Climate 2015, 3, 416-434; doi:10.

3390/cli3020416
OPEN ACCESS

climate
ISSN 2225-1154
www.mdpi.com/journal/climate
Article

Variabilities in Rainfall Onset, Cessation and Length of Rainy

Season for the Various Agro-Ecological Zones of Ghana
Leonard K. Amekudzi 1, *, Edmund I. Yamba 2 , Kwasi Preko 1 , Ernest O. Asare 1 ,
Jeffrey Aryee 1 , Michael Baidu 1 and Samuel N. A. Codjoe 3

1
Meteorology and Climate Science Unit, Department of Physics, Kwame Nkrumah University of
Science and Technology (KNUST) UPO, P. O. Box PMB Kumasi, Ghana;
E-Mails: kpreko@yahoo.com (K.P.); asare2020@yahoo.com (E.O.A.);
jeff.jay8845@gmail.com (J.A.); mikebaiduu@yahoo.com (M.B.)
2
Institute of Geophysics and Meteorology, University of Cologne, Cologne 50670, Germany;
E-Mail: ilimoan@yahoo.co.uk
3
Regional Institute of Population Studies (RIPS), University of Ghana, P. O. Box LG 96 Legon, Ghana;
E-Mail: scodjoe@ug.edu.gh

* Author to whom correspondence should be addressed; E-Mail: lkamekudzi.cos@knust.edu.gh or

leonard.amekudzi@gmail.com; Tel.: +233-20-184-2237.

Received: 5 February 2015 / Accepted: 5 June 2015 / Published: 15 June 2015

Abstract: This paper examines the onset and cessation dates of the rainy season over Ghana
using rain gauge data from the Ghana Meteorological Agency (GMet) over the period of
19702012. The onset and cessation dates were determined from cumulative curves using
the number of rainy days and rainfall amount. In addition, the inter-annual variability of
the onset and cessation dates for each climatic zone was assessed using wavelet analysis.
A clear distinction between the rainfall characteristics and the length of the rainy season in
the various climatic zones is discussed. The forest and coastal zones in the south had their
rainfall onset from the second and third dekads of March. The onset dates of the transition
zone were from the second dekad of March to the third dekad of April. Late onset, which
starts from the second dekad of April to the first dekad of May, was associated with the
savannah zone. The rainfall cessation dates in the forest zone were in the third dekad of
October to the first dekad of November, and the length of the rainy season was within
225240 days. The cessation dates of the coastal zone were within the second and third
dekad of October, and the length of rainy season was within 210220 days. Furthermore, the
transition zone had cessation dates in the second to third dekad of October, and the length
Climate 2015, 3 417

of the rainy season was within 170225 days. Lastly, the savannah zone had cessation dates
within the third dekad of September to the first dekad of October, and the length of rainy
season was within 140180 days. The bias in the rainfall onset, cessation and length of
the rainy season was less than 10 days across the entire country, and the root mean square
error (RMSE) was in the range of 525 days. These findings demonstrate that the onset
derived from the cumulative rainfall amount and the rainy days are in consistent agreement.
The wavelet power spectrum and its significant peaks showed evidence of variability in the
rainfall onset and cessation dates across the country. The coastal and forest zones showed
28- and 24-year band variability in the onsets and cessations, whereas the onset and
cessation variability of the transition and savannah zones were within 24 and 48 years.
This result has adverse effects on rain-fed agricultural practices, disease control, water
resource management, socio-economic activities and food security in Ghana.

Keywords: onset and cessation; climate variability; length of rainy season; wavelet analysis

1. Introduction

The schedule of agricultural activities, right from land preparation, through crop selection and
planting, to the time of harvesting for a developing country like Ghana, is rainfall dependent [14]. The
assessment and prediction of the onset and cessation dates of the rainy season is therefore crucial to the
success of agricultural activities in Ghana [5,6]. The variability in the rainy season onset and cessation
could pose socio-economic and developmental challenges as they threaten food security and induce
poverty [2,4]. This is so because erratic and significant delays in rainfall affect the countrys overall
production of food and, in particular, cereals (maize, millet, soya bean and rice), which form the main
staple food in the country. In addition, rainy season onset and cessation dates affect the transmission of
vector-borne diseases, as the life cycle of the disease transmission vectors is sensitive to the variability
and changes in temperature and rainfall. For example, the mosquito population is likely to increase
rapidly during the warmer humid conditions [7].
The methods for determining rainy season onset and cessation dates fall under two main categories,
namely: those taking into account atmospheric dynamics and those based on water balance, such as
rainfall distribution or number of rainy days, among others [6]. Several studies (e.g., [811]) have
employed models that take into account atmospheric dynamics to identify rainy season onset and
cessation dates. Researchers, like [12,13], employed a model that used the relationship between rainfall
and evapotranspiration to determine the onset and cessation of the rainy season. Others [1,6,1419]
determined the onset and cessation of the rainy season by using rainfall data alone; this method derives
onset and cessation dates by calculating the percentage of cumulative mean rainfall.
Studies conducted in semi-arid parts of West Africa indicated that there is a significant relationship
between the start of rains and the length of the rainy season [20]; thus, earlier onset most often leads
to longer rainy season. This is an indication that the length of the rainy season is more dependent on
Climate 2015, 3 418

