Preliminary Assessment of Indigenous Food Technology in

Cereal-Dependent Northern Ethiopia

Background to the Study

An “Ad Hoc Expert Group Meeting on Indigenous Food Technology for Food
Security in Africa” was held in the United Nations Conference Centre from 22-23
November 2001 in Addis Ababa. The participants were drawn from over 10
African countries and the staff members of the OAU and ECA. The participants
form Ethiopia includes staff members of ESTC, ILRI, National Agro-Services
Project, and FAO. The meeting had recognised the importance of the roles
indigenous food technology play in alleviating food security problems and the
associated reduction in poverty (1).

One of the key recommendations of the meeting was that the member countries
where research and policies on Indigenous Food Technology (IFT) do not exist
should adopt relevant policies and make institutional arrangements to co-ordinate
the initiatives at the national level. In countries where IFT policies already exist,
they should be coordinated and harmonized at sub-regional and regional levels
(1). With this background, Ethiopian Health and Nutrition Research Institute
(EHNRI) being the only research institute in the subject, was approached by one
of the workshop participants to take up the research agenda and make concerted
efforts to conduct research activities in this important area.

Introduction

Over the last decade, several indigenous knowledge studies have been carried
out with emphasis on agriculture, agro-forestry, livestock farming, ecological and
natural resource management (2,3,4). Although some of these studies have
analyzed the role of indigenous technical knowledge predominantly in agriculture
(5), not much has been studied to identify and utilize indigenous food
technologies. In this connection, since the publication of the work by Gamser et
al (6) there has not been any major report on rural technological innovations in
off-farm activities. This lack of interest may not be unrelated with the general
perception that associates food technology only with the elite (7). Thus, one
could wonder what the resource-poor rural people have to offer in terms of
technology in traditional post-harvest food processing and preservations.

Ethiopia’s economy is predominantly agricultural-based, with more than 85

percent of its population largely depending on the agricultural sector for its
livelihood. More than 52 percent of GDP and 90 percent of the total foreign
exchange earnings are generated by the sector. Although subsistence resource
poor farmers dominate the agricultural sector, there has been little reform and
modernization in agriculture despite the needs and efforts by different regimes
over the years (8). Nevertheless, these resource-poor farmers use indigenous
knowledge and produce 90-95 percent of all cereals, pulses and oil seeds in the
country. Women account for about 15 percent of the farming populace. Cereal
production accounts for nearly 85 percent of the total cultivated land (9). The
cereals include teff, barley, wheat, maize and sorghum. The pulses comprise
beans, peas, chickpeas, lentil, rough peas, fenugreek, soybeans and haricot
beans, Oilseeds are grown in several varieties, major among them are sesame,
Niger seed, groundnuts and rape seeds. Sunflower, safflower and castor beans
are grown too.

Besides, it has been reported that the average post-harvest loss of cereal crops
such as teff, sorghum, wheat and maize ranges from 10-15% (10). On the other
hand, the losses of perishable food crops (such as fruit and vegetables) are
about 30%, which is more than double of the loss for cereal crops. High moisture
content, insect infestation and damage during handling and processing
(packaging, storage and transportation) are the main causes of crop losses.

2
Agricultural Development-Led Industrialization (ADLI), which is deeply rooted in
the economic policy, stresses the important contribution of agriculture to food
security and economic development. It is the country’s long-term development
strategy the main objective of which is to bring about a structural transformation
in the productivity of peasant agriculture and to streamline and reconstruct the
manufacturing sector, so that it makes extensive use of the country’s natural and
human resources (9,11).

Therefore, there is a strong policy support by the government to ensure

sustainable food security at household and community level and alleviate
women’s workload through the introduction of improved technologies.
Consequently, any introduction of improved technologies should be based on the
understanding of the indigenous knowledge base of the beneficiary communities
(3,11).

The understanding of indigenous knowledge in food processing and preservation

in post-harvest systems should also be the basis of food science research and
development activities for sustainable food security. Moreover, the generation of
information on the status of indigenous knowledge in food processing and
preservation practices at the community level is crucial for the development of
food and nutrition security programs at all levels.

