Rti: Data-Based Decision Making: Center

RTI:
Data-Based Decision Making

with Instructors Guide
THE
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CASE STUDY UNIT

Created by
Janice Brown and Kim Skow
The IRIS Center
iris.peabody.vanderbilt.edu or iriscenter.com
Serving: Higher Education Faculty PD Providers Practicing Educators
Supporting the preparation of effective educators to improve outcomes for all children, especially those with disabilities, birth through age 21
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Table of Contents n
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RTI: Data-Based Decision Making
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Contents: Page
Licensure and Content Standards. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ii
Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iii
Case Study Level A, Case 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Case Study Level A, Case 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Case Study Level B, Case 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Case Study Level C, Case 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
STAR Sheet: Data-Based Decision Making Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
STAR Sheet: Determining Performance Level . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
STAR Sheet: Determining Rate of Growth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
STAR Sheet: Using the Dual-Discrepancy Approach. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
STAR Sheet: Making Tier Placement Decisions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
STAR Sheet: Communicating with Parents. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Instructors
For Guide. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
an Instructors Guide to this case study, please email your full name, 29
title, and institutional affiliation to the IRIS Center at iris@vanderbilt.edu.
To cite this Case Study Unit:
Brown, J., Skow, K., & the IRIS Center. (2009). RTI: Data-based decision making. Retrieved
from http://iris.peabody.vanderbilt.edu/wp-content/uploads/pdf_case_studies/ics_rtidm.
pdf
IRIS@VU Modules and Materials Development IRIS@CGU Technical Assistance and Training
Naomi C. Tyler, PhD Co-Director Deborah D. Smith, EdD Co-Director
Vanderbilt University Claremont Graduate University
Phone: (615) 343-5610 or (800) 831-6134 Phone: (909) 607-8982 or (866) 626-IRIS [4747]
Fax: (615) 343-5611 Fax: (909) 607-0959
Email: iris@vanderbilt.edu Email: iris@cgu.edu
The contents of this case study were developed under a grant from the U.S. Department of Education, #H325F060003. However, those contents do not necessarily repre-
sent the policy of the U.S. Department of Education, and you should not assume endorsement by the Federal Government. Project Officer, Shedeh Hajghassemali.
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Standards
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Licensure and Content Standards

This IRIS Case Study aligns with the following licensure and program standards and topic areas.
Council for the Accreditation of Educator Preparation (CAEP)

CAEP standards for the accreditation of educators are designed to improve the quality and effectiveness not only of
new instructional practitioners but also the evidence-base used to assess those qualities in the classroom.
Standard 1: Content and Pedagogical Knowledge
Council for Exceptional Children (CEC)

CEC standards encompass a wide range of ethics, standards, and practices created to help guide those who have
taken on the crucial role of educating students with disabilities.
Standard 4: Assessment
Interstate Teacher Assessment and Support Consortium (InTASC)

InTASC Model Core Teaching Standards are designed to help teachers of all grade levels and content areas to pre-
pare their students either for college or for employment following graduation.
Standard 7: Planning for Instruction
Standard 10: Leadership and Collaborations
National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education (NCATE)

NCATE standards are intended to serve as professional guidelines for educators. They also overview the organiza-
tional structures, policies, and procedures necessary to support them
Standard 1: Candidate Knowledge, Skills, and Professional Dispositions
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Introduction l
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This case study set is intended to be a supplement to the IRIS Centers RTI Module series, providing additional
opportunities to practice the application of basic progress monitoring concepts within the response to intervention
(RTI) approach. There are two prerequisites for using this case study set. The first is a basic understanding of the RTI
approach. If you are unfamiliar with RTI, we recommend that you view the IRIS Module:
RTI (Part 1): An Overview
The second prerequisite is an understanding of progress monitoring within the RTI approach. You can learn more
about progress monitoring by viewing the IRIS Modules:
RTI (Part 2): Assessment
RTI (Part 4): Putting It All Together
Key Ideas
Response to intervention is an instructional approach that serves two primary purposes:
It provides early intervening services to struggling students as a means through which to
improve their skills.
It can be used to identify students who have learning disabilities.
RTI typically addresses student needs through multiple tiers of increasingly intensive instructional
interventions.
Whether it is used for early intervening or for the identification of students with learning disabilities, RTI
always incorporates the following elements:
High-quality instruction (i.e., instruction based on research-validated practices)
Frequent progress monitoring
Increasingly intense levels of intervention
Data-based decision making
RTI has many potential benefits, including that:
It provides early instructional intervention to those who need it.
It requires that teachers rely on assessment data to support their instructional decisions.
It reduces inappropriate special education referrals and placements.
It accommodates multiple levels of intervention.
It increases the use of research-validated instructional practices in the general education
classroom.
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RTI consists of the components outlined in the table below.
Universal All students are given a brief screening measure. This assessment is given one to three times
screening per year (i.e., fall, winter, and spring). Students at risk for academic failure are identified.
Tier 1 Students receive high-quality instruction (i.e., through validated practices) in the general
education setting. Teachers frequently (e.g., every one to two weeks) monitor the progress of
struggling students who have been identified through the universal screening process. (Note:
In some approaches, universal screening is considered to be part of Tier 1.)
Tier 2 Students who are not making adequate progress receive different or additional support
from either the classroom teacher or another educational professional. Teachers continue to
frequently monitor student progress.
Tier 3 Students whose progress is still insufficient in response to Tier 2 instruction receive even more
intensive and individualized instruction. Depending on a states or districts policies, this
instruction may be provided through general or special education.
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Case Study s
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Level A Case 1
Background
Student: Emil
Age: 6
Grade: 1
Scenario
Emil is a first-grade student at Mitchell Elementary School. His teacher, Ms. Perry, administered a universal
screening measure a few weeks after school began. Emils score indicated that he may be struggling in reading.
As a result, Ms. Perry monitors his reading performance once per week for five weeks using a measure of reading
fluency. The five-week goal (or benchmark) is 22 words per minute (wpm). Emils scores are in the graph and table
below.
Week of Instruction Score on Probe

