Induction Heating

Elements of Induction Heating Copyright © 1988 ASM International®
Stanley Zinn, Lee Semiatin, p 1-8 All rights reserved.

DOI: 10.1361/eoih1988p001 www.asminternational.org
Chapter 1
Introduction
Electromagnetic induction, or simply "induction," is a method of heating

electrically conductive materials such as metals. It is commonly used in process
heating prior to metalworking, and in heat treating, welding, and melting
(Table 1.1). This technique also lends itself to various other applications
involving packaging and curing. The number of industrial and consumer items
which undergo induction heating during some stage of their production is very
large and rapidly expanding.
As its name implies, induction heating relies on electrical currents that are
induced internally in the material to be h e a t e d - i . e . , the workpiece. These
Table 1,1. Induction heating applications and typical products

Preheating prior
to metalworking Heat treating Welding Melting
Forging Surface Hardening, Seam Welding Air Melting of Steels

Gears Tempering Oil-country Ingots
Shafts Gears tubular Billets
Hand tools Shafts products Castings
Ordnance Valves Refrigeration Vacuum Induction
Machine tools tubing Melting
Extrusion Hand tools Line pipe
Structural Ingots
members Through Hardening, Billets
Shafts Tempering Castings
Structural "Clean" steels
Heading members Nickel-base
Bolts Spring steel superalloys
Other fasteners Chain links Titanium alloys
Rolling
Slab Annealing
Aluminum strip
Sheet (can, ap-
pliance, and Steel strip
automotive
industries)
2 Elements of Induction Heating: Design, Control, and Applications
so-called eddy currents dissipate energy and bring about heating. The basic
components of an induction heating system are an induction coil, an alter-
nating-current (ac) power supply, and the workpiece itself. The coil, which
may take different shapes depending on the required heating pattern, is con-
nected to the power supply. The flow of ac current through the coil gener-
ates an alternating magnetic field which cuts through the workpiece. It is this
alternating magnetic field which induces the eddy currents that heat the work-
piece.
Because the magnitude of the eddy currents decreases with distance from
the workpiece surface, induction can be used for surface heating and heat
treating. In contrast, if sufficient time is allowed for heat conduction, rela-
tively uniform heating patterns can be obtained for purposes of through heat
treating, heating prior to metalworking, and so forth. Careful attention to coil
design and selection of power-supply frequency and rating ensures close con-
trol of the heating rate and pattern.
A common analogy used to explain the phenomenon of electromagnetic
induction makes use of the transformer effect. A transformer consists of two
coils placed in close proximity to each other. When a voltage is impressed
across one of the coils, known as the primary winding or simply the "pri-
mary," an ac voltage is induced across the other coil, known as the "second-
ary." In induction heating, the induction coil, which is energized by the ac
power supply, serves as the primary, and the workpiece is analogous to the
secondary.
The mathematical analysis of induction heating processes can be quite com-
plex for all but the simplest of workpiece geometries. This is because of the
coupled effects of nonuniform heat generation through the workpiece, heat
transfer, and the fact that the electrical, thermal, and metallurgical proper-
ties of most materials exhibit a strong dependence on temperature. For this
reason, quantitative solutions exist for the most part only for the heating of
round bars or tubes and rectangular slabs and sheets. Nevertheless, such treat-
ments do provide useful insights into the effects of coil design and equipment
characteristics on heating patterns in irregularly shaped parts. This informa-
tion, coupled with knowledge generated through years of experimentation in
both laboratory and production environments, serves as the basis for the prac-
tical design of induction heating processes.
This book focuses on the practical aspects of process design and control,
an understanding of which is required for the implementation of actual induc-
tion heating operations. The treatment here is by and large of the "hands-on"
type as opposed to an extended theoretical discussion of induction heating or
equipment design. Chapters 2 and 3 deal with the basics of induction heat-
ing and circuit theory only to the degree that is required in design work. With
this as a background, subsequent chapters address the questions of equipment
selection (Chapter 4), auxiliary equipment (Chapter 5), process design for
common applications (Chapter 6), control systems (Chapter 7), and coil
design and fabrication (Chapter 8). The concluding chapters address the ques-
Introduction 3
tions of special design features (Chapter 9), materials-handling systems (Chap-

ter 10), process design for special applications (Chapter 11), and economic
considerations (Chapter 12).
To introduce the subject, a brief review of the history, applications, and
advantages of induction heating is given next.
HISTORY
The birth of electromagnetic induction technology dates back to 1831. In
November of that year, Michael Faraday wound two coils of wire onto an
iron ring and noted that when an alternating current was passed through one
of the coils, a voltage was induced in the other. Recognizing the potential
applications of transformers based on this effect, researchers working over
the next several decades concentrated on the development of equipment for
generating high-frequency alternating current.
It was not until the latter part of the 19th century that the practical appli-
cation of induction to heating of electrical conductors was realized. The first
major application was melting of metals. Initially, this was done using metal
or electrically conducting crucibles. Later, Ferranti, Colby, and Kjellin devel-
oped induction melting furnaces which made use of nonconducting crucibles.
In these designs, electric currents were induced directly into the charge, usually
at simple line frequency, or 60 Hz. It should be noted that these early induc-
tion melting furnaces all utilized hearths that held the melt in the form of a
ring. This fundamental practice had inherent difficulties brought about by the
mechanical forces set up in the molten charge due to the interaction between
the eddy currents in the charge and the currents flowing in the primary, or
induction coil. In extreme cases, a "pinch" effect caused the melt to separate
and thus break the complete electrical path required for induction, and induc-
tion heating, to occur. Problems of this type were most severe in melting of
nonferrous metals.
Ring melting furnaces were all but superseded in the early 1900's by the
work of Northrup, who designed and built equipment consisting of a cylin-
drical crucible and a high-frequency spark-gap power supply. This equipment
was first used by Baker and Company to melt platinum and by American
Brass Company to melt other nonferrous alloys. However, extensive appli-
cation of such "coreless" induction furnaces was limited by the power attain-
able from spark-gap generators. This limitation was alleviated to a certain
extent in 1922 by the development of motor-generator sets which could supply
power levels of several hundred kilowatts at frequencies up to 960 Hz. It was
not until the late 1960's that motor-generators were replaced by solid-state
converters for frequencies now considered to be in the "medium-frequency"
rather than the high-frequency range.*
*Modern induction power supplies are classified as low frequency (less than approximately
1 kHz), medium frequency (1 to 50 kHz), or high or radio frequency (greater than 50 kHz).
Following the acceptance of induction heating for metal melting, other

applications of this promising technology were vigorously sought and devel-
oped. These included induction surface hardening of steels, introduced by
Midvale Steel (1927) and the Ohio Crankshaft Company (mid-1930's). The
former company used a motor-generator for surface heating and hardening
of rolling-mill rolls, a practice still followed almost universally today to
enhance the wear and fatigue resistance of such parts. The Ohio Crankshaft
Company, one of the largest manufacturers of diesel-engine crankshafts, also
took advantage of the surface-heating effect of high ac frequencies and used
motor-generators at 1920 and 3000 Hz in surface hardening of crankshaft
bearings. This was the first high-production application of induction heating
for surface heat treating of metals. The wider application to a multiplicity of
other parts was an obvious step. For example, the Budd Wheel Company
became interested in induction surface hardening of the internal bores of tubu-
lar sections and applied this technique to automotive axle hubs and later to
cylinder liners.
World War II provided a great impetus to the use of induction heating tech-
nology, particularly in heat treating of ordnance components such as armor-
piercing projectiles and shot. The ability to use induction for local as well as
surface hardening was also called upon to salvage over a million projectiles
which had been improperly heat treated, yielding local soft spots. In addition,
it was found that tank-track components, pins, links, and sprockets could be
hardened in large quantities most effectively by high-frequency induction. In
a different area, induction heating was applied to preheating of steel blanks
prior to hot forging of parts such as gun barrels.
In recent years, the application of induction heating and melting has in-
creased to the point where most engineers in the metalworking industries are
familiar with existing applications and have some ideas for potential uses. In
addition, various nonmetals industries are now beginning to develop a famil-
iarity with induction heating principles as they find and develop uses in mak-
ing their products.
Many of the recent developments have been promoted by the development
of high-efficiency solid-state power supplies, introduced in 1967. Over the last
several decades, the efficiency of these units has increased to almost 95% in
terms of the percentage of line-frequency energy converted to the higher out-
put frequency (Fig. 1.1). In terms of equipment cost per kilowatt available
for heating, this has actually resulted in a decrease in cost after adjustment
for inflation (Fig. 1.2).
APPLICATIONS OF INDUCTION HEATING
As can be surmised from the above discussion, induction heating finds its
greatest application in the metals-processing industries (Table 1.1). Primary
Introduction 5
,q.
100 Cd I ~. I~- T- O)
'T
.,¢
Q (O
r,.- O3 CO
r~
O3
r,-
O~
94%
O3
'T l 90%
o~
OJ
80 O3 85% 84% 85%
83%
r,3
t--
m 75%
(3 O
(O
I.Ll O3
60
v_
40
/ / \ , / I
Spark- Motor- 540 Hz Early solid state 180 Hz Variable-
gap generator tuned
generators sets solid state
Fig. 1.1. Conversion efficiency of induction heating power supplies

(from R. W. Sundeen, Proceedings, 39th Electric Furnace Conference,
Houston, TX, AIME, New York, 1982, p. 8)
Motor-
generator
Motor- Integral
generator motor-
generator
540 Hz Early
solid
state
"10
Solid
C
cO state
Variable-
O
(3 tuned
(/) solid
O state Present
solid
state
1948 1953 1958 1963 1968 1973 1978 1981
Year
Fig. 1.2. Change in cost of induction heating power supplies since 1948
(from R. W. Sundeen, Proceedings, 3gth Electric Furnace Conference,
Houston, TX, AIME, New York, 1982, p. 8)
uses fall into the major categories of heating prior to metalworking, heat
treating, welding, and metal melting. While these are the most common uses,
a variety of other operations, such as paint curing, adhesive bonding, and
zone refining of semiconductors, are also amenable to induction heating meth-
ods. Each of these applications is briefly discussed below.
Preheating Prior to Metalworking. Induction heating prior to metalworking is well

accepted in the forging and extrusion industries. It is readily adapted to
through preheating of steels, aluminum alloys, and specialty metals such as
titanium and nickel-base alloys. Frequently, the workpieces in these types of
applications consist of round, square, or round-cornered square bar stock.
For steels, the high heating rates of induction processes minimize scale and
hence material losses. The rapid heating boosts production rates. Induction
heating is also useful for selectively preheating bar stock for forming oper-
ations such as heading.
Heat Treating. Induction heating is used in surface and through hardening,

tempering, and annealing of steels. A primary advantage is the ability to con-
trol the area that is heat treated. Induction hardening, the most common
induction heat treating operation, improves the strength, wear, and fatigue
properties of steels. Steel tubular products, for example, lend themselves quite
readily to hardening by induction in continuous-line operations. Tempering
of steel by induction, although not as common as induction hardening of
steels, restores ductility and improves fracture resistance. Also less commonly
applied is induction annealing, which restores softness and ductility-impor-
tant properties for forming of steels, aluminum alloys, and other metals.
Melting. Induction processes are frequently used to melt high-quality steels and
nonferrous alloys (e.g., aluminum and copper alloys). Advantages specific to
induction melting as compared with other melting processes include a natu-
ral stirring action (giving a more uniform melt) and long crucible life.
Welding, Brazing, and Soldering. High-frequency induction welding offers sub-

stantial energy savings because heat is localized at the weld joint. The most
common application of induction welding is welded tube or pipe products that
lend themselves to high-speed, high-production automated processing. Induc-
tion brazing and soldering also rely on the local heating and control capabil-
ities inherent in the induction heating process.
Curing of Organic Coatings. Induction is used to cure organic coatings such as

paints on metallic substrates by generating heat within the substrate. By this
means, curing occurs from within, minimizing the tendency for formation of
coating defects. A typical application is the drying of paint on sheet metal.
Introduction 7
Adhesive Bonding. Certain automobile parts, such as clutch plates and brake
shoes, make use of thermosetting adhesives. As in paint curing, induction
heating of the metal parts to curing temperatures can be an excellent means
of achieving rapid bonding. Metal-to-nonmetal seals, widely used in vacuum
devices, also rely heavily on induction heating.
Semiconductor Fabrication. The growing of single crystals of germanium and sil-

icon often relies on induction heating. Zone refining, zone leveling, doping,
and epitaxial deposition of semiconductor materials also make use of the
induction process.
Tin Reflow. Electrolytically deposited tin coatings on steel sheet have a dull,
matte, nonuniform finish. Heating of the sheet to 230 °C (450 °F) by induc-
tion causes reflow of the tin coating and results in a bright appearance and
uniform coverage.
Sintering. Induction heating is widely used in sintering of carbide preforms

because it can provide the necessary high temperature (2550 °C, or 4620 °F)
in a graphite retort or susceptor with atmosphere control. Other preforms of
ferrous and nonferrous metals can be sintered in a similar manner with or
without atmosphere protection.
ADVANTAGES OF INDUCTION HEATING
Prior to the development of induction heating, gas- and oil-fired furnaces

provided the prime means of heating metals and nonmetals. Induction heating
offers a number of advantages over furnace techniques, such as:
• Quick heating. Development of heat within the workpiece by induction pro-

vides much higher heating rates than the convection and radiation processes
that occur in furnaces (Fig. 1.3).
• Less scale loss. Rapid heating significantly reduces material loss due to scal-
ing (e.g., for steels) relative to slow gas-fired furnace processes.
• Fast start-up. Furnaces contain large amounts of refractory materials that
must be heated during start-up, resulting in large thermal inertia. The inter-
nal heating of the induction process eliminates this problem and allows
much quicker start-up.
• Energy savings. When not in use, the induction power supply can be turned
off because restarting is so quick. With furnaces, energy must be supplied
continuously to maintain temperature during delays in processing and to
avoid long start-ups.
• High production rates. Because heating times are short, induction heating
often allows increased production and reduced labor costs.
Bar section, in.
4 5 6 7 8
v I I I I I
o
Q
It)
C%1
(J 2--
o
2
O~
¢:
al
Q)
t-
1--
z:"
d
E
Induction
10 15 20
Bar section, cm
Fig. 1.3. Comparison of times for through heating by induction and

gas-fired furnace techniques as a function of bar diameter (from R.
Daugherty and A. A. Huchok, Proceedings, 11th Biennial Conference
on Electric Process Heating in Industry, IEEE, New York, 1973)
In addition to those listed above, other advantages that induction heating

systems offer include:
• Ease of automation and control
• Reduced floor-space requirements
• Quiet, safe, and clean working conditions
• Low maintenance requirements.
Chapter 2
Theory of Induction Heating
An induction heating system consists of a source of alternating current (ac),

an induction coil, and the workpiece to be heated. The basic phenomena
which underlie induction heating are best understood with reference to the
interactions between the coil and the workpiece; the role of the power sup-
ply in this case is taken into account only in terms of the frequency and mag-
nitude of the ac current which it supplies to the coil. By this means, the
electrical and thermal effects which are induced in the workpiece through its
coupling with the coil are deduced. The present chapter deals with this inter-
action. The chapter that follows deals with the interactions between the induc-
tion power supply on the one hand and the coil and workpiece on the other.
BASIS FOR INDUCTION HEATING

Induction heating relies on two mechanisms of energy dissipation for the
purpose of heating. These are energy losses due to Joule heating and energy
losses associated with magnetic hysteresis. The first of these is the sole mech-
anism of heat generation in nonmagnetic materials (e.g., aluminum, copper,
austenitic stainless steels, and carbon steels above the Curie, or magnetic
transformation, temperature) and the primary mechanism in ferromagnetic
metals (e.g., carbon steels below the Curie temperature). A second, less
important means of heat generation by induction for the latter class of mate-
rials is hysteresis losses. A simplified but qualitatively useful explanation of
hysteresis losses states that it is caused by friction between molecules, or so-
called magnetic dipoles, when ferromagnetic metals are magnetized first in one
direction and then in the other. The dipoles can be considered as small mag-
nets which turn around with each reversal of the magnetic field associated
with an alternating current. The energy required to turn them around is dis-
sipated as heat, the rate of expenditure of which increases with the rate of
reversal of the magnetic f i e l d - i . e . , the frequency of the alternating current.
Eddy-current losses and the Joule heat generation associated with them are
9
described by the same relationships that pertain to other ac circuits or to dc

(direct current) circuits. As with other electric currents, eddy currents require
a complete electrical path. Associated with a given eddy current is a voltage
drop V which, for a pure resistance R, is given by Ohm's Law, V = IR, where
I denotes current. When a voltage drop occurs, electrical energy is converted
into thermal energy or heat. This conversion of energy is analogous to the
conversion of potential energy into kinetic energy that occurs in mechanical
systems, such as when an object is dropped under the force of gravity from
a given height. In the electrical case, the voltage (or potential) drop results
in heating at a rate given by VI = IER. Note that this is a measure of heat-
ing rate, or p o w e r - i . e . , it is expressed in units of energy per time.
The question now arises as to how the eddy currents are induced in the
workpiece in the first place. An understanding of this mechanism is essential
in design of induction coils and in control of heating rates and heating pat-
terns. The basic p h e n o m e n o n of induction is related to the fact that a mag-
netic field is associated with any electric current, be it ac or dc.
For an electrical conductor carrying a direct current, the magnetic field (or,
more formally, the field of magnetic induction) is aligned at right angles to
the current, its strength decreasing with distance from the conductor. The
magnitude of the magnetic field varies in proportion to the current; the polar-
ity or direction of the lines of magnetic induction is given by the "right-hand"
rule (Fig. 2.1). If a direct current is passed through a solenoid coil, the result-
ing field strength is greater within the turns of the coil and smaller outside the
coil (Fig. 2.2). The magnetic fields between adjacent turns are very small
because the lines of magnetic induction for the adjacent turns have different
signs and therefore cancel each other. Consider now what happens to the mag-
netic field if a solid bar is placed in a coil carrying a dc current (Fig. 2.3). If
the bar is nonmagnetic, the field is unaffected. On the other hand, if a mag-
netic steel bar is placed inside the coil, the number of lines of magnetic induc-
tion is greatly increased. Because of this, the permeability of the steel is said
to be greater than that of the nonmagnetic material. In practice, only the rel-
ative permeability needs to be known to do electrical calculations. Nonmag-
netic materials have permeabilities equivalent to that of air and are taken to
have a relative magnetic permeability of unity. In contrast, magnetic mate-
rials have relative magnetic permeabilities greater than one.
When a solid bar of electrically conducting material is placed inside a coil
carrying a dc current, no eddy currents are induced. If the dc current is
replaced with an ac current, however, eddy currents, and heating are induced.
As an aid in understanding this, the somewhat simpler example of a solenoid
coil surrounding a long, thin sleeve of electrically conducting material is exam-
ined first. With ac current, as with dc, a magnetic field surrounds the sole-
noid coil, but its magnitude and direction vary with time as the magnitude and
direction of the ac through the coil vary. This causes the number of lines in
the field of magnetic induction, or magnetic flux, which cut through the thin
Theory of Induction Heating 11
The current is emerging from the page. The relationship between

the directions of the magnetic field and the current is expressed
by the "right-hand" rule (thumb pointing in direction of cur-
rent, fingers giving direction of magnetic field).
Fig. 2.1. Magnetic field (lines with arrows) around an electrical con-
ductor (cross-hatched circle at center) carrying a current (from D. Hal-
liday and R. Resnick, Physics, Wiley, New York, | 966)
sleeve, to vary. In his experiments in the mid-1800's, Faraday found that such
a variation in flux induces a voltage. For the present example, the voltage,
or electromagnetic force, induced in the sleeve, Esleeve, is given by
E~te~v¢= - N (Aq,a/At)
where N is the number of turns in the coil and A ~ / A t is the rate at which
the flux is changing, in webers (Wb) per second. The above equation is known
as Faraday's Law.
It has been pointed out above that the magnetic field strength associated
with an electric current varies with the magnitude of the current. Thus, for
an ac current in a conducting wire or a solenoid coil, the maximum and min-
imum values of the magnetic field strength occur at the same times as those
of the current (Fig. 2.4). At a peak or a valley of the current or magnetic
field, Aq,J A t is equal to zero. By examining Fig. 2.4, it is apparent that
Fig. 2.2. Schematic illustration of the field of magnetic induction asso-

ciated with a solenoid coil carrying an electric current (from D. Halli-
day and R. Resnick, Physics, Wiley, New York, 1966)
A ~ , / A t is greatest when the curve for coil current versus time passes through
zero. For this reason, the voltage induced in the thin sleeve is greatest when
the coil current passes through zero. Moreover, because o f the minus sign in
Faraday's Law, the induced, or eddy, current associated with the induced volt-
age is opposite in sign to the coil current. Note also that the induced current
paths in the sleeve mirror the coil current paths, as can be deduced from the
right-hand rule.
For the thin-sleeve case, it is rather easy to determine the magnitude o f the
eddy currents and the heating rate from the expression for the induced volt-
age, Eslecve. The magnetic flux is first found in terms o f the coil current, Ic,
and the coil geometry in an approximate m a n n e r using Amp~re's Law. For
a solenoid coil, the required relationship* is:
~s = (#oIcn)(xro2)
where #0 is the permeability constant (4~- x l 0 - 7 W b / A . m ) , n is the num-

ber o f coil turns per unit length, and ro is the mean radius o f the coil turns.
Next, the resistance o f the sleeve is found from Rsleeve ----pe/A, where p is the
resistivity o f the sleeve material, e is the length o f the current path ( = 7r .a,
*This relationship is based on the flux inside the coil in the absence of the sleeve. When the
sleeve is placed in the coil, the flux within the sleeve is reduced. Thus, ~, calculated from the
equation is an upper limit.
Direct current in coil

®®®®®®®®®®®®®
............---
(a) = Copper
®®®®®®®®®®®®®
(b) ~ Iron
(~) Current flowing awayfrom you ® Currentflowing toward you
Fig. 2.3. Effects of (a) nonmagnetic and (b) magnetic bars on the field
of magnetic induction (i.e., magnetic flux) within a solenoid coil carry-
ing an electric current (from C. A. Tudbury, Basics of Induction Heat-
ing, Vol 1, John F. Rider, Inc., New York, 1960)
where a is the sleeve diameter), and A is the cross-sectional area of the sleeve
(equal to the product of sleeve thickness times sleeve length). The power dis-
2
sipated by the eddy currents is then equal to Esleeve Rsleeve, or Isleeve Rsleeve,
where Isleeve = Esleeve/Rsleeve , f r o m Ohm's Law.
EDDY-CURRENT DISTRIBUTION
IN A SOLID BAR
For the thin-sleeve case, the induced eddy currents assume a fixed magni-
tude depending only on the coil current and geometry. In contrast, when a
solid bar is placed inside the coil, the behavior is somewhat more complex.
This situation is best visualized by imaging the solid bar to consist of a
number of thin, concentric sleeves (Fig. 2.5). The field of magnetic induction
I j Coil current
Ma.gnetic ~ ~
"0
Time
Fig. 2.4. Qualitative variation of the current and the strength of the
associated field of magnetic induction with time for a solenoid coil ener-
gized by an ec supply. The eddy current induced in an electrically con-
ductive sleeve placed in the induction coil is also shown.
The deeper currents

are smaller and
lag in phase,
but are all of
the same frequency
Fig. 2.5. Qualitative variation, as a function of radial position, of the

magnitude and phase shift of the eddy currents induced in a solid
bar by a solenoid coil carrying an alternating current (from C. A. Tud-
bury, Basics of Induction Heating, Vol 1, John F. Rider, Inc., New York,
1960)
is strongest in the space between the inner diameter of the coil and the outer
diameter of the outermost sleeve. A certain a m o u n t of flux passes through
the outermost sleeve, inducing eddy currents. The question now arises as to
whether the magnetic field strength is greater or smaller within the outer
sleeve, relative to the external field. This depends on whether the induced cur-
rent in the outer sleeve tends to reinforce the field or not. If it strengthened
the field, a higher voltage would be induced in the sleeve, causing a higher
current. This would result in a still stronger field, a higher voltage, etc., a sit-
uation which certainly cannot happen. Thus, the magnetic field strength is
reduced within the outermost sleeve. Because of this, the current induced in
the second sleeve from the surface is smaller than that in the outermost sleeve,
the induced current in the third sleeve is smaller than that in the second, and
so forth. In general, the magnitudes of the induced currents decrease continu-
ously from the surface irrespective of whether the bar is made of a magnetic
or a nonmagnetic material. This p h e n o m e n o n is known as "skin effect."
Mathematical determination of the current distribution over the cross sec-
tion of a bar, let alone a more complicated geometry, is a difficult task, a dis-
cussion of which is beyond the scope of this book. For the simplest case which
can be a n a l y z e d - that of a solid round b a r - t h e solutions demonstrate that
the induced current decreases exponentially from the surface. The most impor-
tant result from such solutions is that they allow us to define an effective
depth of the current-carrying layers. This depth, known as the reference depth
or skin depth, d, depends on the frequency of the alternating current through
the coil and the electrical resistivity and relative magnetic permeability of the
workpiece; it is very useful in gaging the ability to induction heat various
materials as well. The definition of d is:
d = 3160 pv~#f (English units)
or
d = 5000 pv~#f (metric units)
where d is the reference depth, in inches or centimetres; p is the resistivity of

the workpiece, in ohm-inches or ohm-centimetres;/~ is the relative magnetic
permeability of the workpiece (dimensionless); and f is the frequency of the
ac field of the work coil, in hertz. The reference depth is the distance from
the surface of the material to the depth where the induced field strength and
current are reduced to l / e , or 37% of their surface values. The power den-
sity at this point is 1/e 2, or 14% of its value at the surface.*
Figure 2.6 gives reference depth versus frequency for various common met-
als. Reference depth varies with temperature, for a fixed frequency, because
*e - base of the natural logarithm = 2.718.

10
~ ~ Iron at 815 °C (1500 °F)

J Nichrome at 20 °C (70 °F) 1000
~.. JJ Lead at 20 °C (70 °F) -
J ~ Brass at 500 ° C (930 oF) _
°E
.c" 1.0
8 100 ~
,5
-~
¢r 0.1 -
Copper at 20 °C (70 oF) / ~ I "~ ] ~ ' ~

Iron at 20 °C (70 OF)" ~ " ~ ~ 10
0.01 I I I I I I I I I I III I'~LIII ~ I~
10 102 103 104 105 106
Frequency, Hz
Fig. 2.6. Reference depth for common materials as a function of fre-
quency (from A. F. Leatherman and D. E. Stutz, "Induction Heating
Advances: Application to 5800 F," NASA Report SP-5071, National
Aeronautics and Space Administration, Washington, 1969)
the resistivities of conductors vary with temperature. Furthermore, for mag-

netic steels, permeability varies with temperature, decreasing to a value of
unity at and above the Curie temperature. Also in these materials, the refer-
ence depth below the Curie temperature increases with power density as the
steel becomes magnetically saturated and permeability decreases (Fig. 2.7).
Because of these effects, the reference depth in nonmagnetic materials may
vary by a factor of two or three over a wide heating range, whereas for mag-
netic steels, it can vary as much as 20 times.
EQUIVALENT RESISTANCE AND EFFICIENCY-

SOLID ROUND BAR
The concept of reference depth allows us to define two other very impor-
tant quantities in the technology of induction h e a t i n g - n a m e l y , equivalent
resistance and electrical efficiency. The equivalent resistance Req is the work-
piece resistance which if placed in a series circuit with the induction coil would
dissipate as much heat as all the eddy currents in the actual workpiece. In
other words, the power dissipated in the workpiece would be equal to 12. Req.
For a solid round bar, it turns out that the equivalent resistance is equal to
the product of N 2 and the resistance of a sleeve o n e reference depth thick
located at the surface: Req = p~'aKRzN2/A, where a is the outer diameter of
the sleeve (or solid bar), A is the cross-sectional area of the sleeve (= d. w),
and KR2 is a factor (Fig. 2.8) to account for the variation of electrical path
P o w e r density, W/in. 2
10 3 10 4
10 3
I|.w|ij
51iRiil
I 100
10 2
O c5
Q)
t-
c
10
JE J t-
O9
J I
.c
g,
10 I
~ . o ~
10 2 10 3 10 4
Power density, W/cm 2
Fig. 2.7. Reference (skin) depth for magnetic steel as a function of

power density end frequency (from G. H. Brown, C. N. Hoyler, and R.
A. Bierwirth, Theoryand Application of Radio FrequencyHeating, Van
Nostrand, New York, 1947)
between the ID and OD of the equivalent sleeve. The dependence of Req on

the number of induction coil turns N is a result of the fact that the induced
voltage and induced eddy currents both increase linearly with N according to
Faraday's and Ohm's Laws, respectively.
1.0
j v
0.9
f
0.8
0.7
"6
0 0.6
0
¢-
09
09 0.5
o
Q~
O.
0
0.4
0.3
/
0.2 l
J
0.1
0
/
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24
Electrical diameter of workpiece, a/d
Fig. 2.8. Workpiece resistance correction factor used for calculating

workpiece resistance as reflected in induction-coil circuit for solid round
bars (from C. A. Tudbury, Basicsof Induction Heating, Vol 1, John F.
Rider, Inc., New York, 1960)
The equivalent resistance, or the workpiece resistance as reflected in the coil

circuit as it is often called, allows the electrical efficiency to be calculated. The
efficiency ~/is the ratio of electrical energy dissipated in the workpiece to that
dissipated by the coil and workpiece:
Ic2Req Req
7/- i2Rc + 12Req Rc + Req
This equation demonstrates that, for a given equivalent resistance, the effi-
ciency r/increases as the coil resistance Rc decreases. Because copper has the
lowest resistivity of all common metals, it is the typical choice for the con-
struction of induction coils. On the other hand, for a given value of Rc, effi-
ciency can be increased by increasing Req. Once the material and workpiece
geometry are fixed, all the terms in the relation defining Req, except KR2, are
specified. Figure 2.8 shows that KR2 is a function of bar diameter over ref-
erence depth, a/d. Careful inspection of this plot reveals that KR2 increases
rapidly for values of a / d up to approximately 4. Above this value, there is
little increase in KR2 for big increases in a/d. Because a is a fixed number
for a specific application, the value of a / d is determined by the reference
depth d. Thus, an increase in a / d requires a decrease in d. Referring to the
equation for reference depth (d ~ x/~#f), it is seen that increased frequen-
cies are needed for higher values of a/d. This has practical significance inas-
much as the cost of induction power supplies increases with frequency.
The trend shown in Fig. 2.8 for KR2 versus a/d forms the basis for the
definition of a "critical" frequency. This is the frequency above which rela-
tively little increase in electrical efficiency can be gained by increases in fre-
quency. Viewed from a different perspective, it is the frequency below which
induction heating efficiency drops rapidly. For a round bar, the critical fre-
quency is that at which the ratio of workpiece diameter to reference depth is
approximately 4 to 1. For a sheet or slab heated from both surfaces, the crit-
ical ratio of thickness to reference depth is 2.25 to 1. Figure 2.9 shows criti-
Diameter, mm
0.25 2.54 25.4 254
106
~.•• i. I II I I I I
X \ \
i\\',...
~,~ ~,
\ III I III
. Steel at 815 °C (1500°F)
~ ~ ~ Brassat500°c(930°F)
~k ~,~, Brass at 20 °C (70 °F)
Copper at 500 ° C (930 oF).
~!V~ C°pper at 20 °C (70 °F)
Steel at 500 °C (930 oF)
-? lO~ Steel at 25 °C (75 ° F)
~ ' ~ ~~/ (/ ~/ "/ / ' ~ k I I I I I I 1
-.~ k
•
\
, ,
o
104
V\ \ \\\ \
103
0.001 0.O1 0.1 1.0 10
Diameter, in.
Fig. 2.9. Critical frequency for efficient induction heating of several
materials as a function of bar size (from A. F. Leatherman and D. E.
Stutz, "Induction Heating Advances: Application to 5800 F," NASA
Report SP-5071, National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Wash-
ington, 1969)
cal frequency as a function of diameter for round bars. Figure 2.10 shows
efficiency of heating as a function of this critical frequency; note the similarity
between this plot and the plot in Fig. 2.8. Here, the changes in heating effi-
ciency above and below the critical frequency are apparent. Below the criti-
cal frequency, efficiency drops rapidly because less current is induced due to
current cancellation. Current cancellation becomes significant when the ref-
erence depth is such that eddy currents induced from either side of a work-
piece "impinge" upon each other and, being of opposite sign, cancel each
other.
For through heating, a frequency close to the critical frequency should be
chosen. In contrast, for shallow heating in a large workpiece, a high frequency
is selected. This is the situation for surface heat treatment of steels. In these
instances, there is no concern about critical frequency because the workpiece
diameter will typically be many times the reference depth.
10
10 m~zl
(.3 znl
O
Q~
/
ii
Y
-$
r~-
O.1
X
O.O1 t
1
/ 10 100 1000
% of critical frequency
Fig. 2.10. Relationship between relative efficiency and critical fre-

quency (from A. F. Leatherman and D. E. Stutz, "Induction Heating
Advances: Application to 5800 F," NASA Report SP-5071, National
Aeronautics and Space Administration, Washington, 1989)
EQUIVALENTRESISTANCEAND EFFICIENCY-
OTHER GEOMETRIES
The expression given above for electrical efficiency 7/in terms of the induc-
tion-coil resistance and the resistance of the workpiece as reflected in the coil
circuit, or equivalent resistance, is a general one for all geometries. The major
difficulty in evaluating this expression lies in the determination of the equiv-
alent resistance Req. Because Req is a function of geometry, its value can be
estimated only for a limited number of particularly simple shapes. These are
(a) a short, stubby round bar, (b) a hollow tube, and (c) a rectangular slab.
The equation for the equivalent resistance of a short bar is identical to that
for a long bar except for a factor Ks2 (Fig. 2.11): Req = pTro~N2KR2KsJd •w.
The Ks2 factor takes into account the "fringing" of the magnetic field at the
bar ends, which becomes important when the length-to-diameter ratio be-
comes small. The expressions for a long, hollow tube and a rectangular slab
are similar to that for a long, solid bar except for the definition of KR~, for
which the values shown in Fig. 2.12 and 2.13 are employed.
A type of workpiece which is being heated increasingly by induction now-
adays is thin sheet. In this case, two pancake-type inductors are used to set
up an alternating magnetic field perpendicular to the sheet, rather than par-
allel to it, as it would be for a solenoid coil surrounding the sheet. Known as
transverse-flux induction heating, this method allows the use of less-expensive,
low-frequency power supplies in order to obtain reasonable heating efficien-
cies. A precise relationship for Req for this heating geometry is difficult to
derive because of the complex nature of the current paths in the sheet and the
dependence of Req on the size of the air gap. As discussed by Semiatin et al,*
however, the following expression is thought to give a reasonable first approx-
imation:
Req = (2w + 2e)p/t 2
where w, t, p, and t are sheet width, inductor length, workpiece resistivity,

and sheet thickness, respectively. The accuracy of this equation was confirmed
in a series of low-carbon steel annealing trials using an inductor with an Rc
equal to 2.125 ft. Using an average value of p over the temperature range
through which the steel was heated for annealing purposes, a coil efficiency
~/of 83.5% was predicted. This compared favorably with the values between
83 and 86 obtained experimentally through measurements of the power into
the coil and the (known) heat capacity of the workpiece material. Further
information on the design of transverse-flux induction heating systems is given
in Chapter 6.
*S. L. Semiatin et al, "CMF Reports-Rapid Annealing of Sheet Steels," Center for Metals
Fabrication, Columbus, Ohio, 1986.
1.0
bl/l" = 0
09 I _.~....'-5,
0.8 b i l L = 0.2 ~
~ ~
~
07 _~"~ f~
o.o
~ 0.5
o
--~
cs 0.4
O
~ o.3
0.2
0.1
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1,0
a/b1
?
a bl
DDDDDDD
t ' t
Fig. 2.11. Workpiece shortness correction factor used for calculating
workpiece resistance as reflected in induction-coil circuit for short, solid
round bars (from C. A. Tudbury, Basics of Induction Heating, Vol 1, John
F. Rider, Inc., New York, 1960)
For irregular geometries for which efficiency calculations as described above

are not possible, minimum frequencies for efficient induction heating are cho-
sen on the basis o f the ratio o f some characteristic dimension o f the work-
piece to the reference depth. The frequency is chosen to obtain a ratio o f at
3.4 --
3.2-
3.0-
2.8-
2.6-
2.4-
2.2-
2.0-
1.8-
1.6-
n-
1.4-
1.2-
1.0-
0.8-
0.6-
0.4-
0.2
oE
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Ratio of outside diameter to

reference depth (a/d)
Fig. 2.12. Workpiece resistance factor used for calculating workpiece

resistance as reflected in induction-coil circuit for round, hollow loads
(from C. A. Tudbury, Basicsof Induction Heating, Vol 1, John F. Rider,
Inc., New York, 1960)
least 4 to 1 or at least 2 to 1 for parts which are basically round or flat, respec-
tively.
DETERMINATION OF POWER REQUIREMENTS
As discussed above, the ac frequency, through its effect on reference depth

and efficiency, is one o f the important design parameters in induction heat-
1.1
f ~
1.0
0.9
/
0.8
,¢
0.7
o.6 J
¢-
0.5 / , I I I
0.4 I im
I:E I/ L ,j t, w , j
I~ "1 I~ /I
0.3 / ,- i. o o ° o © o ° o ° o
2pW
0.2 I R2e q = Ld2 KR2N12 - ooooeooooo
,- T d
0.1 J
0
0 1 2
I
3 4 5 6 7
I I I I I I 1 I
Ratio of thickness to reference depth (T/d)
Fig. 2.13. Workpiece resistance factor used for calculating workpiece

resistance as reflected in induction-coil circuit for rectangular loads
(from C. A. Tudbury, Basicsof Induction Heating, Vol 1, John F. Rider,
Inc., New York, 1960)
ing. The amount of power that is needed for a given application is also an
important consideration. If the workpiece is regularly shaped and is to be
through heated or melted, the calculation is straightforward. However, if it
is to be only selectively heated so that the remainder of the workpiece is a heat
sink for the generated heat, calculation of the power needed may be difficult.
The latter calculation is not considered here; guidelines for surface heating
for the purpose of surface heat treatment of steel are given in Chapter 6.
For through-heating applications, the power density should be kept rela-
tively low to allow conduction from the outer layers (which are heated more
rapidly by higher current densities) to the inner layers. There will always be
a temperature gradient, but this can be minimized by careful selection of
induction heating parameters. Neglecting the temperature gradient, the ab-
sorbed power depends on the required temperature rise AT, the total weight
to be heated per unit time W, and the specific heat of the material c. The
power PI to be supplied to the load is then given by PI = WcAT.
To determine the total input power needed from the power source which
supplies ac current to the induction coil, the power lost from the workpiece
due to radiation and convection and the loss in the coil itself due to Joule
heating must be added to P1. Heat loss by convection is usually small and is
neglected in calculations of power requirements for typical rapid-heating
applications.
Radiation losses are calculated by means of the expression P2 = Aeo( T4 -

T4), where e is the emissivity of the workpiece surface, o is the Stefan-
Boltzmann constant, T1 and T2 are the workpiece and ambient temperatures
(in K), respectively, and A is the surface area of the workpiece. The radia-
tion power loss can vary greatly during the heating cycle because of surface-
condition changes dependent on material and temperature. Typical emissivities
are 0.1 to 0.2 for aluminum at 200 to 595 °C (390 to 1100 °F) and 0.80 for
oxidized steel.
The power lost in the induction coil, P3 = IERc, depends on frequency,
coil design, and the size of the air gap between the inductor and the work-
piece, among other factors. At low frequencies (e.g., 60 Hz), Rc is about
equal to the dc resistance value, and P3 is calculated directly from knowledge
of the coil current. At higher frequencies, a skin effect is also established in
the inductor, and this must be taken into account when estimating P3. The
calculation of Rc in these cases is discussed by Tudbury.*
With the above definitions, the total power required is equal to PI + P2 -I-
P3, and the over-all heating efficiency of the system is P1/(P1 + P2 -I- P3).
*C. A. Tudbury, Basics of Induction Heating, Vol 1, John F. Rider, Inc., New York, 1960.
Chapter 3
Tuning of Induction Heating