This study, therefore, was initiated with the aims of documenting the existing and
yet not well-known and not recorded indigenous knowledge in food technologies
in selected areas in Tigray and Amhara regions as a starting point and as a
fundamental basis for research in food science and post-harvest technologies.
The understanding of indigenous knowledge in food technologies is
contemplated to facilitate identification of the gaps between indigenous and
modern sciences, apart from triggering in-depth research in the topic.

3
OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

General Objective

This preliminary study/survey aims at documenting the existing not widely known
indigenous food technologies in selected areas in Tigray and Amhara regions as
a staring point and as a fundamental basis for research in food science and post-
harvest technologies. The understanding of indigenous food technologies is
contemplated to facilitate identification of the gaps between indigenous and
modern sciences, apart from triggering in-depth research in the field.

Specific Objectives

• To document not widely known indigenous food technologies,

• Establish any positive and negative functions IFT play in the post-harvest
chains and identify the gaps or shortfalls to be filled or improved,
• To lay a ground for appreciation and acknowledgement of the users of
indigenous food technologies,
• To pave ways for similar studies in the study areas and other parts of the
country in future.

Scope Of The Study

The study was limited largely to the storable foods such as grains root/tuber
crops grown in the Amhara and Tigray Regional National States and to a lesser
extent to livestock products. Qualitative methods of data collection were
administered. Thus, focus group discussions were conducted with key
informants. The discussion participants and key informants included farmers of
various economic status, Kebele leaders, Rural Technology Promotion Centers,
Regional and Zonal Bureau technical staffs, Agriculture and Planning
Departments, Development Agents, Home Economists, Rural Development

4
Agents involved in agriculture and post-harvest activities, etc. The key informants
were interviewed individually in places of work.

The outcome of the study is anticipated to bring about new knowledge about the
existing indigenous practices in food processing and preservation technologies in
the northern parts of the country. The information generated and documented
from this preliminary assessment on indigenous knowledge in food technologies
is believed to call upon further in-depth research in the study regions as well as
in other parts of the country. Thus, the study hoped to lay a fundamental ground
for indigenous food science and post-harvest technologies research.

Materials and Methods

The study will be limited to the storable foods such as grains and root/tuber crops
grown in the Amhara and Tigray Regional National States. Qualitative methods
of data collection will be administered.

Key Informants:
The discussion participants and key informants included farmers of various
economic status, Kebele leaders, Rural Technology Promotion Centers, Regional
and Zonal Bureau technical staffs, Agriculture and Planning Departments,
Development Agents, Home Economists, Rural Development Agents involved
directly and indirectly in agriculture and post-harvest activities, etc. The key
informants were interviewed individually in places of work.

Focus Group Discussions:

FGDs were held with the key informants to qualify some of the statements
collected from the individuals. All individually interviewed key informants were
included in the FGDs. Focus group discussions with farmers of various economic
statuses were conducted.

5
Visit To Sample Households:
In this study, no regional representations were thought. Instead, communities
with common and unique methods of IFTs were studied to triangulate and
validate the information gathered from the line office bearers and key informants.
Where possible, the study team had initiated preparations and demonstrations of
typical and unique processing procedures and few samples were tasted and
collected.

Limitation of the study:

This preliminary study is not exhaustive and by no means attempts to even enlist
all undocumented or unknown, at least to the study team, indigenous knowledge
in food technologies in the study areas. The study also would not attempt to cope
with widely known indigenous food technologies, be it in food or beverages
processing and preparations, that are widely dealt with in various cookbooks and
elsewhere (13).

FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS

Table showing sample schedules

Sr. No. Study sites and numbers Amhara Tigray
1 Zones 4 4
2 Woreda 9 8
4 Households 12 18
5 FGD Sessions 6 8

Indigenous Food Technologies Common to Northern Ethiopia

All able family members and domestic animals perform indigenous harvesting of
grains. Grain hulling, threshing, winnowing and drying involves the use of wisdom
developed through time and for generations. The household food processing
technologies, especially cereals, legumes, vegetables, dairy products and spices
are operated by women (sometimes helped by their young children) are
predominantly indigenous and labor-intensive.