Week 1 13
Week 2 17
Week 3 22
Week 4 26
Week 5 30
Possible Activities
Determining performance level
Making tier placement decisions
!
Assignment
1. Review the Case Study Set Introduction and each of the STAR sheets on the possible activities listed above.
2. Using the five weeks of progress monitoring data outlined above, calculate Emils performance level.
3. Determine whether Emil is responding adequately to Tier 1 instruction. Elaborate on your response.
4. Based on your evaluation, what tier of instruction would you recommend for Emil?
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Case Study s
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Level A Case 2
Background
Student: Hannah
Age: 8
Grade: 3
Scenario
Hannah is a third-grade student who transferred to Cartwright Elementary School late in the fall. Her teacher, Mrs.
Pei, has noticed that she seems to struggle with many independent reading assignments. When Mrs. Pei
administered the mid-year universal screening measure, she was not surprised to see that Hannahs score had fallen
below the grade-level benchmark. Consequently, Mrs. Pei monitors her reading performance once per week for
seven weeks using a measure of reading fluency. The rate of growth she is expected to achieve by the end of seven
weeks is 1.2. Hannahs scores are in the graph and table below.

Week 1 50
Week 2 52
Week 3 52
Week 4 51
Week 5 50
Week 6 53
Week 7 55
Possible Activities
!
Assignment
2. Using the seven weeks of progress monitoring data outlined above, calculate Hannahs slope.
3. Determine whether Hannah is responding adequately to Tier 1 instruction. Elaborate.
4. Based on your evaluation, what tier of instruction would you recommend for Hannah?
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Case Study s
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Level B Case 1
Background
Student: Shaunika
Age: 7
Grade: 2
Scenario
At Pegram Elementary School, the first round of Tier 2 instruction has ended for four second-grade students who
were not responding adequately to the reading instruction in the general education classroom. The second-grade
school support team is ready to meet to evaluate the progress of these students and to determine each students
instructional needs. They begin by evaluating Shaunikas Tier 2 progress monitoring data. The team will use the
dual-discrepancy approach to determine how Shaunika has responded to Tier 2 instruction and to decide what tier
of instruction would best meet her current instructional needs. The criteria the team are using to determine whether a
student is responding adequately to instruction is a performance level of 45 wpm and a rate of growth of 1.8

Week 8 14 Shaunikas Progress Monitoring Graph
Week 9 15 Tier 1 Tier 2
Number of Words Read Correctly
Week 10 16 70
Week 11 18 60
Week 12 17 50
Week 13 19 40
Week 14 20 30
Week 15 22 20
Week 16 24 10
Week 17 26 0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Week 18 26
Weeks of Instruction
Week 19 27
Possible Activities
Determining rate of growth
Determining dual discrepancy
3
!
Assignment
2. Using the twelve weeks of Tier 2 progress monitoring data outlined above, calculate Shaunikas
performance level and slope.
3. Using the dual-discrepancy approach, determine whether Shaunika is responding adequately to Tier 2
instruction. Explain your response.
4. Based on your evaluation, what tier of instruction would you recommend for Shaunika?
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Case Study s
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Level B Case 2
Background
Student: Kateri
Age: 9
Grade: 3
Scenario
Kateri has received Tier 2 instruction for ten weeks. Her Tier 2 instructor believes that she has made great progress
with the more targeted instruction. The Leonard Elementary School support team is ready to meet to evaluate
Kateris progress and to determine whether she has made enough progress to be successful with Tier 1 instruction
only or whether she needs more intensive instruction. The team will use the dual-discrepancy approach to
determine how Kateri has responded to Tier 2 instruction and to decide what tier of instruction would meet her
current instructional needs. The criteria the team are using to determine whether a student is responding adequately
to instruction is a performance level of 60 wpm and a rate of growth of 1.2.
Kateris Progress Monitoring Graph

Week of Instruction Score on Probe Tier 1 Tier 2
Week 7 40 70
Week 8 44 65
Week 9 47 60
Week 10 53 55
Week 11 57 50
45
Week 12 60
40
Week 13 63
35
Week 14 62
30
Week 15 64
25
Week 16 65
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
Possible Activities
5
!
Assignment
2. Using the ten weeks of Tier 2 progress monitoring data above, calculate Kateris performance level and
slope.
3. Using the dual-discrepancy approach, determine whether Kateri is responding adequately to Tier 2
instruction. Explain your answer.
4. Based on your evaluation, what tier of instruction would you recommend for Kateri?
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Case Study s
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Level B Case 3
Background
Student: Paul
Age: 8
Grade: 3
Scenario
Paul attends Lincoln Elementary School. He has received Tier 2 instruction for 10 weeks. Pauls teacher has been
monitoring his progress using the Vanderbilt University Passage Reading Fluency probe. Pauls eighteen-week goal
is 55 wpm and his expected rate of growth is 1. The school support team is meeting today to review Pauls progress
and to determine what tier of instruction would best meet his current educational needs. When they apply the
dual-discrepancy approach, the support team members disagree about what tier of instruction would best meet
Pauls needs.
Week of Instruction Score on Probe Pauls Progress Monitoring Graph