Circuits and Load Matching
The previous chapter described the fundamentals of induction heating with

respect to the transfer of energy between an induction coil and an electrically
conductive workpiece. The effects of coil geometry, workpiece properties, and
power-supply frequency on the electrical, or coil, efficiency were summarized.
With proper designs, coil efficiencies in excess of 90% are readily obtained.
However, the over-all system efficiency, defined as the percentage of the elec-
trical energy drawn from the power line that is actually used in workpiece
heating, depends on four other factors: (1) the conversion efficiency of the
power supply, (2) tuning of the induction heating circuit, (3) matching of the
induction heated load and coil to the induction power supply, and (4) cou-
pling of the coil and the workpiece. Power-supply conversion efficiency is a
function of the specific type of converter employed. As described in more
detail in Chapter 4, solid-state generators tend to have the highest conversion
efficiencies and vacuum-tube-type radio-frequency oscillators the lowest.
In this chapter, attention is focused on the transfer of energy between the
power supply and the induction heating coil. The most efficient transfer
requires that the induction heated load and coil be matched to the power sup-
ply and that the electrical circuit containing these elements be properly tuned.
Load matching enables the full rated power of the induction generator to be
drawn effectively; tuning ensures that this power is used for actual heating.
In practice, it is usually best to tune the appropriate induction heating circuit
to obtain what is known as a unity "power factor" and then to match the coil
and workpiece "impedance" to that of the power supply. These procedures
are described below.
27
Generator Capacitor Inductor
Fig. 3.1. A simple parallel resonant circuit (from P. H. Brace, Induction

Heating Circuits and Frequency Generation, in Induction Heating, ASM,
Metals Park, OH, 1946, p 36)
TUNING OF INDUCTION HEATING CIRCUITS

Most induction heating systems make use o f an ac electrical circuit known
as a " t a n k " circuit. Such circuits include a capacitor and an inductor.* The
latter m a y be the induction coil itself or a separate so-called tank coil. The
term "tank" is derived from the fact that the capacitor and inductor both serve
as storage-tank-type devices for energy-electrostatic in nature for the capac-
itor and electromagnetic in the case o f the inductor. The tank-circuit compo-
nents m a y be connected in parallel (Fig. 3.1) or in series (Fig. 3.2).
Tuning in induction heating generally refers to the adjustment of the capac-
itance or inductance o f a tank circuit containing the induction coil and work-
piece, so that the "resonant" frequency o f the circuit is equal or close to the
frequency o f the induction power supply. This resonant frequency is defined
by the expression f0 (in hertz) = 1/27r L ~ , where L is inductance (in hen-
ries) and C is capacitance (in farads).
Series Resonant Circuits
To understand how power is stored or dissipated in various elements o f a
series (or parallel) tank circuit, it is important to recognize the nature o f the
voltage and current passing through each. When an ac voltage is impressed
across a resistance R, the voltage drop is in phase with the current and is equal
to the product of the current and the resistance, VR = IR. On the other hand,
inductors and capacitors offer a different kind o f "opposition" to current
flow, known as inductive reactance XL and capacitive reactance Xc, respec-
tively. They are defined as:
X L ~-- 2xfL and Xc = 1/2rfC
where f is frequency.
*In actual induction heating installations, the tank-circuit elements (other than the induc-
tion coil itself) are frequently contained in a separate enclosure apart from the power supply.
This enclosure, most often called the "heat station," may frequently contain a load-matching
transformer as well and may be adjacent to or remote from the power supply itself.
Tuning of Induction Heating Circuits and Load Matching 29
Generator
G
Capacitor Inductor
Fig. 3.2. A simple series resonant circuit (from P. H. Brace, Induction

Heating Circuits and Frequency Generation, in Induction Heating, ASM,
In contrast to the current-voltage relationship for a pure resistance, the

peaks and valleys of an ac current through an inductor "lag" the correspond-
ing peaks and valleys of the voltage drop across it by 90 ° (one-fourth of the
ac cycle). The current through a capacitor "leads" the voltage by 90 °. When
an ac current passes through an inductor, a capacitor, and a resistor in series,
the net opposition to the current flow or "impedance" is obtained by a vec-
torial sum of the voltages, VL = IXL, Vc = IXc, and VR = IR (Fig. 3.3):
E : /(IV I - IVcl) + = Iq(XL -- X c ) 2 -4- R 2
where E is the applied electromotive force and I is the current flowing through
the circuit. The impedance Z is defined as x/(XL -- Xc) 2 + R 2. Thus, E =
IZ, an equation which expresses the ac equivalent of Ohm's Law for resistors
in dc circuits.
At resonance in a series circuit containing an inductor, a capacitor, and
a resistor, the inductive and capacitive reactance are equal and the over-all
circuit impedance Z appears as a pure resistance. As the resistive component
of such a series circuit is decreased, the circulating current will be higher
(Fig. 3.4). In addition, when the resistance is low, the current drops rapidly
as the operating frequency varies from the resonant frequency.
The ratio of inductive reactance to the resistance of the circuit is sometimes
called the quality factor, or Q(Q = XL/R = 27rfL/R). Circuits having higher
values of Q therefore produce higher currents in the system. The values of Q
for a resonant circuit typically range between 20 and 100. The Q factor also
offers a comparison between the total energy in a tuned circuit and the energy
dissipated by the resistance in a circuit. Because no energy is dissipated in a
pure inductance or capacitance, keeping the resistance as low as possible will
reduce the losses. In induction heating, therefore, because nearly all the resis-
tance of a resonant circuit is in the induction coil, its resistance should be kept
low, thus ensuring m a x i m u m efficiency.
V L = IX L
I IVLI- IVcf
V R = IR
V c = IX c V
R
(a) (b)
Fig. 3.3. Vector diagrams illustrating (a) phase relationships between

current and voltage in the various components of an ac series LCR cir-
cuit and (b) relationship between the applied emf E and the voltage drops
across the resistor (VR), the inductor (VL), and the capacitor (Vc) in
such s circuit (from C. A. Tudbury, Basicsof Induction Heating, Vol 2,
John F. Rider, Inc., New York, 1960)
True, Reactive, and Apparent Power

The definitions of reactance and impedance allow several other important
quantities in induction heating to be defined. These are the true, reactive,
and apparent power. True power, PT, is the power which is available to the
coil and workpiece for actual heating. It is expressed in kilowatts (kW) and
is equal to IER. Apparent power, PA, is equal to IEz, or total volts times
total amperes. To differentiate it from true power, apparent power is
expressed in kilovolt-amperes (kVA). The third power quantity is the reac-
tive power, PR = I2(XL - Xc); this is the power which is out of phase. It
results in no heating, and its units are expressed as kilovars (kVAR). Because
of the relationship among Z, R, and (XL -- Xc), the various power quanti-
ties are themselves related through PA = x/P2 + p2.
The "power factor" for a given induction heating operation is defined as
the ratio of true power to apparent power, PT/PA. In induction heating, it
is desirable to have a power factor at the power source as close to unity as
possible.
The power factor may also be defined as the cosine of the phase angle
between the current and voltage in an electrical circuit. For a tuned series cir-
cuit containing an inductor, a capacitor, and a resistor, which appears to con-
sist of a pure resistance, the current and voltage are in phase, PR.= 0, and
the power factor is equal to unity. For both a pure inductance and a pure
capacitance, the phase angle is equal to 90 °, PT = 0, and the power factor
1,0
L = lOOph
0.9-- C = lOOppf
E=lOmv
0.8
R=10~
0.7-- J
0.6
0.5-- to
-E
0.4
0.3 ~ / R = 100~
0.2
0.90 0.95 1.00 1.05 1.10

to, 107/s
Fig. 3.4. Current amplitude as a function of frequency for an ac series

LCR circuit whose components have the values indicated (from D. Hal-
liday and R. Resnick, Physics, Wiley, New York, 1966)
viewed across these elements alone is equal to zero. Note also that low power
factors correspond to high values of Q.
Parallel Resonant Circuits

The most common tank circuit used in induction heating is the parallel res-
onant circuit. The simplest type, as referred to previously, uses a capacitance
in parallel with an inductance. The impedance of a parallel circuit at reso-
nance is equal to (27rfL)E/R or (2xfL)Q. At resonance, Q will be high and
thus impedance will also be high.
The parallel resonant tank (Fig. 3.5) is tuned to the frequency of oscilla-
tion or resonance by making the inductive reactance equal to the capacitive
reactance at the desired frequency. As previously stated, when these are equal
the currents will be equal and opposite in phase. Hence, they cancel each other
in the circuit, and the line current I1 is thus very small. The small line cur-
rent results from the fact that the inductor has a small but finite resistance
causing a slight phase-angle shift so that complete current cancellation can-
not take place. On the other hand, the circulating current shown as I2 is very
large, depending on the applied voltage and the reactance of the capacitor at
the resonant frequency (= 1/2?r~/-Lc, as in a resonant series LCR circuit). In
a parallel resonant, or tank, circuit, therefore, the impedance is at a maximum
-Q
L
E(t)(~
( R
i
Fig. 3.5. A simple parallel resonant (tank) circuit consisting of a sup-
ply voltage E and a capacitor in parallel with an inductor and a resistor
across the L-C circuit, and the line current is very small. Also, the power fac-
tor as viewed across the voltage terminals is nearly unity.
Tuning Capacitors
Capacitor banks often are employed to tune induction heating circuits
to obtain a resonant frequency close to the power-supply frequency.* Gener-
ally, such devices are of two types: oil-filled, multiple-tap units (Fig. 3.6) for
operation at 10,000 Hz or lower; and ceramic or solid dielectric capacitors
(Fig. 3.7) used in newer equipment operating at frequencies generally above
50 kHz.
Because of their use in tuning induction heating circuits, capacitors are usu-
ally rated in terms of the reactive power (kVAR) which they can provide in
such applications, rather than in farads. Capacitors are generally tapped for
step selection, and are connected in banks of multiple units (Fig. 3.8) for spe-
cific required kVAR ratings, at low and medium frequencies. At high frequen-
cies, capacitors generally have fixed ratings, and total tank capacity is adjusted
by connecting or removing units as required.
Increasing tank capacitance lowers the resonant frequency, and, with sub-
sequent decreases in capacitive reactance and tank impedance, the current
increases. Accordingly, the current-carrying capability of a capacitor must be
increased as the frequency decreases. Capacitors for use at l0 kHz are rated
as high as 2000 kVAR. It is essential that the proper ratings be used for the
specific system. Reactive power is given by the formula PR = V 2 / X c =
27rfCV 2, so the kVAR rating must be reduced for a specific capacitor by the
*Note that at resonance, X L -~- 2 r f L = 1/2xfC = Xc, thereby defining the resonant fre-
quency fo = 1/27r L~/-LC.If the resonant frequency fo is set as the power-supply frequency and
L is determined by the inductance of the heating coil or an auxiliary tank coil, then tuning
involves selection of the proper capacitance.
Fig. 3.6. Typical water.cooled capacitors used to tune low- to medium-

frequency induction heating circuits (from P. H. Brace, Induction Heat-
ing Circuits and Frequency Generation, in Induction Heating, ASM,
square of the voltage, or directly as the frequency, when it is used at a lower

frequency. In view of the large kVAR input to capacitors, it is therefore
important that they have high efficiencies. Accordingly, most capacitors have
power factors less than 0.0003.
Fig. 3.7. Typical ceramic capacitors used to tune induction heating cir-
cuits (source: Lindberg Cycle-Dyne, Inc.)
Common
terminal
Cooling
water
Cables to
E generator
~,~_ -
x~
Typical 9 ~- Collector
300 kVAR ,..~
rating 10 kHz 460V < /I ~..
140 mm
(51/2in.) ~ I
(Cooling water
connections not shown)
Fig. 3.8. Schematic illustration of a capacitor bank used in tuning induc-

tion heating circuits for low- and medium-frequency induction heating
power supplies (from C. A. Tudbury, Basics of Induction Heating, Vol
2, John F. Rider, Inc., New York, 1960)
The power factor of the coil(s) is generally low, and the current lags in
phase. Because the capacitor is used to correct the power factor to unity, it
must be capable of drawing a leading current which is equal to the lagging
component of the current drawn by the inductance. The capacitors operate
at rated output voltage and the resultant reactive power (kVAR) of the capac-
itor must usually be several times the rated kW power of the supply.
The example shown in Fig. 3.9 will serve to illustrate the use of capacitors
in tuning. Consider the case in which the coil-heating power requirement (i.e.,
true power) is 200 kW. Assume that 2000 kVA are being drawn from the
power supply during the initial setup; thus the power factor is only 0.1 (lag-
ging). To estimate the capacitance required to achieve a unity power factor,
the reactive power is first estimated as ~/20002 - 2002 = 1990 kVAR. Thus,
capacitors which provide 1990 kVAR of leading reactive power must be added
to the tank circuit.
In power supplies such as motor-generators, it is frequently beneficial to
have a slightly leading power factor-i.e., a capacitive reactance which slightly
exceeds the inductive reactance. In the above example, to obtain a power factor
. ~ ] 1 1990 kVAa
66 kVAR
Cos ¢ = 0.95
Fig. 3.9. Vector diagram illustrating power-factor correction for a fixed-

frequency induction heating power supply
of 0.95 which is leading, an additional capacitance of 200 tan(cos -1 0.95) =

66 kVAR must be utilized. Thus, the total kVAR requirement would be
1990 + 66 = 2056 kVA.
TRANSFORMERS AND IMPEDANCE MATCHING

Induction heating sources have rated current and voltage limits that can-
not be exceeded without damage to the source. The ratio of the rated volt-
age to the rated current is the effective impedance of the source. To obtain
the greatest transfer of energy from the source to the load, the impedances
of the two should be as close to each other as possible. If they do not match,
transformers are then employed.
A transformer is a device consisting of two coils (or windings) which have
"mutual" inductance between them (Fig. 3.10). The primary winding is con-
nected to the supply, and a voltage is induced in the secondary winding, which
is separated from the primary by an iron core or air core. A transformer can
be used to increase (step up) or decrease (step down) voltages.
The relationship between the voltages in the primary (Ep) and secondary
(Es) is determined by the ratio of the turns in each:
Ep Np
Es Ns
Here, Np and Ns denote the turns in the primary and secondary, respectively.
The current that flows in the secondary winding as a result of the induced
I
P
0
Ep 0
0
O~ Es i ~> R L
0
N
P
NS
Ep is primary voltage (V); Ip is primary current (A); Np is
number of primary turns; Is is secondary current (A); Ns
is number of secondary turns; Es is secondary voltage (V); RE
is load resistance (fl).
Fig. 3.10. Electrical circuit illustrating the analogy between the trans-
former principle and induction heating
voltage must produce a flux which exactly equals the primary flux. Because
the flux is proportional to the product of the number of turns and the cur-
rents in the windings, the relationship between the primary current Ip and the
secondary current Is is:
NpIp = Nsls
or
Np Is
Ns Ip
Hence, when the voltage is stepped up, the current is stepped down, and
vice versa. It should be borne in mind, however, that these equations apply
only to transformers with perfect coupling between the primary and secondary
windings. In reality, coupling is not perfect, and the voltage and current ratios
will each be slightly less than the turns ratio.
When a transformer is used for load-matching purposes, the impedance of
the secondary is adjusted to match that of the electrical load, and the primary
impedance matches that of the source. Usually, this involves reducing a high-
voltage line supply to a lower-voltage, higher-current one. Because impedance
is equal to E/I, the impedance ratio between the primary and secondary
(Zp/Zs) can be calculated by means of the equation:
Ze N2
Zs
Thus, the impedance ratio is equal to the square of the turns ratio.
(a) (b)
Fig. 3.11. Photographs of (a) an autotransformer (source: Hunterdon

Transformer Co.) and (b) rear view of an isolation transformer, show-
ing adjustable taps (source: Jackson Products Co.)
W h e n coil impedance is very high, a coil m a y operate directly across the

output o f the power supply (which is usually o f high impedance). However,
a matching transformel is frequently used. Matching transformers for low-
and medium-frequency use generally have laminated iron cores. Where high-
impedance work coils must be matched to the system and thus coil voltage
is high, tapped autotransformers* (Fig. 3.1 la) are utilized. These transformers
have tapped secondaries so that they can be used to match coil impedance to
supply impedance. Switches can be employed to change transformer primary
taps to adjust the ratio where conditions dictate frequent adjustment (Fig.
3.12).
Where coil impedances are low, isolation transformers~ are more commonly
employed (Fig. 3.1 lb). In this case, ratio changes are generally made in the
primary with bolt connections and an adjustable tap. The heavy current sec-
ondaries are water cooled to maintain low copper losses and increase effi-
ciency.
*In an autotransformer, the coils are both magneticallyand electricallyconnected. One sec-
tion of the two windingsis common to both the primary and secondary. Used when the desired
output voltage is approximately 50% or more of the input voltage, this type of transformer
offers low losses and less expensiveconstruction. Thus, matching of high-impedancecoils that
require low transformer ratios most frequently relies on an auto-transformer.
1"Inan isolation transformer, the primary and secondary windingsare coupled solely by the
magnetic flux. The efficiency of energy transfer is related to the distance between the wind-
ings as determined by the voltage difference between the two (and hence the insulation
required) and the efficiency of the transformer core material. Matching of a low-impedance
induction coil, which requires a large transformer ratio, usually makes use of an isolation trans-
former.
Fig. 3.12. Tap-change switch used in adjustino voltage on the primary

of a line-frequency induction heating system (source: American Induc-
tion Heating Corporation)
IMPEDANCE MATCHING AND TUNING FOR

SPECIFIC TYPES OF POWER SUPPLIES
Fixed-FrequencySources
Line-frequency power supplies, frequency multipliers, and motor-generators
each produce output power at a single specific frequency. In order to obtain
maximum power from the work coil, it is important to provide a tank circuit
tuned to that specific frequency, whose impedance matches that of the power
supply.
The schematic diagrams in Fig. 3.13 show the circuitry for both a high-
impedance system using an autotransformer and a low-impedance tank cir-
cuit using an isolation transformer. Both systems have tapped transformer
windings to match coil impedance to generator impedance and some means
of connecting capacitance, as required, to tune the system to resonance at or
near the operating frequency of the power supply. Because the capacitors are
connected incrementally, it is not always possible to tune the circuit exactly
to the output frequency of the generator, and thus, full output power is not
always achieved.
Capacitor connections are generally made by connecting the terminals of
individual capacitors to a c o m m o n bus. This can be accomplished by use of
bolted links, or large washers under the nut on the stud, where the stud is nor-
mally insulated from the bus. When changes must be made frequently, as in
melting systems, a remote switching system is normally provided that oper-
ates individual contactors to connect the stud to the bus.
All fixed-frequency systems are set up with the workpiece in the coil,
--0
XFR
q{
,¢
<
c
---o
<
---o
'"1
<
TIT
C1 C2
?) ?)?)
Ca Coil
(a)
-Q
( 0
Coil
(b)
Fig. 3.13. Schematic circuit diagrams of low- to medium-frequency heat

stations illustrating capacitor and transformer adjustments when using
(a) an eutotransformer (for high-impedance induction coils) end (b) an
iosolation transformer (for low-impedance induction coils)
because the impedance would change dramatically if the part were not in
place. Accordingly, balancing should be p e r f o r m e d using short, low-power
tests so that minimal heat is produced in the workpiece during setup and so
that conditions for comparison therefore remain almost static.
Metering on fkxed-frequency systems generally consists of a kilowatt meter,
an ammeter, a voltmeter, and a k V A R or power-factor meter. These meters
sometimes are read in percentages o f their maximum ratings to simplify tun-
ing. When the system is tuned properly, an increase in the output o f the sys-
tem will reflect increases in both current and voltage simultaneously. An
increase in one and a decrease in the other are indicative of improper balance.
During the actual tuning operation, such as that for a motor-generator sys-
tem, the field is slowly increased so that the meters begin to indicate. If the
power factor is lagging, capacitance must be added to the tank circuit.* If the
*Note that this assumes a parallel resonant tank circuit. If the power factor is lagging, the
lagging component of the current I 2 (in Fig. 3.5) is too great, and the leading component, or
the current through the capacitor, must be increased. Because this leading component is equal
to E/Xc, Xc must be decreased. Therefore, the capacitance must be increased.
power factor leads, capacitance must be removed. The power must be off
while changes are made in the capacitor bank.
When the power factor has been corrected as close to unity as possible,
power should be increased until either the voltage or the current reads the
maximum permissible. Readings of all meters should then be taken. If, as
machine power is increased, the voltage reaches a m a x i m u m before the cur-
rent does, the primary-to-secondary ratio of the transformer is too high. The
ratio must be adjusted, or turns must be removed from the work coil based
on the equation:
Required turns = present turns x amperes obtained at rated voltage/rated amperage
Should rated current be achieved before rated voltage, the primary-to-sec-

ondary ratio is too low. The ratio must be adjusted, or turns must be added
to the work coil as follows:
Required turns = present turns x rated voltage/voltage obtained at rated amperage
When the work coil is modified, the first operation must be a readjustment
of the power factor (i.e., the circuit containing the coil must be retuned),
because the inductive components of the tank have been changed. Then, once
again, comparative readings should be taken.
If little or no indication occurs during a start-up procedure, it is indicative
of an excessive amount of capacitance. All of the capacitor taps should be
disconnected and slowly added again until a meaningful set of readings is
achieved.
During setup of a motor-generator, the tank circuit is usually tuned to pro-
vide a slightly leading power factor. This helps to compensate for the reac-
tance of the armature windings of such systems and enables rated voltage to
be drawn from the power supply.* Operating with a slightly leading power
factor also prevents exceeding the field-current rating when operating at rated
voltage and power.
When magnetic materials go through the Curie temperature, power-factor
changes may be considerable as the material loses its permeability (and coil
inductance drops). The system may indicate a considerably lagging current
at the completion of this change. It may then be necessary to connect addi-
tional capacitors to the tank at this point via contactors, possibly operated
by a timer if the operation is highly repetitive.
In tuning of a fixed-frequency system during progressive heating operations,
readings and adjustments should be made with the part moving through the
coil at its normal speed.
*C. A. Tudbury, Basics of Induction Heating, Vol 2, John F. Rider, Inc., New York, 1960.
Variable-Frequency (Solid-State) Power Sources

Static (solid-state) power supplies generate frequencies which are deter-
mined by the electrical characteristics of the tank-circuit components. Accord-
ingly, as the inductance of the coil changes due to heating of the part or loss
of permeability above the Curie temperature, the supply frequency shifts
accordingly. Tuning and load matching of such solid-state systems varies with
the particular type of system, which is generally one of two kinds: (1) a
constant-current or load-resonant inverter, or (2) a constant-voltage or swept-
frequency inverter.
Constant-Current(Load.Resonant)Inverter. Load-resonant inverters are essentially

variable-frequency power supplies. They have no resonant circuit, but, by
means of a feedback system derived from the tank circuit, they key the power
supply to operate at the tank-circuit frequency. This in effect allows them to
vary in frequency as the resonant tank does when the coil/part impedance
shifts during heating. Accordingly, once the tank circuit is tuned to within the
allowable frequency range of the generator, the generator frequency shifts to
match the tank frequency. It is therefore said to be "load resonant."
Parallel-tuned circuits, as used in load-resonant generators, are not self-
starting inasmuch as they depend on an increase in load voltage to cut off the
SCR's to start oscillation. Therefore, a piggyback or "pony" inverter is usu-
ally included in the generator design to initiate oscillation. To ensure that the
system will start, it is standard procedure to connect all the available capac-
itance to the system when beginning, providing the lowest possible frequency,
which is then within the range of the piggyback oscillation.
Power may be efficiently drawn from the system anywhere in the frequency
range of the generator. The tank capacitors can be adjusted to a specific fre-
quency in the equipment's range, which may be determined by the desired case
depth in surface hardening applications, for example. It must be kept in mind
that the capacitor combination utilized must have a high enough kVAR rat-
ing to match the maximum output at the delivered frequency. The frequency
is generally displayed on the frequency meter of the generator or control
station.
Because the frequency is dependent on the tank-resonant conditions, changes
in the coil inductance will shift the frequency of operation. The system will
always operate at the peak of the resonant curve, but no change in power out-
put will occur as a magnetic material passes through the Curie temperature.
The only change will be a shift in the operating frequency. If it is desired to
select a specific frequency, depending on the application, capacitor taps can
be adjusted to meet this requirement.
Because the system always operates at the resonant frequency of the tank
circuit, its power factor is usually close to unity, and therefore impedance
matching by means of a transformer-tap change is the only routine adjust-
ment that need be made to secure optimum power output. This procedure is
the same as that outlined for tuning of fixed-frequency motor-generator

systems.
Constant-Voltage (Swept-Frequency) Inverter. The constant-voltage inverter also

changes its frequency relative to the resonant frequency of the tank. However,
it fires from a local oscillator within a fixed frequency range that is shifted
by the resonant frequency of the tank circuit. Once the tank is tuned within
the range of the local oscillator, it too will provide a constant output as the
resonant tank frequency shifts, especially when the temperature passes through
the Curie point during heating of magnetic steels. Nevertheless, it is necessary
first to tune the system so that the tank frequency is within the frequency band
of the local oscillator. This may be done through what is essentially the same
procedure utilized for the load-resonant inverter. It must be assumed, using
the frequency meter, that with all capacitance connected the total will bring
the tank frequency within range. All remaining tuning steps would then be
followed in turn.
There are conditions where the tank-resonant frequency falls outside the
local oscillator range; under these conditions, tuning will be more difficult.
It then must be determined, by measurement or calculation, at what frequency
the tank operates, and capacitance must be added or removed to bring the fre-
quency within the permissible limits of the oscillator.
Radio-Frequency (Vacuum-Tube) Power Supplies

High-frequency, vacuum-tube power supplies also make use of a tank cir-
cuit for the transfer of energy to the workpiece (Fig. 3.14). In this case, how-
ever, the circuit generally contains a tank coil in addition to the induction
heating coil. As a workpiece is heated and its reflected resistance increases,
the tank current IT tends to decrease. However, the vacuum tube supplies an
additional current Ip to make up for the losses and thus to keep the tank cur-
rent constant. The plate ammeter of the radio-frequency (RF) supply reads
this current Ip.
Under a "no-load" condition (no part in the work coil), the plate current
Ip I represents the minimum current supplied to the tank to replace the losses
dissipated by the resistance Rp associated with the unloaded tank circuit.
When the load is placed in the work coil, a "full-load" plate-current reading
IP2 indicates the new plate current required to supply not only the losses in
Rp but also the additional losses of the load represented by R L. Accordingly,
the losses in the load are directly related to the difference between the two
readings, I L = IP2 - Ipl. Obviously, the difference between the full-load
reading and the no-load reading represents the load current required by cou-
pling of energy into the load or workpiece. Therefore, that combination of
transformer or load-coil tap adjustments that produces the greatest differential
between readings represents the best impedance match between the work
coil/part and the generator tank.
IT
Ep IS
R
~,,- ~, X c
B÷
I Rp RL
Fig. 3.14. Schematic illustration of a radio-frequency tank circuit
In practice, no-load and full-load readings are taken at each tank tap. The
tap with the greatest difference between no load and full load is the most
appropriate connection for the system. Once selected for a coil/part combi-
nation, it will always be the same. The same approach is also used in selec-
tion of the appropriate primary-to-secondary ratio if an RF power output
transformer is used to connect the coil to the power supply.
Because the difference between no load and full load is proportional to the
power into the part, it is important to try to maintain as low a no-load reading
as possible. Generally the no-load reading should be at most 30 to 40% of
the maximum allowable plate current. However, the physical constraints
of the coil generally dictate this condition. When a high no-load reading
occurs, the number of coil turns can be increased or the transformer turns
ratio can be decreased.
In performing the tuning procedure it is best to use reduced power. How-
ever, once the power level is set, it should not be changed during this test.
Further, the grid adjustment for these conditions should be maintained in
accordance with machine specifications. Once tuning has been accomplished,
the system should be run at full power to determine actual heating-rate and
plate-current readings.
When certain loads such as small copper parts are being heated, it is often
found that there is very little difference between the no-load and full-load
readings. This is due to the fact that the resistivity of the material is low. It
may also be physically impractical to add more turns to the coil. In these
cases, it is sometimes practical to utilize a poor impedance match so as to
increase the current in the work coil. Under these conditions, the no-load cur-
rent is extremely high and will result in excess power being dissipated in both
the tube and tank circuit. This loss, however, if within power-supply limita-
tions, may be negligible in cost, compared with the increase in power to the
workpiece and the resultant increase in heating rate.
For a specific part, if a small no-load/full-load differential occurs, and the
part geometry permits, the number of coil turns may be increased to increase
the heating rate. For example, if the maximum permissible plate current is
4 A and the no-load and full-load currents for a three-turn coil are 1 and
2 A, respectively, the part will draw 1 A. In this instance, approximately six
turns can be added to the coil without exceeding the generator capacity.* It
should be noted that if these additional turns are within the same surface area
heated by the original coil, the power density will increase and the surface will
heat at a higher rate, producing a greater temperature differential from the
surface to the core of the part. If however, the additional turns are used to
heat a larger area, the power density will stay the same but the throughput
in terms of material per unit time will increase. In this same manner, the addi-
tional turns could be used in separate coils to heat multiples of the original
part simultaneously, also increasing throughput. At some point, however, the
impedance of the coil becomes so large that it cannot match the output of the
power supply, and the heating rate decreases. Further, unless the system is
matched by means of an output transformer, the voltage across the coil must
be increased as the coil impedance increases. This can create a hazard to the
operator and arcing from the coil to the part as well.
When the equipment is running at full power, a condition may develop in
which the machine overloads or trips out due to excessive plate current. This
indicates that the part is drawing power in excess of the power-supply rating.
The coil-to-part coupling may then have to be decreased (greater distance
from coil to part), or the number of coil turns may have to be decreased. Fur-
ther, some modification may be made to the lead structure to correct this con-
dition.
It is also important to note that when magnetic materials are heated above
the Curie point, the power from radio-frequency supplies may decrease sig-
nificantly because of radical changes in coil/part impedance. As with the
motor-generator system, some technique may occasionally be necessary to
retune the system so as to deliver higher power to the now nonmagnetic load.
One such technique is construction of a series loading-coil arrangement
(Fig. 3.15). The coil is closely coupled to the work so that it draws full power
above the Curie temperature. This would ordinarily overload the system at
temperatures below 760 °C (1400 °F). The loading coil, in series with the
work coil, presents a high impedance to the generator, at the low tempera-
*This is based on the fact that each increment of three turns will increase the load current
bylA.
)urce
)er shunt
"ated
Fig. 3.15. Use of an auxiliary inductance ("series loading coil") to assist

in tank-circuit tuning in heating of steel workpieces below, through,
and above the Curie temperature (from F. W. Curtis, High Frequency
Induction Heating, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1950)
ture, so that full power is supplied to the coil. Above the Curie temperature,
the shorting bar eliminates the loading coil. It is important that the power be
off during the brief period when the solenoid is activated to short the load-
ing coil.
Chapter 4
Induction Heating
Power Supplies
Besides the induction coil and workpiece, the induction generator (source
of ac power) is probably the most important component of an over-all induc-
tion heating system. Such equipment is typically rated in terms of its fre-
quency and maximum output power (in kilowatts). The discussion in this
chapter addresses the selection of power supplies in terms of these two fac-
tors as well as the operational features of different types of sources. Auxiliary
equipment, such as the cooling and control systems that are needed for all
induction generators, is described in Chapters 5 and 7.
There are essentially six different types of power supplies for induction
heating applications, each designed to supply ac power within a given fre-
quency range. These six types are line-frequency supplies, frequency mul-
tipliers, motor-generators, solid-state (static) inverters, spark-gap converters,
and radio-frequency (RF) power supplies. At the present time, the spark-gap
oscillator is no longer in use, and the solid-state power supply has all but
replaced the motor-generator. The ranges of frequencies and power ratings
presently available are summarized in Fig. 4.1.
FREQUENCY AND POWER SELECTION CRITERIA
As discussed in Chapter 2, the frequency required for efficient induction

heating is determined by the material properties (i.e., resistivity and relative
magnetic permeability), the workpiece cross-sectional size and shape, and the
need to maintain adequate skin effect. The interrelationship of these factors
is described through the equation for reference depth and the definition of
a "critical frequency" below which efficiency drops rapidly. In some cases,
frequency requirements are also impacted by application requirements such
as case depth in surface hardening of steels. In all situations, however, because
equipment cost per kilowatt increases with frequency, a power supply of the
47
1000MW Melting, vessel heating

I~ Forging, forming, etc. ~
i
Below 10 mm diam
~Above 100 mm diam Joining "~
10to 100mm
100MW ~'Large (ferrous). Small (nonferrous~ and ferrous) _ _
Surface hardening i J
Above 1.25to Below
30 mm 1.25mm
•~, 2.5 mm Skin depths f Special processes-
10 MW Tube welding Crystal growing,
~/ Triplers zone refining
/
o 1 MW
0_
. PPY-eq~iT, ~~ii /,~quencysystems
100kW su
systems ~~k~k ~ k ~ ~ ~ ~ ~
in$°etltd;sta2ed
motor-alternators
10kW
lW
10 Hz 100Hz 1 kHz 10 kHz 100kHz 1 MHz 10MHz
Frequency
Fig. 4.1. Ranges of power ratings and frequencies for induction gen-
erators (from J. Davies and P. Simpson, induction Heating Handbook,
McGraw-Hill, Ltd, London, 1979)
lowest possible frequency that will accomplish the job is usually the best selec-
tion from an economic viewpoint. Typical frequency selections for a number
of specific applications are summarized in Chapter 6.
Power requirements for induction heating are also dependent on the spe-
cific application. In through-heating applications, the power needed is gen-
erally based on the amount of material that is processed per unit time, the
peak temperature, and the material's heat capacity at this temperature. Power
specification for other operations, such as surface hardening of steel, is not
as simple because of the effects of starting material condition and heat con-
duction to the unhardened core. Nevertheless, guidelines in such situations are
available (Chapter 6).
When guidelines for power requirements, such as those in Chapters 2 and
6, are given, it should be emphasized that these often refer to the power actu-
Induction Heating Power Supplies 49
ally transferred into the workpiece and not necessarily to the power drawn
from the power supply. Power losses are of three forms:
• Coupling losses between the coil and the workpiece. As discussed in Chap-
ter 2, the percentage of the power supplied to the coil that is transferred
to the workpiece is a function of the resistivity and permeability of the
workpiece material, the coil geometry, and the distance between the work-
piece and the coil.
• Power losses between the output terminals of the power supply and the coil.
These losses are associated with improper tuning of, and I2R losses in, the
appropriate tank circuit, imperfect impedance matching between the power
supply and the workpiece/induction coil, and transmission losses between
the power supply and the induction coil.
• Power losses within the power supply due to conversion of line frequency
to higher-frequency ac.
It should also be emphasized that the method of rating power level for
induction power supplies varies. For example, motor-generators are rated in
kilowatts (rated current times rated voltage times power factor) at the out-
put terminals of the generator. Because solid-state power supplies were ini-
tiaUy direct replacements for motor-generators, manufacturers have continued
this rating practice. Therefore, power output and efficiency ratings of solid-
state inverters relate to power supplied at the output terminals. In terms of
over-all efficiency and power delivered to the load, this neglects losses in trans-
mission lines, losses in heat stations (due to improper tuning, for example),
and the inefficiency of power transfer from the coil to the workpiece. Thus,
the common practice of rating solid-state power-supply efficiencies at 90 to
95% refers solely to the power-supply conversion efficiency and not to the
"line-to-load" energy transfer.
In radio-frequency systems, by contrast, IEEE Standard No. 54 defines the
test used to determine power output. This standard describes the use of a cal-
orimeter method for determining power into a load (Fig. 4.2). In practice, a
water-cooled steel load is inserted into an induction work coil until the meters
on the power supply indicate that it is operating at maximum rated voltage
and current. The temperature of the water into and out of the load is moni-
tored as well as the flow of water through the load. By this means, the power
put into the load is readily calculated. The output power of the RF supply is
then taken to be at this value, and the efficiency is computed as a "line-to-
load" (over-all) efficiency. Figure 4.3 shows a typical data sheet used for
rating RF power supplies. Because of the different manners in which power
ratings are given for low-to-medium-frequency versus RF generators, equiv-
alent ratings for the two types of systems are usually obtained by multiply-
ing the quoted output power for low-to-medium-frequency units by a factor
of approximately 0.65 to 0.70.
It is difficult to generalize on over-all efficiencies of different types of power
- - B - - m
Thermometers
Heating coil
/
u _..
.-2- 2_
AAAA A
In Out
Fig. 4.2. Calorimeter used to determine the power output of a radio-

frequency (RF) power supply by measuring water flow and tempera-
ture change (from F. W. Curtis, High Frequency Induction Heating,
McGraw-Hill, New York, 1950)
supplies, let alone those of the same generic class, because many factors vary
from part to part and from system to system. However, it is safe to assume
that line-to-load efficiencies for low- and medium-frequency solid-state sys-
tems generally run between 60 and 65% and that those for RF (vacuum-tube)
generators typically range from 50 to 55%.
With this as an introduction, the design and characteristics of each of the
various types of power supplies are discussed next.
TYPES OF POWER SUPPLIES
Line-Frequency Induction Heating

When cross sections are large and through heating is desired, line-frequency
systems often provide an efficient, low-cost method of utilizing an induction-
based process. This is particularly true for large-tonnage applications.
Line-frequency induction heaters can be either single-phase or balanced
three-phase systems, generally with low-voltage work coils that operate from
the secondary of an isolation transformer. Depending on power requirements,
systems of this type can be operated with standard line voltages of 220 or 440.
When high powers are required, transformer primaries should be rated
GENERATOR HEAT RUN DATA

STATION 1 STATION 2
Function: HR1 HR2 HR3 HR4 HR1 HR2 HR3 HR4
Plate Voltage KV DC
Plate Current AMPS DC
Grid Current AMPS DC
Filament Volts V AC
Load Inlet Temperature °F
Load Outlet Temperature oF
Load Flow GPM
KW Output KW
Frequency HZ
Enclosure Temperature °F
Generator Inlet Flow GPM
Generator Flow Temp In °F
Generator Flow Temp Out °F
Temperature Valve Setting °F
"Load Reference Mark"
Line Voltage
Line Current
GENERATOR "NO LOAD" DATA
Plate Voltage KV DC
Plate Current AMPS DC
Grid Current AMPS DC
Frequency HZ
Line Voltage V AC
Line Current AMPS AC
TESTED BY: DATE: °
Fig. 4.3. Test data sheet for recording performance of an RF power sup-
ply with a calorimeter (source: Ameritherm, Inc.)
accordingly. When coil impedances are high, the coil can be connected directly
across the power lines.
The basic line-frequency system (Fig. 4.4) consists of a tapped transformer
primary with the secondary wound to provide approximately the voltage
required at the coil. The primary taps, operated by means of manual rotary
switches (Fig. 4.5), permit adjustment of work-coil voltage to the specific load
requirements. Power-factor-correction capacitors are placed across the pri-
mary windings of the transformer. Because currents in the system are large,
it is desirable to keep the transformer and capacitor bank as close to the coil
as possible. Accordingly, the heat station is generally mounted directly adja-
cent to the coil. When large-capacity systems are used, power-factor capacitors
are sometimes mounted directly beneath the work area (Fig. 4.6) in order to
reduce floor-space requirements.
52 Elementsof InductionHeating:Design,Control, and Applications
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Capacitors
----I( I(
. ~co~arse~ J 44fine L'~ ~ l
3 ~ Secondaries
Coil
(b)
Fig. 4.4. Circuit diagrams for line-frequency heating systems using (a)
single primary tap switching (high coil impedance) and (b) coarse/fine
tap control (low coil impedance) (from J. Davies and P. Simpson, Induc-
tion Heating Handbook, McGraw.Hill, Ltd., London, 1979)
Temperature control of line-frequency systems is effected by turning the

main power contactors on and off in response to a temperature signal derived
from a thermocouple or infrared pyrometer. Since the heated mass is generally
large and response time normally slow in these types of systems, this load-
control technique is usually quite sufficient. When line input voltages exceed
3 kV, vacuum contactors can be used in the current primary (Fig. 4.7), or
SCR thyristors can be used to provide stepless and/or on-off control.
Several examples of actual applications will serve to show the versatility of
line-frequency induction heating techniques. A first example involves a small
single-phase induction heater used for expanding bearings during a shrink-
Fig. 4.5. Tap switch used in adjusting voltage on the primary of a line-
frequency induction heating system (source: American Induction Heat-
ing Corp.)
fitting operation. Having a high-input impedance, and operating at 110 or

