Computer Networking

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Computer Networking Interview Q & A
1. Define Network?
A network is a set of devices connected by physical media links. A
network is recursively is a connection of two or more nodes by a
physical link or two or more networks connected by one or more nodes.

2. What is a Link?
At the lowest level, a network can consist of two or more computers
directly connected by some physical medium such as coaxial cable or
optical fiber. Such a physical medium is called as Link.

3. What is a node?
A network can consist of two or more computers directly connected by
some physical medium such as coaxial cable or optical fiber. Such a
physical medium is called as Links and the computer it connects is
called as Nodes.

4. What is a gateway or Router?

A node that is connected to two or more networks is commonly called as
router or Gateway. It generally forwards message from one network to
another.

5. What is point-point link?

If the physical links are limited to a pair of nodes it is said to be point-
point link.

6. What is Multiple Access?

If the physical links are shared by more than two nodes, it is said to be
Multiple Access.

7. What are the advantages of Distributed Processing?

a. Security/Encapsulation
b. Distributed database
c. Faster Problem solving
d. Security through redundancy
e. Collaborative Processing

8. What are the criteria necessary for an effective and efficient network?
a. Performance
It can be measured in many ways, including transmit time and
response time. b. Reliability
It is measured by frequency of failure, the time it takes a link to recover
from a failure, and the network's robustness.
c. Security
Security issues includes protecting data from unauthorized access and
virues.

9. Name the factors that affect the performance of the network?

a. Number of Users
b. Type of transmission medium
c. Hardware
d. Software

10. Name the factors that affect the reliability of the network?
a. Frequency of failure
b. Recovery time of a network after a failure

11. Name the factors that affect the security of the network?
a. Unauthorized Access
b. Viruses

12. What is Protocol?

A protocol is a set of rules that govern all aspects of information
communication.

13. What are the key elements of protocols?

The key elements of protocols are
a. Syntax
It refers to the structure or format of the data, that is the order in which
they are presented.
b. Semantics
It refers to the meaning of each section of bits.
c. Timing
Timing refers to two characteristics: When data should be sent and
how fast they can be sent.

14. What are the key design issues of a computer Network?

a. Connectivity
b. Cost-effective Resource Sharing
c. Support for common Services
d. Performance

15. Define Bandwidth and Latency?

Network performance is measured in Bandwidth (throughput) and
Latency (Delay). Bandwidth of a network is given by the number of bits
that can be transmitted over the network in a certain period of time.
Latency corresponds to how long it t5akes a message to travel from one
end off a network to the other. It is strictly measured in terms of time.

16. Define Routing?

The process of determining systematically hoe to forward messages
toward the destination nodes based on its address is called routing.

17. What is a peer-peer process?

The processes on each machine that communicate at a given layer are
called peer-peer process.

18. When a switch is said to be congested?

It is possible that a switch receives packets faster than the shared link
can accommodate and stores in its memory, for an extended period of
time, then the switch will eventually run out of buffer space, and some
packets will have to be dropped and in this state is said to congested
state.

19. What is semantic gap?

Defining a useful channel involves both understanding the applications
requirements and recognizing the limitations of the underlying
technology. The gap between what applications expects and what the
underlying technology can provide is called semantic gap.

20. What is Round Trip Time?

The duration of time it takes to send a message from one end of a
network to the other and back, is called RTT.

21. Define the terms Unicasting, Multiccasting and Broadcasting?

If the message is sent from a source to a single destination node, it is
called Unicasting.
If the message is sent to some subset of other nodes, it is called
Multicasting.
If the message is sent to all the m nodes in the network it is called
Broadcasting.

22. What is Multiplexing?

Multiplexing is the set of techniques that allows the simultaneous
transmission of multiple signals across a single data link.

23. Name the categories of Multiplexing?

a. Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)
b. Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)
i. Synchronous TDM
ii. ASynchronous TDM Or Statistical TDM.
c. Wave Division Multiplexing (WDM)
24. What is FDM?
FDM is an analog technique that can be applied when the bandwidth of
a link is greater than the combined bandwidths of the signals to be
transmitted.