6
Indigenous Cereals Processing Technologies

Indigenous post-harvest technologies:

The Indigenous post-harvest techniques include beating of the harvests with
flails/sticks and driving a group of animals (mainly oxen and horses) to
repeatedly trample on pre-arranged piles on threshing floor and crush the straws
separating grains from the sheaves. With this type of processing (by driving
animals on the crops), loss of quality and quantity occurs due to contamination
from animal wastes, soil breakage and consumption of grain by the animals while
performing the work.

Indigenous Knowledge In Storage Common To Northern

Ethiopia
Cereals
Indigenous storage facilities:
There are various forms of traditional storage facilities constructed and
maintained by the farmers. The majority of them are constructed and maintained
indoor. The grains stored are cereals (sorghum, teff, maize, millets, barley, oats
and wheat). Outdoor and on-farm storage facilities are used to preserve non-
separated (non-threshed and unshelled) stockpiles.

a) Most of the traditional storage bins (locally called Gota, Gushgush, Dibignit)
are made of straw/grass, mud and/or cow dung. The facilities are constructed
in various sizes and can store from 3 up to 5 quintals (1 Quintal is equivalent
to 100 kilograms). These storage facilities are mostly in-door.

Perceived Advantages of these storage facilities are:

• Not exposed to spectators,
• Not exposed to theft.

Perceived Disadvantages:
• Storage pests,
• Over-crowed the house,
• Risk of fire.

b) A traditional crib (Gottera) made of Bamboo and the like materials (climbers,
stick, etc.), is constructed for outdoor storage. It can hold larger quantities (up

7
 to 10 quintals1) and is required for prolonged (a year and more) storage
periods. Most of the time, unshelled maize cobs are stored in this type of
facility.

Perceived Advantage: holds more grains, unshelled maize.

Perceived Disadvantages:
• Risk of damages by water/moisture,
• Exposure to viewers, attracts theft,
• Damages by insect pests, mites and rodents.

c) Other temporary storage facilities include earthenware (large and small pot
retired from their original functions) of various capacity, jute and
polypropylene bags.

Advantages of these are they store smaller quantities of grains safely for
longer time.

Disadvantages: Risk of damages by insect pests, more exposure to theft.

e) Underground pit storage

Indoor underground or pit storage is widely practiced in Northern Showa,
Southern and Northern Wollo, South Gonder, and in low lands of Gojam.

Outdoor underground or pit (up to 50 quintals capacity) storages (mainly for

sorghum) are practiced widely. However, nowadays, storing large quantities
of grain in underground pits prepared in open fields are reportedly
diminishing. The pits of various capacities (up to 30 quintals) are dug
methodologically in a house built on a sloppy and dry land. The walls and the
surfaces of the pit are lined with straws before the grains are deposited. The
mouth of the pit is covered with flat stone/wood after the grain is filled.

The reported advantages of underground storage facilities include:

• No exposure to viewers,
• Protection from insect pests and rodents,
• No risk of damage by fire (even if the house burns down).

11 Quintal=100 kilograms=0.1 MT.

8
 The disadvantages are:
• Risk of damages by water (moisture, flooding),
• Sometimes, offensive (moldy) smell in some grains (especially
sorghum and millet). Fungal growth and residual aflatoxins?

Use of Botanicals in Storage

Smoking of traditional storage structures with traditional herbs or shrubs is
practiced in North Gonder. In addition, some of the farmers also place herbs or
shrubs at the bottom of storage bins to protect their grains from infestations.
Mixing grains with wood ash is another practice in use for long-term storage.
However, there is no explanation about the protective actions/effects of these
items. These techniques may call for in-depth research.

Mixed Storages
Storage of sorghum mixed with Teff is reported to have a protective effect
against insect pest damages. The mixtures are later separated using sieves of
appropriate meshes.

We have to learn more about the benefits of these practices. These include:
• The tradition of storing grains in underground facilities for years
without any visible damage;
• The repellant or other aspects of smoking of storage structures
with herbs or shrubs;
• Mixing grains with wood ash is another practice in use for long
term storage; and
• Storage of sorghum mixed with Teff is reported to have a
protective effect.

Root and Tuber Crops

As a method of indigenous storage, root and tuber crops (potatoes, shallots,

garlic) are reportedly left in the fields quite for long time (up to 6 months). After
collected from fields, the crops are also stored or spread on the floor in the safe
corners (sometimes under beds) of the living houses.