220 V, this application requires no power-factor correction. Essentially com-
posed of a primary winding and a laminated core structure (Fig. 4.8), the sys-
tem utilizes the bearing as a shorted secondary. Several laminated blocks are
employed to control the flux path through the core and the center of the bear-
ing (Fig. 4.9). In addition, a set of movable blocks is supplied with the equip-
ment to enable it to fit a range of bearings. When the bearing size matches
the transformer core opening, the bearing itself may be used to close the gap
in the core.
On a somewhat larger power level, the same technique is used for heating
ferrous or nonferrous rings, such as locomotive tires (Fig. 4.10). Typically a
75-kVA, 440-V, single-phase unit is used to heat titanium rings varying from
31 to 152 cm (12 to 60 in.) in diameter by up to 10 cm (4 in.) in cross sec-
tion to 760 °C (1400 °F) in 1 to 5 min. for a stretch-forming application.
Because of the requirement for opening and closing of the transformer core,
this type of system is often referred to as a "split-yoke" design.
In another nonferrous application, line-frequency heaters are used to heat
aluminum, copper, or brass billets prior to extrusion. The billets are carried
on motor-driven rolls (Fig. 4.11) and are heated in three-phase, line-frequency
coils. They are then passed into the extrusion press. On the system shown in
Fig. 4.11, aluminum billets 28 to 48 cm (11 to 19 in.) in diameter and 102 to
229 cm (40 to 90 in.) long are extruded at temperatures ranging from 155 to
480 °C (310 to 900 °F). Three individual sets of coils are used to provide the
necessary throughput, each heating one billet at a time and feeding the press
Fig. 4.6. Capacitor bank for a 3-MW line-frequency power supply; capa-
citors are located in a chamber beneath the induction coils (source:
American Induction Heating Carp.)
on an alternate basis to provide the required throughput of approximately

38 tons per hour.
Line-frequency heaters, due to their efficiency and simplicity, have also
been incorporated in systems for heating larger, ferrous forging billets and
slabs for rolling-mill operations. The line-frequency system shown in Fig. 4.12
heats 15-by- 15-by- 114-cm (6-by-6-by-45-in.) round-cornered square preforms
for forging diesel-engine crankshafts and is rated at 18 tons per hour at
6000 kW. Line-frequency systems are also utilized in dual-frequency heating
lines for forging. The depth of penetration for steel below the Curie temper-
ature is considerably less than that above it. Therefore, the minimum diam-
eter of steel billet that can be heated efficiently at 60 Hz is approximately
6 cm (2.4 in.) at temperatures below 705 °C (1300 °F).
Probably the largest induction heating installation, line-frequency or other-
wise, is the slab-heating facility illustrated in Fig. 4.13. It is rated at a total of
210 MW. Six heating lines each with three heating stations are used to preheat
600 tons of steel per hour transported from a storage yard or directly from
a continuous caster. Slabs as large as 30 cm (12 in.) thick by 152 cm (60 in.)
wide by 793 cm (312 in.) long are heated to 1260 °C (2300 °F) for rolling.
The slabs, which may weigh as much as 30 tons each, are heated in coils which
encompass their longest dimension (Fig. 4.14) rather than being wound across
their width. Efficiency is optimized in this manner, because flux-field cancel-
lation across the long dimension is less than if the coil were wound conven-
tionally.
'- I -
Self-lubricating
bearing
Bellows
Getter
oviog contact II Shield

" - q . k '~--L
Arc-control ~
material ~ J~
Fixed contact t =:
=, -1 Metal ends
Evacuation tube Protective

~ metal cap
Cold welded
seal-off
Fig. 4.7. Vacuum and air break contactors used for line-frequency induc-
tion heating (from J. Davies and P. Simpson, Induction Heating Hand-
book, McGraw-Hill, Ltd., London, 1979)
Frequency Multipliers
Frequency multipliers are used to obtain multiples of the line supply, most
often 180 and 540 Hz. Like line-supply installations, they are used primar-
ily for large heating and melting applications.
Core
(a)
(b)
Fig. 4.8. Laminated core and primary winding for an induction unit used
to expand bearings: (a) "split-yoke" system and (b) production bearing
heater (from C. A. Tudbury, Basics of Induction Heating, Vol 2, John
F. Rider, Inc., New York, 1988; Read Electric Sales and Supply)
The 180-Hz supply, also known as a tripler because it is derived directly

from 60-Hz line current, is composed of three saturable reactors, each of
which is connected between one leg of a Y-connected secondary and a single-
phase load. The voltages from the secondaries are 120 ° apart. Passing them
I I
I;]V/,Ird~ V,,,J
Large bearings are placed on the Workpieces equal in size to, or Small workpieces (with or without
angled support surface, with the broader than, the distance between bore) can also be placed on top of the
largest possible yoke through the the contact pillars may be placed pillars. If only one workpiece has to
bearing bore and resting on the directly on the pillars with no yoke be heated, place a yoke of near equal
contact pillars. Maximum bearing required. size on the other pillar and connect to
width, 110 m m , largest yoke.
For flanges with large outside Should the workpiece have a very Large rings can also be heated in a
diameters, the contact pillars can be small bore or no bore at all (e.g., horizontal position using a rest with
raised using a pair of yokes, pulleys, plates, etc.) adaptor yokes the largest yoke in position.
can be used.
For long pieces, the working space can be increased by using a pair of support yokes, Combinations of various yokes may
or the space can be raised by combining suitable yokes in a vertical position. be used for workpieces with stepped
bores, such as couplings, pulleys, etc.
Fig. 4.9. Adjustment of the laminated care structure for heating bear-
ings of different sizes; note that the flux path must form a complete
loop (source: SKF Industries, Inc.)
through a single-phase output, therefore, produces three pulses in the same

time period as that in which a normal 60-Hz system would produce one wave-
form. Accordingly, the frequency is essentially tripled. The 180-Hz system is
similar to the 60-Hz heater in that the circuit containing the load must be
tuned to the frequency of the power s u p p l y - n a m e l y , 180 Hz.
Systems may be cascaded to produce other multiples of the line frequency,
such as 540 Hz.
Motor-Generators
A motor-generator is a rotary-driven system composed of a motor coupled
to a generator. The motor and the generator can be individual units with a
Fig. 4.10. "Split-yoke" system used to expand locomotive tires for

shrink fitting (source: Cheltenham Induction Heating, Ltd.)
mechanical coupling, or they can be constructed on a single shaft. Both

horizontal (Fig. 4.15) and vertical (Fig. 4.16) types have been used. A cool-
ing system is used to remove the heat dissipated by the current in the wind-
ings and that developed in the structure and motor laminations. Early
motor-generator systems utilized air cooling, but water-cooled heat exchangers
built within the unit shell have since become standard.
Frequencies generated using motor-generators are determined by rotational
speed and the number of poles in the generator. Although nominally rated
at 1, 3, and 10 kHz, standard frequencies are actually 960, 2880, and 9600 Hz.
The generator consists of a toothed rotor rotating inside a stator. In the
Fig. 4.11. Induction installation rated at 6.6 MW that is capable of heat-

ing 38 tons of aluminum billets per hour to a temperature of 480 °C
(900 °F)(source: American Induction Heating Corp.)
Fig. 4.12. Line-frequency induction system used to heat 15-by-15-by-

115-cm (6-by-6-by-45-in.) round-cornered square steel billets for forg-
ing of diesel-engine crankshafts (source: American Induction Heating
Corp.)
Fig. 4.13. One stage of the McLouth steel induction slab heating facil-
ity, rated at a total of 210 MW, used to preheat slabs as large as
30 cm by 152 cm by 8 m (12 in. by 60 in. by 26 ft) to the roiling tem-
perature of 1260 °C (2300 °F) (source: Ajax Magnethermic Corp.)
slots o f the stator, there are two windings.* One, called the field winding, is
connected to an external source o f direct current and forms a magnetic field
around the rotor. When the rotor rotates, alternating currents are induced in
the second, or output, winding. These currents result from changes in the
magnetic flux in the slots (where the stator windings are located) as the rotor
sweeps past them.
*Formally, when both sets of windings (field and output) are on the stator, the equipment
is called an inductor-alternator. Some motor-generators have the output windingson the rotor,
rather than on the stator.
Steel slab
Fig. 4.14. "Ross" coil used in the heating of steel slabs (source: Ajax
Magnethermic Corp.)
The frequency of the generator, f (in hertz), is determined by the number

of pairs of poles (P2) on the rotor and the speed n of the rotor in revolutions
per minute, through the equation f = P2n/60. A maximum frequency of
10 kHz is considered to be the practical limit for rotary equipment of this sort.
The output voltage from a motor-generator is a single-phase voltage gen-
erally of 200, 400, or 800 V. This output voltage is adjusted by controlling
the voltage to the field winding. Because the output voltage has a tendency
to decrease as the load increases, automatic voltage regulators are often
Fig. 4.15. Fully enclosed, horizontal motor-generator set that is water

cooled (source: Westinghouse Electric Corp.)
Fig. 4.16. Vertical motor-generator set (source: TOCCO, Inc.)
employed to control the field. The regulators change the field voltage as the
output voltage varies, to maintain a stable output.
Motor-generators have high inertia and thus require considerable power to
attain operating speeds. Accordingly, when starting, excessive motor inrush
currents required are brought to lower levels through the use of a reduced-
voltage starter. Moreover, the power needed to spin the heavy rotor is the
same, whether at light load or full power. For this reason, system efficiency
is low when the generator is loaded lightly (i.e., when only a fraction of its
rated power is drawn).
The motor-generator is a fixed-frequency supply. Hence, the tank circuit
containing the load must be tuned. Because they operate at a fixed frequency,
motor-generators of the same frequency can be connected in parallel to
increase system capacity. Generally, to do this, the units must be exactly the
same in terms of voltage, poles, etc., to prevent one generator from "hogging"
the load or possibly even feeding another.
Since the motor-generator is a fixed-frequency device, it also operates sim-
ilarly to the motor-generator that supplies voltage to a standard power line.
Thus, several separate and independent induction heating work stations can
be connected to a single motor-generator and operated on a simultaneous
basis. They can be connected or disconnected from the supply at will. How-
ever, the stations must be tuned as closely as possible to the generator fre-
quency, and provision must be made to prevent the total connected load at
any time from exceeding the generator rating.
A typical heat station operated from a motor-generator (Fig. 4.17) usually
comprises power-factor-correction capacitors and an autotransformer or iso-
lation transformer for impedance matching (Fig. 4.18). When an isolation
transformer is used, the capacitors are connected in parallel with the primary.
The transformer primary is tapped to provide a range of voltage adjustments.
When an autotransformer is used (with high-impedance coils) the capacitors
are generally connected in parallel with the work coil. With very-high-
impedance coils, it is sometimes possible to match the generator output
impedance without the use of an intermediate transformer. In either case, pro-
vision is made to add or subtract capacitance for proper frequency matching.
It should be noted, though, that since power-factor correction makes use of
discrete values of capacitance, it is not generally possible to tune the system
exactly to the resonant frequency of the motor-generator. Because of this, it
is generally advantageous to adjust the power factor initially so that it is in
Fig. 4.17. Heat station for use at low and medium frequencies with
an impedance-matching transformer (source: American Induction Heat-
ing Corp.)
--0
XFR
,c
,(
--0
'"I
~--0
Coil
(a)
-Q
0
XFR
(b)
Fig. 4.18. Schematic circuit diagrams of a low-to-medium-frequency

heat station illustrating capacitor and impedance-matching adjustments
when using (a) an autotransfermer for high-impedance induction coils
and (b) an isolation transformer for low-impedance induction coils
a lagging or leading condition. Such a condition can partly or wholly com-

pensate for decreases (more common) or increases (less common) in tank
inductance during heating. However, operating for any period in the lagging
condition can cause excessive field current with associated field relay tripping.
Solid-State Inverters
With the development of high-power silicon-controlled rectifiers (SCR's)
having rapid turn on/turn off times, it became possible to provide an equiv-
alent to the motor-generator system. While eliminating a number of basic dis-
advantages, not the least of which is inefficient operation, the solid-state
inverter provides some new and unique operational capabilities.
The first development in this field was that of the swept- (or variable-) fre-
quency inverter. With this system (Fig. 4.19a), line voltage is converted to
direct current and then is applied by means of a capacitive voltage divider to
an SCR (dc-to-ac) inverter circuit. The system utilizes internal commutation
to turn off the SCR's in the inverter circuit. A feedback circuit from the res-
onant tank, together with power- and voltage-control signals, is fed to a local
Load-circuit
characteristic
Internal \
commutating
components
~ ~ I-----1 Series react°r

Power control
by frequency
Fixed- variation
dc supply Variable- T
frequency L--T---f
local oscillator
Inverter Load circuit
(a) Frequency
Commutating effect characte~_j
Load-circuit Operatingfrequency
and inverter
timing derived
from load circuit
t I
nt-current_L_
reactor
g
I// ~/I Powercontrolby
Inverter -T g III ill dc voltage
Variable-voltage /~' i ~ f 'xV~r'fa~quneatcY

dc supply
Load circuit
y
(b) Frequency
Fig. 4.19. Circuit schematics for (a) a swept-frequency inverter and (b)
a load-resonant or constant-current solid-state inverter (from J. Davies
and P. Simpson, Induction Heating Handbook, McGraw-Hill, Ltd., Lon-
don, 1979)
oscillator whose output signal then controls the inverter firing rate. The system
then operates at a frequency along the straight portion of the tank's resonant-
frequency curve, but not at the resonant frequency. By offsetting the firing
rate of the oscillator from the resonant frequency of the tank, the unit can
be made to operate at any point along this curve. It can be seen on this curve
that a slight shift in frequency will cause a large change in power output.
Therefore, controlling the local oscillator firing rate within these limits pro-
vides a wide range of power output control. It should be noted, however, that
as the Q value of the circuit changes, the shape of the resonant-frequency
curve changes. For high-Q circuits, the slope of the curve is sharp, and a small
change in frequency provides a wide range of power control. For circuits hav-
ing low Q values, the necessary frequency shift to achieve a comparable power
adjustment becomes wider and therefore sometimes impossible to achieve.
The other common solid-state inverter, known as the load-resonant or
current-fed inverter (Fig. 4.19b), also utilizes a dc power source. However,
this inverter is provided with an SCR rectifier for voltage control. The SCR
inverter uses no local oscillator but derives its commutating effect directly
from the resonant tank circuit. Thus, it is load-resonant. In actuality, for rea-
sons based on the operational characteristics of the SCR's, the system is usu-
ally operated with a slightly leading power factor and thus an operating
frequency slightly higher than the load-resonant frequency. Because power
output control of the load-resonant inverter is done by means of SCR's in the
dc supply, the Q value of the load is not a factor in this respect. The system
continues to operate at a frequency slightly above that of the tank circuit.
In both types of solid-state inverters, the system frequency in essence is
tuned to the load, whereas in motor-generators the load is tuned to the fixed
frequency of the generator. It should be remembered that with motor-
generators, as the work-coil inductance changes during heating, especially for
ferrous loads passing through the Curie temperature, the tank circuit must be
returned to optimize power transfer. On the other hand, with a load-resonant
solid-state system, the resonant frequency of the tank changes, even when
going through the Curie point, as determined by the load. The swept-
frequency inverter, if set for a constant power output, also will shift its fre-
quency as the load is heated. Thus, either solid-state system compensates
automatically for changes in the load when passing through the Curie tem-
perature, unlike the motor-generator.
Both types of solid-state systems can operate with either a series or paral-
lel tank circuit. The parallel circuit is most commonly used because it permits
remote mounting of the tank circuit (heat station) with minimum losses in the
transmission lines. The transmission voltage used is limited to the inverter
voltage unless a transformer is applied at the power source. With a series cir-
cuit, the coil voltage is a function of the Q value of the circuit and can be
quite high, necessitating the use of high-voltage capacitors for tuning. Fur-
ther, since the inductance of the transmission line becomes part of the tank
inductance, the distance from the power supply to the work coil is limited for
reasons of efficiency.
Figure 4.20 compares the relative over-all efficiencies of motor-generators,
swept-frequency inverters, and load-resonant inverters. The low efficiency of
the motor-generator is due to the high inertia of the rotor, windage losses, and
similar problems produced by the mechanical system. These must be over-
come, even for the lightest loads, since the generator must always operate at
rated speed regardless of output power. The low efficiency of the swept-
frequency inverter at light loads is due to the fact that it is operating at a low
point on the resonant-frequency curve.
Because solid-state inverters were initially designed to replace motor-gen-
100
90 ~~aLoad-resonant
80
70
>~
O
E
(1)
60- / ~ ~itrlralternator
"G
50-
40--
30--
I I I i
20 40 60 80 100
Output powerconstant load impedance,%
Fig. 4.20. Comparison of the over-all (system) efficiency of a typical

motor-generator, a swept-frequency inverter, and a load-resonant
(constant-current) inverter (from J. Davies and P. Simpson, Induction
Heating Handbook, McGraw-Hill, Ltd., London, 1979)
erators, the power ratings of these systems were based on standard motor-
generator rating t e c h n i q u e s - t h a t is, power is rated at the terminals of the
generator, neglecting the losses in the heat station, coil, etc. For this same rea-
son, power-supply frequencies were also chosen to match those of available
motor-generator sets to reduce confusion. However, solid-state power-supply
frequencies are really not limited because the generators are either load-
resonant or controlled by a local oscillator. Thus, a frequency can be selected
which is optimum for the application. In effect, all solid-state generators are
actually variable-frequency inverters. For a specific piece of equipment, appar-
ent power at the terminals will vary with frequency. Therefore, power sup-
plies generally are designed to operate within a specific frequency range.
Further, heat-station capacitors must have sufficient kilovar capacity to han-
dle the frequency range used, and magnetic components (transformers and
reactors) must be rated for operation at these frequencies as well.
Spark-Gap Converters
Although no longer produced commercially, the spark-gap converter was
one of the earliest means of providing high-frequency ac power in the radio-
frequency region. It was used primarily in metal melting, in particular for pre-
cious metals.
In its simplest form (Fig. 4.21), the spark-gap converter includes a step-up
transformer (T0 which increases the line voltage to a higher level, which is
subsequently impressed across the spark gap. The spark gap is in parallel with
a capacitor (Cl) and the primary of transformer T2. This is an output trans-
former; its secondary is connected to the work coil. In operation, as the pri-
mary voltage rises in each half-swing of the 60-Hz line current, the voltage
across the gap also rises until it exceeds the breakdown level. This voltage is
also equal at that instant to the voltage impressed across the series circuit
formed by the capacitor and the output transformer primary. The capacitor
charges to this peak voltage. When the voltage exceeds the breakdown level
of the gap, the low-resistance arc that has formed discharges the capacitor
through the gap, passing an oscillating current through the combination of
the capacitor and the transformer primary. As the capacitor discharges, the
voltage across the gap decreases until the arc can no longer be sustained. On
the reverse half-cycle of the 60-Hz line current, the cycle is repeated with the
current in the circuit going in the reverse direction.
In later developments of the system, vacuum tubes were used to increase
stability, and the gaps were contained in a hydrogen atmosphere to reduce the
need for constant maintenance.
Frequencies generated by this system are generally in the range of 80 to
200 kHz. However, many frequency components are produced simultaneously
so that the output is not purely sinusoidal. Efficiency of these systems is rather
low--on the order 15 to 50°70 line-to-load.
Radio-Frequency (Vacuum-Tube) Power Supplies
Operational Characteristics. The operation of a radio-frequency (RF) power sup-
ply is best understood with reference to the parallel resonant tank circuit con-
0
A
012
Low-frequenCYinput ~.E1 Sparkgap ,_j 0
0
I Primar1 ouuo
Secondaryworkcoil
0
v
Fig. 4.21. Simplified circuit diagram for a spark-gap induction genera-

tor (from Induction Heating, American Society for Metals, Metals Park,
OH, 1946)
taining a capacitor C, inductor L, and resistor R (Fig. 4.22). When switch S

is closed momentarily, the capacitor is charged to the voltage EDC of the sup-
ply (neglecting inductance and lead losses). When the switch is opened, the
capacitor discharges through the circuit composed of L, C, and R. After one
cycle, the capacitor is again charged with its original polarity, but at a some-
what lower voltage dependent on the losses in the circuit. If the switch were
again closed momentarily, the capacitor would again be charged to the sup-
ply voltage EDC- In this manner, the losses in the resonant circuit are re-
placed every cycle by the operation of the switch, and thus an oscillation of
constant amplitude is maintained in the tank circuit. If there were no resis-
tive losses in the tank circuit, it would continue to "ring" indefinitely. How-
ever, because the load is resistive, some means must be provided to replace
these losses.
In an RF power supply, the switch and source of electromotive force (emf),
EDc, is replaced by a vacuum tube having three c o m p o n e n t s - i . e . , a triode.
The grid of the tube, by varying its voltage with respect to the cathode/fila-
ment, controls the flow of electrons to the plate. The tube operates in a class
"C" condition (Fig. 4.23) in which the plate current flows through the tube
in short pulses. This results in high power and high efficiency.
The power to the system is generally obtained by rectifying ac current from
the power line which has been raised to high voltage by a transformer. The
dc current thus obtained has its negative potential connected to the filament
and its positive to the plate. It is then necessary to operate the tube in syn-
chronization with the oscillating voltage in the tank so that it acts as the
switch. The tank-circuit oscillation is sustained by providing makeup power
from the dc supply, through the tube at the resonant frequency of the tank.
A small amount of the total tank voltage, 180 ° out of phase with it, must be
supplied to the grid of the tube to maintain this oscillation. This "feedback
voltage" is generally derived from the tank circuit.
1
+
E
OC
l I
Fig. 4.22. Simplified electrical tank circuit for a radio-frequency oscil-
lator (from E. May, Industrial High Frequency Electric Power, Wiley,
New York, 1950)
Flat caused by
grid drawing
current
V
q5
.8
Linear
portion C
of curve
-2
0
-8 -6 -4 0
J ] Currentflows
No plate current Class A all the time
flowing
I Current flows
Class B half the time
Current flows
~ ~ lessthan
half the time
Grid is
positive
C
1
Twice
cut off
Fig. 4.23. Relationship of plate current to grid current in an oscillator

operated under "class C" conditions (from V. Valkenburgh, Basic Elec.
trenics, Vol 2, Hayden Book Company, Inc., Rochelle Park, NJ, 1955)
In an actual oscillator circuit (Fig. 4.24), the dc power supply is connected

to the tube circuit with the positive lead in the tube plate circuit via choke LA
and the negative lead connected to the filament. The tank circuit is in parallel
with the tube; blocking capacitor CA passes the RF current, but blocks the
dc from the tank. The tank inductance is composed of the tank coil L and
the work coil Lw. A magnetically coupled tickler coil LG couples energy
from the tank coil to the grid and filament of the tube via the grid capacitor
CG and a grid resistor RG. This resistor keeps the average potential of the
grid in proper relation to the filament for class C operation.
Methods of developing the grid feedback signal vary from oscillator to
oscillator. In induction heating power supplies, standard oscillators are the
inductively coupled tickler-coil system (Fig. 4.25a), the Hartley oscillator
(Fig. 4.25b), and the Colpitts oscillator (Fig. 4.25c). With the latter two sys-
tems, the feedback voltage is automatically controlled as a percentage of the
tank voltage, either by the transformer tap ratio (Hartley oscillator) or by the
70 Elementsof Induction Heating: Design, Control, and Applications
High-voltagedc
Choke
coil
@ LA
CA J
I
Blockingcapacitor
Anode/~ I Tank ~ L I
( ~ CG ~ Work -L
Filamen . ~ R ~ r i d ~ .__~ LG I Lw , i, capac'tor
Workcoil
m
Filament-heating
transformer
60Hzac
Fig. 4.24. Circuit diagram for a simple vacuum-tube-typehigh-frequency
generator (from Induction Heating, American Society for Metals, Met-
als Park, OH, 1946)
ratio of grid tank capacitance to plate tank capacitance (Colpitts oscillator).

With the tickler-coil technique, the coil is mechanically adjusted in relation
to the tank coil and thus can be regulated to provide optimum drive for most
conditions.
Radio-frequency tank circuits most frequently found in commercial equip-
ment utilize either a work coil in series with the tank coil (Fig. 4.26a) or a
work coil operating from an RF output transformer (Fig. 4.26b). The series-
connected system, usually utilizing a tapped tank coil, is often referred to as
a DTL (or "Direct Tank Loaded") technique, because the work coil is directly
connected as part of the tank-circuit inductance. On the other hand, in trans-
former coupled output circuits, the work coil is isolated from both the trans-
former primary and the tank circuit. The work coil is usually center or
midpoint grounded to minimize voltage potential and, therefore, arcing from
coil to ground.
Design Considerations. Most common RF generators oscillate in the range of

200 to 450 kHz. It is apparent that as the coil inductance changes, the reso-
nant frequency of the tank will vary as well. Thus, unless crystal controlled
dc anode C pb
supply
O. .. I
C
9
(a) !
E
C pb C pb
m
(b) -- (c) "~"
Fig. 4.25. Oscillator circuits used in high-frequency induction genera-

tors: (a) grid coupled, (b) Hartley, and (c) Colpitts (from J. Davies and
P. Simpson, Induction Heating Handbook, McGraw-Hill, Ltd., London,
1979)
Ip =10A
l Work coil
(a)
3_
g
N
L
= 3 turns
NP = 30 turns
NL = 3 turns
t Work coil
I = 100A
L
(b) Ip = 10 A
Fig. 4.26. Output tank circuits of common high-frequency induction gen-

erators: (a) direct tank loaded and {b) transformer coupled
(as in sputtering systems), the frequency will shift within the above limits dur-
ing operation. Unlike the motor-generator, which tends to hold the voltage
constant, the RF generator tries to maintain a constant circulating current in
the tank circuit.
Although all RF power supply ratings are in terms of "power into a calori-
metric load," they will not necessarily all respond similarly to a particular
coil/part combination. A power rating refers to the capability of an individual
system to supply the rated power to this load. It does not refer to the ease with
which it can deliver that power. Typically, if the supply can deliver 10 kW to
the test load with a 2.5-cm (1-in.) coupling distance, as compared to a power
supply that requires the coil to be within 1.3 cm (0.5 in.) of the load to deliver
the same power, its "loadability" is superior.
Loadability refers directly to the current in the tank circuit and thus the cur-
rent in the work coil. Tank-circuit current, IT, can be calculated from the
formula IT ~ 0.75 Ep/Xc, where Ep is the dc voltage applied to the tank and
Xc is the capacitive reactance of the tank capacitor at resonant frequency.
The ratio of tank kVA to the kW rating of the generator is defined as the
loadability and may be used to compare competitive power supplies.
Transmission losses between the work coil and the tank circuit can be con-
siderable. If an RF output transformer is used and is outside the power-supply

enclosure, or if a low-impedance heating coil is used at a distance from a
DTL-connected generator, significant power losses will occur. In general, a
coil or transformer remote from an RF generator should have an impedance
at least ten times that of the impedance of the transmission line between the
two. Moreover, in the case of a DTL system, high voltages can occur on these
lines with resultant operator hazard. Radio-frequency interference can occur
as well. Proper care must therefore be taken to duct these leads in an alumi-
n u m or other low-conductivity conduit.
It is also possible to locate the entire tank circuit remotely in a way simi-
lar to heat stations running off low- or medium-frequency power supplies. In
this case, the remote tank (either DTL or transformer outputted) is connected
to the supply by means of semiflexible coaxial cable. This also simplifies mov-
ing the tank circuit itself (Fig. 4.27) rather than the coil, for greater efficiency,
when movement is required. Grid feedback in these systems is generally
derived from a tapped feedback transformer (Fig. 4.28) that is in the power-
Fig. 4.27. Remote tank circuit for use with an RF power supply, includ-
ing work coil, output transformer, and tank capacitors (source: Lind-
berg Cycle-Dyne, Inc.)
Fig. 4.28. Multitapped feedback transformer that provides adjustable

grid drive when the tank circuit is located remote from the power sup-
ply (source: Lindberg Cycle-Dyne, Inc.)
supply enclosure. The primary is connected between the plate of the tube and
the tube filament to derive a frequency signal. A secondary winding provides
a voltage which is 180 ° out of phase to drive the grid.
Radio-Frequency (Solid-State) Equipment

Solid-state equipment capable of operating in the radio-frequency range is
also now available (Fig. 4.29). Systems in use operate at 50 to 450 kHz and
Fig. 4.29. Interior of a 15-kW solid-state RF generator which operates

at 50 to 250 kHz, showing microprocessor and associated controls at
left, and plug-in power boards at right (source: Ameritherm, Inc.)
a wide range of power outputs. Unlike the inverters used at 50 kHz and
below, these units do not have SCR's, but are instead powered by MOSFET
(Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor) output devices.
A solid-state RF supply is similar to an SCR inverter in that line voltage
enters the system through an isolation transformer which then produces a dc
voltage level that is adjustable through an SCR voltage control. This filtered
dc output is the input for the solid-state RF supply's power boards. The MOS-
FET's on each board and the boards themselves are connected in parallel. A
sensing circuit in the cable leading to the tank circuit feeds the tank resonant-
frequency signal to the microprocessor. The MOSFET's are driven at this
frequency by the microprocessor. The software will also adjust the system
operating frequency in response to the change in tank resonant frequency that
results when the temperature of a magnetic load rises above the Curie point.
As does the load-resonant inverter, the solid-state RF system operates at the
peak of the resonant curve, and its efficiency is therefore similar.
The software for these microprocessor-driven systems can be modified to
provide constant current, constant power, or constant voltage, depending on
the conditions required for the particular application. The software also per-
mits interrogation of the system through a computer-keyboard interface.
Chapter 5
Auxiliary Equipment for

Induction Heating
Besides the power supply, other auxiliary pieces of equipment are required
in most induction heating installations. These include systems for cooling the
power supply and induction coil, power-timing devices, temperature-control
devices, and materials-handling systems. The first two types of equipment are
discussed in this chapter. Temperature monitoring and control are addressed
in Chapter 7, and materials-handling concepts are described in Chapter 10.
EQUIPMENT COOLING SYSTEMS

All induction heating systems require coolants (primarily water), because
current-carrying components dissipate waste heat through I2R losses. Obvi-
ously, the greater the resistance of the current path and/or the current, the
greater the loss in the system, and the more waste heat generated. In partic-
ular, the induction heating coil, capacitors, and output transformer consti-
tute a major area of power loss. In tube-type radio-frequency (RF) systems,
the plate of the tube may dissipate as much as 50°7o of the input power.
The following questions should be considered when choosing a cooling sys-
tem for induction heating:
1. What is the maximum temperature that any component can tolerate?
2. How much water flow is necessary to remove the heat from the system?
3. How much water pressure must be developed to provide the required water
flow through the equipment?
Each of these questions is answered by inspecting the specifications of the
equipment manufacturer. However, these are essentially mechanical consider-
ations. There are, in addition, specifications regarding the chemistry of the
cooling water that greatly affect its use as a coolant and which must be con-
sidered in planning and operation. Furthermore, many of the components that
77
are water cooled are at various voltages above ground. In an RF system, for
instance, the plate of the oscillator tube is generally several thousand volts
above ground, yet must be cooled with water. To accomplish this, water is
carried to the tube through a length of nonconductive hose, passed through
the tube cooling channel, and then returned to ground through a similar hose
column. In essence, this hose column is a high-resistivity path with water as
the conductor. At a 10-kV level, approximately 5 m (16 ft) of hose must be
used on each side of the column to provide a sufficient length of water path
to prevent the water from carrying current and thus dissipating additional
heat. This presupposes that the resistivity of the water is sufficiently high.
Another consideration in a water-cooling system regards the regulation of
the water temperature to a level above the dew point in the area or cabinet
where the system operates. A temperature below this point will result in con-
densation on the cooled components. Condensation, particularly in high-
voltage areas, can cause arcing between components of differing voltages and
the resultant failure of these components. In addition, any technique that
reduces water consumption will provide an economic means of cutting water
and sewage costs.
In perhaps the simplest type of cooling system (Fig. 5.1), water is passed
from a tank, through a pump, to the induction heater, with the return path
going back to the pump. Raw water from the tap is passed through a
temperature-control valve whose sensor is in the output waterline of the gen-
erator. Because additional tap water is added to the system, an overflow pipe
passes the excess to a drain.
In operation, cooling water is added to the system from the tap as the exit
water temperature exceeds its limits. Thus, tap water is added only on tem-
perature demand, reducing input water requirements. This system also main-
. Pump
Motor
Generator [ ~ ~_~ Thermalcontrol
Inlet
t
l~lrr I / Water
Outlet I~,/) I inlet
"~ F--r" Stopcockfor
' ' setting flow
Z Tank (95 to 380 L, or
Overfl ! ~ Sight drain 25 to 100 gal)
Fig. 5.1. Simple water-cooling system designed to control temperature
with minimum water throughput (from F. W. Curtis, High Frequency
Auxiliary Equipment for Induction Heating 79
tains the ambient temperature of the generator above the dew point. However,
it does not protect the system from a water-supply problem of low resistiv-
ity or excess solids content.
Water-Cooling Systems
Distilled water, tap water, and deionized water have all been used in cooling
systems for induction heating equipment. Deionized water is "hungry" and
will attack the zinc in brass fittings, which after much use may become
spongy. In contrast, distilled water will not attack brass. Tap water, on the
other hand, if high in resistivity and reasonably clean, will, in effect, become
equivalent to distilled water after several passes through the equipment.
If solids are contained in tap water, they have a tendency to plate out on
the walls of the component being cooled. This results in the buildup of an
insulating layer along the coolant path, similar to boiler scale, which gradu-
ally reduces the heat-exchange capability of the system. Thus, although pres-
sure, flow, and input water temperature are maintained, the system could
overheat. Table 5.1 covers a typical specification for water quality for an
induction heating generator. Solids-content limits in parts per million are gen-
erally considered for cases in which constant flow brings contaminants into
the system on a continuous basis. However, once the system is sealed, addi-
tional solids are not brought into the cooler, and the tap water becomes sim-
ilar to distilled water.
When the cooling system is used in a plant where temperatures may go
below freezing for any period of time, the coolant should be composed of a
mixture of water and ethylene glycol to prevent freeze-up. A 40% solution
of ethylene glycol is satisfactory in most localities. It should be noted, how-
ever, that most antifreeze solutions, although they are ethylene glycol based,
should not be used. Unlike pure ethylene glycol, the additives in antifreeze
reduce the resistivity of the coolant and thus cause problems in hose columns.
Table 5.1. Typical cooling-water specification for an induction heating power supply
(source:AmericanInductionHeatingCorp.)
• Minimum pressure differential, 207 kPa (30 psi)
• Maximum inlet water temperature, 35 °C (95 °F)
• pH between 7.0 and 9.0 (i.e., slightly alkaline)
• Chloride content < 20 ppm
Nitrate content < 10 ppm
Sulfate content < 100 ppm
CaCO3 content < 250 ppm
• Total dissolved solids content < 250 ppm;
no solids to precipitate at T _ 57 °C (135 °F)
• Resistivity _> 2500 fl.cm at 25 °C (77 °F)
• Must contain a magnetite eliminator and corrosion inhibitor
• Antifreeze (50°7o maximum), "uninhibited" ethylene glycol
Many water-base cooling systems make use of a heat exchanger, especially

those which use distilled water as the coolant. In distilled-water systems, tap
water is passed through the tubes of a "water-to-water" exchanger, cooling
the distilled water but not mixing with it. The temperature-demand valve
remains connected to the tap waterline. With small induction heaters (7.5 kW
or less), water-to-air heat exchangers, similar in construction to an automo-
tive radiator with a fan, are sometimes used.
Vapor-Coolant Systems
When requirements for coolant exceed 45 L / m i n (12 gal/min), many instal-
lations now make use of vapor-cooled systems. These are (in the smaller sizes)
air-to-water heat-exchange systems. Packaged in a single unit, or with the
exchange unit separate from the pumping station, they offer a method of
reducing water consumption.
Typically, vapor-cooled systems (Fig. 5.2) utilize a mist of water sprayed
onto the fins of an air-to-water heat exchanger. This water is lost as a vapor
or mist of steam, but because of the high heat input per unit weight of water,
the system requires only about 1 °7o of the normal water usage of a conven-
Inlet
Cooled-liquid outlet
\
Pump recirculates water Centrifugal blowers force

from reservoir pan at a high volume of air upward
bottom to distribution over coils
trough at top.
Fig. 5.2. Schematic illustration of the operation of a vapor-cooled heat-

exchanger system (source: Water Saver Systems, Inc.)
tional water-cooling system. The system still isolates the equipment coolant
from the water used for the mist spray. However, during constant use, solids
are deposited on the fins from the vapor, reducing their energy-transfer capa-
bilities. Therefore, provision must be made to wash down the system occa-
sionally to remove these solids. Further, because the mist contains no ethylene
glycol, the sump for the excess spray must be heated in the winter months.
Figure 5.3 shows a schematic representation of a typical system. Here, the
heat exchanger is m o u n t e d outside the building, and the pumping station is
adjacent to the induction heaters. This system, dependent on proper sizing,
can operate more than one installation at a time. In many cases, the system
will also act as a cooler for other processes, furnaces, etc. in the same area.
The primary advantage of a vapor-cooled system as compared with a water-
base system results from the fact that the former is a closed system. Water
towers can be "open" in that the cooling of the water is performed by expos-
ing it to air. In addition to impurities absorbed during this exposure, chem-
icals such as algicides must usually be added to the coolant. Because these can
Air out
Air in
Evaporative
Vent cooler
valves at Drain
high
points
Pumping
station
Optional / ni doorsSUmp'tank
Equipment
Fig. 5.3. Vapor-cooled heat-exchanger system with a pumping station

adjacent to the power-supply equipment (source: Water Saver Systems,
Inc.)
be detrimental to the system, a bleed-off method is usually employed to min-

imize buildup of water impurities over a period of operating time.
Figure 5.4 shows a further refinement of the system depicted in Fig. 5.3.
Because cooling-capacity requirements are generally greatest during the sum-
mer months, the vapor-cooled system is placed outside the plant during this
period. The heat lost from the exchanger is passed to the atmosphere by the
vapor. In the winter, however, it is desirable to recover this lost heat and use
it efficiently. This is done by adding an auxiliary air-to-water heat exchanger
to the system. The valves to the outside vapor cooler are closed, and the valves
to the air-to-water system are opened. The air-to-water exchanger is located
in the plant air system and may be modulated by tempered air drawn back
from the air ducts. Thus, the heat normally lost is recovered and used to warm
the plant air. Approximately 95% of the waste heat can be recovered in this
manner.
TIMERS
Control of induction heating systems can be on an open-loop or a closed-
loop basis. Closed-loop systems make use of a control signal (most often tem-
perature) in a feedback circuit to regulate the operation of the induction
Air in
Air out
J
Air in
Drain in
winter
Drain
Fill
Vents
Pumping
station l Air in
Equipment
Fig. 5.4. Vapor-cooled heat-exchanger system equipped with a recuper-

ator that returns waste heat to the plant air-circulation system (source:
Water Saver Systems, Inc.)
power supply. The control signal is compared with a prescribed, or setpoint,

value, and the difference is fed into the feedback circuit. Systems of this sort
are described in Chapter 7. By contrast, open-loop systems are not nearly as
sophisticated, relying primarily on measurements of heating time to ensure
reproducible and accurate results. For applications in which process param-
eters are not extremely critical, methods utilizing the control of heating time
have been found quite satisfactory.
The basic technique requires timer control of the main circuit contactor for
a specific time duration. This method is used on some induction heating sys-
tems from line frequency through radio frequency. There are, however, some
important factors that should be noted. First, the heavier the load, the larger
the power supply, and thus the greater the physical size of the contactor. Due
to the large mass of the contactor armature and the magnetic circuit that
makes it operate, several cycles of the line frequency can be required to pull
the contactor into its fully closed position. In small contactors, the portion
of the line cycle in which the solenoid is energized can also vary the time for
full closure. In large systems, where long-duration heating times are often
used, the resultant variation is not normally a problem. However, when short-
duration timing is employed, as in RF heating of small workpieces, the final
temperature may vary considerably. This is particularly true when timing
cycles are under 3 s.
Timers for most induction heating systems can be either electromechani-
cal or electronic. When electromechanical timing is used, normal procedure
is to keep the timer motor running and energize or de-energize the clutch for
timing functions. For timing cycles of 10 s or less, the use of an electronic
timer is recommended. In power supplies driven by silicon-controlled recti-
fier (SCR) power controllers, the circuit breaker or main contactor (or both)
is generally used as a primary disconnect and a backup means of disconnect-
ing the load from the power source. In such a mode, this means is generally
used to isolate all power in the equipment for maintenance problems as well
as to interrupt all power under certain fault or emergency shutdown condi-
tions. Contact closure in the gate-trigger circuit of the SCR package can then
be used to turn the power-supply output on or off. This is a high-speed tech-
nique that eliminates the delay in contactor closing and, more importantly,
increases the life of the contactor by eliminating repetitive mechanical oper-
ation.
As timing periods become shorter, the magnetic-hysteresis effect in satura-
ble reactors prevents their being used for high-speed o n / o f f operation. The
delay between reactor energization and the point at which the reactor achieves
its preset power level can be considerable when compared with heating time.
Although considerably faster than in the reactor, this same effect is also
apparent in the firing cycle of the SCR controller when extremely accurate,
short-duration heating times (2 to 3 s or less) are desired. These operational
times are generally associated with RF heating systems.
When short heating cycles are necessary, the SCR or reactor is generally
Ekey To oscillator-
valve grid-
Caac,,or
bias resistors
I
Fig. 5.5. Circuit schematic for a grid-trigger system used for high-speed
operation of an RF power supply (from J. Davies and P. Simpson, Induc.
tion Heating Handbook, McGraw-Hill, Ltd., London, 1979)
kept energized. System timing is then produced by a "grid-trigger" device