25. What is WDM?

WDM is conceptually the same as FDM, except that the multiplexing and
demultiplexing involve light signals transmitted through fiber optics
channel.

26. What is TDM?

TDM is a digital process that can be applied when the data rate capacity
of the transmission medium is greater than the data rate required by the
sending and receiving devices.

27. What is Synchronous TDM?

In STDM, the multiplexer allocates exactly the same time slot to each
device at all times, whether or not a device has anything to transmit.

28. List the layers of OSI

a. Physical Layer
b. Data Link Layer
c. Network Layer
d. Transport Layer
e. Session Layer
f. Presentation Layer
g. Application Layer
29. Which layers are network support layers?
a. Physical Layer
b. Data link Layer and
c. Network Layers

30. Which layers are user support layers?

a. Session Layer
b. Presentation Layer and
c. Application Layer

31. Which layer links the network support layers and user support
layers?
The Transport layer links the network support layers and user support
layers.

32. What are the concerns of the Physical Layer?

Physical layer coordinates the functions required to transmit a bit stream
over a physical medium.
a. Physical characteristics of interfaces and media
b. Representation of bits
c. Data rate
d. Synchronization of bits
e. Line configuration
f. Physical topology
g. Transmission mode

33. What are the responsibilities of Data Link Layer?

The Data Link Layer transforms the physical layer, a raw transmission
facility, to a reliable link and is responsible for node-node delivery.
a. Framing
b. Physical Addressing
c. Flow Control
d. Error Control
e. Access Control

34. What are the responsibilities of Network Layer?

The Network Layer is responsible for the source-to-destination delivery
of packet possibly across multiple networks (links).
a. Logical Addressing
b. Routing

35. What are the responsibilities of Transport Layer?

The Transport Layer is responsible for source-to-destination delivery of
the entire message.
a. Service-point Addressing
b. Segmentation and reassembly
c. Connection Control
d. Flow Control
e. Error Control

36. What are the responsibilities of Session Layer?

The Session layer is the network dialog Controller. It establishes,
maintains and synchronizes the interaction between the communicating
systems.
a. Dialog control
b. Synchronization

37. What are the responsibilities of Presentation Layer?

The Presentation layer is concerned with the syntax and semantics of
the information exchanged between two systems.
a. Translation
b. Encryption
c. Compression

38. What are the responsibilities of Application Layer?

The Application Layer enables the user, whether human or software, to
access the network. It provides user interfaces and support for services
such as e-mail, shared database management and other types of
distributed information services.
a. Network virtual Terminal
b. File transfer, access and Management (FTAM)
c. Mail services
d. Directory Services

39. What are the two classes of hardware building blocks?

Nodes and Links.

40. What are the different link types used to build a computer network?
a. Cables
b. Leased Lines
c. Last-Mile Links
d. Wireless Links
41. What are the categories of Transmission media?
a. Guided Media
i. Twisted - Pair cable
1. Shielded TP
2. Unshielded TP
ii. Coaxial Cable
iii. Fiber-optic cable
b. Unguided Media
i. Terrestrial microwave
ii. Satellite Communication

42. What are the types of errors?

a. Single-Bit error
In a single-bit error, only one bit in the data unit has changed
b. Burst Error
A Burst error means that two or more bits in the data have changed.

43. What is Error Detection? What are its methods?

Data can be corrupted during transmission. For reliable communication
errors must be deducted and Corrected. Error Detection uses the
concept of redundancy, which means adding extra bits for detecting
errors at the destination. The common Error Detection methods are
a. Vertical Redundancy Check (VRC)
b. Longitudinal Redundancy Check (VRC)
c. Cyclic Redundancy Check (VRC)
d. Checksum
44. What is Redundancy?
The concept of including extra information in the transmission solely for
the purpose of comparison. This technique is called redundancy.