Vegetables

9
The farmers except in the processes of preparation and consumption do not
store vegetables.

Fruit

The farmers except in the processes of preparation and consumption do not

store fruits.

Animal Products

Dried and smoked meat shreds are stored in household containers like smoked
gourds and earthen pots.

Hides and skins are sold fresh or processed into different traditional articles.

Dairy products like refined butter and cottage cheese are spiced and stored in
household containers.

Indigenous food technologies:

In household processing of cereal grains, the traditional wooden mortar and
pestle are extensively used for pounding (barley, sorghum, maize etc).
Converting the prepared grains into flour takes place either at local grain mills or
ground manually at home between two traditional abrasive stones. In remote
parts of the study regions, the traditional household stone milling sets are still
widely used by women to grind cereals and pulses. These pulverizing
technologies are predominantly manual, tedious and backbreaking.

It was also common to witness women pounding (using mortar and pestle) and
grinding manually small quantities of grain, red pepper or split pulses in the
households visited. Service mills are either not available or they are very far
away from places of residences.

Indigenous fermentation technologies:

Fermentation is the pivot of food processing and preservation that has remained
indigenous knowledge of the region for generations. Fermentation is used in both
in traditional foods (dietary) and beverage (drinks including dairy products)
preparations in all homes. The respondents believe that the techniques of dough
preparations, back-sloping of starter cultures (Irsho2), aging, baking (Injera,
2 Back sloped liquid supernatant from fermented dough and kept for use as starter for fermentation.

10
Dabo, Anebabero, Kitta)3: processing of roasted barley into ready to consume
flour that is called Besso (consumed after mixing it with lukewarm or boiled
water), production of home-made malt from cereals (millets, barley, maize,
sorghum, black wheat) and making of local brews (Tela, Korefe)4, or distillation of
varieties of local spirit (Arekie5, including lupin-based Gibto Arekie in Gojam), had
been passed down from their ancestors.

Injera:
Apparently, the most indigenous and popular cereal-based fermented staple diet
of the Northern Ethiopia is Injera. Although various studies exist as far as Injera
is concerned, we believe it warrants modest treatment in this report.

Injera is large, flat, thin and round pancake-like fermented bread baked from Teff
flour dough alone or mixed with other cereals. Nevertheless, Teff Injera is more
favoured than Injera from any other sources.

Injera Baking:
Fermentation for Injera making might begin spontaneously when the flour is in
contact with water due to large number of the natural flora of the cereal grain or it
may be initiated by the addition of 'Irsho'. In the process of Injera making, the
flour is usually mixed with adequate amount of water in large earthen vessel or
other similar containers suitable for fermentation. Traditionally, 'Irsho', leftover
batter from previous fermentation or yellowish liquid (or a supernatant) collected
from the top of fermenting dough, is added to the dough to enhance the
fermentation (14).

The first stage of fermentation is characterised by excessive gas evolution and

rising of dough. When the dough settles and bubbling of gas subside, a yellow
liquid appears at the surface. The supernatant liquid is discarded by most of the
housewives. About 10 percent of the fermented dough is mixed with about the
same volume of water and boiled for about 3 to 5 minutes to make a thin paste
called 'absit' (15). The hot absit is added to the dough and the second stage of
fermentation is allowed to proceed for about 30 minutes to 1 hr. After about an
hour, the slurry is poured onto a hot oiled round smooth clay griddle (or 'metad')
3 Tradition Ethiopian breads; Injera is a fermented, flat honeycomb like in structure. Dabo and Anebabero
are thicker and vary in shape and structure. Kitta is unleavened thick bread of various size and shape.
4Ethiopian traditional beers.
5Arakie is a traditional alcoholic drink obtained by distillation of fermented mash.

11
and baked for two to three minutes.