the rainfall onset than its cessation [21,22]. Odekunle [19,23] showed that, even at a single synoptic
station, the annual variation in the onset dates could be up to 70 days (10 weeks). Therefore, defining the
onset date of the rainy season can sometimes be very challenging, as the onset characteristics can vary
drastically with isolated showers or heavy rainfall of varying intensity being accompanied by extended
dry spells [24].
The problems associated with poor agricultural practices, food security and human health in a
developing country like Ghana could be attributed to the high variability in the onset and cessation of the
rainy season. The goal of this paper therefore is to determine the dates for rainfall onset and cessation,
the length of the rainy season and their variability. The paper is structured as follows: a briefing of the
study area and data source is given in Section 2. In Section 3, the methodology employed is given. The
results and discussions are presented in Section 4, and finally, conclusions are given in Section 5.

2. Study Area and Data Source

2.1. The Study Area

The climate of Ghana is characterized by dry and wet seasons, a typical tropical monsoonal climate.
Rainfall in this region is mainly associated with mesoscale convective systems and controlled by the
advection of moisture from the Gulf of Guinea in the low level atmosphere [25]. This system is usually
referred to as the West African Monsoon (WAM), and it is driven by the energy and temperature gradient
between the Gulf of Guinea and the Sahara. The maritime tropical air mass, which originates from the
Atlantic Ocean, is moisture laden and converges with the dry northeast continental tropical air mass,
usually along the Inter-Tropical Discontinuity (ITD) [26,27]. Therefore, the spatial pattern of annual
rainfall is closely related to the north- and south-ward migration of the ITD, resulting in changes in the
rainfall regime from the south to north of the country [2830]. This gives rise to two rainfall regimes:
bi-modal in the south, consisting mainly of coastal and the forest zones, and uni-modal in the northern
part of the country, consisting of part of the transition and savannah zones [30].

2.2. Data Source

In this study, rainfall data from 23 Ghana Meteorological Agency (GMet) stations across the four
agro-ecological zones of Ghana covering the period of 19702012 were used. The locations of these
stations across the country are shown in Figure 1.
GMet uses the World Meteorological Organisation (WMO) standards in its rainfall and other weather
parameter measurements. However, these measurements may have some minor errors. These error
sources include, but are not limited to, evaporation and wetting loss and wind-induced errors. This
could lead to problems of data inhomogeneity [31]. Errors due to evaporation and wetting loss were
less than 0.45 mm per day. All the rain gauges were wind shielded; hence, wind-induced errors were
infinitesimally small.
Climate 2015, 3 419

3 2 1 0 1

11 11
Navrongo

Wa

10 10
North
N

Bole Tamale Yendi
9 9

Transition

8 Kintampo 8
Wenchi
Kete Krachi

Sunyani

7 Forest 7

Koforidua Ho
Kumasi
Akuse
6 Abetifi Akatsi 6
Sefwi Bekwai Oda
Ada
Tema
Coast Accra
Saltpond Km
5 5
Takoradi
Axim 0 50

3 2 1 0 1

Figure 1. Map of the Ghana Meteorological Agency (GMet) stations covering the four
agro-ecological zones of Ghana used for this study.

One of the biggest drawbacks in the long time series record of the meteorological dataset is the
availability of data gaps. These data gaps had to be appropriately filled and quality-controlled to provide
reliable, continuous and homogeneous reference time series in which divergences are only caused by
weather and climate variability [32]. The missing rainfall amount in the data time series was estimated
using the inverse distance weighting (IDW) method described in [33]. The rainfall data from the
neighboring stations within a distance of less than 50 km were used to estimate the missing data gaps in
the reference series using the relation:

N
X
Rp = wi Ri (1)
i=1

and wi is given by:

d
i
wi = PN , (2)
i=1 d
i
Climate 2015, 3 420

where Rp is the missing data in the reference series, Ri is the rainfall value of the neighboring stations,
N the total number of the neighboring stations, di the distance of each station from the reference station,
wi the weighting of each neighboring station and the optimal power, which takes values between 01.5
and 45 [33]. For this study, a power of 5 was employed for the missing rainfall value estimation.