45. What is VRC?

It is the most common and least expensive mechanism for Error
Detection. In VRC, a parity bit is added to every data unit so that the
total number of 1s becomes even for even parity. It can detect all single-
bit errors. It can detect burst errors only if the total number of errors in
each data unit is odd.

46. What is LRC?

In LRC, a block of bits is divided into rows and a redundant row of bits is
added to the whole block. It can detect burst errors. If two bits in one
data unit are damaged and bits in exactly the same positions in another
data unit are also damaged, the LRC checker will not detect an error. In
LRC a redundant data unit follows n data units.

47. What is CRC?

CRC, is the most powerful of the redundancy checking techniques, is
based on binary division.

48. What is Checksum?

Checksum is used by the higher layer protocols (TCP/IP) for error
detection

49. List the steps involved in creating the checksum.

a. Divide the data into sections
b. Add the sections together using 1's complement arithmetic
c. Take the complement of the final sum, this is the checksum.

50. What are the Data link protocols?

Data link protocols are sets of specifications used to implement the data
link layer. The categories of Data Link protocols are 1. Asynchronous
Protocols
2. Synchronous Protocols
a. Character Oriented Protocols
b. Bit Oriented protocols

51. Compare Error Detection and Error Correction:

The correction of errors is more difficult than the detection. In error
detection, checks only any error has occurred. In error correction, the
exact number of bits that are corrupted and location in the message are
known. The number of the errors and the size of the message are
important factors.

52. What is Forward Error Correction?

Forward error correction is the process in which the receiver tries to
guess the message by using redundant bits.

53. Define Retransmission?

Retransmission is a technique in which the receiver detects the
occurrence of an error and asks the sender to resend the message.
Resending is repeated until a message arrives that the receiver believes
is error-freed.
54. What are Data Words?
In block coding, we divide our message into blocks, each of k bits, called
datawords. The block coding process is one-to-one. The same dataword
is always encoded as the same codeword.

55. What are Code Words?

"r" redundant bits are added to each block to make the length n = k + r.
The resulting n-bit blocks are called codewords. 2n - 2k codewords that
are not used. These codewords are invalid or illegal.

56. What is a Linear Block Code?

A linear block code is a code in which the exclusive OR (addition
modulo-2) of two valid codewords creates another valid codeword.

57. What are Cyclic Codes?

Cyclic codes are special linear block codes with one extra property. In a
cyclic code, if a codeword is cyclically shifted (rotated), the result is
another codeword.

58. Define Encoder?

A device or program that uses predefined algorithms to encode, or
compress audio or video data for storage or transmission use. A circuit
that is used to convert between digital video and analog video.

59. Define Decoder?

A device or program that translates encoded data into its original format
(e.g. it decodes the data). The term is often used in reference to MPEG-
2 video and sound data, which must be decoded before it is output.
60. What is Framing?
Framing in the data link layer separates a message from one source to a
destination, or from other messages to other destinations, by adding a
sender address and a destination address. The destination address
defines where the packet has to go and the sender address helps the
recipient acknowledge the receipt.

61. What is Fixed Size Framing?

In fixed-size framing, there is no need for defining the boundaries of the
frames. The size itself can be used as a delimiter.

62. Define Character Stuffing?

In byte stuffing (or character stuffing), a special byte is added to the data
section of the frame when there is a character with the same pattern as
the flag. The data section is stuffed with an extra byte. This byte is
usually called the escape character (ESC), which has a predefined bit
pattern. Whenever the receiver encounters the ESC character, it
removes it from the data section and treats the next character as data,
not a delimiting flag.

63. What is Bit Stuffing?

Bit stuffing is the process of adding one extra 0 whenever five
consecutive Is follow a 0 in the data, so that the receiver does not
mistake the pattern 0111110 for a flag.
64. What is Flow Control?
Flow control refers to a set of procedures used to restrict the amount of
data that the sender can send before waiting for acknowledgment.