Indigenous Pulses Processing Technologies

In pulses processing (especially Kikk and Shiro)6 the grain undergoes preliminary
preparation at home (cleaning, pounding and winnowing), before being taken to
the mills or ground at home between two stone grinders. Although the pulse of
choice is garden pea, haricot bean, chickpea, grass pea, lentils or mixtures are
also processed. The whole grains are first dry cleaned and blanched separately.
The primary purpose of blanching is for easy separation of the seed coats. The
grain is then dried and roasted over a flat metal pan using open fire. Splitting the
grain so that the skin and the overdone particles are separated follows the
procedure. The product either used as Kikk or further powdered at the mills or at
home to make Shiro. Lupin (Gibto) plays an important roll both as food as well as
a raw material for spirit distillation in the region.

Indigenous Oilseeds Processing Technologies

Family members undertake edible oil, kibaneug, processing at home. The

extraction of oil, mainly from Niger seed (or Neug), involves cleaning, pounding,
mixing with water boiling which is then allowed to simmer for some time. When
the mixture is cooled, oil separates as a top layer, which is gently decanted. The
oil is then used for cooking or sold in the market.

Indigenous Root and Tuber Crops Processing Technologies

Root and tuber crops (potatoes, carrots, sweet potatoes, etc) are consumed in
boiled forms in the farmers’ households. Onions and shallots are shredded and
potatoes are sometimes minced to make different types of traditional stews, Wot.
Onions and garlic are occasionally shredded and dried in the sun as spice mix for
the preparation of traditional hot pepper powder, Berbere.

No introduced knowledge of scale observed except few households in urban

centers that prepare potato chips for sell on the streets and few supermarkets.

Indigenous Vegetables Processing Technologies

6Used in preparations of traditional stew. Kikk is split whole whereas Shiro is the same in flour form.

12
Vegetables (cabbages, kale, tomatoes, etc) are consumed fresh in cook/stew
forms. Fresh green pepper (chili) is consumed raw as accompaniment to main
dish, especially on fasting days. Red pepper (Berbere) undergoes various stages
of processing including cleaning, drying, pounding and mixing with spices and
substantial amount of dietary salt followed by some degree of fermentation.
Further drying, heating and grinding is done either in the home or at a mill.

Indigenous Fruit Processing Technologies

Fruits are picked, consumed garden-fresh or packed in polyethylene bags and

marketed as such. Fresh fruit juices are prepared and served to consumers in
coffee bars in urban centers.

Indigenous Animal Products Processing Technologies

Slaughtering of animals for meat takes place in private backyards and farms. Big
urban centers provide municipal abattoir services. Farmers’ knowledge in
maintenance of qualities of hides and skins is reportedly minimal resulting in
income losses.

Traditionally, shredded meat (Quanta) is salted/spiced and dried over smoke in

rural households for preservation purposes.

Dairy processing include separation of butter and home processed cheese which
both are sold in the local markets. Butter is extracted by churning fermented milk,
done by stirring followed by agitation in a fumigated clay pot, placed on a stuffing
and agitated by carefully rocking the pot forwards and backwards until small
lumps of butter form. In some of the lowland homes, women use gourds instead
of clay pots. The gourd is placed on a woman’s lap and rolled over to effect
agitation, and no stirring is done. The lumps of butter are collected by hand and
shaped into a cluster.

Soft cheese (cottage type) is obtained by straining heated (coagulated)

buttermilk. The supernatant removed makes traditional whey (as a byproduct).
The refining of butter and spicing of cheese takes place either during preparation
for consumption or for further preservation or storage.

Indigenous Food Technologies Unique to Northern Ethiopia

13
As the central objective of the present study the survey team, in consultation and
with the help of the regional staff, has collected brief information on the less
known major indigenous foods to bring into light their processing techniques. The
general overviews of these foods are given on the basis of places of interviews
and, where possible, demonstrations of their preparation methods.

Indigenous Food Technologies Distinctive to Tigray Region

T’ihilo: - T’ihilo is a prestigious food typical to Eastern Zone (Adigrat area) of

Tigray Region. It is prepared from decorticated, soaked, peculiarly toasted and
powdered white barley. The flour is moistened and kneaded during serving. The
kneaded small balls are served with meat or Shiro stews or based on the
availability and fasting situations. The T’ihulo balls are eaten with uniquely made
two-pronged wooden fork each time dipped into the appropriate stew or sauce.

