oxacillin 75 mg/kg (812) 150200 mg/kg (68) 200 mg/kg (6) 912 g (4)
Penicillin G 0.15 mU/kg (812) 0.2 mU/kg (68) 0.3 mU/kg (46) 24 mU (4)
Rifampin 1020 mg/kg (12) 1020 mg/kg (1224)e 600 mg (24)
Tobramycinb 5 mg/kg (12) 7.5 mg/kg (8) 7.5 mg/kg (8) 5 mg/kg (8)
TMP-SMZf 1020 mg/kg (612) 1020 mg/kg (612)
g
Vancomycin 2030 mg/kg (812) 3045 mg/kg (68) 60 mg/kg (6) 3045 mg/kg (812)
NOTE. TMP-SMZ, trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole.

a
Smaller doses and longer intervals of administration may be advisable for very lowbirth weight neonates (!2000 g).
b
Need to monitor peak and trough serum concentrations.
c
Higher dose recommended for patients with pneumococcal meningitis.
d
No data on optimal dosage needed in patients with bacterial meningitis.
e
Maximum daily dose of 600 mg.
f
Dosage based on trimethoprim component.
g
Maintain serum trough concentrations of 1520 mg/mL.
Despite some variability in result of published trials, we be- Furthermore, the incidence of pneumococcal meningitis in
lieve the available evidence supports the use of adjunctive dex- children has decreased dramatically since the recommendation
amethasone in infants and children with H. influenzae type b for use of the 7-valent pneumococcal conjugate vaccine, and
meningitis (A-I). Dexamethasone should be initiated 1020 it is unlikely that the efficacy of adjunctive dexamethasone will
min prior to, or at least concomitant with, the first antimicro- be determined definitively in further randomized trials con-
bial dose, at 0.15 mg/kg every 6 h for 24 days. Adjunctive ducted in the United States.
dexamethasone should not be given to infants and children Adults. There have been 5 published trials of adjunctive
who have already received antimicrobial therapy, because ad- dexamethasone in adults with bacterial meningitis [6771]; 3
ministration of dexamethasone in this circumstance is unlikely were randomized and placebo controlled [68, 69, 71], 1 was
to improve patient outcome (A-I). In infants and children with randomized but not placebo controlled [67], and 1 was a sys-
pneumococcal meningitis, there is controversy concerning the temic sampling open cohort study [70]. In 4 of the 5 studies
use of adjunctive dexamethasone therapy (C-II). The 2003 [6770], results were inconclusive, such that definitive rec-
statement by the Committee on Infectious Diseases of the ommendations for use of adjunctive dexamethasone in adults
American Academy of Pediatrics on the use of steroids for could not be made. However, a recently published prospective,
pneumococcal meningitis is as follows: For infants and chil- randomized, placebo-controlled, double-blind multicenter trial
dren 6 weeks of age and older, adjunctive therapy with dexa- did provide important data on the use of adjunctive dexa-
methasone may be considered after weighing the potential ben- methasone in adults with bacterial meningitis [71]. A total of
efits and possible risks. Experts vary in recommending the use 301 adults (age, 17 years) were randomized to receive dex-
of corticosteroids in pneumococcal meningitis; data are not amethasone (10 mg q6h for 4 days) or placebo, the first dose
sufficient to demonstrate clear benefit in children [66, p. 493]. being administered 1520 min prior to the first antimicrobial