65. What is Error Control ?

Error control is both error detection and error correction. It allows the
receiver to inform the sender of any frames lost or damaged in
transmission and coordinates the retransmission of those frames by the
sender. In the data link layer, the term error control refers primarily to
methods of error detection and retransmission.

66. What Automatic Repeat Request (ARQ)?

Error control is both error detection and error correction. It allows the
receiver to inform the sender of any frames lost or damaged in
transmission and coordinates the retransmission of those frames by the
sender. In the data link layer, the term error control refers primarily to
methods of error detection and retransmission. Error control in the data
link layer is often implemented simply: Any time an error is detected in
an exchange, specified frames are retransmitted. This process is called
automatic repeat request (ARQ).

67. What is Stop-and-Wait Protocol?

In Stop and wait protocol, sender sends one frame, waits until it receives
confirmation from the receiver (okay to go ahead), and then sends the
next frame.

68. What is Stop-and-Wait Automatic Repeat Request?

Error correction in Stop-and-Wait ARQ is done by keeping a copy of the
sent frame and retransmitting of the frame when the timer expires.

69. What is usage of Sequence Number in Relaible Transmission?

The protocol specifies that frames need to be numbered. This is done by
using sequence numbers. A field is added to the data frame to hold the
sequence number of that frame. Since we want to minimize the frame
size, the smallest range that provides unambiguous communication. The
sequence numbers can wrap around.

70. What is Pipelining ?

In networking and in other areas, a task is often begun before the
previous task has ended. This is known as pipelining.

71. What is Sliding Window?

The sliding window is an abstract concept that defines the range of
sequence numbers that is the concern of the sender and receiver. In
other words, he sender and receiver need to deal with only part of the
possible sequence numbers.

72. What is Piggy Backing?

A technique called piggybacking is used to improve the efficiency of the

bidirectional protocols. When a frame is carrying data from A to B, it can
also carry control information about arrived (or lost) frames from B; when
a frame is carrying data from B to A, it can also carry control information
about the arrived (or lost) frames from A.
3. What are the two types of transmission technology available?
(i) Broadcast and (ii) point-to-point

74. What is subnet?

A generic term for section of a large networks usually separated by a
bridge or router.

75. Difference between the communication and transmission.

Transmission is a physical movement of information and concern issues
like bit polarity, synchronisation, clock etc.
Communication means the meaning full exchange of information
between two communication media.

76. What are the possible ways of data exchange?

(i) Simplex (ii) Half-duplex (iii) Full-duplex.

77. What is SAP?

Series of interface points that allow other computers to communicate
with the other layers of network protocol stack.

78. What do you meant by "triple X" in Networks?

The function of PAD (Packet Assembler Disassembler) is described in a
document known as X.3. The standard protocol has been defined
between the terminal and the PAD, called X.28; another standard
protocol exists between hte PAD and the network, called X.29. Together,
these three recommendations are often called "triple X".

79. What is frame relay, in which layer it comes?

Frame relay is a packet switching technology. It will operate in the data
link layer.

80. What is terminal emulation, in which layer it comes?

Telnet is also called as terminal emulation. It belongs to application
layer.

81. What is Beaconing?

The process that allows a network to self-repair networks problems. The
stations on the network notify the other stations on the ring when they
are not receiving the transmissions. Beaconing is used in Token ring and
FDDI networks.

82. What is redirector?

Redirector is software that intercepts file or prints I/O requests and
translates them into network requests. This comes under presentation
layer.

83. What is NETBIOS and NETBEUI?

NETBIOS is a programming interface that allows I/O requests to be sent
to and received from a remote computer and it hides the networking
hardware from applications.
NETBEUI is NetBIOS extended user interface. A transport protocol
designed by microsoft and IBM for the use on small subnets.

84. What is RAID?

A method for providing fault tolerance by using multiple hard disk drives.
5. What is passive topology?
When the computers on the network simply listen and receive the signal,
they are referred to as passive because they don't amplify the signal in
any way. Example for passive topology -linear bus.

