Definition and Purpose

Causality studies may be thought of as understanding a phenomenon in terms of conditional statements in the
form, If X, then Y. This type of research is used to measure what impact a specific change will have on existing
norms and assumptions. Most social scientists seek causal explanations that reflect tests of hypotheses. Causal
effect (nomothetic perspective) occurs when variation in one phenomenon, an independent variable, leads to or
results, on average, in variation in another phenomenon, the dependent variable.

Conditions necessary for determining causality:

Empirical association--a valid conclusion is based on finding an association between the independent
variable and the dependent variable.
Appropriate time order--to conclude that causation was involved, one must see that cases were exposed
to variation in the independent variable before variation in the dependent variable.
Nonspuriousness--a relationship between two variables that is not due to variation in a third variable.

What do these studies tell you?

1. Causality research designs helps researchers understand why the world works the way it does through
the process of proving a causal link between variables and eliminating other possibilities.
2. Replication is possible.
3. There is greater confidence the study has internal validity due to the systematic subject selection and
equity of groups being compared.

What these studies don't tell you?

1. Not all relationships are casual! The possibility always exists that, by sheer coincidence, two unrelated
events appear to be related [e.g., Punxatawney Phil could accurately predict the duration of Winter for
five consecutive years but, the fact remains, he's just a big, furry rodent].
2. Conclusions about causal relationships are difficult to determine due to a variety of extraneous and
confounding variables that exist in a social environment. This means causality can only be inferred,
never proven.
3. If two variables are correlated, the cause must come before the effect. However, even though two
variables might be causally related, it can sometimes be difficult to determine which variable comes
first and therefore to establish which variable is the actual cause and which is the actual effect.

Causal research
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Causal research, also called explanatory research. is the investigation of (research into) cause-and-
effect relationships.[1][2][3] To determine causality, it is important to observe variation in the variable assumed to cause the
change in the other variable(s), and then measure the changes in the other variable(s). Other confounding influences must be
controlled for so they don't distort the results, either by holding them constant in the experimental creation of data, or by using
statistical methods. This type of research is very complex and the researcher can never be completely certain that there are no
other factors influencing the causal relationship, especially when dealing with peoples attitudes and motivations. There are
often much deeper psychological considerations that even the respondent may not be aware of.
There are two research methods for exploring the cause-and-effect relationship between variables:

1. Experimentation (e.g., in a laboratory), and

2. Statistical research.

Experimentation[edit]
Main article: Experiment
Experiments are typically conducted in laboratories where many or all aspects of the experiment can be tightly controlled to
avoid spurious results due to factors other than the hypothesized causative factor(s). Many studies in physics, for example, use
this approach. Alternatively, field experiments can be performed, as with medical studies in which subjects may have a great
many attributes that cannot be controlled for but in which at least the key hypothesized causative variables can be varied and
some of the extraneous attributes can at least be measured. Field experiments also are sometimes used in economics, such as
when two different groups of welfare recipients are given two alternative sets of incentives or opportunities to earn income and
the resulting effect on their labor supply is investigated.

Statistical research[edit]
Main articles: Statistics and Regression analysis
In areas such as economics, most empirical research is done on pre-existing data, often collected on a regular basis by a
government. Multiple regression is a group of related statistical techniques that control for (attempt to avoid spurious influence
from) various causative influences other than the ones Gathering Qualitative Data
being studied. If the data show sufficient variation in the
hypothesized explanatory variable of interest, its effect if Observation Studies
any upon the potentially influenced variable can be
measured. Participation Studies
Research Design Choices and Causal Inferences Interviewing Studies
Approaches and strategies of research design Archival studies
Quantitative Strategies Media Analysis
Exploratory Studies Language of Research
In-depth interviews Success of Research
Focus Group studies Clear conceptualization of concepts
Descriptive Studies Shared understanding of concepts
Survey research What Is Research Design?
Relationship studies Blueprint
Causal Studies Plan
Experimental Guide
Comparative Framework
What are the main types of quantitative approaches to research?

It is easier to understand the different types of quantitative research designs if you consider how the researcher designs for control of
the variables in the investigation.