dose. At 8 weeks after enrollment, the percentage of patients tration was not reduced in a small study of children with bacterial
with an unfavorable outcome (15% vs. 25%; P p .03) and meningitis, when compared with concentrations achieved in his-
death (7% vs. 15%; P p .04) was significantly lower in the torical controls [75]. The published trials have not examined
dexamethasone group. Among the subgroup of patients with outcome in patients with these resistant isolates who have re-
pneumococcal meningitis, benefit was evident in those who ceived adjunctive dexamethasone. In the recent study in adults
received adjunctive dexamethasone, with a lower percentage of cited above [71], only 72% of 108 CSF pneumococcal isolates
unfavorable outcomes (26% vs. 52%; P p .006) and deaths were submitted for in vitro susceptibility testing, and all were
(14% vs. 34%; P p .02). Benefits were not seen in other sub- susceptible to penicillin, an unusual finding in the United States
groups with meningitis caused by other meningeal pathogens, and in many areas of the world. Although it would be optimal
although patient numbers in those groups were small. In all to evaluate the efficacy of adjunctive dexamethasone in patients
groups, dexamethasone appeared to be the most beneficial in with meningitis caused by highly resistant pneumococci, given
patients with moderate-to-severe disease on the Glasgow Coma the difficulty in enrolling adequate numbers of patients with these
Scale. resistant strains into a clinical trial, it is unlikely that this question
On the basis of the available evidence on the use of adjunctive will be definitively answered in the near future [76]. We rec-
dexamethasone in adults, we recommend use of dexamethasone ommend that adjunctive dexamethasone be administered to all
adult patients with pneumococcal meningitis, even if the isolate

(0.15 mg/kg q6h for 24 days with the first dose administered
1020 min before, or at least concomitant with, the first dose is subsequently found to be highly resistant to penicillin and
of antimicrobial therapy) in adults with suspected or proven cephalosporins (B-III). Careful observation and follow-up are
pneumococcal meningitis (A-I). Some experts would only ad- critical to determine whether dexamethasone is associated with
minister adjunctive dexamethasone if the patient had moder- adverse clinical outcome. For data on outcome in patients with
ate-to-severe disease (Glasgow Coma Scale score, 11). How- meningitis caused by resistant pneumococcal isolates, case reports
ever, we think that adjunctive dexamethasone should be and small case series may help ascertain whether dexamethasone
initiated in all adult patients with suspected or proven pneu- is harmful to these patients. Furthermore, in patients with sus-
mococcal meningitis, because assessment of the score may delay pected pneumococcal meningitis who receive adjunctive dexa-
initiation of appropriate therapy. Dexamethasone should only methasone, addition of rifampin to the empirical combination
be continued if the CSF Gram stain reveals gram-positive dip- of vancomycin plus a third-generation cephalosporin may be
lococci, or if blood or CSF cultures are positive for S. pneu- reasonable pending culture results and in vitro susceptibility test-
moniae. Adjunctive dexamethasone should not be given to adult ing (B-III).
patients who have already received antimicrobial therapy, be-
cause administration of dexamethasone in this circumstance is Once the Bacterial Etiology of Meningitis Is Established, What
unlikely to improve patient outcome (A-I). The data are in- Specific Antimicrobial Agents Should Be Used for Treatment?
adequate to recommend adjunctive dexamethasone to adults Once a bacterial pathogen is isolated and in vitro susceptibility
with meningitis caused by other bacterial pathogens, although testing is performed, antimicrobial treatment should be mod-
some authorities would initiate dexamethasone in all adults, ified for optimal therapy. Our recommendations (with alter-
because the etiology of meningitis is not always ascertained at native suggestions), based on the isolated microorganism, are
initial evaluation (B-III). listed in table 5. Recommended dosages of antimicrobial agents
Pneumococcal meningitis. Despite the clinical trials that in neonates, children, and adults are shown in table 6. There
have demonstrated the benefits of adjunctive dexamethasone in are no placebo-controlled trials of specific antimicrobial agents
infants, children, and adults with bacterial meningitis (see What in patients with bacterial meningitis. Since their development,
Is the Role of Adjunctive Dexamethasone Therapy in Patients penicillins and sulfonamides have been the standard, but much
with Bacterial Meningitis?, above), concerns have been raised has changed as a result of widespread antimicrobial resistance
about whether use of adjunctive dexamethasone may be harmful against these drugs and the need for development of newer
in patients with pneumococcal meningitis caused by highly pen- agents. Decisions on the choice of a specific antimicrobial agent
icillin- or cephalosporin-resistant strains [1]; these patients may are based on knowledge of in vitro susceptibility and relative
require antimicrobial therapy with vancomycin, and the dimin- penetration into CSF in the presence of meningeal inflam-
ished inflammatory response induced by dexamethasone might mation (whether gleaned from experimental animal models or
reduce CSF vancomycin penetration and delay CSF sterilization. patients). Clinical trials have most often compared newer agents
This finding has been observed in experimental animal models with what has been determined to be standard antimicrobial
of resistant pneumococcal meningitis [72, 73], although larger therapy, even though this standard therapy has not always
vancomycin dosages may circumvent the effect of corticosteroids been extensively studied in patients. The following sections will
on CSF vancomycin penetration [74]. CSF vancomycin pene- review specific classes of antimicrobial agents that have been