86. What is Brouter?

Hybrid devices that combine the features of both bridges and routers.

87. What is cladding?

A layer of a glass surrounding the center fiber of glass inside a fiber-
optic cable.

88. What is point-to-point protocol?

A communications protocol used to connect computers to remote
networking services including Internet service providers.

89. How Gateway is different from Routers?

A gateway operates at the upper levels of the OSI model and translates
information between two completely different network architectures or
data formats.

90. What is attenuation?

The degeneration of a signal over distance on a network cable is called
attenuation.

91. What is MAC address?

The address for a device as it is identified at the Media Access Control
(MAC) layer in the network architecture. MAC address is usually stored
in ROM on the network adapter card and is unique.

92. Difference between bit rate and baud rate.

Bit rate is the number of bits transmitted during one second whereas
baud rate refers to the number of signal units per second that are
required to represent those bits.
baud rate = (bit rate / N)
where N is no-of-bits represented by each signal shift.

93. What is Bandwidth?

Every line has an upper limit and a lower limit on the frequency of
signals it can carry. This limited range is called the bandwidth.

94. What are the types of Transmission media?

Signals are usually transmitted over some transmission media that are
broadly classified in to two categories.

a.) Guided Media: These are those that provide a conduit from one
device to another that include twisted-pair, coaxial cable and fiber-optic
cable. A signal traveling along any of these media is directed and is
contained by the physical limits of the medium. Twisted-pair and coaxial
cable use metallic that accept and transport signals in the form of
electrical current. Optical fiber is a glass or plastic cable that accepts
and transports signals in the form of light.
b.) Unguided Media: This is the wireless media that transport
electromagnetic waves without using a physical conductor. Signals are
 broadcast either through air. This is done through radio communication,
satellite communication and cellular telephony.
95. What is Project 802?
It is a project started by IEEE to set standards to enable
intercommunication between equipment from a variety of manufacturers.
It is a way for specifying functions of the physical layer, the data link
layer and to some extent the network layer to allow for interconnectivity
of major LAN protocols.
It consists of the following:
1. 802.1 is an internetworking standard for compatibility of different LANs
and MANs across protocols.
2. 802.2 Logical link control (LLC) is the upper sublayer of the data link
layer which is non-architecture-specific, that is remains the same for all
IEEE-defined LANs.
3. Media access control (MAC) is the lower sublayer of the data link layer
that contains some distinct modules each carrying proprietary
information specific to the LAN product being used. The modules are
Ethernet LAN (802.3), Token ring LAN (802.4), Token bus LAN (802.5).
4. 802.6 is distributed queue dual bus (DQDB) designed to be used in
MANs.

96. What is Protocol Data Unit?

The data unit in the LLC level is called the protocol data unit (PDU). The
PDU contains of four fields a destination service access point (DSAP), a
source service access point (SSAP), a control field and an information
field. DSAP, SSAP are addresses used by the LLC to identify the
protocol stacks on the receiving and sending machines that are
generating and using the data. The control field specifies whether the
 PDU frame is a information frame (I - frame) or a supervisory frame (S -
frame) or a unnumbered frame (U - frame).

97. What are the different type of networking / internetworking devices?

1. Repeater: Also called a regenerator, it is an electronic device that

operates only at physical layer. It receives the signal in the network
before it becomes weak, regenerates the original bit pattern and puts the
refreshed copy back in to the link.
2. Bridges: These operate both in the physical and data link layers of
LANs of same type. They divide a larger network in to smaller segments.
They contain logic that allow them to keep the traffic for each segment
separate and thus are repeaters that relay a frame only the side of the
segment containing the intended recipent and control congestion.
3. Routers: They relay packets among multiple interconnected networks
(i.e. LANs of different type). They operate in the physical, data link and
network layers. They contain software that enable them to determine
which of the several possible paths is the best for a particular
transmission.
4. Gateways: They relay packets among networks that have different
protocols (e.g. between a LAN and a WAN). They accept a packet
formatted for one protocol and convert it to a packet formatted for
another protocol before forwarding it. They operate in all seven layers of
the OSI model.