3. Methodology

The rainfall onset and cessation dates, as well as the length of the rainy season were determined
by adopting the percentage mean cumulative rainfall and/or the rainy days method(s) described
in [23,34,35] (also see the references therein). The method has the advantage of directly using the
rainfall data or rainy days, rather than inferring the rainfall amount from other related parameters, making
it appropriate for this study. Odekunle [19,23] and Olaniran [15] indicate that at any time and location
where the method appeared to be less accurate in the determination of the onset and cessation dates of
rainfall, the dry spells involved were very short (mostly less than 5 days), and the frequency of those dry
spells was very low. According to [23] (also see the references therein), points of maximum curvature,
corresponding to the onset and cessation of rainfall, are expected to be 7%8% and over 90% of the
annual rainfall, respectively.
The following steps were taken to determine the onset and cessation dates: Firstly, the daily mean
rainfall amount or rainy days from the entire data record (19702012) for each meteorological station are
calculated. This was followed by the computation of the mean annual rainfall or rainy days that occurred
at each 5-day interval throughout the year. Next, the percentage of that mean annual rainfall and rainy
days was computed, as well as their cumulative percentages. The temporal variation of the cumulative
percentages for the entire year was then determined. In this method, the mean onset date of rainfall was
defined as the first point of maximum positive curvature of the graph; the cessation date of rainfall was
defined as the last point of maximum negative curvature and the duration of the rainy season was defined
as the difference of the onset and cessation dates of rainfall (length = cessation onset + 1). Figures 2
provides an example of the cumulative curve for two stations in different agro-ecological zones. The top
panel of Figure 2 represents the forest zone, and the bottom panel represents the savannah zone.
The inter-annual variability in the rainfall onset and cessation were determined from the cumulative
percentage rainfall for each year. The mode of variability in the onset and cessation was assessed using
wavelet analysis described in [36]. The wavelet analysis provides a means to assess the most significant
frequencies within the time series. Usually, this is done by making reference of the global power wavelet
plot to locate a significant peak that crosses the 95% confidence level. Secondly, the corresponding
frequency on the vertical axis of the wavelet power plot is identified as the significant band, where the
most significant variability in the onset and cessation are located. A variance of the significant band of
the power spectrum is indicated by scale-averaged plots. The dotted line represents the 5% significance
level, which allows for identification of periods of late and early onsets and cessations. For this study,
the parameters of the wavelet analysis are set as t = 1 year, which implies s0 = 2 years, since s = 2t,
j = 0.25, in order to have 4 sub-octaves per octave. j1 is calculated as j1 = 5/j for 5 powers-of-two
with j sub-octaves each.
Climate 2015, 3 421

Kumasi
100

90
Cum. rainfall amount/rainy days [%]

80

70 Rainfall amount
Rainy days
60

50

40

30

20

10

0
20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 260 280 300 320 340 360

Tamale
100

90
Cum. rainfall amount/rainy days [%]

80

70 Rainfall amount
Rainy days
60

50

40

30

20

10

0
20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 260 280 300 320 340 360

Figure 2. Example of the cumulative curve used to determine rainfall onset, cessation and
length of the rainy season; bi-modal rainfall regime (top) and uni-modal rainfall regime
(bottom). Rainy days method (green) and the rainfall amount method (blue).

4. Results and Discussion

4.1. Onset, Cessation and Length of Rainy Season Climatology

Figure 3 shows the map of the rainfall onset, the cessation and the length of the rainy season using the
two different methods, namely: the cumulative rainfall amount and cumulative rainy days. Figure 3a,b
indicates the rainfall onset using the rainfall amount and the rainy days, respectively, whereas Figure 3c,d
and Figure 3e,f show the cessation and the length of the rainy season derived from the cumulative rainfall
amount and cumulative rainy days, respectively.
These results show a clear distinction in the onset from the coastal zone through the forest and
transition to the savannah zone, and there are slight differences in some stations for the two methods.
Climate 2015, 3 422

Stations in coastal and forest zones had earlier rainfall onset dates, which are within the second and
third dekads of March; whereas the onset dates of the transition zone were variable, starting from second
dekad of March in Sunyani through to second dekad of April in Kete Krachi. Late onset were observed
in the savannah zone of the country; thus, the onset of this zone was found between the second dekad of
April and the first dekad of May. The summary of the onset and cessation days/dates is given in Tables 1
and 2 for all stations within the four agro-ecological zones.

a c e

11 11

10 10

9 9

8 8

7 7

6 6

5 5

b d f

11 11

10 10

9 9

8 8

7 7

6 6

5 5

3 2 1 0 1 3 2 1 0 1 3 2 1 0 1
day
60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 260 280 300 320

Figure 3. Map of rainfall onset days, cessation days and the length of the rainy season for
the 23 GMet stations in Ghana. (a) Onset days using rainfall amount; (b) onset days using
number of rainy days; (c) cessation days using rainfall amount; and (d) cessation days using
number of rainy days. (e,f) The length of the rainy season using rainfall amount and the
number of rainy days, respectively.
Climate 2015, 3 423

Table 1. Summary of rainfall onset days/dates for the GMet stations.

Station Onset (Rainy Days) Onset (Rainfall Amount)

Days Date Days Date
Sunyani 80 5 21 March 75 5 16 March
Abetifi 75 5 16 March 70 5 11 March
Akuse 70 5 11 March 75 5 21 March
Axim 75 7 16 March 80 7 21 March
Ho 70 5 11 March 70 5 11 March
Koforidua 75 5 16 March 80 5 21 March
Kumasi 70 5 11 March 70 5 11 March
Akim-Oda 70 5 11 March 70 5 11 March
Sefwi Bekwai 75 5 16 March 70 5 11 March
Takoradi 75 7 16 March 80 7 21 March
Accra 75 7 16 March 80 7 21 March
Ada 80 7 21 March 80 7 21 March
Salt pond 75 7 16 March 80 7 21 March
Akatsi 75 5 16 March 75 5 16 March
Bole 100 5 10 April 100 5 10 April
Kete-Krachi 105 5 15 April 110 5 20 April
Navrongo 125 5 5 May 125 5 5 May
Wa 110 5 20 April 110 5 20 April
Wenchi 85 5 26 March 80 5 21 March
Yendi 110 5 20 April 110 5 20 April
Kintampo 90 5 31 March 90 5 31 March
Tema 80 7 21 March 75 7 16 March
Tamale 110 5 20 April 110 5 20 April