Hilvet: - Hilvet is milky foam assortment prepared from powdered white

fenugreek, haricot bean, lentil and garlic. The finely prepared mix is cooked and
beaten into foam and served on Injera with other stews. It is peculiar to Central
Zone around Adwa and Axum. Hilvet is frequented during the fasting
season/days.

Hibishti: - Hibishti is peculiar to Wikro and Mekelle areas and is essentially

steam-baked wheat bread. The fermented dough is molded into desired shapes
and forms and placed on a suspension covered with fresh banana leaves above
boiling water in an earthen pot. The dough is then cooked in hot steam which is
generated from underneath without any contact with boiling water.

Hazzo: - Hazzo is principally prepared from field pea, red pepper, spices and
garlic. Field pea flour is cooked in boiling water, cooled and sifted to separate the
lumped particles. The finest part is mixed with spices and garlic, moistened with
small mount of water and left for 3 to 4 days. Hazzo is served with other stews on
Injera.

Ge’ezim: - Ge’ezim is a kind of sausage characteristically indigenous to Erob

people. Red mutton is minced and mixed with spices and stuffed into a tube of
the large intestine of goat, salted and smoked. The Ge’ezim is fried in edible oil
and eaten with other foods whenever needed.

14
Solla: - Solla is also meat-cooking method indigenous to Erob people. It is
frequented during feasting season like at the time of Maskal. Marble stone types
are collected and spread on a clean ground usually under a big tree. Acacia logs
are burned to heat the stones. Shredded mutton is cooked on highly heated
stone piles.

Indigenous Food Technologies Distinctive to Amhara Region

Metata: - Metata (or sometimes Metate) is a prestigious dairy product typical to

Amhara especially Awi Zone. It is prepared after draining boiled and sufficiently
cooked milk (soft cheese). The suitably (for about 30 days in inverted pot)
drained hard yellowish mass of cheese is assorted with pre-prepared spices mix
is preserved in a clean and dry gourd for years. Metate is reconstituted either
with boiled milk or water and refined butter’ whenever required to be consumed.
Metate is reported to stay up to 20 years without any spoilage. Apart from being
a prestigious food, Metata is reportedly used as a medication during malarial
attacks.

Bekolt: - Bekolt (or sometimes Bikilie) is mainly malted cereal product typical to
North Showa Zone. Wheat is cleaned, washed, soaked and left to malt for about
3 days. The malt (at the stage of initiation of shoots) is drained and dried in the
sun. Other ingredients like roasted lentil flour and barley flour are mixed with the
malt flour and prepared into gruel and fed to children, lactating mothers and the
elderly.

Gibto: - Gibto (lupin) for food is first toasted, put in porous polypropylene bag
and soaked in a flowing nearby river for about a week to apparently get rid of the
bitterness in the beans. The beans are washed thoroughly till they are no bitterer
in taste and served as snacks.

Gibto Arakie: - Gibto (lupin) for traditional liquor is first boiled, decorticated,
reduced in size and dried in the sun. The dried splits and milled into flour, baked
into kitta, mixed with water and other, made into a mash and left for 12 days for
fermentation to take place. The fermented mash is then distilled into Arakie.
There is a general belief in the population that Gibto Arakie is a remedy for
hypertension.

Chibito: - In Chibito preparation, first cereal flour is toasted on hot earthen grid,
mixed with hot pepper (Berbere) and cooked linseed flour. The mixture is then

15
moistened with boiled water, kneaded small balls and eaten during long journey
while far away from home or sources of usual meal.

Siljo: - Siljo is prepared from broad beans. Decorticated, washed and dried bean
splits are converted into flour and mixed in safflower water. The mixture is then
cooked in boiling water. A mixture of spices (garlic, ginger, rue, bishops’ weed
and mustard) is placed in the cooked and cooled mass and left for about 3 days
to ferment. The spice mix, except garlic, is removed before serving.

Discussions And General Recommendations

Grain hulling, threshing, winnowing and drying involves the use of wisdom
developed through time and for generations. The techniques include beating of
the harvests with flails/sticks and driving a group of animals to repeatedly trample
on pre-arranged piles on threshing floor and crush the straws separating grains
from the sheaves. With this type of processing, loss of quality and quantity
occurs due to contamination from animal wastes, soil breakage and consumption
of grain by the animals while performing the task.