98. What is ICMP?

ICMP is Internet Control Message Protocol, a network layer protocol of
the TCP/IP suite used by hosts and gateways to send notification of
datagram problems back to the sender. It uses the echo test / reply to
test whether a destination is reachable and responding. It also handles
both control and error messages.

99. What are the data units at different layers of the TCP / IP protocol
suite?
The data unit created at the application layer is called a message, at the
transport layer the data unit created is called either a segment or an user
datagram, at the network layer the data unit created is called the
datagram, at the data link layer the datagram is encapsulated in to a
frame and finally transmitted as signals along the transmission media.

100. What is difference between ARP and RARP?

The address resolution protocol (ARP) is used to associate the 32 bit IP
address with the 48 bit physical address, used by a host or a router to
find the physical address of another host on its network by sending a
ARP query packet that includes the IP address of the receiver.
The reverse address resolution protocol (RARP) allows a host to
discover its Internet address when it knows only its physical address.

101. What is the minimum and maximum length of the header in the
TCP segment and IP datagram?
The header should have a minimum length of 20 bytes and can have a
maximum length of 60 bytes.

102. What is the range of addresses in the classes of internet

addresses?
 Class A - 0.0.0.0 - 127.255.255.255
Class B - 128.0.0.0 - 191.255.255.255
Class C - 192.0.0.0 - 223.255.255.255
Class D - 224.0.0.0 - 239.255.255.255
Class E - 240.0.0.0 - 247.255.255.255

103. What is the difference between TFTP and FTP application layer
protocols?
The Trivial File Transfer Protocol (TFTP) allows a local host to obtain
files from a remote host but does not provide reliability or security. It
uses the fundamental packet delivery services offered by UDP.
The File Transfer Protocol (FTP) is the standard mechanism provided by
TCP / IP for copying a file from one host to another. It uses the services
offer by TCP and so is reliable and secure. It establishes two
connections (virtual circuits) between the hosts, one for data transfer
and another for control information.

104. What are major types of networks and explain?

1. Server-based network: provide centralized control of network
resources and rely on server computers to provide security and network
administration
2. Peer-to-peer network: computers can act as both servers sharing
resources and as clients using the resources.

105. What are the important topologies for networks?

1. BUS topology: In this each computer is directly connected to primary
network cable in a single line.
 Advantages: Inexpensive, easy to install, simple to understand, easy to
extend.
2. STAR topology: In this all computers are connected using a central
hub.
Advantages: Can be inexpensive, easy to install and reconfigure and
easy to trouble shoot physical problems.
3. RING topology: In this all computers are connected in loop.
Advantages: All computers have equal access to network media,
installation can be simple, and signal does not degrade as much as in
other topologies because each computer regenerates it.

106. What is mesh network?

A network in which there are multiple network links between computers
to provide multiple paths for data to travel.

107. What is difference between baseband and broadband

transmission?
In a baseband transmission, the entire bandwidth of the cable is
consumed by a single signal. In broadband transmission, signals are
sent on multiple frequencies, allowing multiple signals to be sent
simultaneously.

108. Explain 5-4-3 rule?

In a Ethernet network, between any two points on the network ,there can
be no more than five network segments or four repeaters, and of those
five segments only three of segments can be populated.

109. What MAU?

In token Ring , hub is called Multistation Access Unit(MAU).

110. What is the difference between routable and non- routable

protocols?
Routable protocols can work with a router and can be used to build large
networks. Non-Routable protocols are designed to work on small, local
networks and cannot be used with a router.

111. Why should you care about the OSI Reference Model?
It provides a framework for discussing network operations and design.