Similarly, cessation dates observed were also different for the various agro-ecological zones. Rainfall
in the savannah zone, which is uni-modal, had cessation dates much earlier. In particular, the cessation
date in Navrongo was found within the third dekad of September. It was observed that the length of
the rainy season in the savannah zone (Bole, Yendi, Wa and Tamale) was in the range 165190 days. A
shorter rainy season was observed in the furthest northern station of Navrongo, with a length of about
140150 days. The cessation dates of the transition zone were within second to third dekads of October,
whereas the length of the rainy season in the transition zone (Kintampo, Wenchi and Sunyani) was in the
range of 200225 days. A shorter rainy season of 170 days was observed in Kete-Krachi (see Table 2).
For stations within the forest zone, the cessation date of the rainy season were consistently observed
in the third dekad of October to the first dekad of November. The length of the rainy season in the
forest zone was within 225240 days. In the coastal zone, the cessation date was within the second and
third dekad of October, while the length of the rainy season was slightly shorter than the forest zone
(210220 days).
Climate 2015, 3 424

Table 2. Summary of the cessation days/dates and the length of the rainy season for the
GMet stations.

Station Cessation (Rainy Days) Cessation (Rainfall Amount)

Days Date Length Day Date Length

Sunyani 295 5 22 October 215 295 5 22 October 220

Abetifi 300 5 27 October 225 295 5 22 October 225
Akuse 310 5 6 November 240 305 5 1 November 230
Axim 320 7 16 November 245 310 7 6 November 230
Ho 300 5 27 October 230 295 5 22 October 225
Koforidua 320 5 16 November 245 305 5 1 November 225
Kumasi 300 5 27 October 230 295 5 22 October 225
Akim-Oda 315 5 11 November 245 310 5 6 November 240
Sefwi Bekwai 305 5 1 November 230 300 5 27 October 230
Takoradi 310 7 6 November 235 305 7 1 November 225
Accra 300 7 27 October 225 300 7 27 October 220
Ada 295 7 22 October 215 290 7 17 October 210
Salt pond 305 7 1 November 230 300 7 27 October 220
Akatsi 310 5 6 November 235 305 5 1 November 230
Bole 285 5 12 October 185 280 5 7 October 180
Kete-Krachi 285 5 12 October 180 280 5 7 October 170
Navrongo 270 5 27 September 145 265 5 22 September 140
Wa 280 5 7 October 170 275 5 2 October 165
Wenchi 295 5 22 October 210 290 5 17 October 210
Yendi 280 5 7 October 170 275 5 2 October 165
Kintampo 290 5 17 October 200 290 5 17 October 200
Tema 295 7 22 October 215 290 7 17 October 215
Tamale 280 5 7 October 170 275 5 2 October 165

The bias in the rainfall onset was consistently less than 10 days across the entire country. Similarly,
the bias in the cessation and the length of the rainy season is less than 10 days in most of the stations,
with the exception of Axim and Abetifi (see Figure 4). The root mean square error (RMSE) was within
525 days (see Figure 5). This result demonstrates that the onset derived from the cumulative rainfall
amount and the rainy days are in consistent agreement.

4.2. Variability of Onset and Cessation Dates

To assess the mode of interannual variability in the rainfall onset and cessation, wavelet analysis was
carried out, and the results are shown in Figures 613. In general, there was variability in the onset and
cessation dates in all of the agro-ecological zones. Figures 613a show the standardized anomaly of the
onset and cessation for the four agro-ecological zones. Figures 613b show the wavelet power spectrum
of the onset and cessation dates. The global wavelet power spectrum is shown in Figures 613c, where
the dashed line is the 5% significance level for the global wavelet spectrum.
Climate 2015, 3 425

a b c

11 11

10 10

9 9

8 8

7 7

6 6

5 5

3 2 1 0 1 3 2 1 0 1 3 2 1 0 1
day
0 5 10 15 20 25

Figure 4. Map showing the bias between number of rainy days and rainfall amount. (a) Bias
in rainfall onset, (b) bias in cessation and (c) bias in the length of the rainy season for the 23
GMet stations in Ghana.

a b c

11 11

10 10

9 9

8 8

7 7

6 6

5 5

3 2 1 0 1 3 2 1 0 1 3 2 1 0 1

RMSE (days)
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50

Figure 5. Map showing the RMSE between the number of rainy days and rainfall amount.
(a) RMSE of rainfall onset, (b) RMSE of cessation and (c) RMSE of the length of the rainy
season for the 23 GMet stations in Ghana.