recently examined for their role in patients with bacterial men- meningitis caused by isolates that are susceptible to other agents
ingitis and will include our evidence-based recommendations (i.e., penicillins and cephalosporins) (E-II). Even in patients
for use of these agents in patients with bacterial meningitis. with meningitis caused by highly penicillin- and cephalosporin-
Cephalosporins. The treatment of bacterial meningitis has resistant strains, vancomycin should be combined with a third-
been revolutionized by the availability of the third-generation generation cephalosporin (A-III) and should not be used as a
cephalosporins [1, 77]. In patients with H. influenzae type b single agent [1, 81]. When used for the treatment of bacterial
meningitis, the emergence of b-lactamaseproducing strains meningitis, vancomycin should be administered to maintain
and resistance to chloramphenicol has made these agents the serum vancomycin trough concentrations of approximately 15
drugs of choice for empirical therapy for H. influenzae men- 20 mg/mL (B-III). Intrathecal administration of vancomycin
ingitis, pending results of in vitro susceptibility testing. In clin- may be considered in patients who are not responding to par-
ical trials, the third-generation cephalosporins have been found enteral administration (B-III).
to be superior to chloramphenicol and cefuroxime (a second- Rifampin. Rifampin has many properties that make it an
generation cephalosporin) and are recommended for the treat- excellent agent for the treatment of meningitis, including good
ment of childhood bacterial meningitis [36, 78, 79] (A-I). In CSF penetration and in vitro activity against many meningeal
patients with pneumococcal and meningococcal meningitis, the pathogens. However, when used alone, resistance rapidly de-