112. What is logical link control?

One of two sublayers of the data link layer of OSI reference model, as
defined by the IEEE 802 standard. This sublayer is responsible for
maintaining the link between computers when they are sending data
across the physical network connection.

113. What is virtual channel?

Virtual channel is normally a connection from one source to one
destination, although multicast connections are also permitted. The other
name for virtual channel is virtual circuit.

114. What is virtual path?

Along any transmission path from a given source to a given destination,
a group of virtual circuits can be grouped together into what is called
path.

115. What is packet filter?

Packet filter is a standard router equipped with some extra functionality.
The extra functionality allows every incoming or outgoing packet to be
inspected. Packets meeting some criterion are forwarded normally.
Those that fail the test are dropped.

116. What is traffic shaping?

One of the main causes of congestion is that traffic is often busy. If hosts
could be made to transmit at a uniform rate, congestion would be less
common. Another open loop method to help manage congestion is
forcing the packet to be transmitted at a more predictable rate. This is
called traffic shaping.

117. What is multicast routing?

Sending a message to a group is called multicasting, and its routing
algorithm is called multicast routing.

118. What is region?

When hierarchical routing is used, the routers are divided into what we
will call regions, with each router knowing all the details about how to
route packets to destinations within its own region, but knowing nothing
about the internal structure of other regions.

119. What is silly window syndrome?

It is a problem that can ruin TCP performance. This problem occurs
when data are passed to the sending TCP entity in large blocks, but an
interactive application on the receiving side reads 1 byte at a time.

120. What are Digrams and Trigrams?

The most common two letter combinations are called as digrams. e.g. th,
in, er, re and an. The most common three letter combinations are called
as trigrams. e.g. the, ing, and, and ion.

121. Expand IDEA.

IDEA stands for International Data Encryption Algorithm.

122. What is wide-mouth frog?

Wide-mouth frog is the simplest known key distribution center (KDC)
authentication protocol.

123. What is Mail Gateway?

It is a system that performs a protocol translation between different
electronic mail delivery protocols.

124. What is IGP (Interior Gateway Protocol)?

It is any routing protocol used within an autonomous system.

125. What is EGP (Exterior Gateway Protocol)?

It is the protocol the routers in neighboring autonomous systems use to
identify the set of networks that can be reached within or via each
autonomous system.

126. What is autonomous system?

It is a collection of routers under the control of a single administrative
authority and that uses a common Interior Gateway Protocol.

127. What is BGP (Border Gateway Protocol)?

It is a protocol used to advertise the set of networks that can be reached
with in an autonomous system. BGP enables this information to be
shared with the autonomous system. This is newer than EGP (Exterior
Gateway Protocol).

128. What is Gateway-to-Gateway protocol?

It is a protocol formerly used to exchange routing information between
Internet core routers.

129. What is NVT (Network Virtual Terminal)?

It is a set of rules defining a very simple virtual terminal interaction. The
NVT is used in the start of a Telnet session.

130. What is a Multi-homed Host?

It is a host that has a multiple network interfaces and that requires
multiple IP addresses is called as a Multi-homed Host.

131. What is Kerberos?

It is an authentication service developed at the Massachusetts Institute
of Technology. Kerberos uses encryption to prevent intruders from
discovering passwords and gaining unauthorized access to files.

132. What is OSPF?

It is an Internet routing protocol that scales well, can route traffic along
multiple paths, and uses knowledge of an Internet's topology to make
accurate routing decisions.

133. What is Proxy ARP?

It is using a router to answer ARP requests. This will be done when the
originating host believes that a destination is local, when in fact is lies
beyond router.

134. What is SLIP (Serial Line Interface Protocol)?

It is a very simple protocol used for transmission of IP datagrams across
a serial line.

135. What is RIP (Routing Information Protocol)?

It is a simple protocol used to exchange information between the routers.

136. What is source route?

It is a sequence of IP addresses identifying the route a datagram must
follow. A source route may optionally be included in an IP datagram
header.