Tier 1 Tier 2
Week 9 35 70
Week 10 37 65
Week 11 38 60
55
Week 12 40
50
Week 13 42
45
Week 14 43
40
Week 15 44
35
Week 16 45 30
Week 17 46 25
Week 18 46 0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Possible Activities
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!
Assignment
2. Using the ten weeks of Tier 2 progress monitoring data above, calculate Pauls performance level and
slope.
3. Using the dual-discrepancy approach, determine whether Paul is responding adequately to Tier 2
instruction. Explain your response.
4. Why do you think the support team members disagree about what tier of instruction would best meet Pauls
needs? What tier of instruction would you recommend for PaulTier 1 instruction only or another round of
Tier 2 instruction? Explain your decision.
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Level C Case 1
Background
Student: Clay
Age: 7
Grade: 2
Scenario
The La Quinta Elementary School support team is ready to review the Tier 2 progress monitoring data for a number
of students. One of these students, Clay, has received Tier 2 instruction for thirteen weeks. The school support team
will evaluate Clays progress monitoring data to determine how he has responded to Tier 2 instruction and to
decide which instructional tier would best meet his needs. The team will use the dual-discrepancy approach to
answer these questions. The criteria the team are using to determine whether a student is responding adequately to
instruction is a performance level of 40 wpm and a rate of growth of 1.3. Once the school support team has
completed its evaluation of Clays data, his teacher will contact Clays parents and arrange a meeting to discuss
Clays progress and the teams recommendations regarding his tier placement.

Week 8 25 Clays Progress Monitoring Graph
Week 9 26 Tier 1 Tier 2
Week 10 28
50
Week 11 30
45
Week 12 33
40
Week 13 38
35
Week 14 34
30
Week 15 32
25
Week 16 38
20
Week 17 40
0
Week 18 42 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Week 19 44 Weeks of Instruction

Week 20 42
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Assignment
1. Review the Case Study Set Introduction and each of the STAR sheets.
2. Using the thirteen weeks of Tier 2 progress monitoring data outlined above, calculate Clays performance
level and slope.
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3. Using the dual-discrepancy approach, determine whether Clay is responding adequately to Tier 2 instruc-
tion. Explain your response.
4. Based on your evaluation, what tier of instruction would you recommend for Clay?
5. Imagine you are Clays teacher. Describe in detail what information you would share with his parents and
how you would justify the teams tier placement recommendation.
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STAR SheetH
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Data-Based Decision Making Overview
What a STAR Sheet is
A STAR (STrategies And Resources) Sheet provides you with a description of a well-researched strategy that can
help you solve the case studies in this unit.
What it is
Data-based decision making in RTI is the process of collecting data and using it to make instructional decisions, such
as which students are struggling with reading and which tier of instruction would best meet those students
academic needs.
What the Research and Resources Say

By monitoring the progress of all the students in a classroom, teachers can make instructional changes to
improve their students academic growth, including among those who are struggling with reading. (Fuchs &
Fuchs, n.d.)
By examining an individual students progress monitoring data, educators can determine whether that
student is responding adequately to the instruction he or she is receiving, and make appropriate instruction-
al decisions accordingly. (Johnson, Mellard, Fuchs, & McKnight, 2006)
A minimum of five data points is required to assess a students response to instruction. (Fuchs & Fuchs,
2007; Stecker, 2007)
By collecting progress monitoring data, educators can determine which intervention or types of instruction
work best for all students in the class. (Johnson, Mellard, Fuchs, & McKnight, 2006)
Connection to RTI
Data-based decision making is a central concept in RTI. School personnel collect screening and progress monitoring
data and then base their instructional decisions on these data. The table below summarizes these decisions.
Universal All students are given a brief screening measure. This assessment is given one to
Screening three times per year, (i.e., fall, winter, and spring) and the data are used to make
decisions about which students are potentially struggling with reading.
Teachers frequently (e.g., every one to two weeks) monitor the progress of strug-
gling students who are identified through the universal screening process. Typically,
Tier 1 teachers collect these data for five to ten weeks. The data are used to determine
whether the students are responding adequately to Tier 1 instruction or would
benefit from more targeted instruction (i.e., Tier 2).
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Tier 2 instruction should be provided for a minimum of 10 weeks. Student progress
continues to be monitored frequently (e.g., at least once per week). The data are
used to assess the students response to Tier 2 instruction. Based on those data, the
school team may decide that the student:
Tier 2
Can succeed with Tier 1 instruction only
Would benefit from another round (e.g., 10 weeks) of Tier 2 instruction
Needs more intensive individualized instruction (i.e., Tier 3 intervention)
Depending on a states or districts policies, this instruction may be provided through
general education or special education. Progress monitoring data are used to
Tier 3 determine whether a student is responding successfully to an instructional approach.
The data can also be used to decide whether the student is meeting grade-level
expectations and can succeed with less intensive instruction (e.g., Tier 1 or Tier 2).
Tips for Implementation