third-generation cephalosporins are recommended in patients velops, such that rifampin must be used in combination with
with meningitis caused by strains that are not susceptible to other antimicrobial agents. Clinical data on the efficacy of rif-
penicillin (MIC, 0.1 mg/mL) [1, 80, 81] (A-III). ampin in patients with bacterial meningitis are lacking, but
The third-generation cephalosporins are also quite effective some authorities would use this agent in combination with a
in meningitis caused by aerobic gram-negative bacilli (e.g., third-generation cephalosporin, with or without vancomycin,
Escherichia coli or Klebsiella species); cure rates of 78%94% in patients with pneumococcal meningitis caused by highly
have been reported, compared with mortality rates of 40% penicillin- or cephalosporin resistant strains [81, 92]. Rifampin
90% for previous regimens that usually included an aminogly- should only be added if the organism is shown to be susceptible
coside, with or without chloramphenicol [8284] (A-II). How- and there is a delay in the expected clinical or bacteriologic
ever, given the increasing frequency of antimicrobial resistance response (A-III). Rifampin should also be combined with van-
among gram-negative bacilli, especially in the hospital setting, comycin in patients with CSF shunt infections caused by staph-
in vitro susceptibility testing of isolates is critical to guide an- ylococci, especially in cases in which the shunt cannot be re-
timicrobial therapy. One agent, ceftazidime, has also shown moved [93] (A-III).
efficacy in several studies of patients with Pseudomonas men- Carbapenems. Two carbapenem agents have been studied
ingitis [85, 86] (A-II). A fourth-generation cephalosporin, ce- in patients with bacterial meningitis. Imipenem has been suc-
fepime, has been shown to be safe and therapeutically equiv- cessfully used in 2 patients with pneumococcal meningitis
alent to cefotaxime in the treatment of bacterial meningitis in caused by penicillin- and cephalosporin-resistant strains [94,
infants and children [87, 88]. Cefepime also has greater in vitro 95] and in 1 patient with Acinetobacter meningitis [96], al-
activity than the third-generation cephalosporins against En- though the potential for seizure activity (which was 33% in
terobacter species and Pseudomonas aeruginosa and has been one study of children with bacterial meningitis) [97] argues
used successfully in some patients with meningitis caused by against its use in most patients with bacterial meningitis (D-
these bacteria [89], making it a useful agent in the treatment II). Meropenem, which has a broad range of in vitro activity
of patients with bacterial meningitis (A-II). and less seizure proclivity than imipenem, has been studied in
Vancomycin. Vancomycin has been evaluated in the ther- both children and adults with bacterial meningitis [98100].
apy of bacterial meningitis caused by penicillin-resistant pneu- In these studies, meropenem has been shown to have clinical
mococci [90]. In a study of 11 adult patients with pneumo- and microbiologic outcomes similar to those of cefotaxime or
coccal meningitis caused by strains with intermediate resistance ceftriaxone and can be recommended as an alternative to these
to penicillin [91], vancomycin therapy was associated with clin- agents for treatment of bacterial meningitis (A-I). Meropenem
ical failure in 4 patients; however, the dosage of vancomycin has also been used successfully in isolated patients with pneu-
used (15 mg/kg daily) was below standard recommendations. mococcal meningitis caused by highly penicillin- and cepha-
There were no failures in 14 subsequent patients treated with losporin-resistant strains [100, 101]. However, in a recent study
ceftriaxone in this study. The concomitant administration of of 20 cefotaxime-resistant S. pneumoniae isolates [102], 4 were
dexamethasone with the subsequent decrease in inflammation intermediate and 13 were resistant to meropenem, suggesting
and poor entry of vancomycin into CSF may have contributed that meropenem may not be a useful alternative agent for treat-
to this negative outcome. On the basis of these findings, van- ment of pneumococcal isolates that are highly resistant to pen-
comycin is not recommended in the treatment of bacterial icillin and cephalosporins (D-II). However, meropenem may

be useful in patients with meningitis caused by gram-negative the ability of the agent to achieve adequate CSF concentrations
isolates that are resistant to standard therapy [102104]. Men- [113115]. After administration of the first intraventricular
ingitis caused by gram-negative bacilli that produce extended- dose, additional doses can be determined by calculation of the
spectrum b-lactamases or those that may hyperproduce b- inhibitory quotient. Prior to administration of the next in-
lactamases (i.e., Enterobacter species, Citrobacter species, or traventricular dose, a sample of CSF is withdrawn to obtain
Serratia marcescens) may best be treated with a regimen that the trough CSF concentration. The inhibitory quotient is then
contains meropenem (A-III). determined by taking the trough CSF concentration divided by
Fluoroquinolones. The fluoroquinolones (especially cip- the MIC of the agent for the isolated bacterial pathogen; it
rofloxacin) have been used successfully in some patients with should exceed 1020 for consistent CSF sterilization [116]. Al-
meningitis due to gram-negative organisms [105109]. How- though not standardized, this approach is reasonable to ensure
ever, on the basis of limited published literature, these agents that adequate CSF concentrations of specific antimicrobial
should only be utilized for meningitis caused by multidrug- agents are attained (B-III).
resistant gram-negative bacilli, or when patients have not re-
sponded to or cannot receive standard antimicrobial therapy In Patients with CSF Shunts Who Develop Bacterial Meningitis
(A-III). The newer fluoroquinolones (e.g., trovafloxacin, gati- Directly from the Shunt (and Not from Hematogenous
floxaxin, and moxifloxacin) have enhanced in vitro activity Dissemination of Encapsulated Microorganisms), Does