(Fig. 5.5) that applies a negative bias to the grid of the tube, driving it to cut-
off. This makes the grid of the tube highly negative and thus prevents cur-
rent flow from cathode to anode. A very light relay-contact closure is all that
is necessary to short the bias voltage through a shunt resistor, restoring the
normal grid bias. The speed of control of the system is limited only by the
operational speed of the relay, because the tube is operative at the resonant
frequency of the tank.
Chapter 6
Process Design for Specific

Applications
Prior to the construction and implementation of any induction heating pro-

cess, the details of the actual heating requirements must be considered. Such
considerations include type of heating, throughput and heating time, work-
piece material, peak temperature, and so forth. The major types of induc-
tion applications include through heating, surface heating (for surface heat
treatment), metal melting, welding, and brazing and soldering. Selection of
equipment (frequency, power rating) and related design considerations are
summarized in this chapter. Coil design for the various applications is de-
scribed in Chapter 8, and materials-handling details are outlined in Chapter 10.
DESIGN PROCEDURESFOR THROUGH HEATING
On the basis of total kilowatt hours of electricity expended each year,

through heating (without melting) is probably the largest single use of induc-
tion heating in the metals industry. The principal applications of induction
through heating include heating prior to hot working and through heating for
purposes of heat treatment. The important hot working operations in this
regard are forging, extrusion, and rolling. Typical geometries for the first two
processes are simple round or round-cornered square billets. Induction heating
also finds application in the rolling of slabs, sheets, blooms, and bars. In the
area of through heat treating, induction is used for processes such as harden-
ing, tempering, normalizing, and annealing. As in hot working, the part
geometries in these instances tend not to be too complex, typical ones being
bar stock, tubular products, and sheet metal.
The important features in the design of induction through-heating processes
are related to the characteristics of the power supply-namely, its frequency
and power rating.
85
Selection of Frequency for Through Heating

The selection of frequency for t h r o u g h heating is usually based solely on
calculations of reference depth using the critical frequency as a guideline.
F r o m Chapter 2, the reference depth is given by d (in.) = 3160 pv~/~f when
the resistivity p is in units of O-in., or d (cm) = 5000 pvr~#f when p is in
fl-cm. For r o u n d bars, the critical frequency is that frequency at which bar
diameter is approximately four times reference depth; for slabs and sheets,
the critical frequency is that at which thickness is about 2.25 times reference
depth. For these simple geometries, the critical or m i n i m u m frequency f¢ is
therefore given by
f~ = 1.6 x 108 p/i.ta 2 (a in in.) / Round bar

f~ = 4 x 108 p/#a 2 (a in cm) !
or
'L
fc = 5.06 x 10 7 p / # a 2
(a in in.) [ Slab or sheet
fc = 1.27 x 108 p / # a 2 (a in cm) !
where a is bar diameter or slab/sheet thickness.
The critical-frequency expressions are most readily evaluated for nonmag-
netic materials, or those for which/z = 1. In these cases, fc is simply a func-
tion of geometry and the material's resistivity. Values of resistivity p for
various metals are given in Table 6.1. It can be seen that p is not constant,
but varies with temperature. For this reason, estimates of fc are usually based
on the value of p corresponding to the peak temperature to which the metal
is to be induction heated.
To illustrate, critical frequency will be calculated for several situations.
Consider first the heating of a 1.91-cm- (0.75-in.-) diam round bar of alumi-
n u m to 510 °C (950 °F). F r o m Table 6.1, the resistivity at this temperature
is approximately 10.44 × 10 - 6 fl-cm (4.1 x 10 - 6 l]-in.). Because # = 1, the
equation for critical frequency yields fc = 1170 Hz. If the bar were m a d e of
an austenitic stainless steel, on the other hand, the resistivity at the same tem-
perature would be approximately 101.6 x 10 - 6 l]-cm (40 × 10 - 6 ~].in.), and
the critical frequency would be approximately ten times as great, namely
11,380 Hz.
For the case of magnetic steels, the above equations for fc apply as well.
However, ~ is a function of temperature. Below the Curie temperature, # --
100 for typical power densities. Above this temperature,/~ = 1. If the r o u n d
bar in the above example were of a carbon steel that was to be tempered, it
would have a resistivity of about 63.5 x 10 -6 O . c m (25 x 10 -6 fl.in.).
Assuming # = 100, the critical frequency would thus be 71 Hz. If this bar were
heated to a higher temperature, say 980 °C (1800 °F), at which/~ -- 1 and p =
Process Design for Specific Applications 87
k~ ',.oe~
~q ,,4 ~q ¢5e4
. . . . . . . . P".- . . . . . . e~ " "P"..
o - o o
~i- .~- ~5 ~q ,,4 ,,4 ¢5,qrc
¢~ ,~ ~ ,,4 ,,4 ~ ,~o~o~

2
I'-
r ~. ~ ~ 0~,"~
I ,.4 ~ ~i.~; o.;
|
v"~O0 ~'10
~rC ~q
,'-~eq ,..~eq
¢'~ , ~ . , I "~. ,,-,., , ~ ,,-.~ o 0 ~ ,~ ,.-.~ ~ ~-.~ ,~.~ ,,-.~ , , - ~ , . , ~ ~ , - - ~ t~q ,,-.~ , ~ , . - ~ ,~.~ ,~.~ ,~,~ ~ - ~ , ~ ~--,
•N . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ~.o . . . . . .
~N .~ . . . . . . . . . _ . . . . . ~ . ~ . ~r 0 . . . . .
. ~ . . . . . . ~ . . . . . ~ - - ~ ~ . . . . .
~ o . ~ .... . ~ , .= .~, . ~ g o . :~,~

tD
117 x 10 -6 fl.cm (46 x 10 -6 fl.in.), the critical frequency would increase

substantially to approximately 13,000 Hz.
Variable-frequency power supplies typically offer a twofold or threefold
range of frequency. Thus, for nonmagnetic materials, the same generator can
be used to heat parts of a given size over a range of temperatures. In contrast,
for magnetic materials the power-supply frequency must be selected on the
basis of the maximum temperature to which the parts will ever be heated.
To avoid calculation of critical frequencies, tables or graphs which show
frequency requirements as a function of bar size are usually employed. Sample
compilations are given in Table 6.2 and Fig. 2.9 and 6.1.
When a frequency higher or lower than the critical frequency is used, the
heating efficiency increases or decreases, respectively, as was discussed in
Chapter 2. The increase in efficiency above fc is rather small for large fre-
quency increases. Conversely, the efficiency drops rapidly when frequencies
below fc are utilized. This effect was illustrated in Fig. 2.10. It is also shown
in Fig. 6.2 for heating of round steel bars below or above the Curie temper-
ature. These plots give efficiencies for heating bars of varying sizes with a
given frequency. Because a given frequency can be used effectively to heat
material of a greater diameter than that for which this frequency equals fc,
the curves in Fig. 6.2 all show plateaus above a critical bar size and a rapid
drop-off below this size.
Figure 6.2 also shows the effect of coupling (distance between the coil inner
diameter and workpiece outer diameter). As this distance increases (i.e., as
the coupling diminishes), the efficiency is lowered. This trend is related to the
fact that fewer lines of magnetic flux pass through the workpiece as the cou-
pling is decreased. Therefore, according to Faraday's Law, the induced voltage
and thus the induced current are lower. Because the current through the
induction coil and its resistance remain fixed, the coil dissipates a given
amount of power. However, the amount of energy dissipated in the workpiece
decreases with poorer coupling. Therefore, the percentage of the total energy
which is used to heat the workpiece decreases, and efficiency goes down. A
similar argument can be used to explain the low efficiency associated with the
heating of a tube using a solenoid coil located within the tube. In this case,
the field strength is small outside the coil turns, and relatively small amounts
of current can be induced in the workpiece. The coupling in these situations
is low even when the air gap between the coil and workpiece is small. Thus,
this type of heating arrangement should be avoided unless space limitations
or other considerations demand it.
Charts of the efficiency of heating of tube and pipe products using sole-
noid coils located around the outer diameter provide useful information on
the influence of workpiece geometry. Important factors here are the outer
diameter and wall thickness of the tube or pipe. Several useful plots for
medium-carbon steel products heated either below the Curie temperature
(such as may be required for through tempering) or above it (such as in nor-
O O O O O O O O O O O O
J
OO . . . . .
OO ~ O O O O O OO O O O O O
.=
.=
s~
=
m
==--
.-|
J~ ~o
,m ~o ~ O ~
W q~.
..4=
m
Diameter, mm
0 1.3 2.5 3.8 5.1 7.6 12.7 19.1 25 38 51

1,000,000
\
500,000
\
200,000 \
100,000
N
-r
c-
cr
50,000
\
20,000
\
10,000
\
5000
\
\
3000
Diameter, in.
Fig. 6.1. Relationship between diameter of round steel bars and mini-
mum generator frequency for efficient austenitizing using induction
heating (from F. W. Curtis, High FrequencyInduction Heating, McGraw-
Hill, New York, 1950)
malizing or hardening operations) are depicted in Fig. 6.3. From these curves
it is apparent that, for a given power-supply frequency and tube geometry
(OD, ID), the efficiency is higher for heating below the Curie temperature.
This is a result of the smaller reference depth below the Curie temperature.
Similarly, the increase in efficiency with increased frequency for a given geom-
etry and temperature range are associated with higher OD-to-d ratios as for
the induction heating of solid bars. Two other trends are not so o b v i o u s -
those related to the effects of outer diameter and wall thickness for a given
Round-bar diameter, mm
0 25 51 76 102 127 152 178 203 229 254 279 305

100
90
80
5, 70
t'-
.~_
¢,b
~ 6C
C
ie
r-
,g 5c O°F)
o ie
O°F)
4C
3(
2(
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Round-bar diameter, in.
(a)
Fig. 6.2. Coil efficiency for induction heating of round bars as a func-
tion of bar diameter, size of air gap between coil and bar, and induc-
tion power-supply frequency: (a) 60 Hz and 1 kHz; (b) 180 Hz and
3 kHz; (c) 10 kHz (from G. F. Bobert, "Innovative Induction Systems
for the Steel Industry," Prec. Energy Seminar/Workshop on New Con-
cepts in Energy Conservation and Productivity Improvement for Indus-
trial Heat Processing Equipment, Chicago, March, 1982)
frequency and temperature range. With regard to the effect of outer diame-
ter at a fixed wall thickness, it should be noted that the reference depth is the
same irrespective of OD but that the equivalent resistance scales linearly with
OD. Thus, a greater fraction of the power goes into the workpiece (when
reflected through the coil circuit) as the OD increases. Such behavior is
entirely comparable to the data in Fig. 6.2 for solid bars. The effect of wall
thickness at fixed OD and frequency is more difficult to understand. As the
wall becomes thinner, the over-all workpiece resistance increases. However,
its equivalent resistance as reflected in the coil circuit tends to decrease, as can
0 25 51 76 102 127 152 178 203 229 254 279 305

100 u u
3 kHz 180 Hz
B/C ~
I~ "- B/C
80
A/C
G
"~ 60
50
I/ ~
(up B,c
__
to 705Be,ow
cI urle.
°C or 1300 °F)
A/C = Above Curie
(over 705 °C or 1300 °F)
i i I
-
[
40 ~ Coil ID = bar OD +
A = 38 mm (1.5 in.)
B = 51 mm (2.0 in.)
30 • C = 64 mm (2.5 in.)
D = 89 mm (3.5 in.)
E = 127 mm (5.0 in.)
20
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
I[
8 9 10
[
11 12

(b)
Fig. 6.2. continued
be inferred from the data in Fig. 2.12. Hence, efficiency goes down with
decreasing wall thickness. For the case of an infinitely thin-wall tube, there
is actually no workpiece and no heat dissipated in the workpiece, thereby lead-
ing to zero efficiency.
Critical frequencies for through heating of slabs and sheets depend on coil
geometry. The relationships given earlier in this section pertain solely to flat
workpieces heated by solenoid (i.e., encircling-type) coils. A plot of the critical
frequencies of a number of metals for such induction heating arrangements
is shown in Fig. 6.4. The similarity between this plot and that for round bars
(Fig. 2.9) is evident. Note, however, the slightly lower values of fc for the
sheet geometry. For example, the value of fc for a 2.54-mm- (0.1-in.-) diam
round steel bar heated to 815 °C (1500 °F), which is above the Curie temper-
ature, is approximately 10 6 Hz; but the fc value for a 2.54-cm- (1.0-in.-)
thick sheet heated to the same temperature is only 250,000 Hz.
0 6.4 12.7 19.1 25.4 31.8 38.1 44.5 50.8 57.2 63.5 69.9 76.2 82.6
100
90 -mmmmmm
80 C
°7' 10 kHz A/C / ~ v
>~ 70
O
c
® 60
/
E~
¢.-
(9
r- / ~ L ~ B/C = Below Curie
o 5o (up to 705 °C or 1300 °F)- •
o ~/~ A/C = Above Curie
(over 705 °C or 1300 °F)
1 i i
40 ~' I CoillD = b a r O D +
A A = 38 mm (1.5 in.)
B B = 51 mm (2.0 in.)
30 C = 64 mm (2.5 in.)
c I D = 76 mm (3.0 in.)
2O
0 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.0 1.25 1.50 1.75 2.0 2.25 2.50 2.75 3.0 3.25
(c)
Fig. 6.2. continued
The critical frequency for a sheet material is lower when it is heated from
one side only. This can be done using inductors such as pancake coils which
set up fields of magnetic induction whose flux is perpendicular to the sheet
surface, rather than parallel to it as with a solenoid coil. Such an arrangement
is often referred to as transverse-flux induction heating. Figure 6.5 gives the
required frequency for efficient heating utilizing a special inductor of this type
designed to provide maximum temperature uniformity across the strip width.
Heating of steel sheet 2.54 m m (0.1 in.) thick to 815 °C (1500 °F) using a
transverse flux inductor requires a frequency of approximately 2000 Hz, which
is two orders of magnitude less than that required if a solenoid coil is
employed. The ability to use a much lower frequency impacts heating costs
in two ways. First, the higher-frequency (RF) power supply that would be
1.0
0.9 60 Hz, magnetic(belowCurie)
0.8
0 . 7 0 ~
0.7 --
0.60
0.50
0.6~
0.40
;.=
0.5--
0.4--
0.30
0.3~
0.20
02tl
0.1 0.10
I°~ 5 I
01 2 3 4 6 8 10 t2 14 16 18 20 22 24
Outer diameterin inches
1.0 ¸B
0.9--
0.8-- 60 Hz, nonmagnetic(aboveCurie)
0.7--
0.30
E 0.6-- 0.20
U
uJ 0.5-- 0.10
0.4 ;-- 0.05
(5.3i-- o
0.2-- 0.60 Note: Numberson
0.50 curves indicate
0.40 thicknessof wall
0.1 in inches.
0 1 2 3 4 6 8 10 12 14 t6 18 20 22 24
Outer diameterin inches
(a)
Fig. 6.3. Coil efficiency for induction heating of pipes as a function of

wall thickness and outer diameter using power-supply frequencies of
(a) 60, (b) 180, and (c) 960 Hz {from Brochure SA9906, Westinghouse
Electric Corp., Baltimore)
ProcessDesignfor SpecificApplications 95
1"0 VI'- 180 Hz, magnetic (below Curie)

0.9
I 0.70
\ Curves for 0.60 to 0.70 wall
thickness only
10.50~ / , 0.9
0.710.40 ~ - - ~
0.30 ~ " .~- o>" 0.8 0.70
>,
O
t- o.6- / / j 8 ! \
.Q-)
/ / / 207
LU
os - I I I 0.60
0.4 -- 0. / / 0.6
I i I I I 1 I
2 3 4 6 8 10 12
0'3--0: / / Note:Numberson Outer diameter in inches
0.2 /¢ curves indicate
Y0.05 !hickness of wall
0.1 -- • in inches.
I I I I I I I I I I I I I I
01 234 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24
Outer diameter in inches
1.0~
0.9
180 Hz, nonmagnetic (above Curie)
0.8--
0.7 B
=~ 0.6 - °3\ 020

"G
~=
,T, 0.5 -- 0 70 , ~ J f 0.10
f//NSu°°
0.4
0.3
-. tubers on
0.2 -- H/ / f curves indicate
0160X//¢ / !hickness of wall
0.1
1 2 3 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24
(b)
Fig. 6.3. continued
needed to provide 250,000-Hz power is considerably more expensive on a per-

kilowatt basis than the medium-frequency unit that would supply 2000 Hz.
Secondly, solid-state units are considerably more efficient in converting line-
frequency power to the rated induction heating frequency than are vacuum-
tube RF generators. Thus, in selection of frequencies for heating of sheet and
1.0 m
0.9- 960 Hz, magnetic (below Curie)
0.8- 0.20 to 0.70
0.7-
r
O
C
0.6-
o
~z 0.5-
UJ
0.4--
0.3--
/ 0.025 Note: Numbers on
0.2-- curves indicate
thickness of wall
0.1-- in inches.
0 I t/i x I I I I I I I
1.0 2.0 3.0 4 5 6 7
0.9
O
,°f
0.8
0.7
960 Hz, nonmagnetic (above Curie)
0.20
C 0.6
O
LU
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
1.0 2.0 3.0 4 5 6 7
(c)
Fig. 6.3. continued
slab materials, coil design should be considered as well as efficiency and eco-
nomics.
Selection of Power Rating for Through Heating
During selection of power rating for induction through heating, two
f a c t o r s - material throughput and required temperature uniformity-should
be evaluated. The first of these, material throughput, determines the over-all
power rating because:
Required power = (kilograms/hour throughput) x (kilowatt hours/kilogram)
x (efficiency factor)
The factor "kilowatt hours/kilogram" is known as the heat content; it is the

amount of thermal energy required to heat a given material usually from room
temperature to a higher, specified temperature. As might be expected, the
value of heat content increases with the temperature to which the metal is
heated. Heat contents for a number of materials are summarized in Fig. 6.6.
Tables 6.3 and 6.4 also provide related i n f o r m a t i o n - i . e . , typical processing
temperatures for several metals and the heat contents of these metals when
raised to these temperatures.
The efficiency factor in the simple equation used to calculate power require-
ments is determined by the coupling efficiency of the coil to the workpiece
(that is to say, the percentage of the energy supplied to the coil that is trans-
Thickness, mm
0.254 2.54 25.4 254.0
105
104
N
T
0
c-
O"
.=
t_
L)
103
102
0.01 0.1 1.0 10
Thickness, in.
Fig. 6.4. Critical frequency as a function of sheet thickness for several

different metals induction heated using a solenoid coil (from G. H.
Brown, C. N. Hoyler, and R. A. Bierwirth, Theory and Application of
Radio FrequencyHeating, Van Nostrand, New York, 1947)
Thickness, in.
0.004 0.039 0.394- ;.94
I I I
3000
1000
N
1"
u
t-
"-1
0"
i,
200
50
I I I
0.1 1.0 10 100
Thickness, mm
Fig. 6.5. Relationship between required generator frequency and sheet
thickness for transverse-flux induction heating of aluminum and fer-
ritic steel alloys (from R. Waggott, et el., Metals Technology, Vol 9,
December, 1982, p 493)
ferred to the workpiece) and by thermal losses due to radiation and convec-
tion. These factors were discussed in Chapter 2.
Requirements on temperature uniformity must also be considered in selec-
tion of power rating. Temperature uniformity during through heating is influ-
enced, however, by both power-supply frequency and power density. Low
frequencies enhance uniformity by providing large reference depths, or depths
of current penetration. For this reason, frequencies as close as possible to the
critical frequency should be selected. Lower frequencies lead to low heating
efficiencies. Use of high frequencies is more expensive from an equipment
standpoint and mandates the use of soaking time after the heating cycle to
allow for heat conduction from the shallow-heated zone to enable tempera-
ture equalization.
Power density, or power per unit of surface area, has a similar effect on
temperature uniformity. Excessively high power densities may lead to over-

heating (or even melting) of the workpiece surface. Moderate power densi-
ties allow moderate heating of the workpiece surface and sufficient time for
the heat to be conducted to the center of the workpiece. The variations of the
surface and center temperatures of an induction heated round bar are depicted
schematically in Fig. 6.7. At the beginning of heating, the surface tempera-
ture increases much more rapidly than the temperature at the center. After
a while, the rates of increase of the surface and center temperatures become
comparable due to conduction. However, a fixed temperature differential per-
sists during heating. The allowable temperature differential permits the gen-
erator power rating to be selected. The basic steps in selection of power rating
for heating of round bar are as follows:
• Select the frequency and calculate the ratio of bar diameter to reference
depth (a/d). As mentioned above, the frequency for through heating should
Temperature, ° C
0.11
0 93 204 316 427 538 649 760 871
~ ).242
982 1093 1204
0.10 y ).22
0.09
Aluminum ,/~/ Nickel 0.198
0.08 / / St~Titanium / 0.176
J3 0.07 f / 0.154
7: =.--
0.06
c
G)
c
O
(.1
0,05 / ~ ~ 0.110 ~
o)
I 0.04 0.088 -~
0.03
0.02 Z ~
/ ~ ~ Copper (brass below 870oc or 1600oF) 0.066
I I I I
G°ld (leadbel°w315° C °r 600° F ) - - 0044
0.01 ~ ~ 0.022
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 2200
Temperature, ° F
Fig. 6.6. Heat content (i.e., heat capacity) above 20 °C (70 °F) et several
different metals as a function of temperature (from C. A. Tadbary, Basics
of Induction Heating, Vol i, John F. Rider, Inc., New York, 1960)
.|
¢=
~L
|
I~, Fi 0
.=_ z
i)
~°
~.=
,1~ ¢1:) KI
.~=~ .=
~,) ~ °1-~
e.
._~ ~u'-~O .0 .~¢'~
im
'I
==
~
~
t"~- ,,--~
C.,I t ' ~
-.-'~
.¢'~1
.C.i
• ',"~
===~= n i
'~ ec'a e¢'~ • ¢"1 • -"~
'"~. I =~ een :e :~
;e Ii
• E
|e~l ,. = t ' ~ ¢'N 0 • C.,I ,,--q O 0
,! .~L "~ ~ ooooooo

i|°!
===='. /~
• ~ /~ '~ "~'~°°~"
~=~I
~.s /
=I~/
.I ~,,a / ~oo .ooo
•--- ~ . ~ / ~ ' ~ "-
"~L
~/
"-"'
"='=~ /
I_ i °°'~"°°°
. . . . . . .
*
-==~/
> ' ai ,=,, / =
='-'-=,~=='
== -~ I~ / ! i~! ! i !~
=.,==/ ''='' "=
i. I .+ ~ i:~ 0il " ~I
tit
Ii
~iI~ ,,,,i
t~ // • ~o I::; I= • A
,=: = "~ / "~ ~ = .o ~ ...E "8

Heating
I
~(: Cooling
I
"-z
E
F-
/ J" Power
Time
Note that, following an initial transient, the surface-to-center
temperature differential is constant during the heating cycle.
After heating, however, the surface cools more rapidly, lead-
ing to a temperature crossover.
Fig. 6.7. Schematic illustration of the surface and center temperature
histories of a bar heated by induction (from C. A. Tudbury, Basics of
Induction Heating, Vol 1, John F. Rider, Inc., New York, 1960)
be close to the critical frequency, and the value of a / d thus will be approx-
imately 4 to 1.
• Using the value of thermal conductivity for the metal being heated (Fig.
6.8) and a / d , estimate the induction thermal factor KT (Fig. 6.9).
• The power per unit length of the bar is calculated as the product of KT
and the allowable temperature differential between the surface and center
(Ts - To). Multiplying this by the length of the bar yields the required net
power (in kilowatts), to which the losses due to imperfect coupling and
radiation must be added.
In Fig. 6.9, it can be seen that the KT curves drop rapidly above a / d ratios
of four to six. This trend demonstrates that lower power levels are needed at
high a / d ratios to maintain the same temperature uniformity as that at the
a / d ratio corresponding to the critical frequency.
To illustrate the above procedure, consider the through heating of a steel
bar 152 m m (6 in.) long by 102 m m (4 in.) in diameter to a surface temper-
ature of 980 °C (1800 °F) and a center temperature of 870 °C (1600 °F).
Selecting a 540-Hz generator, the a / d ratio is found to be approximately four.
Temperature, oC
6.0 0
~ 1 93 204 316 427
/
538
I
649 760
I
871
I
982
I
1093
I
0.43
_ Copper
5.0 -- 0.36
_ Gold /
u-
°" 4.0 0.28 o.
E
E
>~
.>_
~ 3.0 -- 0.21
"10
t- "10
t-
O Titanium O
0
o
O
t-
f- 2.0 0.14 l--
Nickel Steel (low C) - - 0.07

j Steel (1.0 C)
Stainless steel -- _
Ol 0
I
200
I
400
I
600
I
800
I
1000
I
1200 1400
I I
1600
I
1800
1
2000
Temperature, ° F
Fig. 6.8. Thermal conductivity of several metals as a function of tem-

perature (from C. A. Tudbury, Basicsof Induction Heating, Vol 1, John
F. Rider, Inc., New York, 1960)
The average value of the thermal conductivity for carbon steels when heated
to hardening temperature is about 0.050 W / m m . °C (0.70 W/in.. °F). From
Fig. 6.9, KT is found to be equal to 0.00113 W / m m . °C (0.016 W / i n . - ° F . )
Thus, the power required is (0.00113)(110)(152) = 19 kW. This corresponds
to a power density (power per unit of surface area) of 19/(152) (102)7r =
0.00039 k W / m m 2 (0.25 kW/in.2). If the temperature differential were to be
cut by a factor of two, the power rating and the power density would be sim-
ilarly decreased. There is, however, a lower limit to which the power can be
decreased. This is determined by the heating time itself. The heating timeis
equal to the amount of energy needed divided by the rate of energy input, or
power. For the above example, the workpiece weighs approximately 9.66 kg
(21.3 lb), which, using data from Fig. 6.6, requires (21.3)(0.082) -- 1.75 kilo-
watt hours to heat to 925 °C (1700 °F). Therefore the heating time will be
either 328 s (for a surface-to-center temperature differential of 110 °C, or
200 °F) or 656 s (for a temperature differential of 55 °C, or 100 °F) when
the power rating is halved.
In actual induction through-heating operations, power densities somewhat
higher than those suggested by calculations such as the ones above are often
used when a soak or dwell period precedes forming, quench hardening, or
another operation. As suggested by the schematic illustration in Fig. 6.7, tem-
0.15 0.0107
0.14 "~" 1.0099

\
0.13 ~' ).0092
o.12 ~ k 0.oo85
0.11 -- 0.0078
\ o
,, o.1o o.oo 1 °
° ~ Th( ,rmal conductivity F:
._= (k), W/mm • °C (W/in. • °F) E
~ 0.09 ~ ~'~ ' 0.0064 ~
~ h.....= 0.43 (6.0)
0.08 • ~
I
0.36 (5.0)
0.0057 ~
0.07 ~ • ~ - 0.005
== \ ~,..= ~.
®
0.06 ~ 0.28 (4.0)- 0.0043
O O
= ~._ =
"o 0.05 0.0036 "o
--¢ - - ~ '" ~ ,,,----- 0.21 (3.0)
0.04 ~ ~ 0.0028
0.03 ~ ~ ~ ~ 0.14 (2.0)_ 1.0021
0.02 ~ ' _ = 1.0014

•~ =======,= 0.07 (1.0)
0.01 , 0.04 (0.5) 0.0007
0 o
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22
Diameter/reference depth (a/d)
Fig. 6.9. Induction thermal factor for round bars as a function of ratio
of bar diameter to reference depth (a/d) and thermal conductivity (from
C. A. Tudbury, Basics of Induction Heating, Vol 1, John F. Rider, Inc.,
New York, 1960)
Table 6.5. Approximate power densities required for through

heating of steel(a) (from T. H. Spencer, et al., Induction
Hardening and Tempering, ASM, Metals Park, OH, 1964)
Power density(c), kW/in.Z(d), for
[ through heating to temperatures of: - - I
150 to 425 to 760 to 980 to 1095 to
425 °C 760 °C 980 °C 1095 °C 1205 °C
Frequency (300 to (800 to (1400 to (1800 to (2000 to
Hz(b) 800 °F) 1400 °F) 1800 °F) 2000 °F) 2200 °F)
60 . . . . . 0.06 0.15 (e) (e) (e)

180 . . . . . 0.05 0.14 (e) (e) (e)
1,000 . . . . . 0.04 0.12 0.5 1.0 1.4
3,000 . . . . . 0.03 0.10 0.4 0.55 0.7
10,000 . . . . . 0.02 0.08 0.3 0.45 0.55
(a) For hardening, tempering, and forming operations. (b) Power-
density values in this table are based on use of proper frequency and
normal over-all operating efficiency of equipment. (c) In general,
these power densities are for section sizes of 1.27 to 5.08 cm (1/2 to
2 in.). Higher inputs can be used for smaller section sizes, and lower
inputs may be required for larger section sizes. (d) 1 kW/in. 2 =
0.155 kW/cm2. (e) Not recommended for these temperatures.
perature uniformity is enhanced during this period as a result of heat conduc-

tion and radiation effects. After the power is turned off, the hotter surface
cools as it loses heat to the center (by conduction) and to the surroundings
(by radiation). In contrast, the center temperature continues to rise because
o f heat conduction f r o m the surface.
Calculations o f temperature uniformity as presented above can be avoided
by reference to tables o f power densities ordinarily used for through heating
o f various metals. One such listing, for through heating o f magnetic steels,
is shown in Table 6.5. The values o f power in Table 6.5 are based on typi-
cal efficiencies and proper selection o f frequency (which lead to a / d ratios
usually in the range o f four to six). Large-diameter bars, which can be heated
efficiently with low-cost, low-frequency power supplies, typically employ low
power densities. This is because o f the longer times required for conduction
o f heat to the centers o f these larger pieces. (It should also be kept in mind
that the reference depth increases above the Curie temperature, at which the
relative magnetic permeability drops to unity, sometimes necessitating higher-
frequency units for heating to high temperatures. An exception to this practice
is the use o f 60-Hz sources for induction heating o f very large parts such as
slabs in steel mills.)
DESIGN PROCEDURES FOR HEAT TREATING

Several types o f heat treatments can be conducted using induction heating.
These include through and surface hardening, normalizing, and tempering o f
steels, through annealing of steels and nonferrous metals, and annealing of

pipe welds. Design of induction through heat treating operations is very sim-
ilar to those procedures employed for through heating prior to hot working,
which were discussed in the previous section. In this section, only guidelines
for surface and localized hardening and annealing processes are discussed. A
more in-depth discussion of induction heat treatment is presented in the book
by Semiatin and Stutz.*
Surface Hardening
Surface hardening of a steel part consists of raising a surface layer of the
part to a temperature (denoted by Ac 3 or Accm, depending on carbon con-
tent) at which it will be transformed to austenite and rapidly cooling the part
to produce a hard martensitic structure in this region. Design of surface
hardening treatments demands consideration of the workpiece material and
its starting condition, the effect of rapid heating on Ac 3 or Accm tempera-
ture, property requirements, and equipment selection.
Workpiece Material. Some typical induction surface hardened steels are:
• Medium-carbon steels, such as 1030 and 1045, used for automotive shafts,
gears, etc.
• High-carbon steels, such as 1070, used for hand tools
• Alloy and stainless steels used for bearings, automotive valves, and
machine-tool components
• Tool steels, such as M2 and D2, used for cutting tools and metalworking
dies.
Cast irons (e.g., iron-carbon alloys which contain more than 2 wt °7o car-
bon) can also be induction hardened and tempered. Despite the inability to
obtain a uniform austenite phase during the hardening operation, induction
is still readily applied to many cast iron parts, such as cast crankshafts, to
obtain hard, wear-resistant surfaces (55 to 60 HRC) and to avoid distortion.
Frequency and power density are selected by use of guidelines similar to those
for steels (discussed below), based on the size of the part and the case depth
needed. Shallow cases require high frequencies and power densities, and deep
cases require lower frequencies and power densities. The principal difference
between hardening of steels and hardening of cast irons lies in the need to con-
trol temperature more closely for the latter materials. For steels, the austenitiz-
ing temperature can be varied over a fairly wide range without measurably
affecting the hardening characteristics, provided that long soaking times and
austenite grain growth are avoided. In contrast, temperature control is very
*S. L. Semiatin and D. E. Stutz, Induction Heat Treatment of Steel, ASM, Metals Park,
OH, 1986.
important for cast irons because the carbon content of the austenite phase for
a given alloy increases with temperature.
Starting Material Condition. The starting material condition can have a marked
effect on response to induction hardening. The Ac3 or Accm temperature
increases with coarseness of microstructure as well as with heating rate, as
shown in Fig. 6.10 for 1042 steel. In particular, at a given heating rate, higher
austenitizing temperatures are required for coarser microstructures. Such a
behavior has a large effect on surface hardening response. For example, if the
same induction heating parameters (e.g., power density, frequency, and heat-
ing time) were used for surface hardening of a given steel in three different
starting conditions, the final case depths would vary even though the thermal
histories of the three bars would be similar. It is apparent that such differ-
ences are caused by the different austenitizing temperatures for the various
conditions. An example of this effect is shown in Fig. 6.11 for 1070 steel bars
that were heated to a set temperature and quenched immediately. The results
illustrate the fact that steels with a starting quenched-and-tempered micro-
structure tend to develop much deeper hardened cases than identical alloys
induction heat treated under identical conditions, but containing an annealed
microstructure. For the particular experiments used in deriving the data in
Fig. 6.11, bars 2.54 cm (1 in.) in diameter were heated to 925 °C (1700 °F)
Rate of h e a t i n g , ° C / s
28 56 111 278 556 1111 2778

2000 1093
I
1900 J 1038
1800 982
LL
O
o
o
1700 927
J .- ized 0)
e~
E
E j ~
o)
Q
I-
1600 v
J f 871 I--
..--" " " Quenched and
~ ~ ~ ""= tempered
1500 816
Ae 3
1400 760
50 100 200 500 1000 2000 5000
Rate of heating, °F/s
Fig. 6.10. Effect of initial microstructure and heating rate on Ac3 tem-
perature for 1042 steel (from W. J. Feuerstein and W. K. Smith, Trans.
ASM, Vol 46, 1954, p 1270)
Distance below surface, mm