When using data to make instructional decisions, teachers will often find it beneficial to have guidelines. These
should specify what procedures to use when collecting and evaluating assessment data. Factors to consider include:
The measures to be used to monitor progress and the frequency with which these measures will be
administered (e.g., the Vanderbilt Word Identification Fluency probe administered once per week).
The method to be used to evaluate students response to instruction (e.g., dual discrepancy)
The criterion to be used to define adequate response to instruction (e.g., established benchmarks)
The frequency of collecting progress monitoring data to document students reading performance (e.g.,
every one to two weeks)
The amount of data sufficient to allow reasonable certainty about instructional decisions. For example, a
teacher needs at least five data points to determine whether a student is responding adequately to Tier 1
instruction
The rules to determine the appropriate level of instructional intensity (i.e., tier placement) based on students
progress monitoring data
The number of weeks targeted instruction will be delivered before response to that instruction is evaluated
and a tier placement decision is made. For example, a round of Tier 2 might be implemented for 10 weeks.
Round of Intervention:
A set period of time, determined by the school or district,
during which an intervention is implemented. Some students
may receive more than one round of intervention.
Keep in Mind
School personnel must understand the purpose and intent of data collection. This allows them to more
effectively use the data to make various decisions at different times throughout the RTI process. Typically, a
school team (e.g., a school support team) is created to interpret students data and to make tier placement
decisions. At least one member of the school team should have expertise related to interpreting data.
Any time a decision is made regarding a students instructional needs, parents should be involved in the
process.
The most effective methods of evaluating a students response to instruction are examining the rate of
growth, the performance level, or both.
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Resources
Fuchs, D., Fuchs, L. S., & Compton, D. L. (2004). Identifying reading disabilities by responsiveness-to-
instruction: Specifying measures and criteria. Learning Disability Quarterly, 27(4), 216227.
Fuchs, L. S., & Fuchs, D. (2007). A model for implementing responsiveness to intervention. TEACHING
Exceptional Children, 39(5), 1420.
Fuchs, L. S., & Fuchs, D. (n.d.). What is scientifically-based research on progress monitoring? National
Center on Student Progress Monitoring. Retrieved April 18, 2006, from http://www.studentprogress.org/
library/What_Is_Scientificall_%20Based_Research.pdf
Johnson, E., Mellard, D. F., Fuchs, D., & McKnight, M. A. (2006). Responsiveness to intervention (RTI): How
to do it. Retrieved on October 6, 2008, from http://www.nrcld.org/rti_manual/
South Dakota Department of Education. (n.d.). Parent involvement. Retrieved on October 7, 2008, from
http://doe.sd.gov/oess/specialed/forms/RtI/docs/parts/Parent%20Involvement.pdf
Stecker, P. M. (2007). Tertiary intervention: Using progress monitoring with intensive services. TEACHING
H
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STAR SheetH
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Determining Performance Level
What it is
Performance level is an indication of a students reading skills, often denoted by a score on a given test or probe. It
is usually represented on the vertical axis (the y-axis) on a graph of the students scores.

Progress monitoring probe scores have been shown to be highly correlated with standardized test scores.
(Fuchs & Fuchs, 2003)
Scores on progress monitoring probes indicate how students are reading compared with other students
in their class and with a normative sample of grade-level peers. (Vaughn & Chard, 2006; Fuchs & Fuchs,
2006)
Performance level can be used to determine which students are not responding adequately to general
education instruction (i.e., Tier 1 instruction) or to targeted instruction (i.e., Tier 2 instruction). (Fuchs &
Fuchs, 2006; Good, Simmons, & Kameenui, 2001)
Tips for Implemntation

At the end of a monitoring period (e.g., seven weeks of Tier 1 instruction), Benchmark:
the teacher compares a students performance level to the benchmark
specified by the measure being used. To do this, he or she examines the An indicator used to identify the
students graph and calculates the students average score on the three most expected understandings and
recent probes. skills needed for content
standards by grade level.
If a students average score on the last

three probes is equal to or greater than the
benchmark, the student is responding
adequately to instruction.
If a students score is below the specified
benchmark, more intensive instruction is
warranted.
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Example
Note: This example is also used on the STAR Sheet Determining Rate of Growth for a comparison of two of the
methods for evaluating student performance.
During the second week of school, Mrs. Haversham administered a universal screening measure to each student in
her first-grade classroom. Danisha scored in the bottom ten percent of her classthe criterion that indicates that she
may not be responding to instruction. To determine whether or not Danisha was adequately responding to Tier 1
instruction, Mrs. Haversham monitored her progress for ten weeks using Vanderbilt University Word Identification
Fluency (WIF) probes. Danishas progress monitoring graph is shown below. Using that data, Mrs. Haversham
calculates the students average score on the three most recent probes.
Danishas Performance Level
(Probe 8) 15
(Probe 9) 16 15
(Probe 10) + 14 3 45

45
Mrs. Haversham and the school support team determine that Danishas performance level is 15 wpm, which is
below the established ten-week benchmark of 21 wpm. This indicates that Danisha is not responding adequately to
instruction and may benefit from Tier 2 instruction.