against S. pneumoniae and have been studied in experimental the Shunt Need to Be Removed for Optimal Therapy,
animal models of pneumococcal meningitis. Trovafloxacin was and When Can a New Shunt Be Implanted?
compared with ceftriaxone, with or without vancomycin, in a Removal of all components of the infected shunt and some
multicenter, randomized trial in children with bacterial men- component of external drainage, in combination with appro-
ingitis (27% of cases caused by S. pneumoniae) [110]. The priate antimicrobial therapy, appears to be the most effective
overall efficacy in both treatment groups was comparable in treatment for CSF shunt infections [115, 116]; the ventriculitis
terms of CSF sterilization and clinical success at the end of of the shunt infection appears to clear more rapidly with the
treatment. Although trovafloxacin is no longer utilized because drainage catheter, and the presence of the catheter allows con-
of concerns of liver toxicity, these data suggest the potential tinued treatment of the hydrocephalus until the infection has
usefulness of the new fluoroquinolones in patients with bac- cleared (A-II). Success rates are lower when the shunt is treated
terial meningitis [111]. Pending results of ongoing trials, these in situ, because of the ability of many of these microorganisms
agents (i.e., gatifloxacin and moxifloxacin) should only be used to adhere to prostheses and survive antimicrobial therapy.
as alternative agents in patients with bacterial meningitis (B- The timing of shunt reimplantation is dependent upon the
II). Because these agents have not been studied in newborns isolated microorganism, the extent of infection as defined by
and children with bacterial meningitis, they should only be
considered in these patients who are not responding to standard Table 7. Recommended dosages of antimicro-
therapy. bial agents administered by the intraventricular
route (A-III).
In Patients Who Develop Bacterial Meningitis after Placement Daily

of CSF Shunt, Is It Necessary to Administer Antimicrobial intraventricular
Antimicrobial agent dose, mg
Therapy by the Intraventricular Route?
There are numerous reported methods for the treatment of Vancomycin 520a
Gentamicin 18b
CSF shunt infections, but no randomized, prospective studies
Tobramycin 520
have ever been performed. The principles of antimicrobial ther-
Amikacin 550c
apy for CSF shunt infections are generally the same as those d
Polymyxin B 5
for the treatment of acute bacterial meningitis. However, direct Colistin 10
instillation of antimicrobial agents into the ventricles through Quinupristin/dalfopristin 25
either an external ventriculostomy or shunt reservoir is occa- Teicoplanin 540e
sionally necessary in patients who have shunt infections that
NOTE. There are no specific data that define the exact
are difficult to eradicate or who cannot undergo the surgical dose of an antimicrobial agent that should be administered
components of therapy (A-III). No antimicrobial agent has by the intraventricular route.
a
Most studies have used a 10-mg or 20-mg dose.
been approved by the US Food and Drug Administration for b
Usual daily dose is 12 mg for infants and children and
intraventricular use, and the specific indications are not well- 48 mg for adults.
c
The usual daily intraventricular dose is 30 mg.
defined. Antimicrobial dosages have been used empirically (ta- d
Dosage in children is 2 mg daily.
e
ble 7), with dosage adjustments and dosing intervals based on Dosage of 510 mg every 4872 h in one study [112].

Table 8. Duration of antimicrobial therapy for punctures to document CSF sterilization, because the duration
bacterial meningitis based on isolated pathogen of antimicrobial therapy is determined, in part, by the result
(A-III). (A-III). In patients with CSF shunt infections, the presence of
a drainage catheter after shunt removal allows for monitoring
Duration of
Microorganism therapy, days of CSF parameters to ensure that the infection is responding
to appropriate antimicrobial therapy and drainage.
Neisseria meningitidis 7
Haemophilus influenzae 7
Streptococcus pneumoniae 1014 What Is the Duration of Antimicrobial Therapy, Based
Streptococcus agalactiae 1421 on the Isolated Pathogen?
Aerobic gram-negative bacillia 21 The duration of antimicrobial therapy in the patient with bac-
Listeria monocytogenes 21 terial meningitis has often been based more on tradition than
a
Duration in the neonate is 2 weeks beyond the first on evidence-based data [117, 118]. Our recommendations are
sterile CSF culture or 3 weeks, whichever is longer. shown in table 8. However, it must be emphasized that these
guidelines are not standardized and that the duration of therapy
may need to be individualized on the basis of the patients
culture of samples obtained after externalization and, occa-
clinical response. Pending further data, intravenous antimicro-