S 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5
70
60
1 Quenchedand
50 tempered
o
n-
I
40
L Normalized
t'-
"0 30
I
Annealed
20
10
0
S 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10
Distance below surface, in.
Fig. 6.11. Effect of starting microstructure in 1070 steel bars on
surface-hardening response using a 450-kHz induction generator oper-
ated at a power density of 2.5 kWlcm 2 (15.9 kWlin. 2) (from T. H.
Spencer, at el., Induction Hardening and Tempering, ASM, Metals Park,
OH, 1964).
in 1 s and water quenched. At this heating rate, the Ac3 temperatures were
found to be approximately 910 °C (1670 °F), 855 °C (1570 °F), and 815 °C
(1500 °F) for the annealed, normalized, and quenched-and-tempered micro-
structures, respectively. It is thus apparent that the quenched-and-tempered
bars were austenitized to a greater depth than the bars with the other micro-
structures and were, therefore, hardened to a greater depth.
The starting microstructure is also an important consideration in induction
hardening of cast irons. It is important that carbon in the alloy will readily
dissolve in the iron at the austenitizing temperature because of the short times
inherent in induction processes. For example, the combined carbon in pearlite
is readily soluble, and high percentages of pearlite (usually around 50 to 70%
in gray iron and nodular iron) in the matrix are desirable; for this reason, cast
irons are often normalized prior to hardening to obtain a pearlitic structure
and to improve austenitizing response. Sufficient pearlite to give a combined
carbon content of 0.40 to 0.50% is usually adequate to provide the hardnesses
needed in cast iron parts. The combined carbon behaves essentially the same
as carbon in steel of similar carbon content. On the other hand, graphitic car-
bon in the form of large flakes (gray cast iron) or large nodules (nodular cast
iron, also often known as ductile iron) remains essentially unchanged during
heat treatment. As another example, in nodular cast irons which have been
previously quenched and tempered, the carbon in the matrix is in the form
of many fine nodules. When this microstructure is induction heated to harden-
ing temperatures, the carbon dissolves and diffuses rapidly, enabling quick
austenitization and excellent hardening response.
Austenitizing Temperature. The time required to form a totally austenitic micro-

structure in a steel depends on the austenitizing temperature selected and the
starting microstructure. In all cases, the speed with which austenite is formed
is controlled by the diffusion of carbon, a process which can be accelerated
a great deal by increasing temperature. For example, the time for complete
austenitization in a plain carbon steel of eutectoid composition (0.8°7o C) with
an initial microstructure of pearlite can be decreased from approximately
400 s (at an austenitizing temperature of 730 °C, or 1345 °F) to about 30 s
(at an austenitizing temperature of 750 °C, or 1380 °F), as shown in Fig. 6.12.
Each of these times can be considerably increased if the starting microstruc-
ture is a spheroidized one with large carbide particles. This is because the dif-
fusion distance for carbon, which must be transported from the carbon-rich
carbide phase, is considerably larger than in pearlite with thin lamellae of fer-
rite and carbide. Conversely, the finer bainitic and martensitic microstructures
tend to be reaustenitized more readily than pearlite.
Data such as those in Fig. 6.12 suggest that at high enough temperatures,
100
750 °C (1380 ° f
80
730 °C (1345 °F)
60
f-
< 40
20
1 10 1O0 1000
Time, s
Fig. 6.12. Effect of aaatenitizin9 temperature en rate of austenite for-
mation from pearlite in a eutectoid steel (from G. A. Roberts and R. F.
Mehl, Trans. ASM, Vol 31, 1943, p. 613)
1 10 Elements of Induction Heating: Design, Control, and Applications
austenite forms in a fraction o f a second. This fact is relied upon in surface

hardening in which the workpiece surface or cross section is raised to a higher
temperature than is normally attained in much slower, furnace-based pro-
cesses. A large a m o u n t o f effort has gone into the determination o f the Ac 3
and Accm temperature that signifies complete austenitization during contin-
u o u s heating cycles such as those used in induction heating. Because the only
"soaking" time available for phase transformation in these cases is that time
after which the equilibrium transformation temperature (Ae3 or Aecm) is
exceeded, the continuous-heating transformation temperature (Ac3 or Accm)
is always a b o v e the equilibrium one. This difference increases with heating
rate, as might be e x p e c t e d - a n effect shown in Fig. 6.10 for the A c 3 temper-
ature for 1042 carbon steel. Here, the Ac3 temperature is the one at which it
has been estimated that the austenite reaction is complete. As pointed out
above, these data also show that the increase in transformation temperature
depends on the initial microstructure. The fine quenched-and-tempered, or
martensitic, microstructure revealed the least change in Ac3 temperature as
compared with the equilibrium Ae3 temperature, whereas the same steel with
an annealed microstructure exhibited the largest difference in Ac 3 as com-
pared with the Ae3 obtained with very low heating rates. Such a trend is
readily explained by the fact that the diffusion distance to redistribute car-
bon is shorter in the former instance and longer in the latter microstructure,
in which carbides are much larger.
Based on data such as those in Fig. 6.10, guidelines have been derived for
required austenitizing temperatures for induction hardening o f a wide range
of steels (Table 6.6). Generally, these temperatures are approximately 100 °C
(180 °F) above the equilibrium (low heating rate) austenitizing temperature
primarily to reduce or eliminate totally the austenitizing soaking time during
Table 6.6. Recommended induction austenitizing temperatures for

carbon and alloy steels(a)
Carbon Temperature for Temperature for
content, furnace heating, induction heating,
°70 °F (°C) °F (°C)
0.30 ... 1550 to 1600 (845 to 870) 1650 to 1700 (900 to 925)
0.35 .. 1525 to 1575 (830 to 855) 1650 (900)
0.40.. 1525 to 1575 (830 to 855) 1600 to 1650 (870 to 900)
0.45 .. 1475 to 1550 (800 to 845) 1600 to 1650 (870 to 900)
0.50 .. 1475 to 1500 (800 to 845) 1600 (870)
0.60 .. 1475 to 1550 (800 to 845) 1550 to 1600 (845 to 870)
>0.60 .. 1450 to 1510 (790 to 820) 1500 to 1550 (815 to 845)
(a) Free-machiningand alloy grades are readily induction hardened. Alloy
steels containing carbide-forming elements (e.g., niobium, titanium, vana-
dium, chromium, molybdenum,, and tungsten) should be austenitized at
temperatures at least 55 to 100 °C (100 to 180 °F) higher than those in-
dicated.
70
60
o
tr 50
-1-
~ 40
I I
~_ 3o o Alloy steels
• Plain carbon steels
20
0 0.20
II
0.40 0.60 0.80 1.00 1.20 1.40 1.60
Carbon content, %
Fig. 6.13. Hardness of as-quenched martensite as a function of its car-

bon content (from J. L. Burns, T. L. Moore, and R. S. Archer, Trans.
ASM, Vol 26, 1938, p 1; and W. P. Sykes and Z. Jeffries, Trans.ASST,
Vol 12, 1927, p 871)
continuous induction heating cycles. However, they are still below the tem-
perature at which undesirable austenite grain growth occurs rapidly. The rec-
o m m e n d e d austenitizing temperatures are at least another 100 °C (180 °F)
higher in alloys with strong carbide-forming elements (e.g., titanium, chro-
mium, molybdenum, vanadium, or tungsten) than they are in carbon steels.
These increases are a result of large increments in the transformation temper-
atures of alloy steels.
Property Requirements. Induction hardening is readily controlled to produce a

wide range of final properties in finished products. The main properties which
are of concern are case hardness and case depth. In as-quenched steels, fully
hardened to 100°70 martensite, the hardness depends only on carbon content
(Fig. 6.13). Thus, in many applications requiring a hard case and a soft core,
an induction surface-hardened carbon steel can replace a surface- or through-
hardened alloy steel. Often medium-carbon steels, such as 1045, provide the
optimal blend of hardness and toughness at a modest cost.
For some products, only the surface-hardness characteristic is of importance
with regard to service properties. This is particularly true in wear applications.
Valve seats in automobile engines are a prime example of an application in
which induction hardening has greatly improved wear resistance.
In applications such as torsional or bending fatigue, case depth and case
hardness are both important. Figure 6.14 illustrates case-depth selection for
a situation involving torsional fatigue. The drawing shows two different
induction case-hardness patterns, each with a surface hardness of 52 HRC and
a core hardness of 12 HRC. Assuming no stress concentrators, the applied
stress is shown as a straight line from zero at the center to a maximum stress
corresponding to 52 H R C at the surface. Case A provides a region in which
the applied stresses exceed the yield strength; on the other hand, case B has
a strength which equals or exceeds the applied stresses everywhere through the
cross section. Thus, case B can be expected to provide better service prop-
erties.
The data in Fig. 6.14 suggest a means by which case-hardness patterns can
be designed to meet service demands as specified by the applied stress pat-
terns. For this purpose, the data in Table 6.7 give useful conversions between
hardness and tensile and torsional yield strengths. The former conversions are
important in bending fatigue, and the latter in torsional fatigue.
If hardness control were the only attractive feature of surface induction heat
treatments, they would not be as popular as they are. What makes induction
particularly useful is the fact that the process also introduces compressive
residual stresses into the part surface. These residual stresses arise primarily
from the density difference between the hard martensite layer and softer
Hardness, HRC
140
(965) 52
50
120
(827)
100
•~ (689) 40
u}
Case depth B
"~
"0
80
c (552)
o~
.C:
30
C~
r- Case depth A
~ 60
"O
(414) 20
>,
t-
O 40 10
/
(276)
O
I--
Applied
2O
(138)
0 10 20 30 40 50 40
Surface Center
Bar diameter position, %
Fig. 6.14. Method of determining induction case-hardness pattern for

shafts subjected to torsional loading (from G. A. Fett, Metal Progress,
Vol 127, No. 2, February, 1985, p 49)
Process Design for Specific Applications 1 13
Table 6.7. Relationship between hardness and tensile

and torsional strengths for hardened steels (from G. A.
Fett, Metal Progress, Vol 127, No. 2, February, 1985,
p 49)
l - - Strength, MPa (ksi)
I Hardness I Tensile Tensile Torsional
Rockwell C Brinell ultimate yield yield
52 514. 1793 (260) 1613 (234) 965 (140)

50 481. 1689 (245) 1524 (221) 917 (133)
40 371. 1276 (185) 1151 (167) 689 (100)
30 286. .965 (140) 841 (122) 503 (73)
20 226. .758 (110) 614 (89) 365 (53)
10 187. .655 (95) 503 (73) 303 (44)
0 150. .517 (75) 365 (53) 221 (32)
interior layers. The magnitude of the residual stresses varies with the depth
of hardening. It has been found in hardening of shafts, for example, that the
level of the surface compressive residual stresses increases with the hardened
depth. In addition, the depth to which the compressive residual stresses pene-
trate is usually about equal to the depth of the hardened layer.
The combination of a hard surface, compressive residual stresses, and a soft
core results in excellent wear and fatigue resistance. Improvement in resistance
to bending fatigue as a function of case depth in comparison with furnace
treatment is shown in Fig. 6.15.
Equipment Selection-Frequency and Power Density. The equation for reference

depth (d - o ' f ~ f ) can be used to estimate the o p t i m u m power-supply fre-
quency for surface hardening by induction heating methods. Below the Curie
temperature, d (cm) ~ 5.8/4f, or d (in.) ~ 2 . 3 / ~ , assuming/z = 100. Above
the Curie temperature (at which # = 1), d increases by a factor of 10. If heat
conduction were not important, the sub-Curie reference-depth equation would
give a reasonable approximation of the austenitized and hardened depth.
Because of heat conduction, however, the case depth can be substantially
greater, depending on the time allowed for conduction. To take this factor
into account, therefore, a term proportional to the square root of the heat-
ing time r is added to the reference depth to approximate the depth of
austenitization and hardening, Xcase:
Xcase(Cm) = ( 5 . 8 / ' ~ ) +
or
Xcase(in.) = (2.3/x/f) +
where the frequency f is expressed in hertz.

70 483
60 414
e0
n
50 345 ~
¢d
==
'10
"O
40 276 t..
¢-.
-£= ¢-
0
30 207 ~
Z 0
Z
20 138
10 69
0.01 0.1 1 10
Millions of cycles to failure
Fig. 6.15. Bending-fatigue response of furnace hardened and induction

hardened medium-carbon steel tractor axles: shaft diameter, 7.0 cm
(2.75 in.); fillet radius, 0.16 cm (0.063 in.) (from T. H. Spencer, et al.,
Induction Hardening and Tempering, ASM, Metals Park, OH, 1964)
Power density also effects the depth of hardening.* For a given heating time
and frequency, the case depth increases with power density. Because of this
complicating factor, the usual practice in selection of frequency is to refer to
tables (such as Table 6.8) that have been derived from years of experience
with typical systems, rather than to use the above equations. Likewise, power
densities for specific applications are also best determined by reference to
nomographs derived from experience. An example is given in Table 6.9.
The information in Tables 6.8 and 6.9 is useful in selecting frequency and
power density for surface hardening. However, there remains the problem of
selecting heating time. In surface hardening, if the time is too long, the work-
piece may reach austenitizing temperature at locations deeper than are nec-
essary for the desired case thickness.
Two methods are available to establish the heating time for surface harden-
ing operations. One involves a trial-and-error procedure in which the power
and heating time are varied until the needed hardness and hardened depth are
obtained. The hardened depth is determined metallographically by section-
*A theoretical treatment of the combined effects of heating time and power density is given
in W. T. Shieh, Metallurgical Transactions, Vol 3, 1972, p 1433.
Table 6.8. Relationship between power-supply

frequency and hardened depth obtained using
induction heating
Frequency Typical hardened depth
450 kHz ... Less than 1.6 mm (0.06 in.)

10 kHz ...1.6 to 3.2 mm (0.06 to 0.13 in.)
3 kHz ...3.2 to 6.4 mm (0.13 to 0.25 in.)
1 kHz ...6.4 to 9.5 mm (0.25 to 0.37 in.)
180 Hz . . . . 9.5 mm (0.37 in.) to full harden-
ability depth
60 Hz . . . . Full hardenability depth
ing and acid etching. If the case is too shallow, the power input should be
decreased and heating time increased. Conversely, if it is too deep, the power
should be increased and the heating time decreased. Metallography will also
show the presence of various microstructural constituents, such as martensite,
which can be used as an indication of proper or improper austenitization.
A second method of determining o p t i m u m surface hardening parameters
is through the use of nomographs such as those shown in Fig. 6.16 and 6.17.
Figure 6.16 gives the relationship among generator frequency, applied power
density, heating time, and hardened depth for steel shafts which are austeni-
tized at temperatures between 850 and 900 °C (1560 and 1650 °F) using a
single-shot induction heating method; this is a technique in which the entire
area to be hardened is heated at one time by a coil which remains stationary
relative to the part. F r o m the figure, it is apparent that, for a given power
density and heating time, shallow case depths require higher frequencies, or,
at a fixed frequency, shallow case depths need higher power densities for
shorter times. Figure 6.17 is a similar nomograph designed for surface harden-
ing by a scanning method. In induction scanning processes, the coil moves rel-
ative to the part, thereby heating it in a progressive mode. This allows power
supplies with low power ratings to be used for parts larger than would nor-
mally be possible. The curves in Fig. 6.17 give the approximate relationship
between power density and heating time in the coil (coil length divided by scan
rate) for various case depths. Note that different sets of curves apply depend-
ing on the power-supply frequency. Irrespective of which set is used, however,
the greatest operating efficiencies are obtained by using conditions close to
the steeper parts of the curves.
Localized Annealing of Steel Pipe Welds

The localized annealing of welded steel pipe represents another important
application of the selective treatment capabilities of induction heating. In the
actual fabrication process, steel strip is formed into a cylindrical shape, the
seam is welded, and the tube is water quenched. This leaves a narrow zone
o f brittle m a r t e n s i t e which m u s t be stress relieved to e n h a n c e the t o u g h n e s s

a n d subsequent formability. T h e a m o u n t o f heat generated b y welding affects
the a m o u n t o f heat r e q u i r e d f o r s u b s e q u e n t i n d u c t i o n a n n e a l i n g . L o w -
f r e q u e n c y welding operations provide diffuse heating and a wide heat-affected
z o n e ( H A Z ) , whereas h i g h - f r e q u e n c y welding e q u i p m e n t p r o d u c e s a n a r r o w
HAZ.
F r e q u e n c y r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r i n d u c t i o n a n n e a l i n g are t y p i c a l l y f o u n d b y
Table 6.9. Power densities required for surface

hardening(a) (from T. H. Spencer, et al., Induction
Hardening and Tempering, ASM, Metals Park, OH,
1964)
Depth of
Frequency, hardening(b), Power density(c), kW/in.Z(d)
kHz cm (in.) Low(e) Optimum(f) High(g)
500 0.038 to 0.114 7 10 12

(0.015 to 0.045)
0.114 to 0.229 3 5 8
(0.045 to 0.090)
10 0.152to 0.229 8 10 16
(0.060to 0.090)
0.229to 0.305 5 10 15
(0.090to 0.120)
0.305to 0.406 5 10 14
(0.120 to O. 160)
3 0.229 to 0.305 10 15 17
(0.090 to 0.120)
0.305 to 0.406 5 14 16
(0.120 to 0.160)
0.406 to 0.508 5 10 14
(0.160 to 0.200)
1 0.508 to 0.711 5 10 12
(0.200 to 0.280)
0.711 to 0.914 5 10 12
(0.280 to 0.350)
(a) This table is based on use of proper frequency and nor-
mal over-all operating efficiency of equipment. Values given
may be used for static and progressive methods of heating;
however, for some applications, higher inputs can be used
when hardening progressively. (b) For greater depth of harden-
ing, a lower kilowatt input is used. (c) Kilowattage is read as
maximum during heating cycle. (d) 1 kW/in. 2 = 0.155 kW/
cm 2. (e) Low kilowatt input may be used when generator
capacity is limited. These kilowatt values may be used to
calculate largest part hardened (single-shot method) with a
given generator. (f) For best metallurgical results. (g) For
higher production when generator capacity is available.
Hardened depth, in.

0.01 0.02 0.04 0.08 0.2 0.39 0.79
10 200 (129)
100 (64.5)
t-
50 (32.2)
O9
Q)
E
20 (12.9)
E t-
m
"O
I
0.5 10 (6.45) O
O.
o
t~
"E
5 (3.2) G0
0.2
0.1 2 (1.3)
0.3 0.5 1 2 5 10 20
Hardened depth, mm
Fig. 6.16. Interrelationship among heating time, surface power density,

and hardened depth for various induction generator frequencies (from
M. G. Lozinskii, Industrial Applications of Induction Heating, Pergamon
Press, London, 1969)
equating the wall thickness to the reference depth of steel above the Curie tem-
perature. With this criterion, the usual frequency selections are 10,000 Hz for
wall thicknesses up to 0.50 cm (0.20 in.), 3000 Hz for thicknesses between
0.32 and 0.95 cm (0.12 and 0.38 in.), and 1000 Hz for thicknesses over
0.95 cm (0.38 in.).
Localized heating through the thickness of the entire HAZ is provided by
means of a split-return coil and flux concentrator in the form of a laminated
core. The required power is then a function of the material flow rate (deter-
mined by the pipe speed, HAZ width, and wall thickness), the annealing tem-
perature (which determines the heat content of the material), and the coupling
efficiency. The calculation is simplified by reference to charts such as that
shown in Fig. 6.18, which gives a factor by which the product of the line
speed, HAZ width, and wall thickness should be multiplied to obtain the
power in kilowatts. The derivation of Fig. 6.18 assumes a typical annealing
temperature and air gap between the inductor and pipe.
40
(25.8) Hardened case depths:
I 5 mm (0.2 in.)
A
I
3.8 mm (0.15 in.)
30
(19.4)
I I
"E
2 mm (0.08 in.)
•~ 20
(12.9)
o
Q.
(6!5~
Q)
L9
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Time in coil, s
(a)
(a) Frequency, 3 kHz; minimum scanning rate, 6.5 mm/s (0.26

in./s); minimum shaft diameter, 25 mm (1 in.). (b) Frequency,
10 kHz; minimum scanning rate, 50 mm/s (2 in./s); minimum
shaft diameter, 16 mm (0.63 in.). (c) Frequency, 450 kHz.
o o: generator, power, 50 kW; case depth, 1.5 mm (0.059
in.). o - - - o : generator power, 50 kW: case depth, 1.25 mm
(0.049 in.). • •: generator power, 50 kW; case depth, 1.0
mm (0.039 in.). 0 - - - 0 : generator power, 50 kW; case depth,
0.75 mm (0.030 in.). a - - D : generator power, 25 kW; case
depth, 1.5 mm (0.059 in.). D - n o : generator power, 25 kW;
case depth, 1.25 mm (0.049 in.). • - - n : generator power, 25
kW; case depth, 1.0 mm (0.039 in.). u - - - n : generator power,
25 kW; case depth, 0.75 mm (0.030 in.). A - - A : generator
power, 10 kW; case depth, 1.5 mm (0.059 in.). A--HA: gener-
ator power, 10 kW; case depth, 1.25 mm (0.049 in.). • - - • :
generator power, 10 kW; case depth, 1.0 mm (0.039 in.). • - - - • :
generator power, 10 kW; case depth, 0.75 mm (0.030 in.).
Metal is SAE 1045 normalized steel. Coil length, 10 mm (0.39
in.). Two turns. Difference between coil ID and shaft OD, 3.5
mm (0.14 in.). Case depth determined by location at which
microstructure is 50% martensite.
Fig. 6.17. Relationship among induction heating power density, time
in coil, and case depth for progressive hardening of medium-carbon steel
shafts under various conditions (from J. Davies and P. Simpson, Induc-
DESIGN PROCEDURES FOR INDUCTION MELTING

As in heating prior to hot working and in heat treating, induction melting
relies on electric currents that are induced in an electrical conductor (the
charge to be melted) by suitably coupling it with a coil carrying an alternat-
ing current. Various coil and crucible designs are used for induction melting.
The two most common are referred to as the coreless furnace (Fig. 6.19) and
the channel furnace (Fig. 6.20).
70
• 50
~ (19.4) rdenedcase[depths:
"~ • ~ 3.8 mm (0.15 in.)
== 20 ) ~.~.._ p
(~ (12.9)
~ 2.
Io! '
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Time in coil, s
(b)
Fig. 6.17. continued
A coreless induction melting furnace consists of a refractory envelope to

contain the metal surrounded by a coil. When the metal is molten, agitation
occurs naturally. This stirring action is directly proportional to the power and
inversely proportional to the square root of the frequency. Thus, with care-
ful selection of frequency and power, the mixing and melting rate can be
defined to give the best technical/commercial compromise. Coreless furnaces
are classified according to the frequency of the ac power supply. The impor-
tant types are line-frequency (50/60 Hz) and medium-frequency (180 Hz to
10 kHz) units. The line-frequency furnace is used primarily for high-tonnage
applications (3 to 40 tons), whereas medium-frequency equipment finds its
greatest use in applications ranging up to 5 tons.
Channel induction melting furnaces are primarily of the line-frequency type.
The inductor in this design consists of a coil fitting over a core of magnetic
steel laminations. The essential feature of the construction of the furnace is
(38
(25
nO
O
O.
} (12.
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2
Time in coil, s
(c)
Fig. 6.17. continued
thus a small channel in the refractory vessel which surrounds the coil. This
channel forms a continuous loop with the metal in the main part of the fur-
nace body. By convection, the hot metal in the channel circulates into the
main body of the charge in the furnace envelope to be replaced by colder
metal. Unlike coreless induction melting, a source of primary molten metal
is always required for start-up of the channel furnace. However, the major
advantage of these units, which cover applications ranging from 1 to 50 tons,
is the lower power input which can be tolerated for the furnace size. Surface
turbulence within the main metal bath is considerably smaller, making this
furnace more acceptable when gas pickup and volatile metal loss is a problem.
Induction melting units of both types are primarily used for refining and re-
melting of metals such as aluminum, copper, brass, bronze, iron and steel,
and zinc. In addition to their use in the casting industry, channel-type induc-
tion melting furnaces are also currently being used for superheating and refin-
ing of blast furnace iron used subsequently in the basic oxygen furnace (BOF).
Superheating involves heating of molten pig iron to a temperature consider-
ably above its melting point. By doing this, more scrap steel can be melted
in the BOF using the superheat contained in the charge from the induction
furnace.
Design Considerations for Coreless Induction

Melting Furnaces
Furnace Design. The main factors to consider in designing coreless induction
melting furnaces are the crucible/refractory lining, coil geometry and flux
guides, and the supporting frame. The refractory lining should be chosen with
Pipe thickness, mm
2.5 5.1 7.6 10.2 12.7

60 0.31
0.26
E
E
E >-
40
~ 0.20
30 0.15
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
Pipe thickness, in.
The required power in kilowatts is equal to the product of the

line speed (in fpm), the pipe wall thickness (in in.), the width
of the heated zone (in in.), and V as determined from the plot.
Fig. 6.18. Plot used to determine power requirements for induction
welding of steel pipe (from G. F. Bobart, Metal Progress, Vol 94, No.
1, July, 1968, p 78)
due consideration of the metal to be heated. Lining materials are either acidic,
basic, or neutral in nature. Acidic linings are suitable for high speed tool
steels, plain carbon steels, low-alloy steels, cast irons, and nonferrous metals.
Basic linings are used for stainless steels, high-manganese steels, and any steels
in which special slag reactions are to be carried out. Basic refractory material
is preferred for nickel-iron alloys. Lining materials commonly used are high-
silica quartz (acidic), magnesite compounds (basic), and alumina or zirconia
(neutral). Refractory installation and other furnace design features are dis-
cussed in more detail in Davies and Simpson.*
Frequency Selection. In induction melting, frequency selection is probably the

most important design consideration. When choosing the power-supply fre-
quency, the following factors should be weighed:
*J. Davies and P. Simpson, Induction Heating Handbook, McGraw-Hill, Ltd., London,
1979.
122 Elementsof Induction Heating: Design, Control, and Applications
• Cost: Equipment cost increases with frequency. With the advent of high-
efficiency solid-state power supplies, the expense of medium-frequency
equipment relative to line-frequency systems is not excessive.
• Stirring action: The stirring action in a pool of liquid metal increases as the
frequency is decreased. This agitation is desirable in recarburizing steel
scrap or absorbing finely divided materials such as cast iron swarf, turn-
ings, etc., with a minimum of metal loss. An excessively high frequency
may produce insufficient stirring for proper alloying. On the other hand,
excessive stirring often leads to shortened refractory-lining life and refrac-
tory inclusions in the metal.
• Starting: It is often difficult to start melting in an induction furnace when
using a low frequency. For example, the melting rate is low in a line-
frequency system (because of the poor ratio of particle size to skin depth)
until 50 to 60% of the charge has been melted. To improve this situation,
a small molten pool of 15 to 20% of the previous charge is left in the fur-
nace. With medium frequencies, starting is not a problem.
• Efficiency: The poor starting at low frequencies reduces the efficiency of
melting. This is partially offset by the dependence of converter efficiency
on frequency. Modern solid-state systems, with automatic optimization of
frequency and high efficiency, make medium frequencies increasingly
attractive.
Lid Moltenmetal Spout
\ .
l
~ n g axis
Refractory....._
Furnace
coil
iiiiiiiiiiiii!iiiiiiiii!iiiiiiiiiiii!iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii
-
Fig. 6.19. Schematic illustration of a coreless induction melting furnace
Iron
lamin
Fig. 6.20. Typical channel induction melting furnace (source: Induc-

totherm)
• Size of charge: Low frequencies are not suitable for small sizes of scrap
because of the low ratio of particle size to reference depth until the melt
has progressed sufficiently to absorb these materials into the molten metal.
If there is a need for constant use of finely divided materials, starting with
an empty furnace is preferable to using a medium-frequency furnace.
• Number of coil turns: The voltage induced in the workpiece or melt by
induction heating is proportional to the ac frequency, the number of turns,
and the strength of the field of magnetic induction (see Chapter 2). Hence,
to maintain a given voltage, the number of coil turns must be increased if
a lower frequency is employed. Thus, a low frequency requires a large num-
ber of turns with small conductors and small water passages. This leads to
the increased risk of clogging and higher coil maintenance. A high fre-
quency requires a large number of volts per turn and thus may lead to pos-
sible problems with arcing or electrical insulation.
Based on the above factors and on years of experience, it is possible to spec-
ify optimal frequencies for coreless induction melting as a function of furnace
capacity. A useful summary of this information is given in Fig. 6.21.
Power Requirements. As with induction billet heating prior to hot working,

power selection for coreless induction melting is largely based on the required
output in tons of molten metal per hour. For example, the outputs of steel
or cast iron that can be obtained with the various induction furnaces of one
particular supplier are shown in Fig. 6.22 as a function of power rating. For
the most part, doubling of the output in a given period of time requires dou-
bling of the power input.
In practice, the power requirement for melting can be somewhat higher than
that based on the heat capacity of the molten charge and the efficiency of cou-
pling of the coil to the charge. For instance, about 500 kW. h per ton are
needed to melt steel in a furnace with a capacity of 4 tons or more (Fig. 6.23),
provided that the furnace is emptied once melting is complete. However, to
allow for power-off time spent in charging, tapping, deslagging, etc., it may
be necessary to allow a rating of 600 to 700 kW for every ton/hour of iron
or steel required. Smaller furnaces will exhibit slightly higher energy consump-
tion per ton. Energy consumption will also be higher if melting is done in a
cold furnace lining.
Furnace Capacity. Furnace capacity should normally be at least equal to the

desired batch size. Other factors may require the capacity to be increased
above this figure. One of these factors is frequency as it affects stirring action.
The large amount of stirring produced by line-frequency supplies means that
Furnace capacity, Ib
2.2 22 220 2205 22,045 220,460
10,000 10 kHz
4.2 kHz
3 kHz
looo 1 kHz
L)
r"
O" 180 Hz
150 Hz
u_ 100 -
60 Hz
5 0 Hz
I I I Uncertain
10
10 100 1000 10,000 I00,000
Furnace capacity, kg
A = recommended frequency regime. B = acceptable fre-
quency. C = furnace frequencies which have been used but
which do not provide good results. D = unusable furnace fre-
quencies.
Fig. 6.21. Selection of power-supply frequency for coreless induction
melting furnaces as a function of furnace size (source: Inductotherm)
10,000 Normal ~' ~22,050

II
Assuming
maximum/
power /-
' ~ ""~
/ ~
"'~ Y
~ 15,435
pouring t t n
at 1650 °C /.~ ~" ~
(3000 oF) " ~ 11,025
4000
3000 ~ ""~ f ,w,,~ ~ '''- ~ 6615

2000kw• / I /
I
2000 -,'~ f"~ - 4410
1500
1000kWjl/" ~ //• / ~ /I
1000 80 kW ~ ~7 / !205
I .,f/ I
~j , ,7~ , "p , - . - 1544
700 600 kW- f .f
..=,_ 500 / J ~f f / 1103 _____

>~
Q.
O~
0
40o / y ~ o
0
300 • A I ~ 662 o.
/
E i i/ / /
U_
350 kW # ;'7. ~ ~ 441 °
200 I / ~ ~/
3ookw, / ~ 7 ~ "
100 20 kW
]/ V/
I /1O0kW I 220
A/ /
70 /Air / 154
/ Normal
50 i" maximum 110
J / time
40 / / 88
! Approximate
30
,// multiplier for
cast iron to
1500 °C (2730 OF), 0.78
66
/
2O 44
10 22
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180
Melting time, min
Fig. 6.22. Relationship among furnace capacity, melting time, and power
requirements for coreless induction melting of irons and steels (Source:
Radyne, Inc.)
I I I I I
650
ro
I
Io
600
Furnace manufacturer A:
tapping temperature 1450 °C (2640 °F)
t- 550
O
Q,.
E O ~'O~ O Furnace manufacturer C:
~. O tapping temperature 1500 °C (2730 °F)
0
o 8
0
O_
500 m
Furnace manufacturer B:
tapping temperature 1450 °C (2640 oF)
450 - -
I I I I I I
5 10 15 20 25 30
Furnace capacity, t
Fig. 6.23. Power consumption quoted by furnace manufacturers for

melting of cast iron in line-frequency induction furnaces of various
capacities (from W. A. Parsons and J. Powell, Prnc. Conf. on Electric
Melting and Holding Furnaces in Iron Foundries, University of Warwick,
March, 1980, p 18-1).
the ratio of power to furnace capacity must be kept low when this kind of
equipment is used. For example, if an output of 2.5 tons of molten steel per
hour is obtained from a 6-ton-capacity furnace supplied with 1500 kW of line-
frequency power, then the same output can be obtained from a 3-ton, 150-Hz
Table 6.10. Normal maximum furnace power ratings

(from "Medium Frequency Coreless Furnaces for Iron
Melting," British Electricity Council, Brochure EC 4402,
November, 1983)
Power rating, kW, at
Furnace
capacity, [ operating frequency of:
metric tons 200 Hz 600 Hz 1000 Hz
1............ 500 to 700 600 to 800

2 ............ 1000 to 1400 1200 to 1600
3 . . . . . . . . . 1500 to 1800 1500 to 2100 1800 to 2400
4 . . . . . . . . . 2000 to 2400 2000 to 2800 ...
5 . . . . . . . . . 2500 to 3000 2500 to 3500 ...
6 . . . . . . . . . 3000 to 3600 3000 to 4200 ...
furnace of equivalent power rating. Typical power ratings for coreless fur-
naces o f several different frequencies are given in Table 6.10.
Operational Factors. Besides the above design considerations, several opera-

tional factors also impact the selection and economics o f coreless induction
furnaces. These include furnace utilization, furnace tapping time and fre-
quency, molten heel practice,* slagging practice, lids and fumes extraction,
charge handling, and single-shift versus multishift operation. Each o f these
is discussed in detail in a paper by Parsons and P o w e l l . l
Design Considerations for Channel Induction

Melting Furnaces
Because channel induction melting furnaces constrain metal to flow in a
narrow channel, problems associated with bath turbulence are not encoun-
tered. Hence, such furnaces are almost always powered by line-frequency sup-
plies. Furthermore, because the channel and the throat of the channel are the
only parts subjected to intense heat input, this type o f furnace is employed
primarily as a holding or storage vessel for metal previously melted in an arc
furnace, cupola, or coreless induction furnace.
The m a j o r design features for channel furnaces are furnace capacity, fur-
nace construction, and holding-power requirements. Capacity is determined
by use, which typically falls into one o f four categories:
• Continuous charging from elsewhere (duplexing). In this case, the furnace
is used to homogenize the composition and temperature o f the melt. A
capacity o f a b o u t one hour's supply is usually sufficient.
*"Molten heel" refers to the molten pool left in the furnace after tapping.
tW. A. Parsons and J. Powell, "Design and Operational Factors Affecting Energy Con-
sumptions," Electric Melting and Holding Furnaces in Iron Foundries, Proceedings of Con-
ference Held at University of Warwick, March, 1980, p 18-1.
• Use as a storage vessel. When metal is melted during off-peak hours for use
during the day, capacity usually must be l a r g e - on the order of the require-
ments for an entire day.
• Charging from another vessel. As mentioned above, charging from an arc
furnace, cupola, or coreless induction furnace is quite c o m m o n . In these
cases, the capacity must be the same or greater than that of the other
furnace.
• Use as a melting vessel. The size here depends on working needs, of course.
Furnace construction may take a variety of forms, including a vertical

drum, a horizontal drum, or a drum with a rectangular bath which is either
shallow or deep. In all cases, the channel in which metal is melted is located
at the bottom of the holding vessel.
Holding power requirements depend to a certain extent on furnace con-
struction. Horizontal drum furnaces have the lowest body heat losses. Semi-
drum furnaces with rectangular baths have slightly higher body losses, and
the vertical drum furnace has the highest losses. Despite these differences,
required furnace power for metal holding is generally proportional to the ton-
nage of the furnace charge. Figure 6.24 shows a typical relationship for hold-
ing of irons and steel in channel induction furnaces.
DESIGN OF INDUCTION PIPE WELDING OPERATIONS

In induction welding of tube and pipe products, strip is formed between a
set of specially designed rolls, the seam is brought together under a small
amount of pressure, and a current is induced along the seam to bring about
welding. Thus, there are important features of both mechanical and electri-
cal design.
Mechanical Design Features

Mechanical design considerations are related to the incoming strip, form-
ing rolls, seam guide, squeeze rolls, and work coil and impeder. Each of these
is discussed separately.
IncomingStrip. The characteristics of the incoming material are very impor-

tant in obtaining consistent results. The edges of the strip must be free of
indentations, projections, inclusions, or laminations. If any of these are pres-
ent there will probably be a discontinuity in the weld. Similar problems may
result if the strip exhibits a width variation of as little as 0.25°70, a tolerance
which is very practical on modern slitting lines. Burrs from slitting should be
situated such that they are on the inner surface of the tube after forming; this
minimizes wear of the forming rolls. Problems related to burrs and nonuni-
form width can both be overcome by edge dressing on the tube mill. Dress-
ing also is helpful in removing oxides prior to forming. On steel, rust on the
edges is not deleterious. On the other hand, the edges of aluminum, copper,
and brass strip should be free of oxides because very large voltages are
required to break down the contact resistance in these situations. When this
barrier is suddenly broken, inconsistent welding results are obtained.
Faming. The forming of strip prior to induction welding is somewhat different
from the processing which precedes electric-resistance welding. In the latter
" 6001 I I I I I I I I
I O
500
400
O
0
CL q
OI
OJ
t-
10
300
-6
c-
Q)
O
e-
LL
200
0
Semidrum or bath
ol
100 I O Horizontal drum
Z~ • Vertical drum
13 Pouring furnace
I I I I I I I I
0 20 40 60 80
Furnace capacity, t
Fig. 6.24. Total holding power requirements for industrial channel

induction furnaces of various capacities (from W. A. Parsons and J.
PoweU, Proc. Conf. on Electric Melting and Holding Furnaces in Iron
Foundries, University of Warwick, March, 1980, p 18-1; and British
Fuundryman, Vol 76, No. 10, October, 1981, p 212)
situation, the strip is formed into a somewhat oval configuration, after which
two welding electrodes on either side of the seam come into contact with the
edges, thereby pressing them together during the actual welding process. The
current path is through the seam from one electrode to the other.
Best results in induction welding are realized when the strip is formed such
that the mating edges of the strip are parallel to one another at the first point
of contact. Thus, a forming sequence which leads to a basically round pro-
file with a slightly flattened portion at the seam is very desirable. This shape
is usually achieved by overforming of the strip edges during the initial stages
of the forming operation.
Seam Guide. A seam guide is a thin blade positioned immediately after the
forming stands and before the welding station. Its purpose is to keep the weld
positioned at the top so that excess weld bead on the outer surface of the tube
is easily removed downstream by trimming tools. Tool steel seam guides are
c o m m o n , but they cause sparking and deterioration of strip edges prior to
welding. Ceramic blades avoid these problems and have the added advantage
of being electrically nonconducting, thus eliminating the flow of induced eddy
currents between the strip and the blade.
Squeeze Rolls. Following forming, squeeze rolls are used to press the edges of
the strip together with a well-controlled force and to shape the tube into its
final welded form. Various arrangements of squeeze rolls are available to per-
form these functions, each with its advantages and disadvantages. These
arrangements, some of which are depicted in Fig. 6.25, include:
• Two side pressure rolls alone