Universal Screening
After administering a universal screening, the teacher determines the performance level of each student by
examining his or her scores. To ascertain which students may not be responding adequately to instruction in the
general education classroom (Tier 1), the teacher may use one of three methods:
Compare each students performance level to an established benchmark
Rank order the students and identify the lowest performing students in a class (or in a grade level)
Select a certain percentage of the lowest performing students (e.g., the bottom 20 percent of the class)
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Tier 1
After monitoring the progress of a student for five to ten weeks in Tier 1, the teacher will evaluate that students
performance level to determine whether the student needs more targeted instruction (i.e., Tier 2 instruction). In order
to do so, the teacher needs to have a criterion with which to compare the students scores. The criteria for
evaluating a students progress will vary depending on the progress monitoring measure being used. Each progress
monitoring measure specifies the benchmarks that indicate an adequate response to intervention for that measure.
These criteria also vary for each type of probe and for each grade level.
For example, the end-of-year benchmark for the Vanderbilt University Passage Reading Fluency probe for second
grade is 75 words read correctly in one minute. Consequently, a student would need to score 75 or above to be
considered performing at or above grade level.
Tier 2
Teachers can evaluate the performance of a student receiving Tier 2 instruction by examining that students progress
monitoring data. However, it is recommended that teachers use the dual-discrepancy approach to determine
whether a student is responding adequately to Tier 2 instruction. To learn more about this approach, see Page 22.
Fuchs, D., & Fuchs, L. S. (2006). Introduction to response to intervention: What, why, and how valid is it?
Reading Research Quarterly, 41(1), 9399.
Fuchs, D., Fuchs, L. S., Hintze, J., & Lembke, E. (2007). Using curriculum-based measurement to determine
response to intervention (RTI). Retrieved on 4 February, 2009, from http://www.studentprogress.org/sum-
mer_institute/default.asp#RTI
Fuchs, L. S, & Fuchs, D. (2003). What is scientifically-based research on progress monitoring? National Cen-
ter on Student Progress Monitoring. Retrieved October 6, 2008, from http://www.osepideasthatwork.
org/toolkit/pdf/ScientificallyBasedResearch.pdf
Good, R. H., III, Simmons, D. C., & Kameenui, E. J. (2001). The importance and decision-making utility of a
continuum of fluency-based indicators of foundational reading skills for third-grade high stakes outcomes.
Scientific Studies of Reading, 5, 257288.
Vaughn, S., & Chard, D. (2006). Three-tier intervention research studies: Descriptions of two related projects.
Perspectives, Winter, 3943.
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STAR SheetH
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Determining Rate of Growth
What it is
Rate of growth (or slope) indicates how much a students reading skills have improved over time. It is usually
represented by the slope of a students graphed scores.

The rate of growth is a measure of how many new words a student is learning, on average, each week.
(Fuchs & Fuchs, 2003)
Teachers can examine the slopes of the students in their classes, compare them with normative expectations
for growth, and determine which students are not making adequate progress. (McMaster, Fuchs, Fuchs, &
Compton, 2002; Fuchs & Fuchs, 2003)
The rate of growth provides a good indication of whether a student will meet an established goal or
benchmark (e.g., an end-of-year goal). (Vaughn & Chard, 2006)
The recommended rate of growth will vary by grade and by probe. (Fuchs, Fuchs, Hintze, & Lembke, 2007)

At the end of a monitoring period (e.g., seven weeks of Tier 1 instruction), the teacher should compare the students
slope to the rate of growth specified by the progress monitoring measure being used. A students slope can be
determined with the following pieces of information:
The score on the first probe: y1

The score on the last probe: y2
The first administration (e.g., week 1): x1
The last administration (e.g., week 8): x2
y2 y1
Slope =
x2 x1
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If a students slope is equal to or greater than the specified rate of growth (e.g., 1.8 on the first-grade
Vanderbilt University WIF probe), the student is responding adequately to instruction. See A below.
If a students slope is less than the specified rate of growth, more intensive instruction (i.e., Tier 2 instruction)
is warranted. See B below.
80
80