sionally, on CSF findings (B-II) [115, 116]. In patients with
bial therapy is recommended for the duration of treatment to
infections caused by coagulase-negative staphylococci and nor-
ensure that adequate CSF concentrations of specific antimi-
mal CSF findings, the presence of negative CSF culture results
crobial agents are attained.
after externalization generally confirms that removal of the
hardware affected a cure, and the patient can be reshunted on
What Specific Criteria Should Be Used for Outpatient
the third day after removal. If CSF abnormalities are present
Antimicrobial Therapy in the Patient with Bacterial Meningitis?
and a coagulase-negative staphylococcus is isolated, 7 days of
Patients with bacterial meningitis have often remained hospi-
antimicrobial therapy are recommended prior to reshunting as
talized for the duration of treatment with intravenous anti-
long as additional CSF culture results are negative and the
microbial therapy. However, outpatient antimicrobial therapy
ventricular protein concentration is appropriate (!200 mg/dL);
may be appropriate in selected patients, and this may lead to
if additional culture results are positive, antimicrobial therapy
decreased costs of hospitalization, decreased risk of develop-
is continued until CSF culture results remain negative for 10
ment of nosocomial infections, and improved quality of life
consecutive days before a new CSF shunt is placed. For shunt
[119, 120]. Although concerns have been raised about the po-
infections caused by S. aureus, 10 days of negative culture results
tential risk of serious complications in patients with bacterial
are recommended prior to reshunting and for gram-negative
meningitis, complications (when they occur) usually happen
bacilli, a 1014-day course of antimicrobial therapy should be
within the first 23 days of treatment and are exceedingly rare
used, although longer durations may be needed depending on
after 3 or 4 days of appropriate antimicrobial therapy. Criteria
the clinical response. Some experts also suggest that consid-
eration be given to a 3-day period off antimicrobial therapy to
verify clearing of the infection prior to shunt reimplantation; Table 9. Criteria for outpatient antimicrobial therapy in patients
although this approach is optional, it may not be necessary for with bacterial meningitis (A-III).
all patients (C-III).
Inpatient antimicrobial therapy for 6 days
Absence of fever for at least 2448 h prior to initiation of
What Are the Indications for Repeated Lumbar Puncture outpatient therapy
in Patients with Bacterial Meningitis? No significant neurologic dysfunction, focal findings, or seizure
In patients with bacterial meningitis who have responded ap- activity
propriately to antimicrobial therapy, repeated CSF analysis to Clinical stability or improving condition
Ability to take fluids by mouth
document CSF sterilization and improvement of CSF param-
Access to home health nursing for antimicrobial administration
eters is not routinely indicated. Repeated CSF analysis should
Reliable intravenous line and infusion device (if needed)
be performed, however, for any patient who has not responded
Daily availability of a physician
clinically after 48 h of appropriate antimicrobial therapy (A- Established plan for physician visits, nurse visits, laboratory
III). This is especially true for the patient with pneumococcal monitoring, and emergencies
meningitis caused by penicillin- or cephalosporin-resistant Patient and/or family compliance with the program
strains, especially for those who have also received adjunctive Safe environment with access to a telephone, utilities, food, and
dexamethasone therapy [81, 92]. The neonate with meningitis refrigerator
due to gram-negative bacilli should undergo repeated lumbar NOTE. From [119, 120].