• Two side pressure rolls with one or two supplementary top rolls
• Two side pressure rolls with a bottom support roll and one or two top rolls
• Three pressure rolls.
Work Coil and Impeder. The inductor for tube welding is usually a simple sole-
noid coil (Fig. 6.26). With such a coil, the induced.eddy currents form a com-
plete circuit by flowing around the back of the tube and then along the open
vee-shape edges to the point where the tube weld bead ends. The currents are
more highly concentrated at this point than anywhere else, with the result that
more heat is developed here. This makes it possible to weld the edges together
without wasting a large amount of energy elsewhere.
The number of coil turns and the coil geometry are determined by the gen-
erator used (and thus considerations related to the tuning of the appropriate
tank circuit) and by the production requirements. Guidelines for clearance
between the coil and the tube are given in Fig. 6.27. Both the over-all coil
/- ,%
I
C I I I
(a) (b)
(c)
Fig. 6.25. Squeeze-roll arrangements for induction tube welding: (a) two-
roll; (b) two-roll with supplementary roll; (c) three-roll (from J. Davies
and P. Simpson, Induction Heating Handbook, McGraw-Hill, Ltd., Lon-
don, 1979)
Welded
'°
seam
Induction ~
coil \~._ ~J~,L..-
\ n I1 ~ , , ~ " ~ -
~~~ ~'~'~ Eddy-current

path
Fig. 6.26. Eddy-current path in high-frequency induction welding of

tubular products (from C. A. Tudbury, Basics of Induction Heating,
Vol 1, John F. Rider, Inc., New York, 1960)
Clearance on radius between coil ID and tube or pipe OD, mm
57 51 45 38 32 25 19 13 6 0
20 508
18
\
\
16 406
\
14 356
5
O
O.
t~
12
10
\ 305
254
E
E
5
O
o.
"F,
.Q
I- 8
\ 203 f.-
\ 152
\ 102
51
2.25 2.0 1.75 1.50 1.25 1.0 0.75 0.50

\o
0.25 0
Clearance on radius between coil ID and tube or pipe OD, in.
Fig. 6.27. Recommendclearance between coil ID and tube OD during

induction welding of tubular products (from J. A. Redmond, Induc-
tion~Resistance Tube and Pipe Welding, Westinghouse Electric Corp.,
Baltimore)
length and the distance between the weld point and the nearest part of the coil
should be approximately equal to the internal diameter of the coil. If the
inductor is a relatively long distance from the weld point, most of the current
returns through the wall of the tube and not through the weld point, result-
ing in decreased efficiency and a wide heat-affected zone. Similarly, if the
inductor is relatively close to the weld point, the current through the weld
point is high, but because of the low resistance of the short path, the total
power input into the tube is small, again leading to low working efficiencies.
In order to obtain good heating efficiencies, it is necessary to use an
impeder. An impeder is a flux concentrator placed inside the tube which
improves the heating pattern. When the impeder is placed under the open vee,
the current that would otherwise tend to spread out over the surface of the
tube is caused to concentrate at the edges. The increased current density at
the edges increases their temperature, and thus efficiency is greatly improved.
Impeders are made of ferrite or powdered iron to reduce eddy-current losses
in the impeder. They should be placed as close to the vee opening as practi-
cal and should be held in a fixed position to prevent current variations. Often
they are enclosed in a nonconducting tube so that they can be water cooled.
The downstream end of an impeder is placed near the weld point, because this
is where the induced eddy currents reverse direction. Impeder lengths for weld-
ing steel tubes of various sizes are listed in Table 6.11.
When nonferrous materials are welded, impeders are usually not needed.
It has been found that the increased welding speeds obtained with impeders
in these cases do not warrant their use because of the typically low power con-
sumption for such materials.
Electrical Design Features

As with other induction heating applications, selection of frequency and
power level are the two prime factors in power-supply selection.
Frequency Selection. As in pipe seam annealing, frequency requirements are

found by equating the wall thickness to the reference depth d. In all cases,
# = 1 in the equation for d, because steel is welded well above the Curie tem-
perature. For typical wall thicknesses (i.e., up to 0.38 cm, or 0.15 in.), the
Table 6.11. Relationship between outer

diameter and impeder length for induction
welding of steel tubes (from J. A. Redmond,
Induction~Resistance Tube and Pipe Welding,
Westinghouse Electric Corp., Baltimore)
Nominal tube size, cm (in.) Impeder length, cm (in.)
1.3 (0.5) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25.4 (10)

2.5 (1) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25.4 (10)
3.2 (1.25) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25.4 (10)
3.8 (1.5) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30.5 (12)
5.1 (2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38.1 (15)
6.4 (2.5) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38.1 (15)
11.4 (4.5) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38.1 (15)
134 Elements of Induction Heating: Design, Control, and A p p l i c a t i o n s
Wall thickness, in.

0.04 0.08 0.12 0.16 0.2 0.24 0.28 0.31 0.35 0.39
I I I I I I I~ 1.0 ,~ ' ' ]
X .o o . 5 p l
2.5 ~ ~ ~ ~ t 98.4
_ \\\\\ X I , , /
\\\\X\ \ o
{=2.0 X X X X ~ "~ Diameter, mm /
1.5 59.1 ~-
~ 1.0 39.4
O. ~ ~ 200kW 250kW /
i kW 150 kW180 kW 0017911
I I I I I I I I I I /o
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Wall thickness, mm
For other outer diameters, the welding speed should be multi-
plied by the correction factor given in the inset. For other met-
als, the speed should be multiplied by 1.4 (aluminum), 1.1
(brass), 0.8 (copper), or 0.9 (stainless steel).
Fig. 6.28. Welding speed as a function of wall thickness and input
power for fabrication of 25-ram- (1-in.-) diam steel tubing (from Induc-
tron, Ltd.; and J. Davies and P. Simpson, InductionHeating Handbook,
McGraw-Hill, Ltd., London, 1979)
required generator frequency is in the radio-frequency range (f _> 100 kHz).

The most common frequency is 450 kHz.
If too low a frequency is selected, too much metal will be heated, and the
edges will be upset an excessive amount by the squeeze rolls. If the frequency
is too high, the outside portion of the skelp edges will overheat and the ID
portion of the weld will be underheated. To compensate for the latter situa-
tion, the welding speed is held down to allow heat conduction to smooth out
the temperature gradient.
Power Selection. For a given wall thickness and tube OD, selection of the
power rating of the induction generator determines the welding speeds that
can be achieved. As in other situations, the product of the mass flow rate (of
the material that is heated) and the heat content imposes a lower limit on
power requirements. The actual power needed is difficult to determine the-
oretically, however, because of coupling losses and losses associated with heat-
ing of the tube away from the fusion zone. Thus, it is easiest to refer to charts
such as the one in Fig. 6.28 to determine the interrelationship of tube geom-
Table 6.12. Chemical compositionsand melting ranges of

alloys commonly used in induction soldering (from J. Libsch
and P. Capolongo, lepel Review, Vol 1 , No. 5, p 1)
Alloy I Composition, wt % I Melting range, °C (°F)
No. Tin Lead Silver Liquidus Solidus
1 99.8 ... 230 (450) 230 (450)

2 62 38 185 (361) 185 (361)
3 60 40 190 (370) 185 (361)
4 50 50 215 (420) 185 (361)
5 40 60 240 (460) 185 (361)
6 30 70 260 (500) 185 (361)
7 ... 97.5 2.5 310 (590) 310 (590)
8 ... 96.5 3.5 315 (603) 310 (590)
etry, tube speed, and power-supply rating. Note that this figure applies only
to generator frequencies between approximately 400 and 500 kHz.
DESIGN OF INDUCTION BRAZING

AND SOLDERING OPERATIONS
Brazing and soldering involve melting of an alloy between the surfaces of

metal parts to be joined. If the metal surfaces are clean, intimate contact is
established and the melted material alloys with each surface, forming a joint
upon solidification during cooling. The two methods of joining differ primar-
ily in the type and melting temperature of the alloy used to form the joint.
In soldering, low-temperature alloys, generally containing lead and tin,
permit joints of limited strength to be made at temperatures below 425 °C
(800 °F). Soldering with these alloys (Table 6.12) is often termed soft solder-
ing; typical metals that are joined by this technique are copper and copper
alloys and aluminum and its alloys. Thorough cleaning prior to and during
heating is basic for good soldered joints. Failures are often traceable directly
to poor cleaning and inadequate fluxing. Surfaces to be joined should be
chemically cleaned (i.e., to make them free of heat treatment scale, corrosion
products, grease, etc.) prior to heating, and the joint areas should be fluxed
as soon as possible to avoid contamination from handling or exposure.
Brazing alloys melt at considerably higher temperatures, and provide high-
strength joints which resist reasonably elevated temperatures without failure.
Products such as structural frames, musical instruments, jewelry, and ice
skates are frequently fabricated by brazing. The metals joined include carbon
and alloy steels, stainless steels, cast iron, copper and copper alloys, and nickel
and nickel alloys. Brazing alloys (Table 6.13) are selected on the bases of
1 ~__o oo .... • • • •
.m
,II
II
II
,M
<
E
E E
0
U
•m "Zz ~ < ~
U •~ ~ . . . . . . . . . ~
~ ~ +
" ~ ~ ~ 0
- ~ ~ . •
E'|
"|}
~ ~ ~ ' ~
melting-temperature range, ability to wet the metallic surfaces to be joined,

and the tendency to oxidize and/or volatilize. Additional selection criteria fre-
quently include the strength and ductility of the alloy and unfavorable metal-
lurgical reaction with the metals to be joined. As in soldering, cleaning and
fluxing of the surfaces to be joined are very important.
One of the most important considerations in soldering and brazing, whether
it is done by induction or other means, is joint design. This includes joint
thickness as well as joint geometry. For a given joining alloy, there exists an
optimum thickness for which the joint possesses a maximum shear strength
(Fig. 6.29). Some common joint designs are shown in Fig. 6.30, 6.31, and
6.32. The designs in Fig. 6.32 are particularly useful for applications in which
stress concentrations can cause problems in fatigue loading.
Most induction soldering and brazing applications use radio-frequency
( - 4 5 0 kHz) power supplies because of the high rate of power input and the
ability to localize heat in this frequency range. Some large ferrous pieces are
brazed with medium-frequency (3 to 10 kHz) power supplies; in these cases,
though, furnace heating prior to brazing may be competitive on a technical
or economic basis.
Thickness of joint, mm
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.36

13.5 135
(93.1) I
Strength of joints
(930)
12.0 in relation to 120
(82.7) clearance between surfaces (827) ~"
O.
I ......
10.5 105 v
I I (724)
v (72.4)
. 9.0
¢~ (62.1)
c
\ Silver alloy
90
(621)
~
7.5 75
(51.7) (517)
C
e-- 60
(414) ~"
"0
0
4.5 45
if) (31.0) 310) >
3.0 30
(20.7) -- 207)
1.5 15
(10.3) 0 103)
0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.010 0.012 0.014
Thickness of joint, in.
Fig. 6.29. Influence of joint thickness on theoretical strength of sol-

dered and brazed joints (from F. W. Curtis, High FrequencyInduction
Heating, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1950)
O = Length of overlap = 3T
T = Thickness of thinner member
F o ~
I !'
T
Lap joint
Butt joint
/
Normal cross-sectional Scarf joint Joint area = 3A
area = A
Fig. 6.30. Basic brazing joints: lap, butt, and scarf (from J. Davies and
P. Simpson, Induction Heating Handbook, McGraw-Hill, Ltd., London,
1979)
L,
C Modified butt joint
Butt joint
Modified lap joints
Butt-lap joints
Fig. 6.31. Modified brazing joints (from J. Davies and P. Simpson, Induc-
P r o c e s s D e s i g n for S p e c i f i c A p p l i c a t i o n s 139
~c
0
a~
u~
° [
~1
--o.~ ~.-_ I~I .2 "
•- ~,
~ 8 ~
o ~o-~ ~.- ~'
'~ o _eo0~
- i~ ~.~- 0 -==
E~
0
• ~ ,.," m
,-
0 0 O
ill,. (.9 t-
~°
N
i! d
i'i
"0
~Ec~ ~ E
0
O-
0
0 -Eo~
~- ~~° - -
(..9 o
I I I I'~-I
~E~
c o.~
8
"o "6 ~.~ o
if)
.~ O~
~ E
0 r" ~ U)
-- >'-- 0 ~0 ~
O D.~
o~
~_~--~ ~ I " c
o.,~ c._
~ 0
.,- ® • -8 .F: .o
0 Z ~
0 --~- o
10 6.5
9 ~ 5.8
8 ~// 5.2
7 4.5
\
6 " -- 3.9
~V ~opper
"0
5 •
\ 3.2 O9
e"
02
"0
0 2.6 0
O. rl
3
rassandbronze
\ \ 1.9
2 " 13
-- sS~aei(ms~g
el n e t i c ~ ~ ~
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Heatingtime,s
Fig. 6.33. Recommendedpower-density ranges (between broken lines)
as a function of heating time for radio-frequency soft soldering at
188 °C (370 °F) (from J. Davies and P. Simpson, Induction Heating
Handbook, McGraw-Hill, Ltd., London, 1979)
Power densities for induction soldering and brazing are similar to or slightly
lower than those for surface heat treating of steel, mentioned earlier in this
chapter. This is because of the somewhat lower temperatures involved in the
former processes. Guidelines for power-density selection are given in Fig. 6.33
and 6.34. These should be considered only as approximate values, the best val-
ues being determined by actual trials. Improper selection of power level is a
frequent source of difficulty. Often it is a result of excessive power density,
which leads to nonuniform temperatures in the joint area. Improper power-
level selection is especially troublesome when one of the materials being heated
has poor thermal conductivity (e.g., stainless steel).
30 19.4
16.1
2O 12.9
+_
#'/ r ~pper
9.7 r
~P
0
CL
nO lO
/ 6.5
~ass and bronze //
/ 3.2
Stee,<mag°et'anD
stainless)
L
o 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Heating time, s
Fig. 6.34. Recommended power-density ranges (between broken lines)
as a function of heating time for radio-frequency silver soldering at 700
°C (1290 °F). (From J. Davies and P. Simpson, Induction Heating Hand-
Chapter 7
Fundamentals of Process
Control
In Chapter 6, the basic design features of a variety of induction heating and

melting applications were described. These features included selection of con-
verter frequency and power capacity. Assuming that these features are cho-
sen properly, the successful operation of the equipment to obtain reproducible
results from one part to another or from one heat to another depends to a
large extent on judicious control of input power, heating time, and part han-
dling. Because induction systems are based on an electrotechnology, the cou-
pling of the heating equipment to the electric-based control system is readily
facilitated. The ease of control in these situations can be contrasted to
nonelectric-based ones, such as fossil-fuel heating, in which problems such as
those associated with thermal inertia of the furnace make quick response, pro-
cess control, and high-speed automation more difficult.
The important elements of almost all process-control systems for induction
heating include the following:
• A device or method for measuring workpiece temperature. This often con-

sists of an instrument to be given a direct indication of surface or subsur-
face temperature (e.g., a thermocouple or radiation pyrometer). It can also
consist of some indirect measurement that can be correlated to the temper-
ature or heating pattern in the induction heated workpiece, such as mea-
surement of coil impedance or of coil voltage and current.
• A controller for comparing the temperature of the workpiece to a preset
desired temperature.
• A power-control device for regulating the power of the induction genera-
tor, or a device for controlling the heating time.
• A controller for related processing functions (e.g., part handling).
The above components of the control system must all operate in real time.
That is to say, they must be capable of instantaneous measurement or
143
response during the heating operation. Because they are electric based, this
requirement is usually readily met. Selection of these process-control elements
is discussed in this chapter. Attention is also focused on several other control
techniques which are being implemented increasingly in industry. These
include nondestructive inspection (NDI) methods and process simulation on
computers. The first of these includes electromagnetic sorting of induction
surface hardened parts, and lends itself readily to real-time control as well.
Process simulation of induction heating is useful in the design stage as well
as in establishing process parameters which lend themselves to automatic con-
trol. As such, any discussion of control technology for induction heating
would be incomplete without some mention of this ever-expanding field.
TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT
Methods of monitoring temperatures during induction heating have been
reviewed extensively in the technical literature.* The most common techniques
make use of thermocouples and radiation detectors. Despite the widespread
use of each method, several major problems should be considered before a
final selection is made. These include problems of poor workpiece surface
condition, contact resistance, and response time for thermocouples. With radi-
ation devices, emissivity variations are the major case of concern.
Thermocouples
Although thermocouples are not suitable for all applications, they provide
good accuracy, measurement capability over a very broad temperature range,
ruggedness, reliability, and low cost. Thermoelectric thermometry is a mature
technology whose principles have been known since the early 1800's. It is
based on the well-known relationship between a difference in junction tem-
peratures and the resulting voltage (emf). In practice, the reference junction
is held at a constant known value by various m e a n s - e . g . , an ice bath, a
controlled-temperature furnace, or an electrical method of simulating a known
temperature. The temperature of the heated junction is determined by mea-
suring the voltage and referring to calibration tables for the particular ther-
mocouple materials. Thermocouples are of two basic types: contact and
noncontact (or proximity).
Contact Thetmoconples. There are various types of contact thermocouple
arrangements the use of which permits accurate temperature measurements
at fast response times. The simplest and probably the most reliable technique
*N. V. Ross, Proc. Sixth Biennial IEEE Conference on Electric Heating, IEEE, New York,
1963, p 29. J. B. Wareing, High Temperature Technology, 1983, Vol 1, No. 3, p 147. S. Zinn,
Heat Treating, September, 1982, Vol 14, No. 9, p 28. H. Pattee, "State of the Art Assessment
of Temperature Measurement Techniques", unpublished report, Battelle's Columbus Labora-
tories, Columbus, Ohio, 1984.
Fundamentals of Process Control 145
involves the direct attachment of a thermocouple to the part whose temper-

ature must be determined. Typically this is done by percussion welding of the
individual thermocouple elements to the part surface approximately 1 to 2 mm
(0.04 to 0.08 in.) apart. This procedure is impractical for measuring work-
piece temperatures in most induction heating processes because of the pres-
ence of an induction coil (single-shot and scanning applications) or the fact
that the part is moving through the coil (scanning methods of induction heat-
ing). For this reason, contact thermocouples are normally used during initial
trials to set up a particular process.
The two most common types of contact thermocouples are those in which
the junction is welded to the specimen (referred to above) and those which
are composed of two spring-loaded prods. In such an "open-prod" thermo-
couple (Fig. 7.1), the junction is made through the workpiece after contact
is made. The prods can be made from any pair of thermocouple materials
(e.g., chromel-alumel); the prods must be properly spaced to obtain the
desired temperature-time response. Good electrical and thermal contact must
also be established to produce accurate temperature measurements.
The open-prod thermocouple is most effective with metals which do not
oxidize readily. However, by equipping the thermocouple assembly with a gas
outlet port, it is possible to spray the ends of the prods and the contact area
with a flux mixed with a combustible gas, thereby preventing scale formation
Billet
Contact
points
Billet stop
Thermocouple
prods
Springs
Holder
Fig. 7.1. "Open-prod" proximity thermocouple for making temperature

measurements (from N. V. Ross, Proc. Sixth Biennial IEEE Conference
on Electric Heating, IEEE, New York, 1963, p 29)
on both the part and the thermocouple itself. The open-prod thermocouple
is not capable of measuring temperatures of metals harder than the thermo-
couple elements themselves. These harder metals include steels, titanium
alloys, and nickel alloys. In these instances, noncontact thermocouples are
appropriate.
Noncontact (Proximity) Thermocouples. To overcome the difficulties associated

with scale formation, proximity thermocouples are often utilized. In this type
of device, the thermocouple junction is attached to a disk of stainless steel or
other high-temperature alloy. The disk (with the thermocouple attached to it)
is welded on the inside and near the end of a stainless steel tube which acts
as the temperature probe. By this means, the temperature-measuring device
is isolated from the dirt and scale associated with the heating process. The dis-
tance between the disk and the workpiece surface is such that thermocouple
temperatures do not unduly lag the actual surface temperatures. The disk is
heated primarily by radiation from the hot surface; conduction through the
entrapped gases and conduction through the tube also contribute to the total
heat received by the disk.
Noncontact thermocouples are also widely used in melting applications such
as those utilizing induction. In these instances the sensing element is enclosed
in a protective sheath. Sheaths are usually made of a corrosion-resistant
ceramic such as fused silica, magnesite, zircon-chromia, silicon nitride, or
boron nitride. Of all the materials used to the present, boron nitride appears
to offer a superior blend of corrosion/erosion resistance, shock resistance,
machinability, and utility as a barrier material for sensor protection.
Thetm0couple Combinations. Thermocouples are made of several different metal

combinations. Selection of the particular design is usually based on the peak
temperature to be measured. The most c o m m o n couple materials are the fol-
lowing:
• Type "B": Pt-6Rh vs. Pt-30Rh. Used up to 1815 °C (3300 °F).
• Type "E": Ni-Cr (chromel) vs. Cu-Ni (constantan). Used up to 980 °C
(1800 °F).
• Type "J": Fe vs. Cu-Ni (constantan). Used up to 760 °C (1400 °F).
• Type "K": Ni-Cr (chromel) vs. Ni-A1 (alumel). Used up to 1150 °C (2100 °F).
• Type "R": Pt vs. Pt-13Rh. Used up to 1650 °C (3000 °F).
• Type "S": Pt vs. Pt-10Rh. Used up to 1650 °C (3000 °F).
• Type "T": Cu vs. Cu-Ni (constantan). Used up to 400 °C (750 °F).
There are also some very-high-temperature thermocouples based on tung-
sten. For example, tungsten-rhenium thermocouples find use at temperatures
up to approximately 2200 °C (4000 °F).
Special Considerations for Therm0couples. Because temperature measurements

made with thermocouples rely on the development of a dc voltage, due con-
sideration should be given to construction and placement of such sensing ele-

ments when used in induction heating applications. Thermocouple lead wires
should be run in a separate, shielded conduit away from all other wiring and
should not be run parallel to or in proximity to ac wire runs. When the lead
wires are enclosed in a grounded sheath, thermocouple manufacturers usu-
ally recommend leaving the thermocouple junction exposed (if it is outside
the sheath) or slightly away from the sheath (if it is enclosed in it), particu-
larly in critical electrical environments.
Extension wires are often used in conjunction with the thermocouple lead
wires to minimize the over-all cost of the sensor, especially for those couples
composed of noble metals. Usually they are chosen to have the same or nearly
the same thermoelectric properties as the thermocouple wires themselves.
Table 7.1 gives comparative data on extension wires in c o m m o n use. The
advantages of these wires, besides that associated with cost, include improve-
ment in mechanical or physical properties of the thermoelectric circuit. For
instance, the use of stranded construction or smaller-diameter solid wire may
increase the flexibility of a portion of the circuit. Extension wires may also
be selected to adjust the electrical resistance of the circuit. However, care must
be taken to minimize sources of error that arise when using extension wires.
These errors include the following:
• Errors due to the disparity in thermal emf between thermocouples and
nominally identical extension-wire components of types EX, JX, KX, and
TX.
• Errors due to temperature differences between the thermocouple/extension
wire junctions. Errors of this sort are most troublesome for extension wire
types WX and SX.
• Errors due to reversed polarity at thermocouple/extension wire junctions
or at extension wire/measuring instrument junctions. Although a single
reversal of polarity in the assembly would be noticeable, an inadvertent
double reversal may likewise produce measurement errors that might be
more difficult to detect.
Further discussion of problems associated with extension wires is given in

ASTM Special Technical Publication 470.*
Guidelines for Using Thermocouples in RF Induction Heating Applications. Unsheathed

thermocouples are used for measuring temperatures in low- and medium-
frequency induction heating jobs. Fields are rarely induced in either thermo-
couple or extension wires because the wire diameters are generally very small.
With high-frequency systems, however, RF pickup may pose a problem.
Pickup can be minimized by attention to the following guidelines:
*Manual on the Use o f Thermocouples in Temperature Measurement, ASTM STP 470,

R. P. Benedict, ed., American Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, 1970.
.~,~ z o 0 ~ o o 0 o
I~-
.9,~ .~cS
+1
+1 +1 +1 +1 +1 +1 +1
+1 +1 +1 +1 +1 +1 +1
~a
~F 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
22°2E°2~
I
o
O
E~
~r~ ~0 0
i
0 O
o
O
"O
O
Z Z
L o
°~
.a
+.,
O
"O
o
• The part being heated should be used to shield the thermocouple and its
lead wire. For example, the thermocouple can be passed down the bore of
a tubular part.
• Thermocouple and extension wires should be kept as far as possible from
power-supply leads, induction coils, and transmission lines. Wires should
be run at right angles to conductors if practical.
• Shields, if used, should be kept as far away as possible from conductors
so that they will not be induction heated. A shield should be grounded at
the point where its leads are closest to the active conductors. Shields should
also be grounded only in one location to prevent the formation of ground
loops.
• Typically, a 0.1-#F (microfarad) capacitor should be run to ground from
each of the metering system's input terminals to bypass any interference
from the induction power supply.
Radiation Detectors
The other popular means of rapid temperature measurement in induction
heating applications relies on the use of radiation detectors. These devices pro-
vide a noncontact method of measuring and controlling the temperatures of
hot surfaces during heating. In comparison with thermocouples, radiation
detectors provide the following advantages:
• Because contact is not required, temperatures can be measured without

interfering with the heating operation. Measurements can be made conve-
niently.
• There is no upper temperature limit.
• The response during measurement is very fast. The readings are accurate
if the instrument is properly calibrated and maintained.
• The service life of the equipment is indefinite.
Insofar as disadvantages are concerned, radiation temperature detectors are

expensive. Also, measurements require direct observation of the heated sur-
face. The latter drawback can be overcome to a great extent by the use of
modern fiber optics in many instances.
The two most c o m m o n types of radiation devices are optical and infrared
pyrometers.
Optical Pyrometers. Optical pyrometers were among the first instruments used
for noncontact temperature sensing. In practice, the operator looks at the
incandescent body through a telescope-type device that contains a wire fila-
ment in the same optical plane as the observed body. The intensity of light
from the filament is adjusted until the filament disappears against the back-
ground. The current to the filament is measured, and temperature is obtained
from a calibration of filament current versus the temperature of a black body.
Optical pyrometers are portable and versatile, but most are not highly accu-
rate. The readings from such instruments must be corrected to reflect the
emissivity of the workpiece. The emissivity of a metal depends on many fac-
tors, the most important of which is the condition of the workpiece surface.
Unfortunately, these factors vary with temperature and heating conditions.
In addition, smoke and water vapor in the air affect optical pyrometer read-
ings. Because of such variables, use of fixed correction factors are not usu-
ally feasible. Nevertheless, at very high temperatures, typical of many
induction heating applications, they are usually considered accurate enough
for process control.
Infrared Pyrometers. Infrared pyrometers are rapidly replacing optical pyrom-

eters for many applications. They are more accurate (0.5 to 1%0 of full scale
as opposed to _+2% of full scale for optical pyrometers), and they can be used
as portable sensors or as part of a permanent, continuous temperature mon-
itoring and control system. In addition, the readout can be analog or digital.
Although there are many variations, the infrared pyrometer basically oper-
ates by comparing the radiation emitted by the hot target with that emitted
by an internally controlled reference source. The output is proportional to the
difference in radiation between the variable source and the fixed reference.
There are three types of infrared pyrometers:
• Single-color or single-band pyrometers, which measure infrared radiation

of a fixed wavelength. These are the most versatile pyrometers because they
are suited to many applications. Their accuracy may be affected by the pres-
ence of dust, atmospheric gases, and other characteristics of the measur-
ing environment, and the emissivity of the target object must be taken into
account. Single-color pyrometers operating at shorter wavelengths tend to
be more accurate at high temperatures.
• Broad-band pyrometers, which measure the total infrared radiation emit-
ted by the target. The accuracy of this type of pyrometer is also adversely
affected by the presence of dust, gases, and vapor. Similarly, errors in mea-
surement can occur unless the emissivity of the target is taken into account.
• Two-band or two-color pyrometers, which measure the radiation emitted
at two fixed and closely spaced wavelengths. The ratio of the two measure-
ments is used to determine the temperature of the target. The adverse
effects of the environment (dirt, gases, and vapors) are largely eliminated
with this pyrometer. Moreover, because emissivity affects both measure-
ments equally, its effect on accuracy is eliminated.
Of the three types, the two-color pyrometer is surely the most accurate. As
are the other types of pyrometers, it is readily adaptable for measuring of tem-
peratures in induction heating systems using a variety of optical systems for
focusing and, as mentioned above, using fiber optics.
Fundamentals of Process Control 1 51
140
120
or)
t-
100
80
/
60
rr
.. 4000 K (7200 °R)

40 k .~ 3000 K (5400 OR)
0oo , 0ooo.,
/
20
/
0
0 1 2 3 4
Wavelength, pm
(a)
Fig. 7.2. Spectral-radiancy curves for (a) a black body at three dif-
ferent temperatures and (b) tungsten and a black body at 2000 K
(3600 °R) (from D. Halliday and R. Resnick, Physics, Wiley, New York,
1967)
Theory of Operation of Infrared Pyrometers. As mentioned above, infrared pyrom-

eters measure the radiation given off by the heated object. An internal cali-
bration is used to convert the radiation level to temperature. The precise
manner in which this is done can best be understood by reference to spectral-
radiancy curves such as those given in Fig. 7.2. These curves represent the
spectral radiancy, R×, or the amount of energy emitted by the body per unit
time for wavelengths covering the interval from )~ to X + dX. Single-color
pyrometers measure the total radiation power, R×d~, over the narrow wave-
length band to which their pickup device is sensitive. Infrared pyrometers are
designed for wavelengths in excess of those to which the naked eye is sensi-
tive (0.4 to 0.7 #m, or 0.016 to 0.028 mil). Typical wavelengths employed usu-
ally lie in the range between 0.7 and 20/~m (0.028 and 0.79 mil).
50
40
E 30
~
Cavity radiator
0 K (e = 1.0)
0
II
20
\
Tungsten
at 2000 K (e -- 0.26)
10
~....
0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0
Wavelength, pm
(b)
Fig. 7.2. continued
U p o n examining the curves in Fig. 7.2(a) for a material with an emissivity e

equal to 1.0 (a so-called black body), it is apparent that, for a given wave-
length X, the value o f Rx is very sensitive to temperature. Therefore, Rx, or
the voltage it induces in the detector in the pyrometer, is readily calibrated
against temperature. For real materials, however, the emissivity is not unity
(except for heavily scaled or oxidized surfaces); rather, it assumes a value
between 0 and 1 (Table 7.2). Nonetheless, the relationship between the spec-
tral radiancy o f a real material and the idealized black body is quite simple:
Rx(e :~ 1)/R×(e = 1) = e. This relationship* is usually assumed to hold
irrespective o f X for a given workpiece temperature (Fig. 7.2b) and is relied
upon in the operation o f single-color pyrometers. These instruments have an
emissivity adjustment which permits the voltage generated to be multiplied by
a factor o f 1/e prior to its comparison with that which would be produced
by a black body.
*In actuality, the emissivitye is defined as the ratio of the total radiancy of a heated object
(f RxdX, integrated over the entire wavelength range) to the total radiancy of a black body
heated to the same temperature. However, the ratio of the Rx's at specific wavelengths is
often taken as being equal to a constant (= e) irrespective of X; this is a reasonable assump-
tion for most engineering applications.
F u n d a m e n t a l s of Process Control 153
Table 7.2. Typical emissivities of metals source: Ircon, Inc.)
I Emissivity I [-- Emissivity I

Smooth, Smooth, Smooth, Smooth,
Material polished oxidized Material polished oxidized
Alumel . . . . . . . . . . . 0.25 0.90 Nichrome . . . . . . . . . . 0.26 0.90

Aluminum . . . . . . . . 0. l0 0.20 Nickel . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.15 0.90
Brass . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.10 0.70 Platinum . . . . . . . . . . 0.18 ...
Carbon steel . . . . . . 0.25 0.75 Silicon . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.70 ...
Chromel . . . . . . . . . . 0.25 0.90 Silver . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.03 0.80
Chromium . . . . . . . . 0.30 0.70 Stainless steel . . . . . . 0.25 0.85
Cobalt . . . . . . . . . . . 0.25 0.75 Tantalum . . . . . . . . . . 0.10 0.70
Copper . . . . . . . . . . . 0.04 0.70 Tin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.22 0.60
Graphite . . . . . . . . . . 0.65 ... Tungsten . . . . . . . . . . 0.10 0.60
Iron . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.25 0.70 Vanadium . . . . . . . . . 0.29 0.75
Lead . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.15 0.70 Zinc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.07 0.50
Manganese . . . . . . . . 0.30 0.90 Zirconium . . . . . . . . . 0.22 0.40
Molybdenum . . . . . . 0.28 ...
The temperature error due to an incorrect emissivity setting of a single-color

pyrometer is readily calculated f r o m the formula*:
AT(%) = Ae(%) [ h-~2]
In this equation, AT and Ae denote the temperature and emissivity errors,

respectively, and h, T, and C2 represent the pyrometer wavelength, work-
piece temperature, and Planck's second radiation constant (0.0144 mK). As
an example, consider the case in which the temperature o f a steel bar at
1000 °C (1273 K) is being measured with a single-color pyrometer sensitive
to radiation at 1 gm. Assume that e = 0.60, but that the emissivity setting on
the pyrometer is 0.90. Thus, Ae = 500/o, and AT = (50)(1 X 10-6)(1273)/
(0.0144) = 4.42°7o = 56 K = 56 °C. The pyrometer would thus indicate a value
which is low by 56 °C. It is obvious that low settings o f emissivity produce
temperature readouts which are higher than actual, and vice versa. Absolute
temperature errors for a Ae of 10070, derived from the above equation, are
plotted in Fig. 7.3. Those for other values of Ae are readily obtained by mul-
tiplying the numbers drawn from this plot by a factor equal to Ae (°70)/10.
In a two-color pyrometer, the spectral radiancy from the workpiece surface
is measured for two wavelengths simultaneously. At a given temperature, the
ratio o f these two readings is independent o f the emissivity because all Rx
curves scale linearly with the master black-body curve by a factor of the emis-
sivity. This ratio can then be calibrated against temperature.
*J. B. Wareing, High Temperature Technology, 1983, Vol 1, No. 3, p 147.

100.0
80.0
1200 °C
(2190 ° F)
0 l,
o
z_
60.0 900 o C
o
2
q)
(1650 °F) 2
(1)
Q.
E E
40.0
I-- I--
600 o C
(1110 °F)
20.0 - -
300 ° C
'/jJ
(570 o F)
0.0
0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0
Wavelength of pyrometer, pm
Fig. 7.3. Temperature error as a function of infrared pyrometer wave-

length for a 10% error in emissivity adjustment (from J. B. Wareing,
High Temperature Technology,Vol 1, No. 3, 1983, p 147)
Fiber Optics. Fiber optics are frequently used in conjunction with pyrometers
to measure temperature.* The size and composition of such probes vary with
application. Generally, they are less than 5 mm (0.2 in.) in diameter and can
be fitted with lenses to sight through a gap in the induction coil at a very local-
ized area. Long-focal-length lenses are also frequently employed to provide
adequate distance between the workpiece and fiber optic and thus prevent
overheating of the latter. Fiber optics capable of withstanding temperatures
of approximately 500 °C (930 °F) are available. At higher temperatures,
probes may be equipped with air jets to keep them cool and free of workpiece
scale.
*J. Hansberry and R. Vanzetti, Industrial Heating, Vol 48, No. 5, May, 1981, p 6.
A typical optical fiber is usually constructed of silica. The device actually

consists of a bundle of many hundreds of individual fibers contained within
a flexible or rigid sheathing of either metallic or nonmetallic material. The end
surfaces are highly polished to ensure a clearly defined angle of acceptance
and to diminish reflectance losses due to surface irregularities. Using a large
number of fibers in one bundle allows the gathering and transmission of the
signal while retaining mechanical flexibility.
Recently, sapphire and quartz have also been used for optical-fiber appli-
cations in conjunction with infrared pyrometry. One application, patented by
Accufiber, makes use of a sapphire fiber probe. This probe is coated with irid-
ium to form a black-body cavity. The radiation from this cavity when heated
is readily measured using a standard radiation detector to yield a very accu-
rate temperature measurement. The manufacturer quotes a use-temperature
range of 500 to 2000 °C (930 to 3630 °F), which is considerably wider than
those of many thermocouple systems.
Advantages of fiber optics, in addition to those already cited, include the
following:
• Very large numerical aperture. Unfocused fibers can be used to capture
radiation from a large portion of the workpiece if necessary.
• Adjustment of viewing angle; With the addition of small lenses, the viewing
angle can be cut down substantially, allowing sightings to be taken over
regions as small as 1 m m (0.04 in.) in diameter.
• Inert and rugged construction. Fiber optics are unaffected by electromag-
netic induction fields and contain no moving parts which can fail during
service.
• Wide range of temperature measurement. With the proper selection of
fibers and an infrared pyrometer, a single system may be used to cover a
full range of temperatures from 100 to 2000 °C (210 to 3630 °F) with good
resolution, accuracy, and repeatability. It is very important to note that
infrared radiation of wavelengths greater than 2.5/~m is readily absorbed
by the fibers after just a few centimeters of travel. Thus pyrometers sen-
sitive to lower-wavelength radiation are often required when using fiber
optics. However, sapphire fibers pose much less of a problem than those
made of silica in this regard.
Sighting of Pyrometers. In use, a reticle in the pyrometer's optical system which

contains an aiming circle is superimposed on the view of the part whose tem-
perature is being measured. The sensor also "sees" the target via a special mir-
ror. The size of the aiming circle is matched to that of the sensor, which then
averages the energy passing through the area defined by the circle and pro-
duces a signal relative to the average target temperature. However, if the aim-
ing circle is passing energy from both part and background, the sensor will
average the two signals and give an incorrect reading.
In some heating applications, the induction coil may obstruct the pyrom-
eter's view of the part and prevent its full resolution. The temperature of the
obstructing, cold coil turns would then be averaged with that of the hot part.
To overcome this problem, a piece of paper with a mark on it is held against
the coil turns. The sensor is then focused on the mark to provide the smallest
possible focal spot at a point between the coil turns. The spot size at the part's
surface will be larger by an amount dependent on its distance from the coil's
inside diameter. The sensor will measure the part temperature over this slightly
larger spot. For the technique to work, instrument optics must be capable of
providing a focal spot at the coil that is smaller than the spacing between
turns.
Other Temperature-MeasuringTechniques
Thermocouples and pyrometers are the most widely used devices for tem-
perature measurement in industrial heating situations. Other techniques are
currently under development and may find some use in the future. These
methods include those based on ultrasonics, eddy-current detection, and real-
time measurement of coil current or impedance during induction heating.
Each of these is briefly discussed below.
UltrasonicMethods.* Ultrasonic temperature-measuring techniques make use

of transducers which generate and detect sound waves in the workpiece. The
velocity of sound for a given material is a function of the material's elastic
modulus and density. Because these properties are functions of temperature,
the speed of sound can be used to infer temperature. Transducers under eval-
uation to determine their ability to generate the required acoustic waves
include varieties such as electromagnetic-acoustic, electromechanical, and
high-intensity lasers. These n o n c o n t a c t transducers are all designed to over-
come one of the prime difficulties associated with ultrasonic temperature
m e a s u r e m e n t - t h e difficulty of getting the sound waves into and out of a
heated workpiece. Mechanical-contact methods using cooled buffer rods have
been used, but do not lend themselves readily to production applications.
A second problem associated with ultrasonic temperature measurement
relates to temperature distributions in bodies with temperature gradients. If
ultrasonic velocity measurements are used to infer temperature, the sound-
wave velocity is usually some average along the path of propagation. To find
the velocity at a point, and thus the temperature at that point, it is necessary
to measure the velocity along a number of intersecting paths and then "invert"
the information to establish the spatial velocity distribution. To this end, the
method of computer-assisted tomography (CAT), originally developed in the
field of medicine, is being investigated. One of the basic tomographic schemes,
depicted schematically in Fig. 7.4, attempts to determine the average temper-
ature within concentric rings ("annular pixels") in cylinders by measuring
*R. G. Watson, Advances in Instrumentation, Vol 37, Part 1, 1982, p 267.

wave-propagation times for an appropriate set of ultrasonic rays. Initial re-

suits obtained using noncontact laser-generated ultrasonic waves have been
encouraging, although only a relatively coarse pixel size has been used to date.
A related CAT technique for estimating temperature profiles makes use of
the change in resonant frequency as a function of temperature. By making
several resonance measurements at a single point on a slab or billet, a graphic
profile of internal temperature can be plotted.
~S lope ~ 0.6 m/s.° C
Transducer
0>
0
o
Laser pulse /kx -..,.~
>
304 SS
Temperature
(a) (b)
~ ngth L
eceivers
Source
ds
Transit time T m =/"
~L V(r)
m
(c)
Fig. 7.4. Tomographic reconstruction of the ultrasonic velocity-tem-
perature distribution in a solid bar: (a) schematic velocity-temperature
curve for a uniformly heated bar, (b) schematic illustration of equip-
ment setup, and (c) diagram illustrating method of data analysis (from
R. Mehrabian and H. N. G. Wadley, Journal of Metals, Vol 37, No. 2,
February, 1985, p 51)
Eddy-Current Techniques. Eddy-current detection of workpiece temperature dur-

ing induction heating relies on the resistivity changes (usually increases) of
metals with temperature. With the change in resistivity, the electrical load
across an induction coil is modified. The most common means of detecting
this is through measurements of the impedance of the coil and the workpiece
resistance as reflected in the coil circuit, Z = x/X 2 + (Rc + Req) 2, where X L
is the inductive reactance of the coil, Rc is coil resistance, and Req is the resis-
tance of the workpiece as reflected in the coil circuit.
Eddy-current techniques for temperature measurement typically utilize a
second, or "inspection," induction coil brought into proximity with the work
coil and workpiece. As for the work coil, the inspection coil is energized by
an alternating current. However, the power put through the latter coil is neg-
ligible compared with that through the work coil. Thus, negligible heating of
the workpiece can be brought about by the inspection technique itself.
The interactions between the inspection coil and the workpiece follow the
same principles as those described in Chapter 2. The reflected workpiece resis-
tance in the inspection circuit is a function of frequency through its influence
on the reference depth. Reference depth is large at low frequencies and small
at high frequencies. Hence, low inspection-coil frequencies are used to gage
the average temperature (through workpiece electrical properties) to greater
depths than high frequencies. In theory, multiple-excitation frequencies might
be used to calculate the temperature profile within a heated billet. Care in fre-
quency selection must be taken, however, to avoid interference from the field
set up by the induction heating coil itself.
Several designs for the inspection coil (i.e., probe) that would be used in
an eddy-current method of temperature measurement were investigated by
Stutz.* Water-cooled probes wound with manganin wire were capable of with-
standing exposure to steel workpieces heated to 1095 °C (2000 °F) with neg-
ligible drift; the probes were placed as close as 6 mm (0.25 in.) to the hot steel
specimens. Various prototype geometries were also investigated to establish
the temperature resolution that could be obtained with an eddy-current tech-