The savannah and transition zones showed onset variability with the wavelet power spectrum between
the 24- and 48-year scales. This is also shown in the two significant peaks of the global wavelet power
spectrum (see Figure 6c and 8c), which is an indication of a strong variability in onset between 24 and
48 years. Figure 6d and 8d show the variance of the power in the 28- and 24-year bands for the
savannah and transition zones onset variability, respectively. The early onsets for the Savannah zone
are indicated from 19701985 and 20032010, while late onsets are indicated from 19902003. The
early onsets for the transition zone are indicated from 19701977 and 20072012, with late onsets from
19801992.
Climate 2015, 3 426

a) Standardised Rainfall Onset Anomaly at the Savannah Zone

Standardised Onset Anomaly

4
1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010
Time (year)

b) The Savannah Zone Rainfall Onset Wavelet Power Spectrum c) Global Wavelet Spectrum
2

4 1
Period (years)

0
8
1
16
2
32
3

64 4
1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 0 50 100 150 200
Time (year) 2
Power (day )
d) 28 yr Scaleaverage Time Series
150
Avg variance (day )
2

100

50

0
1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010
Time (year)

Figure 6. Inter annual variability of rainfall onset dates for the savannah zone using wavelet
analysis. (a) Standardized anomaly of onset dates; (b) wavelet power spectrum; (c) the
global wavelet power spectrum; the dashed line is the 5% significance level for the global
wavelet spectrum; (d) the scaled average wavelet power over the 28-year band for the onset;
the dashed line shows is the 95% confidence level.

The wavelet analyses for the forest and coastal zones are shown in Figures 10 and 12a. From the
wavelet power spectrum in Figures 10b and 12b, it can be seen that there is a concentration of power
between the 24- and 48-year bands. These features are also highlighted by the significant peaks shown
in Figures 10c and 12c, the global wavelet power spectrum. This further demonstrates that the rainfall
onset in the forest zone has variability between 24 years and 28 years. Figures 10d and 12d show
the variance of the power in the 28-year band showing late and early onsets. The early onsets of the
forest zones are indicated around 19791995, while late onsets are indicated around 19701978. The
early onsets of the coastal zone are indicated from 19861993, with late onsets around 19701986,
19931998 and 20062012.
Variability in the cessation for the savannah and transition zones is shown in Figures 7 and 9. The
wavelet power spectrum shown in Figures 7b and 9b clearly showed evidence of the concentration of
power between the 24- and 48-year bands. Significant peaks are shown in the global wavelet power
spectrum (see Figures 7c and 9c). These results showed that the rainfall onsets in the savannah and
transition zones have a strong variation between two and eight years. The variance of the power in the
28-year band shows late and early cessations (see Figures 7d and 9d). From Figure 7d, early cessations
are indicated around 19721988 for the savannah zone. Early onsets for the transition zone are found
around 19851997, with late cessations from 20052012.
Climate 2015, 3 427
Standardised Cessation Anomaly

a) Standardised Rainfall Cessation Anomaly at the Savannah Zone

4

2
1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010
Time (year)

b) The Savannah Zone Rainfall Cessation Wavelet Power Spectrum c) Global Wavelet Spectrum
2

1
4
Period (years)

8 1

2
16
3

32 4
1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 0 50 100
Time (year) Power (day2)
d) 28 yr Scaleaverage Time Series
150
Avg variance (day )
2

100

50

0
1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010
Time (year)

Figure 7. Interannual variability of rainfall cessation dates for the savannah zone using
wavelet analysis. (a) Standardized anomaly of cessation dates; (b) the same as in Figure 6,
but for cessation; (c) as in Figure 6; (d) the same as in Figure 6; the dashed line shows the
95% confidence level.

a) Standardised Rainfall Onset Anomaly at the Transition Zone

Standardised Onset Anomaly

2
1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010
Time (year)

b) The Transition zone Rainfall Onset Wavelet Power Spectrum c) Global Wavelet Spectrum
2

4 1
Period (years)

0
8
1
16
2
32
3

64 4
1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 0 100 200 300
Time (year) Power (day2)
d) 24 yr Scaleaverage Time Series
200
Avg variance (day2)

150

100

50

0
1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010
Time (year)

Figure 8. Interannual variability of rainfall onset dates for the transition zone using wavelet
analysis. (a) Standardized anomaly of onset date; (b) as in Figure 6; (c) as in Figure 6; (d) as
in Figure 6; the dashed line shows the 95% confidence level.
 Climate 2015, 3 Standardised Cessation Anomaly
428

a) Standardised Rainfall Cessation Anomaly at the Transition Zone

4

2
1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010
Time (year)

b) Transition Zone Rainfall Cessation Wavelet Power Spectrum c) Global Wavelet Spectrum
2

4 1
Period (years)

0
8
1
16
2
32
3

64 4
1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 0 100 200 300 400
Time (year) Power (day2)
d) 28 yr Scaleaverage Time Series
200
Avg variance (day2)

150

100

50

0
1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010
Time (year)

Figure 9. Interannual variability of rainfall cessation dates for the transition zone using
wavelet analysis. (a) Standardized anomaly of cessation; (b) as in Figure 6, but for cessation;
(c) as in Figure 6; (d) as in Figure 6; the dashed line shows the 95% confidence level.

a) Standardised Rainfall Onset Anomaly at the Forest Zone

Standardised Onset Anomaly

2
1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010
Time (year)

b) The Forest Zone Rainfall Onset Wavelet Power Spectrum c) Global Wavelet Spectrum
2