70
70
60
60
50
50
40
40
30 30
20 20
10 10
0 0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Weeks of Instruction Weeks of Instruction
A B
Example
Note: This example is also used on the STAR Sheet Determining Performance Level for a comparison of two of the
methods for evaluating student performance.
During the second week of school, Mrs. Haversham administered a universal screening measure to each student in
her first-grade classroom. Danisha scored in the bottom ten percent of her classthe criterion indicating that she
may not be responding to instruction. To determine whether or not Danisha was adequately responding to Tier 1 in-
struction, Mrs. Haversham monitored her progress for ten weeks using Vanderbilt University WIF probes. Danishas
progress monitoring graph is below. Using that data, Mrs. Haversham calculates Danishas rate of growth (i.e.,
slope).
Danishas Rate of Growth
(y2=14)
(y1=10) y2 y1 14 10 4
(x2=10) x2 x1 = 10 1 = 9 = .44
(x1=1)
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Mrs. Haversham determines that Danishas rate of growth is .44, which falls below the established criterion of 1.6.
This indicates that Danisha is not responding adequately to Tier 1 instruction and may benefit from Tier 2
instruction.
Keep in Mind
Tier 1
Although some teachers may evaluate a students performance in reading by examining performance level, others
prefer to examine a students rate of growth because it allows them to predict whether that student is going to meet
a mid-year or end-of-year benchmark. In addition:
The criteria for evaluating rate of growth vary depending on the progress monitoring measure being used
and for each grade level.
Each progress monitoring measure specifies the rate of growth that indicates an adequate response to
intervention for that measure.
Teachers and schools can purchase software that graphs and helps to interpret student progress monitoring
data.
Tier 2
Teachers can evaluate the performance of a student receiving Tier 2 instruction by examining that students progress
monitoring data. However, it is recommended that teachers use the dual-discrepancy approach to determine
whether a student is responding adequately to Tier 2 instruction. To learn more about this approach, see Page 22.
Resources
response to intervention (RTI). Retrieved on 4 February, 2009, from http://www.studentprogress.org/
summer_institute/default.asp#RTI
Fuchs, L. S, & Fuchs, D. (2003). What is scientifically-based research on progress monitoring? National
Center on Student Progress Monitoring. Retrieved October 6, 2008, from http://www.osepideasthat-
work.org/toolkit/pdf/ScientificallyBasedResearch.pdf
McMaster, K., Fuchs, D., Fuchs, L. S., & Compton, D. L. (2002). Monitoring the academic progress of
children who are unresponsive to generally effective early reading intervention. Assessment for Effective
Intervention, 27(4), 2333.
Vaughn, S., & Chard, D. (2006). Three-tier intervention research studies: Descriptions of two related projects.
Perspectives, Winter, 3943.
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Using the Dual-Discrepancy Approach
What it is
The dual-discrepancy approach is a met hod that involves evaluating a students performance level and rate of
growth. It is the preferred method for determining whether students are responding adequately to Tier 2 and
subsequent tiers of instruction.

The use of both criterion, performance level and rate of growth, has been shown to be the most reliable
means of distinguishing between students who respond to instruction and those who do not. (McMaster,
Fuchs, Fuchs, & Compton, 2002)
Unlike with the IQ-achievement discrepancy model, the use of both criterion (performance level and rate
of growth) to determine academic progress avoids gender bias or the overrepresentation of specific ethnic
groups in special education services. (Speece, 2005)
Students who are below the criteria for both performance level and rate of growth are not responding to the
high-quality instruction provided and may benefit from more intensive instruction. (McMaster, Fuchs, Fuchs,
& Compton, 2002)

The dual-discrepancy approach is recommended for evaluating a students response to Tier 2 instruction and to
more intensive levels of instruction. It is important to note that there is no set sequence for the evaluation of
performance level and rate of growth. For the purposes of this case study, an order has been imposed on this
process (see the steps below) because experience indicates that it is more common for students to meet their
performance-level expectations (i.e., benchmarks) than
Tier 1
to meet their rate-of-growth expectations (i.e., slopes). In
35
effect, evaluating performance level first might reduce
the amount of work teachers undertake to make tier 30
decisions. When evaluating student progress for Tier 2, 25

teachers should: 20
15
Step 1: Evaluate the performance level for each
10
struggling student
5
If a students performance level meets or exceeds the
0
relevant benchmark, the student is making adequate 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
progress (see the table below). Weeks of Instruction
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20
If a students performance level does not meet the benchmark Go to Step 2.
Step 2: Evaluate the rate of growth

If a students slope meets or exceeds the established rate of growth, the student is making adequate progress
(see the table below). .
If a students slope does not meet the established rate of growth Provide Tier 3 intensive, individualized
instruction.
Performance Level Rate of Growth Outcome

Yes Yes Making Adequate Progress
Yes No Making Adequate Progress

Meets Criteria
No Yes Making Adequate Progress
Not Making Adequate Progress;
No No
Needs More Intensive Services
Example
Andy, a first-grade student, has received Tier 2 instruction for 10 weeks. It is now time for his teacher and the
S-team to determine whether he has responded adequately to instruction and to make an instructional placement
decision based on his progress monitoring data. Using the dual-discrepancy approach, his teacher first determines
his performance level. If Andys performance level meets or exceeds the relevant benchmark, the team will
determine that he is making adequate progress and will either discontinue Tier 2 instruction or provide another
round of Tier 2 instruction. If Andys performance level does not meet the ten-week benchmark, 37 wpm, the team
will calculate his rate of growth (i.e., slope).
Step 1: Evaluate Andys performance level
Andys Performance Level
(Probe 8) 32
(Probe 9) 34 34
(Probe 10) + 36 3 102
102
H 21
Andys performance level is 34 wpm. Because he did not meet the designated ten-week benchmark of 37 wpm, his
teacher needs to calculate his rate of growth.
Step 2: Evaluate Andys rate of growth
Andys Progress Monitoring Graph

Andys Rate of Growth
Tier 1
45
40
35 (y2=36)
30 (y1=17) y2 y1 36 17 19
25
(x2=10) x2 x1 = 10 1 = 9 =2.1
20
(x1=1)
15
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Andys rate of growth is 2.1, which exceeds the established criterion of 1.8. This indicates that Andy is not dually
discrepant and may discontinue Tier 2 instruction. Because Andy has not met his benchmark, some teams might
decide that Andy would benefit from another round of Tier 2 instruction.
Resources
response to intervention (RTI). Retrieved on 4 February, 2009, from http://www.studentprogress.org/
summer_institute/default.asp#RTI
Speece, D. L. (2005). Hitting the moving target known as reading development: Some thoughts on screening
children for secondary interventions. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 38(6), 487493.
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Making Tier Placement Decisions
What it is
Making tier placement decisions is the process in which a school team evaluates a students progress monitoring
data and decides what level of instruction the student needs. The team can decide that the student needs 1) more
intensive, 2) less intensive, or 3) the same level of instruction.