nique. It was found that, using the best probe examined, temperature differ-
ences of approximately 5 °C (10 °F) could be discerned in samples through
heated to a nominal temperature of 540 °C (1000 °F).
Coil-Current Monitoring. A relatively new technique for obtaining an estimate

of the temperature profile within an induction heated workpiece involves
direct monitoring of the current through the work coil. It is similar to eddy-
current techniques in that it relies on changes of impedance with temperature.
One of the most interesting of such applications deals with case hardening of
*D. E. Stutz, unpublishedresearch, Battelle'sColumbusLaboratories, Columbus, OH, 1986.

steels by a single-shot method as described by Verhoeven, Downing, and

Gibson.*
In case hardening, a surface layer is raised to austenitizing temperature, fol-
lowed by quenching. Workpiece resistance, and therefore coil impedance,
varies as a result of changes in resistivity with temperature as well as with
phase changes. As discussed by Verhoeven and his colleagues, three distinct
stages can be identified in the process of surface austenitizing by induction:
1. f stage: All induced current flows in ferromagnetic iron.
2. f / p stage: Current flows in both ferromagnetic and paramagnetic iron.
3. p stage: All current flows in paramagnetic iron.
Transitions from one stage to another are manifested by the coil current-
time signature, a schematic of which is shown in Fig. 7.5. During the initial,
or f, stage, the steel workpiece is heated without any phase transformations;
the resistivity increases, the impedance increases, and the coil current drops.
When the f / p stage begins, the relative magnetic permeability of the work-
piece drops. Thus, the reference depth increases, the coil impedance decreases,
and the coil current increases. The transition between the f and f / p stages is
denoted by the time tm. As more and more austenite is formed in the surface
layers, the permeability decreases (at a rate faster than that at which resistivity
increases), and the reference depth continues to increase, thereby further
decreasing the coil impedance and increasing the coil current. The transition
between the f / p and p stages is denoted by the time tp. In the p stage,
increased impedance (due to increased resistivity) would in theory cause a
decrease in coil current. In practice, some materials exhibit a decrease and
some an increase depending on the degree of end effects.
Verhoeven et al. also demonstrated that the Ic vs. t behavior can be cor-
related to the austenitized-and-hardened case depth, denoted by ~case. This is
done by examining the energy input into the workpiece:
Energy input per unit area = PA dt

m
Here, tm is used as a lower limit on the integration because this is the time at
which the case first begins to form. PA is the power density into the work-
piece, or a quantity proportional to a factor of II where b varies from 1.54
to 2.0 during the transition from the f to the p stage. Using a value of 2.0 as
an approximation, a bilinear correlation between energy input per unit area
~ ~ dt and case depth ~case was found in the experiments carried out
by these authors, as shown in Fig. 7.6.
*J. D. Verhoeven,H. L. Downing, and E. D. Gibson, Journal of Heat Treating, Vol 4, No.
3, June, 1986, p 253.
- 2OO
- 15o
,,_z
(,-
,g
-- 100 o
-- 50
~5
tp t
m
Time
Fig. 7.5. Schematic coil-current-versus-time curve for a steel bar sur-

face hardened by an induction heating method. The times tm and tp
separate the three stages f, f/p, and p (from J. D. Verhoeven, H. L. Down-
ing, and E. D. Gibson, Journal of Heat Treating, Vol 4, No. 3, June, 1986,
p 253)
Load-SignatureAnalysis. A technique similar to coil-current monitoring, but use-

ful for a variety of induction heating processes (including heat treating), is
the one known as load-signature analysis. In this method, a number of char-
acteristics of the induction heating circuit are monitored and compared with
values known to give the proper heating cycle. These parameters usually
include*:
*G. Mordwinkin, A. L. Vaughn, and P. Hassell, Heat Treating, Vol 18, No. 11, Novem-
ber, 1986, p 34; P. A. Hassell and G. Mordwinkin, Industrial Heating, Vol 53, No. 12, Decem-
ber, 1986, p 17.
• Current and voltage versus time

• Phase angle (between current and voltage) versus time
• Frequency of the applied voltage.
Figure 7.7 indicates how current (CT) and potential (PT) transformers are
connected in either a constant-current (i.e., solid-state) or constant-voltage
(i.e., motor-generator) heating circuit to get the data required to document
the induction heating "signature."
Mordwinkin, Hassell, and their coworkers verified the usefulness of load-
signature analysis through a number of experiments involving pipe heating
and camshaft hardening. The former trials indicated that incorrect heating
arising from gross geometric variations of the workpiece was readily discerned
by signature analysis; however, none of the signature parameters listed above
gave an unambiguous indication of heating differences associated with pipe
warpage or the presence of through holes in the pipe wall. In the heat treat-
ing runs, load signatures were found to be distinctly different for sound versus
cracked cams. Axial cam offsets in the coil of approximately 25°7o were also
readily detected by this method. On the other hand, radial mispositioning of
the workpiece showed little effect on the signature, particularly at low power-
supply frequencies for which centering is often not critical anyway.
Sl I 1 I ...]127
4 I--- /" .--!102
E
E
¢- - 3 76 .c"
¢1
"0 nO
0
G 2 51 G
<C <
25
of I I l
0 1 2 3
Energy-input parameter, A2s x 10-s
Fig. 7.6. Case depth obtained by induction surface hardening of a steel
bar as a function of ~'lZdt, where I, and t denote induction coil cur-
rent and time, respectively (from J. D. Verhoeven, H. L. Downing, and
E. D. Gibson, Journal of Heat Treating, Vol 4, No. 3, June, 1986, p 253)
"Start"
Capacitance Amplitude
t CT1
^^
bank ~ frequency
phase
Illl
_/vL II
R1
Load
Induction
coil
Inverter
(constant
current) -I~,-~,Phase
(a)
"Start"
Ca )acitance
t Phase
t'' l
Inductor
I
I
I Matching
transformer
Load
MG set
(constant Amplitude
voltage) ~'~D~frequency
phase
(b)
Fig. 7.7. Use of current (CT) and potential (PT) transformers to obtain
induction heating "signatures" for systems utilizing (a) a constant-
current (solid-state) power supply and (b) a constant-voltage (motor-
generator) power supply (from G. Mordwinkin, A. L. Vaughn, and
P. Hassell, Heat Treating, Vol 18, No. 11, November, 1986, p 34)
Other applications of load-signature analysis as discussed by Hassell et aL

include determination of the influence of adjacent metal structures on heat-
ing patterns and troubleshooting of tank- or output-circuit components that
might affect system performance. The latter include faulty tank-circuit capa-
citors, high-resistance or loose bus connections, and changes in high-current,
low-voltage bus spacing. Malfunctions of induction generator controls for
constant output of voltage, current, or power are also revealed by load-
signature analysis, as are coil overheating (due to inadequate cooling-water
flow or poor contact in clamp-type inductors) and deterioration of flux-
modifier materials.
TEMPERATURE-CONTROL MODES
Control modes for induction heating systems may be either open loop or
closed loop. Open-loop systems are the simpler of the two. In these systems,
temperature control is obtained by regulating precisely the power input to the
heating line while maintaining a fixed dwell time (single-shot induction heat-
ing) or feed rate (scanning induction heating techniques). By these means,
every workpiece or portion of a workpiece receives a controlled amount of
energy (kilowatt-seconds).
Closed-loop control systems make use of the electric signals developed by
devices such as thermocouples and pyrometers in conjunction with a special
controller. The controller compares the measured temperature with one preset
on the controller. The temperature difference is then used to activate a power-
control device attached to the induction power supply. Power regulation may
then be direct (of the o n / o f f type) or proportional through the use of con-
tactors, silicon-controlled rectifiers (SCR's), or saturable-core reactors, among
other devices.*
On/Off Control Mode. Many single-shot induction heating applications, such as
preheating and heat treating, involve heating to a given temperature prior to
further processing. The requirements of the temperature-sensing device and
controller include accurate indication of workpiece temperature, minimum
overshooting of the present temperature, and development of a signal that
activates the operations following heating. For such applications, a
temperature-monitoring device and a two-position (on/off) controller are
sufficient. As its name implies, an on/off-type control mode calls for full
heating power or none at all. During heating, the power remains fully on until
the preset, or setpoint, temperature is reached and then switches off. Addi-
tion of timers and suitable relays, however, permits maintenance of temper-
ature about the setpoint value for a period of time.
Proportional-Type Control Mode. Many progressive heating applications require
a closely maintained temperature for a long period of time. Examples include
hardening and tempering of steel bars and annealing of wire and strip, oper-
ations often carried out by induction scanning techniques. The growth of sin-
gle crystals of germanium or silicon by very slow withdrawal of the seed
crystal from a melt maintained within very close temperature limits is another
important application in which tight temperature controls are required. In
these and similar situations, another type of control mode, called proportional
control, is usually employed.
Proportional control uses three types of actions (proportional, rate, and
*Anon., LepelReview, Vol 1, No. 3, 1960, p 1; Anon., IndustrialHeating, Vol 51, No. 3,
March, 1984, p 29.
reset) which serve to minimize temperature fluctuations. Proportional action

is the control mode by which an output, or control, signal is generated which
is proportional to the magnitude of the difference between the workpiece and
setpoint temperatures. Proportional action alone would function similarly to
the on/off controller except for a modulation added to the control action. In
other words, as the temperature of the workpiece reached the setpoint, the
control would decrease the power input to the coil to prevent overheating or
underheating.
The proportional action alone, however, has no way of sensing the amount
of heat (or power setting) required to maintain a given setpoint temperature.
Because of this, the temperature would tend to oscillate. In order to get the
controller to equilibrate at the desired temperature, two other control actions,
termed rate and reset, are employed. Rate action takes into account how fast
the actual workpiece temperature is changing in relation to the setpoint. A
large rate of change in workpiece temperature would result in a large change
in the control signal, larger than if just a proportional action were used. Reset
action takes into account the time the actual workpiece temperature is away
from the setpoint. The longer the time, the larger the correction.
PROPORTIONAL CONTROLLERSAND
HEAT-REGULATING DEVICES
When a proportional control mode is in use, the control signals from the
various actions (proportional, rate, and reset) are added to obtain a final
output signal from the temperature controller, which in turn drives the power-
control device on the induction power supply. The exact type of output sig-
nal varies according to the type of temperature controller. However, there are
three broad types: position proportioning, time proportioning, and current
proportioning.
Position-proportioning controllers provide a variable dc voltage which can
be used in controlling an RF oscillator. Time-proportioning controllers pro-
vide a continuous pulsed output signal of constant amplitude; proportioning
comes from the ratio of on time to off time or, more specifically, from the
number and width of the output pulses. This type of controller can be used
with induction heating power-supply contactors, silicon-controlled rectifiers,
and RF power supplies. Current-proportioning controllers produce a contin-
uous dc output signal whose magnitude is determined by the deviation of the
measured temperature from the setpoint temperature. They can be used with
saturable-core reactors and SCR's, for example.
A typical setup using a position-proportioning controller and an RF power
supply is shown schematically in Fig. 7.8. In operation, a deviation of work-
piece temperature (A) from the setpoint changes the position of the controller
slidewire (B), resulting in an error signal (a low-current, dc signal) applied
across the position-proportioning controller (C). Here the error is continu-
Position-
Temperature
\
proportioning
recorder/controller
control
C
Error signal
from control
slidewire
Servomotor
Specimen
Induction
generator
A
Heating coil
Fig. 7.8. Block diagram illustrating use of position-proportioning con-

trol and servomotor for temperature control (from Anon., LepelReview,
Vol 1, No. 3, 1980)
ously analyzed, and a corrective action required to restore the specimen tem-
perature to the setpoint is applied through proportional, rate, and reset
functions. The output from the proportioning controller is then fed into a
converter and amplified to drive a servomotor (D) to regulate the power of
the radio-frequency induction generator. Power regulation in the generator
can be accomplished by a thyratron bias arrangement employing either phase
shifting or variation of the grid voltage in accordance with the operation of
the servomotor through a potentiometer.
Induction power-supply contactors can work in response to on/off as well
as time-proportioning signals from a temperature controller; in essence, they
consist of large mechanical relays with heavy-duty contacts that open or close
the circuit between the power line and the induction heating generator. Silicon-
controlled rectifier devices are relatively small for the amount of power they
can control and are available in different forms. They can produce full-power
pulses for lengths of time proportional to the signal from the control
instrument.
Saturable-core reactors are used to control the voltage input into radio-
frequency induction power supplies and hence the power available to the
induction heating coil. Basically they consist of an iron-core transformer that
regulates power flow by controlling the magnetic field in its iron core. This
is done by impressing the temperature-control current across the control wind-

ings. If this current is low (i.e., if the temperature deviation from the setpoint
is low), the core is not saturated, the inductance of the main winding is high,
and a large voltage drop occurs across it. This results in a low output volt-
age drop from the induction power supply. Conversely, if the control current
is high (because of a high temperature deviation), the core becomes saturated,
the inductance of the main winding is low, and a small voltage drop occurs
across the main winding and a large one across the output terminals.
INTEGRATION OF CONTROLFUNCTIONS
Although temperature control is surely the most important control aspect
of an induction heating installation, other aspects of process regulation are
also important. These include control of part sequencing, part handling and
positioning, and electric demand. Often, a sophisticated control device is used
in modern induction installations to monitor these latter functions as well as
to carry out temperature control. The names of some of these systems do not
indicate that they are computers, but in a broad sense they all perform tasks
of information handling in accordance with programmed instructions. Some
of the more common systems include the following*:
• Programmable controllers. These units were originally designed to replace
hard-wired, relay logic control devices. They have analog control capability
(as is needed for temperature control) and tabular and sequential logic pro-
grams, and can manage other systems.
• Loop controllers. These devices can be made as single-loop or multiple-loop
units with a shared display. They perform the same functions as analog
controllers, but can also be programmed for adaptive control, computation,
and interactive modes with time-dependent or sequential setpoints.
• Distributed control systems. These devices are designed to locate control
and data handling at various processing sites with an operator's interface
at a remote central location. Graphical displays of process equipment,
trending of process variables, group displays of the real-time parameters
of interrelated process functions, and simplified alarm tracking and ac-
knowledgment are some of the unique characteristics of distributed control
systems.
• Minicomputers. These machines have large memories and are used for
sophisticated programs for optimizing, process modeling, scheduling, and
management planning. Personal computers are finding a place at the lower
end of this category.
At first, digital machines such as those listed above were used to do the
same control jobs performed by the analog devices that they replaced; it was
*J. E. O'Neill and J. A. Moore, Industrial Heating, Vol 52, No. 10, October, 1985, p 11.
quickly found that they did these tasks better. The digital devices do not drift,
they have excellent resolution, and their displays are more readable than those
of analog units. An operator has more confidence in an integer or decimal
value read on a display than in a number that must be defined by interpola-
tion of a pointer position between divisions of a scale.
Benefits of digital control devices include the following:
• Control from multiple recipes. Values of setpoint temperature, heating
times and rates, and soak times are readily adjusted.
• Better control of sequential operations, allowing manpower reductions and
preventing human error.
• Automatic collection and analysis of operating data, permitting rapid detec-
tion of out-of-specification operations.
• Centralized control.
Several examples will serve to illustrate the flexibility of integrated control
systems.
Heating of Steel Slabs
Probably the largest megawattage use of induction is for the reheating of
steel slabs prior to hot rolling. The facility at McLouth Steel, designed by
Ajax Magnethermic Corporation, illustrates the controls required to operate
such a process. The plant is designed to reheat up to 600 tons per hour of steel
slabs whose incoming temperature varies between ambient and 815 °C
(1500 °F).* Slabs are delivered by crane to one of six heating stations from
a continuous casting machine or the slab storage yard. Prior to being loaded
into the induction heaters, the slabs are checked for surface defects. Then they
are moved sequentially on transfer cars through three induction heating sta-
tions fed by 20-MW, 10-MW, and 5-MW line-frequency power supplies. The
total time from slab delivery to arrival at the rolling mill is 54 min.
Because of the complexity of the slab heating system, an automated control
system for the operation is mandatory. The over-all control scheme (Fig. 7.9)
makes use of equipment for slab-handling control (digital), heater control
(digital), static power switches (SCR's), slab-temperature controls (analog),
and a process computer (digital). Because of the multiple lines and heating
stations, the static power-switching controls are among the most important
features. The heaters draw different loads, and, because temperature control
demands switching of heaters off and on, phase-balance control among the
different lines is essential. The application of a process computer for this kind
of control is excellent because of its abilities to gather, store, and analyze com-
plex data; to make rapid decisions; and to perform routine functions consis-
*N. V. Ross, "Megaton Capacity for Hot RollingUtilizingInductionHeating," Proc. Semi-

nario Sobre Laminacao-81 Colam, Rio De Janeiro, Brazil, September, 1981; G. B. Bijwaard
and H. Sorokin,IEEE Transactions on Industry Applications, Vol IA-8, November/December,
1972, p 735.
Tv ]
monitoring Instrumentation
Handling Slab- (V, A, and MW)
handling
equipment
control ~ kW'h I I
F--I metering I
I I signal I i
I Logging I
I Capacitor
switches
IAutotrans,ormerl___ Heater I-- _1 Process Slab-

tracking
tapehanger ~ control 1~ "7 computer display
Demand-
limit
To and from
numerous
components
F:_t
I
Phase-
balance Slab-
display
Static standby temperature

power control
Motor
control
switch
-T}-
centers I
Protective
Annun- I Ground Yl relay Protective
ciator detec- system circuits
system tion
From I Line-to-line ] 120-kV

numerous
devices
faults system
I
Fig. 7.9. Automatic handling and control scheme for an induction slab
reheating facility (from G. B. Bijwaord and H. Sorokin, IEEE Transactions
on Industry Applications, Vol IA-8, November/December, 1972, p 735)
tently. The ease with which the computer performs its slab-tracking, logging,
phase-balance control, and demand-limit functions demonstrates the power
of computer control in a time-sharing system.
Surface Hardening
Surface hardening of steel parts represents an operation in which many vari-
ables control final case depth and hardness and service characteristics. A
numerically controlled (NC) system designed by Inductoheat (IPE Cheston)
illustrates the state of the art for such applications.* This system can be used
for parts as diverse as knuckle pivot pins, differential main shafts and drive
*R. N. Stauffer, Manufacturing Engineering, Vol 78, No. 5, May, 1977, p 44.
gears, transmission input and idler shafts, and rear-axle stub shafts. As many
as 20 variables are controlled during a hardening-and-quenching cycle typi-
cally lasting 2 min. These include heating time, quenching time, scanning
speed, power level, and part-rotation rate. The equipment can also be pro-
grammed to eliminate automatically the heating and quenching operations in
those areas which are not to be hardened and to increase the scanning speed
in these regions.
During setup of the induction hardening machine, control parameters are
recorded on a special instrument panel. Once correct operation has been ver-
ified, this information is transferred to an NC tape which is read on a con-
troller that incorporates solid-state timers and power-level controls. With this
system, control of the hardness pattern from one run to the next is so good
that quality-control checking can be eliminated. In previous systems, moni-
tors that measured actual kilowatt-seconds of energy input were utilized; the
machine was shut down at the end of a cycle if the energy level was not within
a predetermined range. The accuracy and consistency obtained with the newer
NC equipment eliminate the need for such monitoring.
The equipment also contains other automation features. For example, an
externally mounted, multiple-position switch allows fast changing of auto-
transformer ratios when different parts or induction coils are installed on the
machine. Air-operated upper tooling centers facilitate part loading and un-
loading. In addition, indexing and scanning of parts through the single-turn
coils are done automatically with a drive on the part-holding fixture.
Vacuum Induction Melting

Vacuum induction melting and precision casting represent another area
where computer or microprocessor control is very beneficial. Some of the
functions for which such systems are being used include automation of melt-
ing and pouring sequences as well as programmed furnace temperature control
and error diagnostics. Computers are also employed for alloying calculations
and data retrieval and storage.
One of the more exacting operations for which computer control is attrac-
tive is precision casting following vacuum induction melting.* The quality of
cast parts is mainly influenced by casting temperature, casting time, operat-
ing vacuum, and mold temperature. All of these parameters, except casting
time (as determined by pouring speed), are relatively easy to measure and con-
trol. However, newer systems allow the computer to be "taught" the proper
pouring speed. This is done by automatic recording of a series of manually
operated pouring sequences. The ones that give the best castings are stored
on an EPROM (Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory) for future use
during automatic operation.
*F. Hugo, R. Schumann, W. Zenker, H. Bittenbrunn, and J. Mosch, Metallurgy Plant and
Technology, Vol 8, No. 1, 1985, p 42.
Electric-Demand Control*
A final example of the use of process-control equipment relates to the con-
trol of electric demand in induction heating processes. Most commercial elec-
tric rate structures include two c o m p o n e n t s - e n e r g y use and demand. The
energy charge is based on the total kilowatt hours consumed, but the demand
charge reflects the peak rate of energy consumption (i.e., the maximum power
in kilowatts) drawn from the line. A reduction of energy usage will obviously
lower the energy charge, but will not necessarily affect the demand charge.
The converse is also true: it is possible to lower the demand charge without
reducing the total energy consumed. Significant demand charges can be saved
by coordinating the cyclical nature of certain electrical loads in order to
smooth out the total plant demand profile. This is very readily done with a
programmable controller or similar device. The controller program allows the
electricity consumption in the plant to be tracked and higher demands to be
forecast before they happen, and thus loads can be shed and restored with-
out sacrificing over-all operations.
It should be realized that demand charges can be lowered only if the fol-
lowing conditions are met:
• The user's electric consumption rate has shown some degree of fluctuation
or power peaks, such as those shown in Fig. 7.10.
• The precise time is known for shedding and restoring of loads.
• Significant loads are available for shedding during periods of high demand,
without adversely affecting operations.
As an example, in a melting shop with several furnaces the melting oper-
ation closest to completion receives priority (to prevent overheating), while
those at the beginning of their cycles can be shed temporarily. Such schedul-
ing, and simultaneous monitoring and forecasting of electric demand, are eas-
ily carried out by programmable controllers.
DISTRIBUTED CONTROL
With the rising interest in flexible manufacturing and automation, induction
heating equipment is increasingly becoming a part of larger manufacturing
systems. Because induction heating is electric based, it is readily incorporated
into processing schemes which make use of digital computers and controllers.
This section briefly reviews the state of manufacturing control as it could
apply to induction heating systems.
Concept of Distributed Control

The manufacture of a large number of products in automated factories can
be quite complex. Because of this complexity, and in order to prevent major
*W. H. Sampson, Industrial Heating, Vol 49, No. 7, July, 1982, p 10.
Peak demand
/
E m
10
t-
Ill]11]Il1l,1,,
m
t~
E
a m
Midnight
IIIIIIIII
4 Noon 4 8 Midnight
Time
Preset target demand level
E m
-6
I IIIll ,,,
E
Midnight
-llllll 4 8 Noon 4 8 Midnight
Time
Fig. 7.10. Comparison of electrical load profiles without (left) and with
(right) demand control (from W. H. Sampson, Industrial Heating, Vol 49,
No. 7, July, 1982, p 10)
system failures and shutdowns, the control system that is most frequently
implemented is a type known as "distributed." As discussed by McCurdy,*
there are two major ideas behind distributed control. These are:
1. Each process in a manufacturing system is handled by an individual control
device that is capable of operating independently. For example, the oper-
ation of an induction heating unit can be monitored and controlled by a
separate programmable controller that will continue to do its job irrespec-
tive of what happens to other controllers, computers, etc., in the plant.
2. The individual controllers are connected through a c o m m o n communica-
tions network. At the controller, or "baseboard," level, this network is
known as a LAN (local area network). The LAN allows a host computer
to gather information as required or to specify processes to be performed.
*D. W. McCurdy, Industrial Heating, Vol 53, No. 7, 1986, p 11.

Broadband
level
I Mainframe
computer
~ Broadband
modem Broadbandcoax
Baseband Broadband
level modem
I Microcomputer I
Data-
E highway
module Datahighway(localareanetwork)
E
Data-
highway
module
..~
]
Induction-
machine
level
E / PLC . . ~
] E]
HT system I celIHT I Forge
system
II Finishing
cell
Fig. 7.11. Data.highway network for a system utilizing bath baseband
and broadband levels of communication (from G. F. Bobatt, Heat Treat.
ing, Vol 18, No. 5, May, 1986, p 18)
In addition, the communications network often allows individual con-

trollers to communicate among themselves without intervention or direc-
tion by a host computer.
The advantages of distributed control as compared with a centralized con-
trol system (in which a master device is required for operation) include the
preservation of system integrity in the case of a (localized) hardware failure
and a modular design which provides the ability to gradually expand process-
ing capabilities without a major, one-time capital investment.
Induction heating cells can be tied into higher-level, or "broadband," plant-
wide systems as well as be parts of local area networks. A schematic of how
this can be accomplished is illustrated in Fig. 7.11.* The lower part of the
over-all network utilizes baseband levels of communication. In the upper part
of the diagram, the basic components of a plant-wide, broadband network
are shown. The broadband network handles large amounts of concurrent
communications and, in large operations, can provide a broad range of capa-
bilities as well as many cost advantages. For example, functions such as order
*G. F. Bobart,Heat Treating, Vol 18, No. 5, May, 1986,p 18.

planning, production dispatch, cell control and reporting, and direct numer-
ical control communications are typically carried out at the broadband level.
Interfacing/Connecting Control-System Components

The term "interfacing" refers to the means by which various digital (and
analog) devices are connected to enable communications among them. The
connection must accommodate operating voltage differences and, for control
devices, the hardware and software characteristics of each device.
Hardware considerations in typical control systems generally center on the
type of wiring or cable that is used. At this time there is no standard that is
universally accepted. As described by McCurdy and Bobart, however, Elec-
tronic Industries Association Recommended Standard 422 (EIA RS 422) is
evolving as the one most often relied on for connecting digital process con-
trollers to each other and to computers. Usually, this consists of twisted pairs
of wires that form the so-called data highway network. This method, or a
modification of it, is attractive because it is inexpensive, it is suitable for use
in adverse plant environments, and it is " m u l t i d r o p p a b l e " - i . e . , the same
communications cable can be connected simultaneously to several controllers.
There is also the added advantage that an RS 422 communications "port" is
easily derived from the type found on most mini- and mainframe comput-
e r s - an RS 232 p o r t - u s i n g a relatively simple active converter. The RS 232
standard, however, is not suitable for typical plant environments, nor is it
multidroppable.
At the broadband level of communications, coaxial cables are most often
used to link higher-level system components. These cables permit simultaneous
transmission of signals over multiple channels.
If wiring methods were the only concern in setting up a control system, pro-
cess design and execution would be relatively simple. An equally if not more
important design characteristic relates to the software, or instruction pack-
age, that controls the flow of information. Also known as "protocol," this
software determines how information is sent and received over the network.
This includes the amount of information sent at one time, error checking,
addressing, and information coding. There are two basic types of communi-
cation*: synchronous and asynchronous. Synchronous communication re-
quires that both the sender and the receiver (for example, two computers or
one computer and a controller) have clocks which can be synchronized so that
data may be sent at precise intervals. This requires expensive hardware, but
allows fast and very reliable communications. In asynchronous communica-
tion, data are sent in an intermittent stream. Such a technique is simple, but
speed is sacrificed. Asynchronous data transmission is the more common tech-
nique.
*R. G. Blocks, Microprocessors in Heat Treating, unpublished book used in ASM course,
1985.
In the communications network, several different pieces of equipment often

must use the same channel; this applies especially to a data highway or base-
band local area network which can handle only one signal at a time. Several
methods have been developed and are described by Bobart. These include use
of a token bus or token ring arrangement, whereby data flow is initiated only
by the station holding the priority token. After transmission, the token is
passed on to the next station, generally on a priority basis. Another method
makes use of what is known as a collision-detection technique in which each
station must wait a random period of time if more than one tries to transmit
at the same time.
The problem of interfacing and communications can be particularly diffi-
cult in plant-wide or broadband systems comprised of equipment made by a
number of different manufacturers. To help solve this problem, General
Motors Corporation has developed a factory communications standard called
Manufacturing Automation Protocol ("MAP") to enable programmable con-
trollers, computers, CRT's, and LAN schemes made by various vendors to
be efficiently interfaced. Most major U.S. manufacturing companies have
accepted this specification and are cooperating in its further development.
MISCELLANEOUS CONTROLTECHNOLOGIESUSED IN
INDUCTION HEATING
With the advent of automation and the demand for controlled-quality prod-
ucts, increasing emphasis is being placed on nondestructive techniques for
evaluating final product properties. Methods which allow for real-time feed-
back control of the actual induction heating process are of special interest.
Several of these methods, pertinent to induction hardening processes, are dis-
cussed in this section.
ElectromagneticSorting
Electromagnetic sorting processes make use of the dependence of magnetic
properties of ferromagnetic steels on hardness, case depth, microstructure,
residual stresses, etc. to verify proper heat treatment. These magnetic prop-
erties include permeability, coercive force, saturation, and remanence, each of
which relates to phenomena during magnetization, as illustrated in Fig. 7.12.
These drawings depict the relationship between magnetizing force (H) and the
flux density of the field of magnetic induction (B). When a virgin specimen
is used, the flux density B increases rather rapidly upon initial application of
a magnetizing force H (Fig. 7.12a). Eventually it reaches a point at which any
increase in H leads to no increase in B. The flux density at this latter stage
denotes the saturation point. When the magnetizing force is reduced to zero
(Fig. 7.12b), some residual magnetism is retained; this is referred to as rema-
nence. When the magnetizing force is reversed and gradually increased in
value, the flux continues to decrease (Fig. 7.12c). The value of H at which
B is equal to zero is referred to as the coercive force in the material. As the

reversed field is further increased, the specimen again becomes saturated but
in the opposite polarity. Upon increasing H again in the forward sense, the
remaining portion of a closed loop, known as a hysteresis loop, is formed
(Fig. 7.12d). If the magnetizing force and flux density are the result of an
alternating current (either applied or induced), the hysteresis loop is traced
out once for every current reversal.
The detailed hysteresis behavior itself, or one of the characteristics of the
hysteresis loop, is relied on in electromagnetic sorting for evaluation of case
depth (or average hardness). One of these characteristics is the value of the
coercive force. In practice, a probe is placed on the test piece, and a coercive
force measurement is made. Then the case depth may be read from a calibra-
tion curve previously prepared by destructive checks (i.e., metallographic sec-
B+ (flux density) B+
~a a
f
(maximum flux- ?r-
density
saturation Ob = residual /
point) magnetism (B,) ¢
¢
H- H+ H+
O 0
(magnetizing (magnetizing
force) force)
(a) (b)
B- (flux density) B-
B+ B+
H-
b///• a b ~ a
Oc = coercive
force (Hc) e
Of = coercive
(c) -(d) "I I" force (He)
B- B-
Fig. 7.12. Representative magnetization curves for a ferromagnetic
material (from R. C. McMaster, et el., Metals Handbook, 8th Ed.,
Vol 11, ASM, Metals Park, OH, 1976, p 93)
Test coils
Variable
arms
Fig. 7.13. A simple inductance bridge (from D. M. Lewis, Magnetic and

Electrical Methods of Nondestructive Testing, George Alien and Unwin,
Ltd., London, 1951)
tioning and examination) of samples with shallow and deep cases. This
method is useful for steels with cases as deep as approximately 20 m m (0.8 in.).
Another technique, which is probably the most c o m m o n nondestructive
inspection test for hardness and case depth by electromagnetic means, uses
a bridge-comparator system. The phenomenon which underlies this applica-
tion is the fact that the magnetic permeability of a piece of steel is a function
of material condition, such as the hardness level. The magnetic permeability
is defined as the ratio of B to H. From the hysteresis loop, it can be seen that
this ratio can assume values up to some maximum denoted by/~max.
Bridge-comparator tests rely on various types of bridge circuits, nearly all
of which are modifications of the simple inductance bridge (Fig. 7.13). The
bridge includes reference and test coils which are identical in size and num-
ber of turns. For most applications, the bridge is energized by ac current at
a frequency between 60 and 1000 Hz. Lower frequencies are typically used
to check average or core hardness whereas higher frequencies are employed
to discriminate between parts of different case depths.
When steel components are used as the cores of the coils, the over-all
impedance (or inductance) measured across each of the coils depends on the
magnetic characteristics (i.e., magnetic permeability) of their cores. For iden-
tical cores, the impedance of each arm will be the same, points P and Q will
be at the same potential, and the indicator will yield a null reading. During
the actual inspection operation, a reference component, or "standard," is
Depth of case, mm
0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1.0 1.25 1.5 1.8

50
I
8640 steel
40
O3
¢-
'10 3O
Q.
20
E
O
o
10
0
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07
Depth of case, in.
Fig. 7.14. Relationship between comparator bridge reading and depth

of case obtained on induction hardened 8640 steel bars (from D. E.
Bovey, Instrument Practice, Vol 2, No. 12, 1948, p 494; and General
Electric Review, Vol 50, No. 11, 1947, p 45)
placed in one of the coils. The part, whose case depth or over-all average
hardness is to be checked by comparison with the standard, is placed in the
other coil. Dissimilarity in hardness patterns, and therefore impedance val-
ues, across the coils will produce a voltage difference across the indicator. This
difference can be used to detect a difference in hardness or case depth through
a suitable calibration based on destructive evaluation of several test samples.
Figure 7.14 shows a typical calibration curve for induction case hardened 8640
specimens.
Many commercial sorting bridges also compare the hysteresis loops of the
standard and test specimens on the assumption that, if they are completely
alike, the values of B will be equal at all points in the ac cycle. Any instan-
taneous difference in the forms of the loops will result in phase displacements
of the currents through the legs of the bridge which can be readily detected
by an oscilloscope or similar equipment.
Resistivity Measurement of Case Depth

The use of resistivity measurements to estimate case hardened depth is sim-
ilar to electromagnetic sorting techniques in that an electrical property which
is structure-sensitive is correlated with case depth.* The major difference

between the two methods lies in the type of electrical circuit utilized-a dc cir-
cuit in the former instance and an ac circuit for electromagnetic sorting. In
essence, the average resistivity of the surface layers of case hardened steels is
determined by attaching a pair of test probes to the surface. A pulsed dc cur-
rent is passed through the probes and into the workpiece. Because the resis-
tivity of martensite is greater than that of higher-temperature transformation
products (e.g., pearlite, bainite), deeper case depths are indicated by higher
average resistivity for a given probe geometry.
The resistivity measurement technique can be used to get an absolute indi-
cation of case depth by developing calibration curves. It can also be utilized
as a sorting device in which the resistivity of a part is compared with that of
a part known to have been properly heat treated.
Colorimetric Evaluation of Induction Hardening

Another, more recently developed, nondestructive inspection technique for
evaluating the results of induction hardening operations is that referred to as
the colorimetric method.I" This test is used for flat parts which have been sur-
face or locally heat treated. The teeth of gears and bandsaw blades are typi-
cal applications. Following induction hardening, various microstructural
constituents are found in the heat treated parts. Layers at the outer surface
are usually martensitic, whereas lower-temperature transformation products
are found away from this zone. It has been noted that regions of varying
microstructure (and hence peak temperature during the heating cycle) can be
correlated with bands of various colors that are formed during processing. In
turn, the extent and type of the colored bands can be correlated with the hard-
ness pattern produced.
PROCESS SIMULATION
With the widespread use of high-speed digital computers, numerical sim-

ulation of induction heating processes is becoming increasingly common. With
these programs, the effects of material variables (e.g., resistivity, permeability,
etc.) and process conditions (e.g., power level) on heating patterns, residual
stresses, and so forth, can be readily ascertained. Often this obviates the need
to do costly and time-consuming experiments. In this way, coil designs and
operating conditions are easily determined. However, at present, methods of
treating the induction heating of only relatively simple geometries, such as
round bars, tubes, sheets, plates, and slabs, have been developed. This is due
to the complexity of the equations which describe the electrical and thermal
*W. R. Hain, Heat Treating, Vol 18, No. 8, August, 1986, p 35.
tA. Krilov, N D T International, Vol 37, No. 6, June, 1979, p 125.
aspects of the process. The important equations and some sample simulation
results are briefly discussed below.
Problem Formulation
Simulation of induction heating processes includes input of required data
and numerical solution of a set of differential equations subject to appropriate
boundary conditions. Specifically, this comprises the following*:
• Definition of part shape and size. This operation can be done by hand or
by use of engineering drawings that are stored in a computer memory bank.
In addition, the part geometry must be broken into a number of discrete
slices or elements to enable solution by techniques such as the finite-
difference and finite-element methods. The discretization must be done with
care to avoid elements which are too coarse (leading to solution errors) or
too fine (causing high computation cost). Many times, elements of vary-
ing sizes are used, with the finer ones placed in regions in which higher cur-
rent densities or temperature gradients are expected.
• Specification of coil shape.
• Input of material properties. This input falls under the categories of elec-
trical and thermal properties. Electrical resistivity and relative magnetic per-
meability comprise the former, and thermal conductivity and emissivity are
the more important parameters in the latter group. Resistivity and thermal-
conductivity data as functions of temperature are readily available. The per-
meabilities of ferromagnetic irons and steels depend on local magnetic fields
and must be taken into account. At high temperatures, radiation heat losses
can be significant; therefore, the emissivity, which depends on surface con-
dition (and thus on temperature through its effect on surface condition),
must be included in the input data. Lastly, phase transformations and their
kinetics must be described in the material data base. These data should
include the effect of heating rate as well as the effect of temperature on
phase changes, which affect other physical properties also.
• Method of determining eddy currents set up in the workpiece. This is prob-
ably the most difficult part of the simulation program. Methods of eddy-
current calculation include analytical techniques, approximate analytical
results, and numerical methods. Analytical techniques are available only for
very simple geometries.I" Calculations of eddy currents and magnetic fields,
which are important in areas other than induction heating, are receiving
ever-increasing attention in the technical literature.~ Most treatments of
*V. E. Wood, unpublished research, Battelle's Columbus Laboratories, Columbus, OH,

1985.
tJ. Davies and P. Simpson, Induction Heating Handbook, McGraw-Hill, Ltd., London,
1979.
~A. Konrad, IEEE Trans., Magnetics, Vol 21, 1985, p 1805; C. J. Carpenter, Proc. IEEE,
Vol 124, 1977, p 1026; T. Tortschanoff, IEEE Trans., Magnetics, Vol 20, 1984, p 1912;
R. J. Lari and L. R. Turner, IEEE Trans., Magnetics, Vol 19, 1983, p 2474.
eddy currents in magnetic media assume that hysteresis losses can be ne-
glected with respect to eddy-current losses. Sample calculations for a cylin-
drical geometry* suggest that the hysteresis losses can account for as much
as 10°70 of the total l o s s e s - a n amount which is not insignificant, partic-
ularly in steel heat treating applications.
• Thermal calculations. Determination of the temperature distribution within
the workpiece, given the distribution of heat sources due to eddy currents
or hysteresis, is a relatively standard problem in numerical analysis. The
temperature dependence of the material properties must be included. Sev-
eral simplifying approximations often used are that the eddy-current heat
source is uniformly distributed in the sample at low frequencies and is local-
ized at the surface at high frequencies.
• Boundary conditions. Boundary conditions have to be specified for both
the electromagnetic and thermal portions of the problem. The most diffi-
cult of these involves the heat-transfer conditions at the workpiece surface.
This is primarily a result of uncertainties associated with emissivity and
radiation losses.
During computation, the eddy-current and temperature fields are calcu-
lated, subject to the boundary conditions, for a number of successive incre-
ments in time. For steels which undergo phase transformations (for example,
during heating prior to hot working or during austenitization), the compu-
tation must also involve simultaneous estimation of the phase boundary within
the workpiece.
Simulation of Surface Hardening