There are various forms of traditional storage facilities constructed and

maintained by the farmers. The majority of them are constructed and maintained
indoor. The grains stored are cereals. Outdoor and on-farm storage facilities are
used to preserve non-separated (non-threshed and unshelled) stockpiles. Most
of the traditional storage bins (locally called Gota, Gushgush, Dibignit) are made
of straw/grass, mud and/or cow dung. The facilities are constructed in various
sizes and can store from 3 up to 5 quintals. These storage facilities are mostly in-
door. A traditional crib (Gottera) made of Bamboo and the like materials
(climbers, stick, etc.), is constructed for outdoor storage. It can hold larger
quantities and is required for prolonged storage periods. Most of the time,
unshelled maize cobs are stored in this type of facility. Other temporary storage
facilities include earthenware (large and small pot retired from their original
functions) of various capacity, jute and polypropylene bags.

Underground pit storage is widely practiced in Northern Showa, Southern and

Northern Wollo, South Gonder, and in low lands of Gojam. Outdoor underground
or pit storages (mainly for sorghum) are practiced widely. The pits of various
capacities are dug methodologically in a house built on a sloppy and dry land.
The walls and the surfaces of the pit are lined with straws before the grains are

16
deposited. The mouth of the pit is covered with flat stone/wood after the grain is
filled.

Smoking of traditional storage structures with traditional herbs or shrubs is

practiced in North Gonder. In addition, some of the farmers also place herbs or
shrubs at the bottom of storage bins to protect their grains from infestations.
Mixing grains with wood ash is another practice in use for long-term storage.
However, there is no explanation about the protective actions/effects of these
items. These techniques may call for in-depth research.

Storage of sorghum mixed with Teff is reported to have a protective effect

against insect pest damages. The mixtures are later separated using sieves of
appropriate meshes.

We have to learn more about the benefits of the practices of storing grains in
underground facilities for years without any visible damage; the use of repellant
or other aspects of smoking of storage structures with herbs or shrubs; Mixing
grains with wood ash is another practice in use for long term storage; and
storage of sorghum mixed with Teff is reported to have a protective effect.

The household food processing technologies, especially cereals, legumes,

vegetables, dairy products and spices are operated by women are predominantly
indigenous and labor-intensive.

In household processing of cereal grains, the traditional wooden mortar and

pestle are extensively used for pounding. Converting the prepared grains into
flour takes place either at local grain mills or ground manually at home between
two traditional abrasive stones. In remote parts of the study regions, the
traditional household stone milling sets are still used by women to grind cereals
and pulses. These pulverizing technologies are predominantly manual, tedious
and backbreaking. It was also common to witness women pounding and grinding
manually small quantities of grain, red pepper or split pulses in the households
visited. Service mills are either not available or they are very far away from
places of residences.

Fermentation is the pivot of food processing and preservation that has remained
indigenous knowledge of the region for generations. Fermentation is used in both
in traditional foods and beverage preparations in all homes. The respondents
believe that the techniques of dough preparations, back-sloping of starter

17
cultures (Irsho), aging, baking (Injera, Dabo, Anebabero, Kitta): processing of
roasted barley into ready to consume flour that is called Besso (consumed after
mixing it with lukewarm or boiled water), production of home-made malt from
cereals (millets, barley, maize, sorghum, black wheat) and making of local brews
(Tela, Korefe), or distillation of varieties of local spirit (Arekie, including lupin-
based Gibto Arekie in Gojam), had been passed down from their ancestors.

Apparently, the most indigenous and popular cereal-based fermented staple diet
of the Northern Ethiopia is Injera. Although various studies exist as far as Injera
is concerned, we believe it warrants modest treatment in this report.

Injera is large, flat, thin and round pancake-like fermented bread baked from Teff
flour dough alone or mixed with other cereals. Nevertheless, Teff Injera is more
favoured than Injera from any other sources.

Fermentation for Injera making might begin spontaneously when the flour is in
contact with water due to large number of the natural flora of the cereal grain or it
may be initiated by the addition of 'Irsho'. In the process of Injera making, the
flour is usually mixed with adequate amount of water in large earthen vessel or
other similar containers suitable for fermentation. Traditionally, Irsho, leftover
batter from previous fermentation or yellowish liquid (or a supernatant) collected
from the top of fermenting dough, is added to the dough to enhance the
fermentation.