4 1
Period (years)

0
8
1
16
2
32
3

64 4
1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 0 200 400 600
Time (year) Power (day2)
d) 28 yr Scaleaverage Time Series
200
Avg variance (day2)

150

100

50

0
1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010
Time (year)

Figure 10. Interannual variability of rainfall onset dates for the forest zone using wavelet
analysis. (a) Standardized anomaly of onset; (b) as in Figure 6; (c) the same as in Figure 6;
(d) as in Figure 6; the dashed line shows the 95% confidence level.
Climate 2015, 3
Standardised Cessation Anomaly 429

a) Standardised Rainfall Cessation Anomaly at the Forest Zone

4

4
1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010
Time (year)

b) The Forest Zone Rainfall Cessation Wavelet Power Spectrum c) Global Wavelet Spectrum
2

4 1
Period (years)

0
8
1
16
2
32
3

64 4
1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 0 50 100 150 200
Time (year) Power (day2)
d) 28 yr Scaleaverage Time Series
300
Avg variance (day2)

200

100

0
1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010
Time (year)

Figure 11. Interannual variability of rainfall cessation dates for the forest zone using wavelet
analysis. (a) Standardized anomaly of cessation; (b) the same as in Figure 6, but for
cessation; (c) the same as in Figure 6; (d) as in Figure 6; the dashed line shows the 95%
confidence level.

a) Standardised Rainfall Onset Anmaly at the Coastal Zone

Standardised Onset Anomaly

2
1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010
Time (year)

b) The Coastal Zone Rainfall Onset Wavelet Power Spectrum c) Global Wavelet Spectrum
2

4 1
Period (years)

0
8
1
16
2
32
3

64 4
1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 0 200 400 600
Time (year) Power (day2)
d) 24 yr Scaleaverage Time Series
300
Avg variance (day )
2

200

100

0
1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010
Time (year)

Figure 12. Interannual variability of rainfall onset dates for the coastal zone using wavelet
analysis. (a) Standardized anomaly of onset; (b) as in Figure 6; (c) the same as in Figure 6;
(d) the same as in Figure 6; the dashed line shows the 95% confidence level.
Climate 2015, 3 430
Standardised Cessation Anomaly

a) Standardised Rainfall Cessation Anomaly at the Coastal Zone

4

4
1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010
Time (year)

b) The Coastal Zone Rainfall Cessation Wavelet Power Spectrum c) Global Wavelet Spectrum
2

4 1
Period (years)

0
8
1
16
2
32
3

64 4
1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 0 1000 2000 3000
Time (year) Power (day2)
d) 28 yr Scaleaverage Time Series
800
Avg variance (day2)

600

400

200

0
1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010
Time (year)

Figure 13. Interannual variability of rainfall cessation dates for the coastal zone using
wavelet analysis. (a) Standardized anomaly of cessation; (b) the same as in Figure 6, but
for cessation; (c) the same as in Figure 6; (d) as in Figure 6; the dashed line shows the 95%
confidence level.

The wavelet analyses for the cessation in the forest and coastal zones are shown in Figures 11 and 13.
The wavelet power spectrum is shown in Figures 11b and 13b, and the significant peaks of the global
wavelet power spectrum are shown in Figures 11c and 13c. It can be seen that there is a strong
concentration of power between the 48 year band followed by the 24 year band. These results
show that the rainfall cessation at the forest and coastal zones has strong variation between 24 and
48 years. The variance of the power in the 28-year band showing late and early cessations is shown
in Figures 11d and 13d for the forest and coastal zones. The forest zone showed early cessations from
19842002. Over the coast, early cessations are observed from 19722000, with late cessations from
20012008.

5. Conclusions

The rainfall onset and cessation dates, as well as the length of the rainy season over Ghana have been
assessed using rain gauge data from GMet covering the period of 19702012. Distinct characteristics of
the onset, cessation and the length of the rainy season in the various climatic zones in the country were
observed. In general, the length of the rainy season decreases from the north of the country to the south
and also from the east coast to the west. The longest rainy season of about 240 7 days was found in
Axim, and the shortest length of the rainy season of 140 5 days was seen in Navrongo.
In general, rainfall onset occurred from MarchMay across the country, starting from the west coast
through the forest and transition zones to the savannah zone of the country. The rainfall cessation dates
Climate 2015, 3 431