If the researcher views quantitative design as a continuum, one end of the range represents a design where the variables are not controlled at
all and only observed. Connections amongst variable are only described. At the other end of the spectrum, however, are designs which
include a very close control of variables, and relationships amongst those variables are clearly established. In the middle, with experiment
design moving from one type to the other, is a range which blends those two extremes together.

There are four main types of Quantitative research: Descriptive, Correlational, Causal-Comparative/Quasi-Experimental, and Experimental
Research.

Descriptive researchseeks to describe the current status of an identified variable. These research projects are designed to provide systematic
information about a phenomenon. The researcher does not usually begin with an hypothesis, but is likely to develop one after collecting
data. The analysis and synthesis of the data provide the test of the hypothesis. Systematic collection of information requires careful
selection of the units studied and careful measurement of each variable.

Examples of Descriptive Research:

A description of how second-grade students spend their time during summer vacation
A description of the tobacco use habits of teenagers
A description of how parents feel about the twelve-month school year
A description of the attitudes of scientists regarding global warming
A description of the kinds of physical activities that typically occur in nursing homes, and how frequently each occurs
A description of the extent to which elementary teachers use math manipulatives

Correlational researchattempts to determine the extent of a relationship between two or more variables using statistical data. In this type
of design, relationships between and among a number of facts are sought and interpreted. This type of research will recognize trends and
patterns in data, but it does not go so far in its analysis to prove causes for these observed patterns. Cause and effect is not the basis of this
type of observational research. The data, relationships, and distributions of variables are studied only. Variables are not manipulated; they
are only identified and are studied as they occur in a natural setting.

*Sometimes correlational research is considered a type of descriptive research, and not as its own type of research, as no variables are
manipulated in the study.

Examples of Correlational Research:

The relationship between intelligence and self-esteem

The relationship between diet and anxiety
The relationship between an aptitude test and success in an algebra course
The relationship between ACT scores and the freshman grades
The relationships between the types of activities used in math classrooms and student achievement
The covariance of smoking and lung disease

Causal-comparative/quasi-experimental researchattempts to establish cause-effect relationships among the variables. These types of
design are very similar to true experiments, but with some key differences. An independent variable is identified but not manipulated by the
experimenter, and effects of the independent variable on the dependent variable are measured. The researcher does not randomly assign
groups and must use ones that are naturally formed or pre-existing groups. Identified control groups exposed to the treatment variable are
studied and compared to groups who are not.
When analyses and conclusions are made, determining causes must be done carefully, as other variables, both known and unknown, could
still affect the outcome. A causal-comparative designed study, described in a New York Times article, "The Case for $320,00 Kindergarten
Teachers," illustrates how causation must be thoroughly assessed before firm relationships amongst variables can be made.

Examples of Correlational Research:

The effect of preschool attendance on social maturity at the end of the first grade
The effect of taking multivitamins on a students school absenteeism
The effect of gender on algebra achievement
The effect of part-time employment on the achievement of high school students
The effect of magnet school participation on student attitude
The effect of age on lung capacity

Experimental research, often called true experimentation, uses the scientific method to establish the cause-effect relationship among a
group of variables that make up a study. The true experiment is often thought of as a laboratory study, but this is not always the case; a
laboratory setting has nothing to do with it. A true experiment is any study where an effort is made to identify and impose control over all
other variables except one. An independent variable is manipulated to determine the effects on the dependent variables. Subjects
are randomly assigned to experimental treatments rather than identified in naturally occurring groups

Examples of Experimental Research:

The effect of a new treatment plan on breast cancer

The effect of positive reinforcement on attitude toward school
The effect of teaching with a cooperative group strategy or a traditional lecture approach on students achievement
The effect of a systematic preparation and support system on children who were scheduled for surgery on the amount of
psychological upset and cooperation
A comparison of the effect of personalized instruction vs. traditional instruction on computational skill

What is the basic methodology for a quantitative research design?