The most reliable way to make a tier placement decision for Tier 2 and beyond is to use the dual-discrepan-
cy approach. (McMaster, Fuchs, Fuchs, & Compton 2002; Fuchs & Fuchs, 2007)
The data are compared to pre-established criteria. (Fuchs & Fuchs, 2006)
Multiple tiers of intervention allow for increasingly intensive interventions. (Vaughn Gross Center, 2003)
A recommended approach to the tier placement process is to create a school team that examines students
data and makes data-based tier placement decisions. (TN Dept of Ed., 2007; Bender & Shores, 2007)
As members of the RTI decision-making team, parents can offer an additional perspective and contribute to
the success of the RTI approach for their child. (Bergeson, 2006)

One major application of data-based decision making under the RTI approach is to help school personnel make tier
placement decisions, of which there are two general types: tier initiation and tier discontinuation.
H 23
Tier Initiation Process
Universal Screening Universal Screening:
Did the student demonstrate adequate reading perfor-
mance on the screening? All students respond to a universal
screening measure.
YES NO
Monitor Tier 1
Progress
Assessing Tier 1 Response
Is the student responding adequately to general
education classroom instruction?
Tier 1 Instruction:
All students receive Tier 1 instruction.

YES NO The progress of students who do
not meet the criteria on the universal
screening measure is monitored.
Receive Tier 2
Intervention
Is the student responding adequately to targeted
intervention?
Initiating Tier 2 Intervention:

YES NO
Students who do not respond adequately
to Tier 1 instruction receive targeted
intervention (i.e., Tier 2) in addition to
Receive Tier 3 Tier 1.
Intervention

Does the student meet criteria for a disability
classification?
YES NO
Initiating Tier 3 Intervention:
Which disability classification?
Students who do not respond adequately
to Tier 2 intervention receive intensive,
LD EBD
individualized intervention (i.e., Tier 3)
ID in addition to Tier 1 instruction.
H
24
Tier Discontinuation Process
Tier 1 Instruction Tier 1 Instruction:
All students receive Tier 1 Instruction
All students receive Tier 1 instruction
Assessing Tier 2 Response throughout the year.
Is the student responding adequately to targeted
intervention?
Discontinuing Tier 2 Intervention:
YES NO Continue Tier 2 Students who respond adequately to

Intervention Tier 2 instruction may:
Discontinue Tier 2 intervention and

Receive Tier 1 Receive Tier 3 receive Tier 1 instruction only
Instruction Only Intervention Receive another round of Tier
2 intervention. (This is often an
option for students who respond
Assessing Tier 3 Response favorably to intervention but who
Does the student continue to need intensive have not quite met the established
individualized intervention? benchmark.)
YES NO Receive Tier 1 Discontinuing Tier 3 Intervention:

Instruction Only
Students who respond adequately to
Tier 3 intervention may:
Continue Tier 3 Receive Tier 2
Intervention Intervention Discontinue Tier 3 intervention
and receive Tier 2 intervention to
support the eventual transition to
Tier 1 instruction only
Discontinue Tier 3 intervention and
receive Tier 1 instruction only
Note: When Tier 3 is special

education, an IEP meeting must be held
to change or discontinue intervention
services.
H
25
Keep in Mind
When they implement the RTI approach, schools should:
Specify the criteria to be used to define inadequate response to instruction (e.g., established normative
benchmarks).
When a students data indicate that the student is not making adequate progress in the general education
classroom (i.e., Tier 1 instruction), the school team may determine that he or she would benefit from
additional targeted instruction (i.e., Tier 2).
When the data for a student who has received one or more rounds of Tier 2 instruction indicate that he or
she is now performing at grade level, the student may be able to discontinue Tier 2 instruction and maintain
his or her level of performance with Tier 1 instruction only.
School personnel need to be sure that a student has mastered and can maintain the skills acquired during
intervention before that intervention is discontinued.
A student may be referred for a special education evaluation at any point in the RTI process.
Resources
Bender, W. N., & Shores, C. (2007). Response to intervention: A practical guide for every teacher. Thousand
Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.
Bergeson, T. (2006). Using response to intervention (RTI) for Washingtons students. Retrieved on October 7,
2008, from http://www.k12.wa.us/CurriculumInstruct/pubdocs/RTI.pdf
Fuchs, D., & Fuchs, L. S. (2006). Introduction to response to intervention: What, why, and how valid is it?
Reading Research Quarterly, 41(1), 9399.
Fuchs, L. S., & Fuchs, D. (2007). A model for implementing responsiveness to intervention. TEACHING
Tennessee State Board of Education. (2007). Specific learning disabilities eligibility standards (SLD).
Retrieved on October 7, 2008, from http://state.tn.us/sbe/Nov07/VJ_SpecificLrngDisabilities_
Eligibility_Std.pdf
Vaughn Gross Center for Reading and Language Arts. (2003). Introduction to the 3-tier reading model:
Reducing reading difficulties for kindergarten through third grade students (4th ed.). Austin, TX: University
of Texas System/ Texas Education Agency.
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Communicating with Parents
What it is
Communicating with parents involves notifying and discussing with them their childs progress and response to
instruction.