in the forest zone were in the third dekad of October to the first dekad of November, and the length of the
rainy season was within 225240 days. The cessation dates of the coastal zone were within second and
third dekad of October, and the length of rainy season was in the range of 210220 days. Furthermore,
the cessation dates of the transition zone were in the second to third dekad of October, and the length of
the rainy season was in the range of 170225 days. Rainfall in the savannah zone had cessation dates
within the third dekad of September to the first dekad of October, and the length of the rainy season was
within 140180 days. Biases in the onset, cessation and length of the rainy season were mostly less than
10 days across the entire country, and the root mean square error (RMSE) was in the range of 525 days.
These findings demonstrate that the onset derived from the cumulative rainfall amount and the rainy days
are in consistent agreement.
The wavelet analysis was carried out to assess the inter-annual variability of the onset and cessation
for each agro-ecological zone. The wavelet power spectrum, its significant peaks and variances showed
evidence of variability in the rainfall onset and cessation dates across the country. The coastal and forest
zones showed 28- and 24-year band variability in the onsets and cessations. Similarly, the transition
and the savannah zones showed 24- and 48-year onset and cessation variability.
These findings support the south to north oscillation of ITD, which modulates the pressure system of
West African Monsoon [26,27,37,38]. In addition, local convective activities resulting from the nature
of the vegetation and the terrain are known to play a critical role in rainfall onset and cessation [39].
For example, the Togo-Akwapim ranges, which stretch from Togo through to the central part of the
forest zone of Ghana, enhance the convective activities of the forest zone, and areas in the windward
side of the mountains are strongly affected. This is because, when a moisture-laden airflow encounters a
terrain, the air becomes buoyantly unstable and could enhance precipitation, depending on the strength
of the cross-barrier component of the upstream airflow, the degree of the thermodynamic stability of the
incoming flow and the height of the terrain barrier [39]. Other atmospheric feedback mechanisms, such
as the surface feedback, dynamic instability, sea surface temperature (SST) and influence of transient
tropical waves [40], could account for the seasonal and the interannual variability in the rainfall onset
and cessation of the region. Further study using a dynamic climate model to investigate the contribution
of topography, dynamics and thermodynamics processes on the variability of onset and cessation is
under consideration. These findings have implications for rain-fed agricultural practices, vector- and
water-borne disease control, water resource management, other socio-economic activities and food
security in Ghana.

Acknowledgments

We are thankful to GMet (especially Charles Yoke) for providing the GMet rainfall data over the
study area. This research is funded by two international programmes: The International Development
Research Center (IRC) in the framework of the Climate Change Adaptation Research and Training for
Development (CCARTCD) program and the EU project DACCIWA (Dynamics-aerosol-chemistry-cloud
interaction in West Africa), funded by European Commission Seventh Framework Research Programme
under grant agreement 603502.
Climate 2015, 3 432

Author Contributions

Leonard K. Amekudzi is the first and corresponding author, he conceived, design the study and wrote
the manuscript; Edmund I. Yamba and Ernest O. Asare carried out the onset and cessation data analysis;
Kwasi Preko supervised the data gap filling, data analysis and proofread the manuscript; Jeffrey Aryee
carried out the data gap filling and assisted Michael Baidu in the wavelet analysis; Samuel N. A. Codjoe
was the Principal investigator of CCARTCD project and also proofread the manuscript including
scientific discussions.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

References

1. Ati, O.; Stigter, C.; Oladipo, E. A comparison of methods to determine the onset of the growing
season in northern Nigeria. Int. J. Climatol. 2002, 22, 731742.
2. Cooper, P.; Dimes, J.; Rao, K.; Shapiro, B.; Shiferaw, B.; Twomlow, S. Coping better with current
climatic variability in the rain-fed farming systems of sub-Saharan Africa: An essential first step in
adapting to future climate change? Agric. Ecosyst. Environ. 2008, 126, 2435.
3. Laux, P.; Wagner, S.; Wagner, A.; Jacobeit, J.; Bardossy, A.; Kunstmann, H. Modelling daily
precipitation features in the Volta Basin of West Africa. Int. J. Climatol. 2009, 29, 937954.
4. Lacombe, G.; MacCartney, M.; Forkuor, G. Dry climate in Ghana over the period 19602005:
evidence from resampling-based Man-Kendall test at local and regional levels. Hydrol. Sci. J.
2012, 57, 15941602.
5. Jackson, I. Climate, Water and Agriculture in the Tropics; Longman: London, UK, 1989.
6. Camberlin, P.; Diop, M. Application of daily rainfall principal component analysis to the
assessment of the rainy season characteristics in Senegal. Clim. Res. 2003, 23, 159169.
7. Tompkins, A.M.; Ermert, V. A regional-scale, high resolution dynamic malaria model that
accounts for population density, climate and surface hydrology. Malar. J. 2013, 12.
doi:10.1186/1475-2875-12-65.
8. Beer, T.; Greenhut, G.; Tandoh, S. Relations between the Z criterion for the subtropical high,
Hadley cell parameters and the rainfall in Northern Ghana. Mon. Weather Rev. 1977, 105, 849855.
9. Omotosho, J. Onset of thunderstorms and precipitation over northern Nigeria. Int. J. Climatol.
1990, 10, 849860.
10. Omotosho, J. Long-range prediction of the onset and end of the rainy season in the West African
Sahel. Int. J. Climatol. 1992, 12, 369382.
11. Omotosho, J.; Balogun, A.; Ogunjobi, K. Predicting monthly and seasonal rainfall, onset and
cessation of the rainy season in West Africa using only surface data. Int. J. Climatol. 2000,
20, 865880.
12. Cocheme, J.; Cocheme, P. An Agroclimatology Survey of a Semiarid Area in Africa South of the
Sahara; Secretariat of the World Meteorological Organization: Geneva, Switzerland, 1967.
13. Benoit, P. The start of the growing season in Northern Nigeria. Agric. Meteorol. 1977, 18, 9199.
Climate 2015, 3 433