that may be used to determine which patients with bacterial in cerebrospinal fluid by an assay for simultaneous detection of Neis-
seria meningitidis, Haemophilus influenzae, and streptococci using a
meningitis can receive outpatient antimicrobial therapy are seminested PCR strategy. J Clin Microbiol 1994; 32:273844.
shown in table 9 (B-III). It must be emphasized, however, that 19. Saravolatz LD, Manzor O, VanderVelde N, et al. Broad-range bacterial
patient selection for outpatient antimicrobial therapy for bac- polymerase chain reaction for early detection of bacterial meningitis.
Clin Infect Dis 2003; 36:405.
terial meningitis must be carefully performed, and close medical
20. Spanos A, Harrell FE Jr, Durack DT. Differential diagnosis of acute
follow-up is essential. meningitis: an analysis of the predictive value of initial observations.
JAMA 1989; 262:27007.
21. McKinney WP, Heudebert GR, Harper SA, et al. Validation of a clinical
Acknowledgments prediction rule for the differential diagnosis of acute meningitis. J
Gen Intern Med 1994; 9:812.
Potential conflict of interest. A.R.T. has served as a consultant for 22. Genton B, Berger JP. Cerebrospinal fluid lactate in 78 cases of adult
Centocor. S.L.K. has received grant support from Pfizer, Aventis-Pasteur, meningitis. Intensive Care Med 1990; 16:196200.
and Roche Laboratories and has served as a consultant for Aventis-Pasteur 23. Leib SL, Boscacci R, Gratzl O, Zimmerli W. Predictive value of cer-
and Wyeth. W.M.S. has served on the speakers bureaus for for Bayer, ebrospinal fluid (CSF) lactate level versus CSF/blood glucose ratio for
Pfizer, GlaxoSmithKline, and Bristol-Myers Squibb and has served on the the diagnosis of bacterial meningitis following neurosurgery. Clin In-
Pfizer Advisory Board. B.J.H., B.A.K., and K.L.R.: No conflict. fect Dis 1999; 29:6974.
24. Nathan BR, Scheld WM. The potential roles of C-reactive protein
and procalcitonin concentrations in the serum and cerebrospinal fluid

in the diagnosis of bacterial meningitis. In: Remington JS, Swartz
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IDSA GUIDELINES

Practice Guidelines for the Management

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Practice Guidelines for Bacterial Meningitis CID 2004:39 (1 November) 1267

Category, grade Definition

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1268 CID 2004:39 (1 November) Tunkel et al.

Practice Guidelines for Bacterial Meningitis CID 2004:39 (1 November) 1269

1270 CID 2004:39 (1 November) Tunkel et al.

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Practice Guidelines for Bacterial Meningitis CID 2004:39 (1 November) 1271

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1272 CID 2004:39 (1 November) Tunkel et al.

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Practice Guidelines for Bacterial Meningitis CID 2004:39 (1 November) 1273

Microorganism Recommended therapy Alternative therapies

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1274 CID 2004:39 (1 November) Tunkel et al.

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Predisposing factor Common bacterial pathogens Antimicrobial therapy

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Microorganism, susceptibility Standard therapy Alternative therapies

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NOTE. All recommendations are A-III, unless otherwise indicated.

1276 CID 2004:39 (1 November) Tunkel et al.

Total daily dose (dosing interval in hours)

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NOTE. TMP-SMZ, trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole.

Practice Guidelines for Bacterial Meningitis CID 2004:39 (1 November) 1277

Downloaded from http://cid.oxfordjournals.org/ at IDSA member on November 23, 2015

1278 CID 2004:39 (1 November) Tunkel et al.

Downloaded from http://cid.oxfordjournals.org/ at IDSA member on November 23, 2015

Practice Guidelines for Bacterial Meningitis CID 2004:39 (1 November) 1279

Downloaded from http://cid.oxfordjournals.org/ at IDSA member on November 23, 2015

In Patients Who Develop Bacterial Meningitis after Placement Daily

1280 CID 2004:39 (1 November) Tunkel et al.

Downloaded from http://cid.oxfordjournals.org/ at IDSA member on November 23, 2015

Practice Guidelines for Bacterial Meningitis CID 2004:39 (1 November) 1281

Downloaded from http://cid.oxfordjournals.org/ at IDSA member on November 23, 2015

1282 CID 2004:39 (1 November) Tunkel et al.

Downloaded from http://cid.oxfordjournals.org/ at IDSA member on November 23, 2015

Practice Guidelines for Bacterial Meningitis CID 2004:39 (1 November) 1283

Downloaded from http://cid.oxfordjournals.org/ at IDSA member on November 23, 2015

1284 CID 2004:39 (1 November) Tunkel et al.

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