The overall structure for a quantitative design is based in the scientific method. It uses deductive reasoning, where the researcher forms an
hypothesis, collects data in an investigation of the problem, and then uses the data from the investigation, after analysis is made and
conclusions are shared, to prove the hypotheses not false or false. The basic procedure of a quantitative design is:

1. Make your observations about something that is unknown, unexplained, or new. Investigate current theory surrounding your
problem or issue.

2. Hypothesize an explanation for those observations.

3. Make a prediction of outcomes based on your hypotheses. Formulate a plan to test your prediction.

4. Collect and process your data. If your prediction was correct, go to step 5. If not, the hypothesis has been proven false. Return to
step 2 to form a new hypothesis based on your new knowledge.

5. Verify your findings. Make your final conclusions. Present your findings in an appropriate form for your audience.

REFLECTION: Copy and paste the Worksheet chart and questions into your Reflection Journal. Then complete the chart and
answer the reflection questions in the digital worksheet.

Back to Design Approach

3 Types of Survey Research, When to Use Them, and How they Can Benefit Your Organization!

Most research can be divided into three different categories; exploratory, descriptive and causal. Each serves a different end purpose and can
only be used in certain ways. In the online survey world, mastery of all three can lead to sounder insights and greater quality information.
Over the next couple weeks well be taking a look into all these forms of research and how you can incorporate each in your organizations
strategies for improvement and growth as well as measuring your companys level of success. Today, lets do a quick overview of all three
types of research, and how they fit in a research plan.
Exploratory Research

Exploratory research is an important part of any marketing or business strategy. Its focus is on the discovery of ideas and insights as
opposed to collecting statistically accurate data. That is why exploratory research is best suited as the beginning of your total research plan.
It is most commonly used for further defining company issues, areas for potential growth, alternative courses of action, and prioritizing areas
that require statistical research.

When it comes to online surveys, the most common example of exploratory research takes place in the form of open-ended questions. Think
of the exploratory questions in your survey as expanding your understanding of the people you are surveying. Text responses may not be
statistically measureable, but they will give you richer quality information that can lead to the discovery of new initiatives or problems that
should be addressed.

Descriptive Research

Descriptive research takes up the bulk of online surveying and is considered conclusive in nature due to its quantitative nature. Unlike
exploratory research, descriptive research is preplanned and structured in design so the information collected can be statistically inferred on
a population.

The main idea behind using this type of research is to better define an opinion, attitude, or behaviour held by a group of people on a given
subject. Consider your everyday multiple choice question. Since there are predefined categories a respondent must choose from, it is
considered descriptive research. These questions will not give the unique insights on the issues like exploratory research would. Instead,
grouping the responses into predetermined choices will provide statistically inferable data. This allows you to measure the significance of
your results on the overall population you are studying, as well as the changes of your respondents opinions, attitudes, and behaviours over
time.

Causal Research

Like descriptive research, causal research is quantitative in nature as well as preplanned and structured in design. For this reason, it is also
considered conclusive research. Causal research differs in its attempt to explain the cause and effect relationship between variables. This is
opposed to the observational style of descriptive research, because it attempts to decipher whether a relationship is causal through
experimentation. In the end, causal research will have two objectives: 1) To understand which variables are the cause and which variables
are the effect, and 2) to determine the nature of the relationship between the causal variables and the effect to be predicted.

For example, a cereal brand owner wants to learn if they will receive more sales with their new cereal box design. Instead of conducting
descriptive research by asking people whether they would be more likely to buy their cereal in its new box, they would set up an experiment
in two separate stores. One will sell the cereal in only its original box and the other with the new box. Taking care to avoid any
outside sources of bias, they would then measure the difference between sales based on the cereal packaging. Did the new packaging have
any effect on the cereal sales? What was that effect?

Are Your Research Senses Tingling? Ready for More?

So we have had a taster of the three major types of research. Over the next couple weeks we will be going in depth into each one and how
you can use FluidSurveys to make them work for you. Remember, it doesnt matter whether youre doing internal or external research, or
whether your projects end goal is to improve a businesss image, increase a products sales or kick start an initiatives on the right foot.
Finding the proper balance between exploratory, descriptive and causal research will be a major factor in your goals success.