14. Ilesanmi, O. An empirical formulation of the onset, advance and retreat of rainfall in Nigeria.
J. Trop. Geogr. 1972, 34, 1724.
15. Olaniran, O.J. The onset of the rains and the start of the growing season in Nigeria. Niger. Geogr. J.
1983, 26, 8188.
16. Olaniran, O. The start and end of the growing season in the Niger River Basin Development
Authority Area of Nigeria. Malays. J. Trop. Geogr. 1984, 9, 4958.
17. Adejuwon, J.; Balogun, E.; Adejuwon, S. On the annual and seasonal patterns of rainfall
fluctuations in sub-saharan West Africa. Int. J. Climatol. 1990, 10, 839848.
18. Odekunle, T. Determining rainfall onset and retreat dates in Nigeria. J. Hum. Ecol. 2004,
16, 239247.
19. Odekunle, T. Determining rainy season onset and retreat over Nigeria from precipitation amount
and number of rainy days. Theor. Appl. Climatol. 2006, 83, 193201.
20. Sivakumar, M. Predicting rainy season potential from the onset of rains in Southern Sahelian and
Sudanian climatic zones of West Africa. Agric. For. Meteorol. 1988, 42, 295305.
21. Omotosho, J. Synoptic meteorology: Pathway to seasonal rainfall prediction for sustainable
agriculture and effective water resources management in West Africa but Nigeria in particular.
J. Niger. Meteorol. Soc. 2002, 3, 8189.
22. Chiduza, C. Analysis of rainfall data and their implication on crop production: A case study of
northern Sebungwe. Zimbab. J. Agric. Res. 1995, 33, 175189.
23. Odekunle, T. Rainfall and the length of the growing season in Nigeria. Int. J. Climatol. 2004,
24, 467479.
24. Raes, D.; Sithole, A.; Makarau, A.; Milford, J. Evaluation of first planting dates recommended by
criteria currently used in Zimbabwe. Agric. For. Meteorol. 2004, 125, 177185.
25. Sultan, B.; Janicot, S. The West African Monsoon Dynamics Part II: Preonset and onset of the
summer monsoon. J. Clim. 2003, 16, 34073427.
26. Sultan, B.; Janicot, S.; Diedhiou, A. The West African monsoon dynamics Part I: Documentation
of intraseasonal variability. J. Clim. 2003, 16, 33893406.
27. Mounier, F.; Janicot, S.; Kiladis, G.N. The West African monsoon dynamics Part III: The
Quasi-Biweekly zonal dipole. J. Clim. 2008, 21, 19111928.
28. Biederlack, L.; Rivers, J. Comprehensive Food Security & Vulnerability Analysis (CFSVA): Ghana;
United Nations World Food Programme: Rome, Italy, 2009.
29. Owusu, K.; Waylen, P.R. The changing rainy season climatology of mid-Ghana.
Theor. Appl. Climatol. 2013, 112, 419430
30. Manzanas, R.; Amekudzi, L.; Preko, K.; Herrera, S.; Gutierrez, J. A comparison of methods to
determine the onset of the growing season in Nigeria. Clim. Chang. 2014, 124, 805819.
31. Mengistu Tsidu, G. High-Resolution monthly rainfall database for Ethiopia: Homogenization,
Reconstruction and Gridding. J. Clim. 2012, 25, 84228443.
32. Lucio, P.S.; Conde, F.C.; Ramos, A.M. A bayesian approach for recovering and homogenizing
meteorological time series. ICSHMO 2006, 8, 15451553.
33. Chen, F.W.; C.-W., L. Estimation of the spatial rainfall distribution using inverse distance weighting
(IWD) in the middle of Taiwan. Paddy Water Environ. 2012, 10, 209222.
Climate 2015, 3 434

34. Laux, P.; Kunstmann, H.; Bardossy, A. Predicting the regional onset of the rainy season in West
Africa. Int. J. Climatol. 2008, 28, 329342.
35. Ndomba, P. Development of rainfall curves for crops planting dates: A case study of Pangani River
Basin in Tanzania. Nile Basin Water Sci. Eng. J. 2010, 3, 1327.
36. Santos, C.A.G.; Galvao, C.O.; Suzuki, K.; Trigo, R.M. Matsuyama city rainfall data analysis using
wavelet transform. Ann. J. Hydraulic. Eng. JSCE 2001, 45, 211216.
37. Nicholson, S.E.; Grist, J.P. A conceptual model for understanding rainfall variability in the West
African Sahel on interannual and interdecadal timescales. Int. J. Climatol. 2001, 21, 17331757.
38. Sylla, M.B.; Giorgi, F.; Ruti, P.M.; Calmanti, S.; Dell Aquila, A. The impact of deep convection on
the West Africa summer monsoon climate: A regional climate model sensitivity study. Quart. J.
Roy. Meteor. Soc. 2011, 137, 14171430.
39. Houze, R.A., Jr. Orographic effects on precipitating clouds. Rev. Geophys. 2012, 50, 147.
40. Hall, N.M.J.; Peyrille, P. Dynamics of the West Africa monsoon. J. Phys. IV Fr. 2006, 139, 8199.

c 2015 by the authors; licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).