Involving parents in all phases of RTI implementation is one of the keys to its success. Parents bring another
perspective to the decision-making process that increases the likelihood that RTI interventions will be
effective. (Bergeson, 2006)
Sharing normative standards of performance with parents (e.g., the benchmarks or criteria that define
responsiveness to instruction) will smooth the process of making tier placement decisions. (Johnson, Mellard,
Fuchs, & McKnight, 2006)

The school should establish communication with the parents at the beginning of the school year to explain
the RTI process and to provide families with information about the core instruction and instruction at the
various levels.
Schools should have procedures in place to ensure that parents are informed of their childs progress at
critical junctures (e.g., after the universal screening, before changes in their childs tier placement are
made).
Teachers should meet with parents at least once a year for parent conferences. Additionally, teachers should
meet with parents when instructional changes are made.
Schools should offer translators (as needed) for written and verbal communication with parents.
Communication with parents is especially important when a student is identified as having some additional
need that will be met through a more intense level of instruction (e.g., Tier 2). When meeting with parents, a
teacher should focus on specific student needs and bring a graph of the students progress monitoring data
to interpret for the parents. The graph can:
Provide a point of reference for the discussion between the teacher and parents
Present an objective picture of the students performance
During a parent-teacher meeting, teachers should be prepared to discuss the issues parents typically are
interested in:
Their childs progress compared to his or her past achievement
Their childs progress compared to other students
The goals their child is expected to meet by the end of the school year
H 27
Example
Steve is a first-grade student at McDuffy Elementary. Below is his Tier 2 progress monitoring graph. His teacher, Ms.
Doss, meets with Steves parents to discuss his progress. The following monologue describes what she might say in
this meeting. Notice how she addresses the three typical parental concerns listed above.
Steves Progress Monitoring Graph

Tier 1
Tier 2
35
30
D
25 Short-term goal=32 wpm
20
Slope=2.0
15 C
10
5
B
A
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Hi, Mr. and Mrs. Lancaster. Its nice to see you again. I want to discuss Steves reading progress with you today,
and I am going to use this graph to help us. The last time we met, we talked about the fact that Steves reading
performance was not improving. Although he was able to maintain his ability to read about 57 words correctly
per minute on the tests I gave him, his reading skill did not increase, as shown here on this graph ( A ). The school
support team suggested, and you agreed, that he might be more successful with the additional support provided
by our Tier 2 instruction. Steve began Tier 2 instruction in week 11 ( B ), and as you can see from this line ( c ) his
scores have been steadily improving ever since. He is currently reading about 29 words correctly in one minute
( D ), which is a nice improvement from where he was at week 10. In order to be reading on grade level, Steves
short term goal is to be able to read 32 words per minute. Although Steve has yet to meet that grade-level goal,
shown by the dashed line on the graph, I think that if he continues receiving Tier 2 instruction, he will be reading
on grade levelthat is, 60 words per minuteby the end of the school year.
Resources
Bergeson, T. (2006). Using response to intervention (RTI) for Washingtons students. Retrieved on October 7,
2008, from http://www.k12.wa.us/CurriculumInstruct/pubdocs/RTI.pdf
Johnson, E., Mellard, D. F., Fuchs, D., & McKnight, M. A. (2006). Responsiveness to intervention (RTI): How
to do it. Retrieved on October 6, 2008, from http://www.nrcld.org/rti_manual/
H 28

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Data-Based Decision Making

CASE STUDY UNIT

To cite this Case Study Unit:

Licensure and Content Standards

Council for the Accreditation of Educator Preparation (CAEP)

Council for Exceptional Children (CEC)

Interstate Teacher Assessment and Support Consortium (InTASC)

National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education (NCATE)

Week of Instruction Score on Probe

Week of Instruction Score on Probe

Week of Instruction Score on Probe

Kateris Progress Monitoring Graph

Week of Instruction Score on Probe Pauls Progress Monitoring Graph

Week of Instruction Score on Probe

Week 19 44 Weeks of Instruction

What the Research and Resources Say

Tips for Implementation

What the Research and Resources Say

Tips for Implemntation

If a students average score on the last

Danishas Performance Level

Tips for Implementation

What the Research and Resources Say

Tips for Implementation

The score on the first probe: y1

Number of Words Read Correctly

Danishas Rate of Growth

What the Research and Resources Say

Tips for Implementation

decisions. When evaluating student progress for Tier 2, 25

Step 2: Evaluate the rate of growth

Performance Level Rate of Growth Outcome

Yes No Making Adequate Progress

Step 1: Evaluate Andys performance level

Andys Performance Level

Andys Progress Monitoring Graph

What the Research and Resources Say

Tips for Implementation

All students receive Tier 1 instruction.

Initiating Tier 2 Intervention:

Assessing Tier 3 Response

Discontinuing Tier 2 Intervention:

YES NO Continue Tier 2 Students who respond adequately to

Discontinue Tier 2 intervention and

YES NO Receive Tier 1 Discontinuing Tier 3 Intervention:

Note: When Tier 3 is special

What the Research and Resources Say

Tips for Implementation

Steves Progress Monitoring Graph

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