The first stage of fermentation is characterised by excessive gas evolution and

rising of dough. When the dough settles and bubbling of gas subside, a yellow
liquid appears at the surface. The supernatant liquid is discarded by most of the
housewives. About 10 percent of the fermented dough is mixed with about the
same volume of water and boiled for about 3 to 5 minutes to make a thin paste
called 'absit'. The hot absit is added to the dough and the second stage of
fermentation is allowed to proceed for about 30 minutes to 1 hr. After about an
hour, the slurry is poured onto a hot oiled round smooth clay griddle (or 'metad')
and baked for two to three minutes.

In pulses processing (especially Kikk and Shiro) the grain undergoes preliminary
preparation at home (cleaning, pounding and winnowing), before being taken to

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the mills or ground at home between two stone grinders. Although the pulse of
choice is garden pea, haricot bean, chickpea, grass pea, lentils or mixtures are
also processed. The whole grains are first dry cleaned and blanched separately.
The primary purpose of blanching is for easy separation of the seed coats. The
grain is then dried and roasted over a flat metal pan using open fire. Splitting the
grain so that the skin and the overdone particles are separated follows the
procedure. The product either used as Kikk or further powdered at the mills or at
home to make Shiro. Lupin (Gibto) plays an important roll both as food as well as
a raw material for spirit distillation in the region.

Family members undertake edible oil, kibaneug, processing at home. The

extraction of oil, mainly from Niger seed (or Neug), involves cleaning, pounding,
mixing with water boiling which is then allowed to simmer for some time. When
the mixture is cooled, oil separates as a top layer, which is gently decanted. The
oil is then used for cooking or sold in the market.

Root and tuber crops (potatoes, carrots, sweet potatoes, etc) are consumed in
boiled forms in the farmers’ households. Onions and shallots are shredded and
potatoes are sometimes minced to make different types of traditional stews, Wot.
Onions and garlic are occasionally shredded and dried in the sun as spice mix for
the preparation of traditional hot pepper powder, Berbere.

Red pepper (Berbere) undergoes various stages of processing including

cleaning, drying, pounding and mixing with spices and substantial amount of
dietary salt followed by some degree of fermentation. Further drying, heating and
grinding is done either in the home or at a mill.

Traditionally, shredded meat (Quanta) is salted/spiced and dried over smoke in

rural households for preservation purposes.

Dairy processing include separation of butter and home processed cheese which
both are sold in the local markets. Butter is extracted by churning fermented milk,
done by stirring followed by agitation in a fumigated clay pot, placed on a stuffing
and agitated by carefully rocking the pot forwards and backwards until small
lumps of butter form. In some of the lowland homes, women use gourds instead
of clay pots. The gourd is placed on a woman’s lap and rolled over to effect
agitation, and no stirring is done. The lumps of butter are collected by hand and
shaped into a cluster. Soft cheese (cottage type) is obtained by straining heated
(coagulated) buttermilk. The supernatant removed makes traditional whey (as a

19
byproduct). The refining of butter and spicing of cheese takes place either during
preparation for consumption or for further preservation or storage.

With the current higher population growth rates, there will be increased demand
for preserved and packaged food products. This calls for additional and improved
processing facilities to cope with the high demand in quantity and quality. The
need to document and build data and information on the status of less popular
indigenous food processing and preservation practices at the national level is
fundamental to the establishment of sustainable food production, agro-
processing and food and nutrition security systems in the country.

As the central objective of the present study the survey team, in consultation and
with the help of the regional staff, has collected brief information on the less
known major indigenous foods to bring into light their processing techniques.
These preparations include T’ihilo, Hilvet, Hibishti, Hazzo, Ge’ezim and Solla
from Tigray Region. Unpopular major indigenous foods identified in Amhara
Region include Metata, Bekolt, Chibito, Siljo and Gibto (including it Arakie).
These preparations need further in-depth study including their proximate
compositions and their inclusion in the country’s food composition tables.

Reference

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