Computer results for surface hardening will serve to illustrate the power of
process-simulation methods. The results are taken from the work of Melan-
der,t who simulated static as well as scanning induction surface hardening of
round bars of a steel similar to AISI 4142. Eddy currents were described using
Maxwell's equation, and heat transfer was simulated using the one-dimen-
sional (static hardening) or two-dimensional (scan hardening) heat-conduction
equations with boundary conditions consisting of prescribed heat fluxes on
the workpiece surface.
Phase transformations during the heating cycle were calculated with the use
of isothermal transformation (reaustenitization) diagrams and a "staircase"
model to account for the actual continuous heating involved in the induction
experiments. The data were quantified using the expression due to Avrami~
and Johnson and Mehl§:
Vk = 1 -- e x p [ - b k ( T ) " t nk(T)]
*J. D. Lavers, M. R. Ahmed, M. Cao, and S. Kalaichelvan, IEEE Trans., Magnetics, Vol
21, 1985, p 1850.
tM. Melander, J. of Heat Treating, Vol 4, No. 2, December, 1985, p 145.
~M. Avrami, J. Chem. Phys., Vol 7, 1939, p 1103.
§W. A. Johnson and R. F. Mehl, Trans. AIME, Vol 135, 1939, p 416.
where V k is the volume fraction of phase k after holding for t seconds at a

constant temperature T, and n k is a constant. The diffusionless martensite
transformation (on quenching) was modeled through the relation:
Vmartensite = 1 - exp[-7(M~ - T) a]
where Vmartensite is the martensite volume fraction, Ms is the "martensite

start" temperature, and 3' and/3 are experimentally determined constants.
The simulations conducted by Melander* also permitted estimation of resid-
ual stresses and hardness distributions. Residual stresses were derived from
the stress-equilibrium equation, the flow rule, and an assumed elastic-plastic
unloading. Hardnesses were estimated from regression equations relating
Vickers hardness of a given phase to its chemical composition.
Several sample solutions obtained by Melander are shown on the next two
pages in Fig. 7.15 and 7.16. Figure 7.15 compares measured and predicted
temperature-versus-time histories and final hardness, martensite, and axial
residual stress distributions in a 40-mm- (1.57-in.-) diam bar. The bar was
heated in a single-shot mode with an 80-mm- (3.14-in.-) long solenoid induc-
tor energized by a 300-kHz power supply. Following heating, the workpiece
was allowed to air cool for 4.3 s and then water quenched. The simulation
and experimental results exhibit excellent agreement.
Figure 7.16 also shows fairly good agreement between measurement and
prediction for a bar that was progressively hardened. The 40-mm- (1.57-in.-)
diam bar was hardened with a single-turn coil which was 18 m m (0.71 in.)
wide and which traversed the workpiece at a rate of 3.47 m m / s (0.14 in./s).
The bar was quenched with a polymer quenchant following induction heating.
*M. Melander, ibid.

10001 r= 18.6 mm I I I 11830

/(°73 in.) A /
800 ~ \ ~" ,,~ --I 1470
/ ~ " ~" ~ Calculated /
,,oopi//\\
? / y/ ~ , ~ Measured | ou-
4°°]--/~t/\ ~\\ k --I's° ~

I- ~'/r(= 15 m~ ~ ' ~ ~ _.1 1-
2oo 390
0 20 40 60 80
(a) Time, s
Depth, in.
100 0 0.08 0.16 0.24 0.31 0.391000
-7 I I
I i
80- 1 ~ - 800
Hardness
~'~ •- ~ ~ . g ' • ~ K/ Martensite >
60- ; -- • MeasuredHV 600 -r
~ C
.~ "0
40 - • 400
o T
20 -- ~ 200
%
o I I ~-I--- 1
2 4 6 8 10
(b) Depth, mm
Depth, in.
0 0.08 0.16 0.24 0.31 0.39
1000 I I I I 145
o o ~
Q.
500--
-500 - ~ ~ - Calculated ~ 73
-73 (~
Q~
-1000 - -145
.Measured
-1500 J - -218
-2ooo I I 1 I -29o
0 2 4 6 8 10
(c) Depth, mm
Fig. 7.15. Measured and predicted values of (a) temperature-versus-time

history, (b) Vickers hardness and martensite-content profiles, and (c)
axial residual stress pattern in AISI 4142 steel samples surface hard-
ened by a single-shot induction heating technique (from M. Melander,
J. of Heat Treating, Vol 4, No. 2, December, 1985, p 145)
1000 1830
I I I
800
r = 1 8 . 6 mm (0.73 in.~alculated _ 1470
o
o
t
.... Measured _ 6
600 / 1110
(0.59 in.)
Q.
400 - - l 750 E
E
I--
200 390
0
0 10 20 30 40
Time, s
Depth, in.
0 0.08 0.16 0.24 0.31 0.39
100 1000
I I I
80 -- ~1
- - 8OO
- - Calculated
• rl Measured HV >
r" -- 600 I
8
4O-- b -- 400
I
20- -- 200
0 \ I I I
0 2 4 6 8 10
Depth, mm
Depth, in.
0 0.08 0.16 0.24 0.31 0.39145
1000
I I I I
500 - - -- 73
J
0 0
Q.
-500 -73
Q)
Calculated
-1000 Measured -- -145
-1500-- -218
-2000 I I I I -290
0 2 4 6 8 10
Depth, mm
Fig. 7.16. Measured and predicted values of (a) temperature-versus-time

history, (b) Vickors hardness and martensite-content profiles, and (c)
axial residual stress pattern in AiSI 4142 steel samples surface hard-
ened by an induction scanning technique (from M. Melandor, J. of Heat
Treating, Vol 4, No. 2, December, 1985, p 146)
Chapter 8
Coil Design and Fabrication
In a sense, coil design for induction heating is built upon a large store of
empirical data whose development has sprung from theoretical analyses of
several rather simple inductor geometries such as the classical solenoidal coil.
Because of this, coil design is generally based on experience. The objective of
this chapter is to review the fundamental electrical considerations in design
of inductors and to describe some of the most common coils in use. The
actual construction of coils and the selection of power-supply leads are also
treated.
BASIC DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

In previous chapters, the analogy between a transformer and an induc-
tor/workpiece combination has been described. The inductor is similar to
the transformer primary, and the workpiece is equivalent to the secondary
(Fig. 8.1). Therefore, several of the characteristics of transformers are use-
ful in the development of guidelines for coil design.
One of the most important features of transformers lies in the fact that the
efficiency of coupling between the windings is inversely proportional to the
square of the distance between them. In addition, the current in the primary
of the transformer multiplied by the number of primary turns is equal to the
current in the secondary multiplied by the number of secondary turns. Because
of these relationships, there are several conditions that should be kept in mind
when designing any coil for induction heating:
1. The coil should be coupled to the part as closely as feasible for maximum
energy transfer. It is desirable that the largest possible number of flux lines
intersect the workpiece at the area to be heated. The denser the flux at this
point, the higher will be the current generated in the part.
2. The greatest number of flux lines in a solenoid coil are toward the center
of the coil. The flux lines are concentrated inside the coil, providing the
maximum heating rate there.
185
Ip Is
Ep Es RE
C
NP NS
Ep = primary voltage (V); Ip = primary current (A); Np = num-

ber of primary turns; I~ = secondary current (A); Ns = number
of secondary turns; Es = secondary voltage (V); RL = load re-
sistance (fl).
Fig. 8.1. Electrical circuit illustrating the analogy between induction
heating and the transformer principle
3. Because the flux is most concentrated close to the coil turns themselves and
decreases farther from them, the geometric center of the coil is a weak flux
path. Thus, if a part were to be placed off center in a coil, the area closer
to the coil turns would intersect a greater number o f flux lines and would
therefore be heated at a higher rate, whereas the area of the part with less
coupling would be heated at a lower rate; the resulting pattern is shown
schematically in Fig. 8.2. This effect is more pronounced in high-frequency
induction heating.
4. At the point where the leads and coil join, the magnetic field is weaker;
therefore, the magnetic center o f the inductor (along the axial direction)
is not necessarily the geometric center. This effect is most apparent in
Fig. 8.2. Induction heating pattern produced in a round bar placed off
center in a round induction coil
Coil Design and Fabrication 187
single-turn coils. As the number of coil turns increases and the flux from
each turn is added to that from the previous turns, this condition becomes
less important. Due to this phenomenon and the impracticability of always
centering the part in the work coil, the part should be offset slightly toward
this area. In addition, the part should be rotated, if practical, to provide
uniform exposure.
5. The coil must be designed to prevent cancellation of the field of magnetic
induction by opposite sides of the inductor. The coil on the left in Fig. 8.3
has no inductance, because the opposite sides of the inductor are too close
to each other. Putting a loop in the inductor (coil at center) will provide
some inductance. The coil will then heat a conducting material inserted in
the opening. The design at the right provides added inductance and is more
representative of good coil design.
Because of the above principles, some coils can transfer power more readily
to a load because of their ability to concentrate magnetic flux in the area to
be heated. For example, three coils which provide a range of heating behaviors
are the following:
• A helical solenoid with the part or area to be heated located within the coil
and thus in the area of greatest magnetic flux.
• A pancake coil where the flux from only one surface intersects the work-
piece.
• An internal coil for bore heating, where only the flux on the outside of the
coil is utilized.
Cancellation Inductance
\
(
;
fl, i
Fig. 8.3. Effect of coil design on inductance (from F. W. Curtis, High
Frequency Induction Heating, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1950)
Table 8,1. Typical coupling efficiencies for induction coils

r---Coupling efficiency at frequency of: 7
I 10 Hz I I 450 kHz I
Magnetic Other Magnetic Other
Type of coil steel metals steel metals
Helical around workpiece . . . . 0.75 0.50 0.80 0.60

Pancake . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.35 0.25 0.50 0.30
Hairpin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.45 0.30 0.60 0.40
One turn around workpiece... 0.60 0.40 0.70 0.50
Channel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.65 0.45 0.70 0.50
Internal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.40 0.20 0.50 0.25
In general, helical coils used to heat round workpieces have the highest val-
ues of coil efficiency and internal coils have the lowest values (Table 8.1).
Recall from Chapter 2 that the coil efficiency, ~/, is the fraction of the energy
delivered to the coil which is transferred to the workpiece. This should not
be confused with over-all system efficiency.
Besides coil efficiency, design considerations with regard to heating pattern,
part motion relative to the coil, and production rate are also important.
Because the heating pattern reflects the coil geometry, inductor shape is prob-
ably the most important of these factors. Quite often, the method by which
the part is moved into or out of the coil can necessitate large modifications
of the o p t i m u m design. The type of power supply and the production rate
must also be kept in mind. If one part is needed every 30 s but a 50-s heat-
ing time is required, it is necessary to heat parts in multiples to meet the
desired production rate. Keeping these concurrent needs in mind, it is impor-
tant to look at a wide range of coil techniques to find the most appropriate
one.
BASIC COIL DESIGNS
Low-Frequency Heating
Low-frequency induction heating is generally desired for through heating
of metals, particularly those with large and relatively simple cross sections.
Typical applications are round or round-cornered square (RCS) stock for
forging or extrusion and slabs for hot rolling. In these cases, coil design is
often quite simple, usually consisting of a solenoid coil or a variation of it that
matches the basic workpiece cross-sectional shape (e.g., square, rectangular
trapezoidal, etc.).
Low-frequency coils often have many turns. Accordingly, the coil usually
forms the total tank inductance, and an autotransformer may be used to
match the high coil impedance to that of the induction generator. In any case,
(c) (d)
Fig. 8.4. Typical configurations for induction coils: (a) multiturn, sin-
gle place; (b) single-turn, single-place; (c) single-turn, multiplace; (d) multi-
turn, multiplace (from F. W. Curtis, High FrequencyInductionHeating,
the coil or transformer inductance must be high in order to reduce the number
o f tank capacitors needed to tune the resonant circuit at the operating fre-
quency. Generally, the lower the frequency, the larger the coil or the greater
the number o f turns.* When low-inductance coils are occasionally required,
isolation transformers can be used to match the coil impedance to that of the
induction generator. However, these occasions are considerably fewer at the
lower frequencies. In a practical sense, coils o f this nature are generally pur-
chased as part o f an over-all system, with total responsibility for operation
resting with the system supplier.
Medium-to-High.Frequency Coils
Simple solenoid coils, as well as variations o f them, are also often relied
on in medium-to-high-frequency applications such as heat treatment. These
include single- and multiple-turn types. Figure 8.4 illustrates a few of the more
c o m m o n types based on the solenoid design. Figure 8.4(a) is a multiturn,
single-place coil, so called because it is generally used for heating a single part
at a time. A single-turn, single-place coil is also illustrated (Fig. 8.4b). Fig-
ure 8.4(c) shows a single-turn, multiplace coil. In this design, a single turn
interacts with the workpiece at each part-heating location. Figure 8.4(d) shows
a multiturn, multiplace coil.
*A computer program that can be used to calculate the required coil turns, tank-circuit
capacitance, and transformer ratio for load matching and circuit tuning is given in Appen-
dix D of S. L. Semiatin and D. E. Stutz, Induction Heat Treatment of Steel, ASM, Metals
Park, OH, 1986.
More often than not, medium-to-high-frequency applications require spe-

cially configured or contoured coils with the coupling adjusted for heat uni-
formity. In the simplest cases, coils are bent or formed to the contours of the
part (Fig. 8.5). They may be round (Fig. 8.5a), rectangular (Fig. 8.5b), or
formed to meet a specific shape such as the cam coil (Fig. 8.5c). Pancake coils
(Fig. 8.5d) are generally utilized when it is necessary to heat from one side
only or where it is not possible to surround the part. Spiral coils (Fig. 8.5e)
are generally used for heating bevel gears or tapered punches. Internal bores
can be heated in some cases with multiturn inductors (Fig. 8.5f). It is impor-
tant to note that, with the exception of the pancake and internal coils, the
heated part is always in the center of the flux field.
Regardless of the final part contour, the most efficient coils are essentially
modifications of the standard, round coil. A conveyor or channel coil, for
example, can be looked at as a rectangular coil whose ends are bent to form
"bridges" in order to permit parts to pass through on a continuous basis. The
parts, however, always remain "inside" the channels where the flux is concen-
trated. Figure 8.6 illustrates similar situations in which the areas to be hard-
ened are beside the center of the coil turns, and thus are kept in the area of
heaviest flux.
(a) Round (b) Rectangular (c) Formed
(d) Pancake (e) Spiral-helical (f) Internal

Fig. 8.5. Multiturn coils designed for heating parts of various shapes:
(a) round; {b) rectangular; (c) formed; (d) pancake; (e) spiral-helical; (f)
internal (from F. W. Curtis, High FrequencyInductionHeating, McGraw-
(a)
9 /
Area to be
hardened
(b)
()
Coil(C)~~
in po
>
,°, r 0
Fig. 8.6. Coil modificationsfor localizedheating(from F. W. Curtis,High
Internal Coils
Heating of internal bores, whether for hardening, tempering, or shrink fit-
ting, is one of the major problems most commonly confronted. For all prac-
tical purposes, a bore with a 1.1-cm (0.44-in.) internal diameter is the smallest
that can be heated with a 450-kHz power supply. At 10 kHz, the practical
m i n i m u m ID is 2.5 cm (1.0 in.).
Tubing for internal coils should be made as thin as possible, and the bore
should be located as close to the surface of the coil as is feasible. Because the
current in the coil travels on the inside of the inductor, the true coupling of
the maximum flux is from the ID of the coil to the bore of the part. Thus,
the conductor cross section should be minimal, and the distance from the
coil OD to the part (at 450 kHz) should approach 0.16 cm (0.062 in.). In
Fig. 8.7(a), for example, the coupling distance is too great; coil modification
improves the design, as shown in Fig. 8.7(b). Here, the coil tubing has been
flattened to reduce the coupling distance, and the coil OD has been increased
to reduce the spacing from coil to work.
More turns, or a finer pitch on an internal coil, will also increase the flux
density. Accordingly, the space between the turns should be no more than
one-half the diameter of the tubing, and the over-all height of the coil should
not exceed twice its diameter. Figures 8.7(c) and 8.7(d) show special coil
Toodeep 1 I Minimum
( Keepclose Flattubing
~~ ~ma~~. i
(a)
(d) :0 (e~ ~h
Fig. 8.7. Induction coils designed for internal (bore) heating (from F. W.
Curtis, High FrequencyInductionHeating, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1950)
designs for heating internal bores. The coil in Fig. 8.7(d) would normally pro-
duce a pattern of four vertical bands, and therefore the part should be rotated
for uniformity of heating.
Internal coils, of necessity, utilize very small tubing or require restricted
cooling paths. Further, due to their comparatively low efficiency, they may
need very high generator power to produce shallow heating depths. In the case
of trunnion cups used on universal joints, the pattern shown in Fig. 8.8
requires three turns of 0.32-cm (0.13-in.) square tubing on a small bore, uti-
I 25.mm 4 (1in.)
3.2-mm
(1/iniduct
an)square
iocointulbinfor
g
Fig. 8.8. Schematic illustration of induction-coil design for surface

hardening of trunnion cups
lizing 60 kW of power. Because of the high currents utilized during the heating
cycle as well as the heat radiated from the workpiece surface, more cooling
than can be obtained using the normal coil water supply is required here. In
a case of this nature, it is best to provide a separate, high-pressure water sup-
ply for the coil to achieve a satisfactory flow rate.
COMMON DESIGN MODIFICATIONS
Coil Characterization
Because magnetic flux tends to concentrate toward the center of the length
of a solenoid work coil, the heating rate produced in this area is generally
greater than that produced toward the ends. Further, if the part being heated
is long, conduction and radiation remove heat from the ends at a greater rate.
To achieve uniform heating along the part length, the coil must thus be mod-
ified to provide better uniformity. The technique of adjusting the coil turns,
spacing, or coupling with the workpiece to achieve a uniform heating pattern
is sometimes known as "characterizing" the coil.
There are several ways to modify the flux field. The coil can be decoupled
in its center, increasing the distance from the part and reducing the flux in
this area. Secondly, and more commonly, the number of turns in the cen-
ter (turn density) can be reduced, producing the same effect. A similar ap-
p r o a c h - altering a solid single-turn inductor by increasing its bore diameter
at the center-achieves the same result. Each of these techniques is described
and illustrated in this section.
In Fig. 8.9(a), the coil turns have been modified to produce an even heating
pattern on a tapered shaft. The closer turn spacing toward the end compen-
sates for the decrease in coupling caused by the taper. This technique also per-
mits "through the coil" loading or unloading to facilitate fixturing. A similar
requirement in the heat treatment of a bevel gear is shown in Fig. 8.9(b).
Here, because of the greater part taper, a spiral-helical coil is used. With a
pancake coil, decoupling of the center turns provides a similar approach for
uniformity.
Selection of Multiturn Vs. Single-turn Coils. Heating-pattern uniformity require-

ments and workpiece length are the two main considerations with regard to
the selection of a multiturn vs. a single-turn induction coil. A fine-pitch, multi-
turn coil which is closely coupled to the workpiece develops a very uniform
heating pattern. Similar uniformity can be achieved by opening up the cou-
pling between the part and the coil so that the magnetic flux pattern intersect-
ing the heated area is more uniform. However, this also decreases energy
transfer. Where low heating rates are required, as in through heating for forg-
ing, this is acceptable. When high heating rates are needed, however, it is
sometimes necessary to maintain close coupling. The pitch of the coil must
be opened to prevent overloading of the generator.
Path of windings narrower

at small end Parallel
I~:ii,
!iii~. . . . . . . ::."
(b) More intense heat at
small end
(:E ~D
-" Coil is parallel

,oax,
(c) Variation in coupling

for even heating
(a)
T r~L-r~-Q_ o ~ _ D - O -O
(d) Parallel coil; heating pattern (e) Coil slightly conical;

uneven heating pattern even
Fig. 8.9. Adjustment ("characterization") of induction heating patterns
for several parts by varying the coupling distance or turn spacing (from
F. W. Curtis, High FrequencyInductionHeating, McGraw-Hill, New York,
1950)
Because the heating pattern is a mirror image of the coil, the high flux field
adjacent to the coil turns will produce a spiral pattern on the part. This is
called "barber poling" and can be eliminated by rotating the workpiece during
heating. For most hardening operations, which are of short duration, rota-
tional speeds producing not less than ten revolutions during the heating cycle
should be used.
If part rotation is not feasible, heating uniformity can be increased by using
flattened tubing, by putting an offset in the coil, or by attaching a liner to the
coil. Flattened tubing should be placed so that its larger dimension is adja-
cent to the workpiece. The offsetting of coil turns (Fig. 8.10) provides an even
horizontal heating pattern. Offsetting is most easily accomplished by anneal-
ing the coil after winding and pressing it between two boards in a vise. A coil
liner is a sheet of copper which is soldered or brazed to the inside face of the
( )J )
C
C
Fig. 8.10. Induction coil with an offset used to provide heating uni-
formity
coil. This liner expands the area over which the current travels. Thus, a wide
field per turn can be created. The height (i.e., axial length) of this field can
be modified to suit the application by controlling the dimensions of the liner.
When a liner is used, the current path from the power supply passes through
the connecting tubing (Fig. 8.11). Between the two connections, the tubing
is used solely for conduction cooling of the liner.
In fabricating coils with liners, it is necessary only to tack braze the tub-
ing to the liner at the first and last connection points, with further tacks being
used solely for mechanical strength. The remainder of the common surfaces
between tubing and liner can then be filled with a low-temperature solder for
maximum heat conduction, because the coil-water temperature will never
exceed the boiling point of water, which is well below the flow point of the
solder. This may be necessary because the copper may be unable to conduct
heat fast enough from the inside of the coil.
In multiturn coils, as the heated length increases, the number of turns gen-
erally should increase in proportion. In Fig. 8.12(a), the face width of the coil
is in proportion to the coil diameter. In Fig. 8.12(b), the ratio of the coil
diameter to face width is not suitable; the multiturn coil shown in Fig. 8.12(c)
provides a more acceptable heat pattern. Multiturn coils of this type are gen-
erally utilized for large-diameter, single-shot heating, in which the quench
medium can be sprayed between the coil turns (Fig. 8.12d).
When the length of the coil exceeds four to eight times its diameter, uni-
form heating at high power densities becomes difficult. In these instances,
single-turn or multiturn coils which scan the length of the workpiece are often
preferable. Multiturn coils generally improve the efficiency, and therefore the
scanning rate, when a power source of a given rating is used. Single-turn coils
are also effective for heating of bands which are narrow with respect to the
part diameter, particularly for ferrous materials.
The relationship between diameter and optimum height (i.e., axial thick-
ness) of a single-turn coil varies somewhat with size. A small coil can be made
with a height equal to its diameter because the current is concentrated in a
comparatively small area. With a larger coil, the height should not exceed one-
half the diameter. As the coil opening increases, the ratio is r e d u c e d - i . e . , a
5.1-cm- (2-in.-) ID coil should have a 1.91-cm (0.75-in.) maximum height, and
a 10.2-cm- (4-in.-) ID coil should have a 2.5-cm (1.0-in.) height. Figure 8.13
shows some typical ratios.
Coupling Distance. Preferred coupling distance depends on the type of heating

(single-shot or scanning) and the type of material (ferrous or nonferrous). In
static surface heating, in which the part can be rotated but is not moved
through the coil, a coupling distance of 0.15 cm (0.060 in.) from part to coil
is recommended. For progressive heating or scanning, a coupling distance of
0.19 cm (0.075 in.) is usually necessary to allow for variations in workpiece
straightness. For through heating of magnetic materials, multiturn inductors
Coil leads
Connection from generator to

coil (braze points)
Coil liner
Tubing soft soldered to ~ ~ J

coil liner for maximum
surface-to-surface Top view
cooling
Side view showing actual shape of coil
Fig. 8.11. Method of inserting a liner in a coil to widen the flux path
89-mm (31/2 in.) P.D. gear 12.7 mm (V2 in.)
, \
I i I I
I , ~--I--I ~1
(a)
Gear Coil
I 1' ,,
i,i
I I
I I I I I
I t II
I I I I
(b) Single turn, (c) Multiturn,
bad good
'1
I I I
-~
I
,, ,/, , II
J '
(d)
Coil
Locating stud
1_ Gear
Spray-quench ring
Fig. 8.12. Selection of single-turn vs. multiturn coils depending on the

length-to-diameter ratio of the workpiece (from F. W. Curtis, High Fre-
quency Induction Heating, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1950)
and slow power transfer are utilized. Coupling distances can be looser in these
c a s e s - o n the order of 0.64 to 0.95 cm (0.25 to 0.38 in.). For nonferrous
materials, coupling should be somewhat closer, usually between 0.16 and
0.32 cm (0.06 and 0.13 in.). It is important to remember, however, that pro-
cess conditions and handling dictate coupling. If parts are not straight, cou-
pling must decrease. At high frequencies, coil currents are lower and coupling
must be increased. With low and medium frequencies, coil currents are con-
siderably higher and decreased coupling can provide mechanical handling
advantages. In general, where automated systems are used, coil coupling
should be looser.
The coupling distances given above are primarily for heat treating appli-
cations in which close coupling is required. Coupling for through heating of
billet stock (prior to hot working) must be increased significantly because
12.7mm 25.4mm
(1/2in.)
I
I
12.7mm "~'
- I -
I ('/2 in.)
/ I
51mm(2in.)
I
I ~ 1"~mm (%in.)
coo,, 2i412;I 102 mm (4in.)
Fig. 8.13. Typical proportions of various single-turn coils (from F. W.

Curtis, High FrequencyInductionHeating, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1950)
thick refractory materials, as well as electrical insulation, must be incorpo-

rated into the inductor design. In most cases, the distance increases with the
diameter of the part, typical values being 19, 32, and 44 m m (0.75, 1.25, and
1.75 in.) for billet-stock diameters of approximately 38, 102, and 152 m m
(1.5, 4, and 6 in.), respectively.
Effects of Part Irregularities on Heating Patterns. With all coils, flux patterns are
affected by changes in the cross section or mass of the part. As shown in
Fig. 8.14, when the coil extends over the end of a shaftlike part, a deeper pat-
tern is produced on the end. To reduce this effect, the coil must be brought
to a point even with or slightly lower than the end of the shaft. The same con-
dition exists in heating of a disk or a wheel. The depth of heating will be
greater at the ends than in the middle if the coil overlaps the part. The coil
can be shortened, or the diameter at the ends of the coil can be made greater
than at the middle, thereby reducing the coupling at the former location.
Just as flux tends to couple heat to a greater depth at the end of a shaft,
it will do the same at holes, long slots, or projections (Fig. 8.15). If the part
contains a circular hole, an additional eddy-current path is produced which
will cause heating at a rate considerably higher than that in the rest of the
part. The addition of a copper slug to the hole can be used to effectively cor-
When the coil overlaps the edge (left), overheating will occur
on the end surface. Coil placement should be slightly below the
edge (right) for a more uniform heating pattern.
Fig. 8.14. Effect of coil placement on the heating pattern at the end
of a workpiece (from F. W. Curtis, High FrequencyInduction Heating,
Keyway
Fig. 8.15. Localized overheating of sharp corners, keyways, and holes
most prevalent in high-frequency induction heating (from F. W. Curtis,
High FrequencyInduction Heating, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1950)
Elements of Induction Heating: Design, Control, and Applications
Fig. 8.16. Control of the heating pattern at a hole through use of cop-
per slugs (from M. G. Lozinskii,Industrial Applications of Induction Heat-
ing, Pergamon Press, London, 1969)
rect or eliminate this problem. The position of the slug (Fig. 8.16) can con-
trol the resultant heating pattern. In addition, the slug will minimize hole
distortion if the part must be quenched following heating. For slotted parts
heated with solenoid coils (Fig. 8.17), the continuous current path is inter-
rupted by the slot, and the current must then travel on the inside of the part
to provide a closed circuit. This is the basis for concentrator coils, which are
discussed below. It is of interest to note, however, that with the slot closed,
the applied voltage of the work coil causes a higher current to flow. This is
due to the fact that the resistive path, now around the periphery of the part,
is considerably shorter. The increase in current then produces a considerably
higher heating rate with the same coil.
Cog Design and Fabrication 201
I ~ F ~ Mu/litiyrn I ~ ~ ~
Fig. 8.17. Localized overheating of slots in certain parts that results

from the tendency for induced currents to follow the part contour (from
F. W. Curtis, High FrequencyInduction Heating, McGraw-Hill, New York,
1950)
Flux Diverters
When two separate regions of a workpiece are to be heated, but are close
together (Fig. 8.18), it is possible that the magnetic fields of adjacent coil
turns will overlap, causing the entire bar to be heated. To avoid this problem,
successive turns can be wound in opposite directions. By this means, the inter-
Heat i
Fig. 8.18. Control of heating patterns in two different regions of a

werkpiece by winding the turns in opposite directions (from F. W. Cur-
tis, High Frequency Induction Heating, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1950)
mediate fields will cancel, and the fields that remain will be restricted. It
should be noted that, as shown in Fig. 8.18, lead placement is critical. Hav-
ing the return inductor spaced far from the coil leads would add unneeded
losses to the system. Another example of a counterwound coil is shown in
Fig. 8.19; the coil in Fig. 8.19(b) is the counterwound version of the one in
Fig. 8.19(a). This type of coil can be used effectively in an application in
which the rim of a container is to be heated while the center remains relatively
cool.
Another technique that can be utilized in the above circumstances involves
the construction of a shorted turn or "robber" placed between the active coil
turns. In this case, the shorted loop acts as an easy alternative path for con-
centration of the excess flux, absorbing the stray field. It is therefore some-
times called a flux diverter. As for the active coil turns, the robber must be
water cooled to dissipate its own heat. Figure 8.20 shows a typical installa-
tion using robbers to prevent heating of specific areas of a camshaft during
hardening. A typical construction is shown in Fig. 8.21.
The use of shorted coil turns to prevent stray-field heating is also used effec-
tively on very large coils where the end flux field might heat structural frames.
Figure 8.22 shows a coil for graphitizing of carbon. It is approximately
96.5 cm (38 in.) in diameter and contains a 122-cm- (48-in.-) long active heat
zone. There are, in addition, four shorted turns at each end of the coil which
act as robbers and thus restrict the stray field.
Flux robbers or flux diverters can also be used in fabricating test coils when
it is desired to determine the optimum number of turns empirically. In these
situations, a few additional turns are provided that can be added or removed
(a) (b)
Fig. 8.19. Design of pancake coils to provide (a) uniform, or over-all,
heating or (b) peripheral heating only (from F. W. Curtis, HighFrequency
Fig. 8.20. Water-cooled flux "robbers" inserted between adjacent coils

in a multizone camshaft-hardening machine (source: American Induc-
tion Heating Corp.)
as required. These can be shorted with a copper strap or temporarily brazed

while tests are made, and removed pending the outcome of the heating trials.
"Balancing" of Multiplace Coils

Interaction between coils is a factor to be considered when constructing
multiplace coils. Whether of multiturn or single-turn construction, the adja-
cent coil flux paths can interact unless the center-to-center distance between
adjacent coils is at least 1 ½ times the coil diameter. The design technique used
in addressing this problem is referred to as coil "balancing." As an example,
Fig. 8.23(a) shows a six-place single-turn coil whose construction is interac-
tive due to poor turn spacing. In Fig. 8.23(b), the spacing is increased prop-
erly. Because there is a resistive path between the coils, and because the
current tends to flow on the internal face of the coil, the parts should be
heated evenly. However, because currents tend to take the shortest path, they
will not necessarily enter the area between turns. Thus, the flux and heating
will not be uniform. One means of "forcing" current into these locations is
through the use of saw cuts that direct the path of the current as shown in
Fig. 8.23(c). It should also be noted that to provide uniform heating at the
end position, additional saw cuts, simulating the lead locations on the interior
coil positions, should be made on the two outer locations.
Once coil balance has been achieved, water cooling can be accomplished
by brazing or soldering formed tubing to the plate coil, as shown in Fig. 8.24.
Plate coils need not be used solely for heating of parts with similar diam-
eters and masses. It is desirable in some instances to heat a number of parts
of different sizes and shapes simultaneously. The problem then becomes one
of establishing a balance so that all parts come to the same temperature at the
t ~-~ Water path
Braze
Fig. 8.21. Typical construction of a water-cooled flux robber
Fig. 8.22. Graphitizing of carbon using an induction coil with shorted

end turns at top and bottom to restrict stray fields (source: Sohio Carbo-
rundum, Structural Ceramics Div.)
CoilDesign and Fabrication 205
.~ads .~[~
Poor
(a)
1
L J L_ _J t
(b)
Good Sawslots
(c)
Best
Fig. 8.23. Design of multiplace inductors (from F. W. Curtis, High Fre-
quency Induction Heating, McGraw.Hill, New York, 1950)
same time. An example of how this is accomplished is shown in Fig. 8.25.

Once the coil is fabricated, balance is achieved by opening the coil coupling
in those areas that heat the fastest, thus dropping the heat level in these loca-
tions until the pattern is uniform.
Multiplace coils may be of both plate and tubing types. Plate coils provide
a rugged assembly for production operations, particularly brazing in which
rapid part handling and the corrosive action of a flux can deteriorate coil
materials. When part height-to-diameter ratios are high, multiturn coils must
be utilized in multiplace arrangements. Construction may be on a feeder bus,
as in Fig. 8.26, where individual coils may be easily replaced. The constraint
of center-to-center distance being a minimum of 1 ½ times the coil diameter
must still be observed.
SPECIALTY COILS
As mentioned above, coil designs are based on the heating-pattern require-

ments of the application, the frequency, and the power-density requirements.
Leadsto
~.~ generator
I I i I
Fig. 8.24. Schematicillustration of the energizing and cooling of a multi-

place plate inductor (from F. W. Curtis, High FrequencyInduction Heat-
ing, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1950)
In addition, the material-handling techniques to be used for production also

determine to a large extent the coil to be used. If a part is to be inserted in
a coil, moved on a conveyor, or pushed end to end, or if the coil/heat sta-
tion combination is to move onto the part, the coil design must take the
appropriate handling requirements into consideration. Accordingly, a vari-
ety of specialty coil designs have evolved for specific applications.
Master Work Coils and Coil Inserts

When production requirements necessitate small batches (as in job-shop
applications) and a single-turn coil can be used, master work coils provide a
simple, rapid means of changing coil diameters or shapes to match a variety
of parts. In its basic form, a master work coil consists of copper tubing that
provides both an electrical connection to the power supply and a water-cooled
contact surface for connection to a coil insert.* A typical design, shown in
Fig. 8.27, consists of a copper tube that is bent into the form of a single-turn
coil and soldered to a copper band which conforms to the slope of the coil
insert and is recessed. Holes in the inserts which match tapped holes in the
master coil securely clamp the inserts to the master coil, providing good trans-
fer of electrical energy and heat removal. Inserts are machined from copper
with a thickness that matches the required heating pattern and should be
*N. B. Stevensand P. R. Capalongo, "Inductor for High-FrequencyInduction Heating,"

U.S. Patent 2,456,091, December 14, 1948.
Leads to
power source -"'L
\ Braze
F- Holes for
bracket
0
@ -ill
II
0 __jj o
~, m i
Cover ' I Body Water cooling
• • | | •
Section through heating area
Fig. 8.25. Design of a single-turn, multiplace inductor for simultaneous

brazing of different-size couplings in o single operation (from F. W. Cur-
tis, High FrequencyInduction Heating, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1950)
somewhat greater in thickness than the depth of the recess for easy removal.
Special coil shapes are easily configured. It is important to note that, because
of the less-than-optimal cooling technique, coil inserts are particularly well
adapted to processes requiring short heating times or those in which they are
also cooled by the quenching medium.
In machining of coil inserts, care must be taken to relieve sharp corners,
unless it is desired to have a deeper heating pattern in these locations. Fig-
ure 8.28 shows the effect of sharp corners on a closely coupled part. Flux
from both inductor sides couples to the corner, which, due to a lack of mass,
tends to overheat relative to the rest of the pattern. Decoupling of the coil
from these locations provides the desired pattern but tends to reduce over-all
efficiency, thus slowing the heating rate and resulting in a deeper case. Reliev-
ing or decoupling of only the corners is a better alternative, particularly when
a solid inductor is used, and the relief can be machined as required.
Leadsto
generator
A
Tapped holesfor plastic sheet . , ~ / Plastic
~ / , / 0 ~ plate
ring ~ ~ Tube ~ .,'~/~f ~ , ~ I L ] / /
i o,;
Fig. 8.26. Single-turn,multiplaceinductorwith individualcoils of copper
tubing (from F. W. Curtis, High FrequencyInduction Heating, McGraw-
, _1 I " ,,
Water
Fig. 8.27. Schematicillustration showing the design of a master coil

with changeableinserts (from M. G. Lozinskii,Industrial Applications
of Induction Heating, Pergamon Press, London, 1969)
Coils for Induction Scanners

Coils for progressive hardening (scanning) are built using two techniques.
The simpler of the two employs a simple single-turn or multiturn coil with a
separate quench ring which can be mounted on the scanner (Fig. 8.29a). For
larger production runs, on the other hand, a double-chamber coil which incor-
porates both coil cooling and quenching capabilities is often the preferred
choice. The scanning inductor shown in Fig. 8.29(b) is typical of the latter
type of design. Cooling water flows through the upper, or inductor, cham-
Fig. 8.28. Inductorwith a relief designedfor the hardening of the lateral

surface of a template (from M. G. Lozinskii, Industrial Applications of
Induction Heating, Pergamon Press, London, 1969)
• Inductor
Heating
!!!
i Quench
ring
i
Quenching
(a)
f-
Inductor
, f
~ Qringuench
LI-.I
L-i'
(b)
Fig. 8.29. Inductor/quench designs for induction scanning: (a) separate

coil and quench and (b) two-chamber, integral coil and quench (from
F. H. Reinke and W. H. Gowan, Heat Treatmentof Metals, Vol 5, No. 2,
1978, p 39)
Coil Design and Fabrication 21 1
ber to keep the copper resistivity low. The quenchant is sprayed from perfo-
rations in the beveled face onto the workpiece as it exists from the inductor.
The beveled face normally is at an angle of 30 ° to the vertical so that there
is some soaking time between the end of induction heating and the quench-
ing operation. This delay time helps to increase uniformity. Proper choice of
the spray direction also reduces the a m o u n t of fluid runback on the shaft,
which could cause variation in bar temperature and result in uneven hardness.
Well-directed quench spray holes are required inasmuch as "barber poling"
can occur due to erratic or misdirected quenchant that precools the part ahead
of the main quench stream.
Split Coils
Split coils are generally utilized as a last resort for applications in which it
is difficult to provide a high enough power density to the area to be heated
without very close coupling and where part insertion or removal would then
become impossible. Typical examples of such situations include hardening of
journals and shoulders in crankshafts. In these cases, the split-coil design
would also include the ability to quench through the face of the inductor, as
shown in Fig. 8.30. Typical methods of hinging split inductors are shown in
Fig. 8.31.
It should be noted that with a split inductor good surface-to-surface con-
tact must be made between the faces of the hinged and fixed portions of the
coil. Generally these surfaces are faced with silver or special alloy contacts that
are matched to provide good surface contact. Clamps are used to ensure clo-
sure during heating. Often, high currents at high frequency pass through this
interface, and the life of the contact is generally limited due to both wear and
arcing.
Coolant for the coil chamber of a split inductor is carried by flexible hoses
that bypass the hinge so that excessive heating does not occur in the movable
section during the cycle. The quench chamber is fed by a separate hose
arrangement. The face of the quench chamber is closest to the work during
heating, and therefore carries most of the current. Accordingly, it must be
sufficiently thick to preclude either melting or distortion during the heating
cycle.
With split coils it is also frequently necessary to provide some means of
locating the part in the coil to maintain the proper coupling distance. Ceramic
pins or buttons are frequently secured to the face of the inductor. These pins
contact the part during the heating cycle and establish rigid relative positioning
between part and coil. However, they are subject to thermal shock during the
heating and quenching cycles and suffer mechanical abuse as well. Therefore,
they should be designed for simple replacement as required. Figure 8.32
depicts an arrangement for the use of either ceramic or metal pins that com-
pensates for these problems. Here, the ceramic pin is approximately 0.64 cm
Fig. 8.30. Double-chamber coil for use in induction scanning; perfora-

tions are for quench spray from the quench chamber (source: Ameri-
can Induction Heating Corp.)
(0.25 in.) in diameter and 1.3 cm (0.5 in.) long with a 0.69-cm (0.27-in.) head
diameter. The rubber packing absorbs the clamping stress. A threaded tube
passes through the chamber, and a screw presses the pins against the shaft.
In Fig. 8.32(b), a 0.32-cm (0.125-in.) nichrome pin is used with a ceramic tube
as an insulator. Being in compression, the tube undergoes comparatively high
loads without breaking. The metal pin provides longer life in these conditions
than the ceramic pin.
Concentrator Coils
When transformers are not available or when extremely high power den-
sities are required, it is sometimes necessary to utilize an induction coil as the
secondary of a current transformer. That is to say, the turns of a primary coil
are used to induce high currents in a copper ("concentrator") secondary that
is connected to, or serves itself as, the coil which heats the workpiece. For
instance, when a complex assembly must be held in a fixture for brazing, it
is sometimes simpler to have each fixture include its own coil and inductively
couple the energy to the coil.
Figure 8.33 shows an example in which a multiturn pancake coil is con-
nected to the power supply and in turn inductively couples its energy to the
concentrator secondary or work coil. The work coil is an integral part of the
f /I
(I
(a)
(b)
Fig. 8.31. Diagram (a) and schematic illustration (b) of a split inductor
used for heating crankshaft journals (from M. G. Lozinskii, Industrial
Applications of Induction Heating, Pergamon Press, London, 1969)
secondary, and the current is forced to travel through the active portion of
the coil to complete its return path. In operation, the secondary/coil combi-
nation is mounted to the fixture and the secondary passes beneath the primary
pancake coil as the combination moves on a conveyor. Heat is generated in
the workpiece as the secondary passes through the flux field of the primary.
In Fig. 8.34, the transformer secondary moves through the primary. The sec-
ondary, inside the major flux field of the primary, couples energy to the coil
even while it is in motion. This is an ideal way to energize the coil while pro-
viding reciprocating motion.
i
~...............I
/j~_~ [
~............ ~, . .............~ \\\\~J

5--
IIl111111 I ] n1111111 II 11II II II I
(a) (b)
(a) l-ceramic pin; 2,3-rubber packing; 4-screw; 5-threaded
tube. (b) l -nichrome pin; 2-ceramic tube; 3-rubber packing;
4-screw; 5-threaded tube.
Fig. 8.32. Design of metal and ceramic pins for fixing the position of
a split inductor on a crankshaft journal (from M. G. Lozinskii, Indus.
trial Applications of Induction Heating, Pergamon Press, London, 1969)
Top view of plate secondary
Mov,nIIr
g
plate
secondary
Stationary
primary
induction
coil
Object
being
k L--
Fig. 8.33. Schematic illustration of inductively coupled primary and sec-
ondary coils (source: Lepel Corp.)
Reciprocating
secondary Primaryturns
i<
oil
Fig. 8.34. Schematic illustration of a movable secondary concentrator

inductor
In some cases, the current path in a concentrator or transformer second-

ary is constricted to maximize power density. Often, a pancake inductor is cou-
pled to a solid plate or sheet secondary. The current is then forced to travel on
the inner path of the secondary, which now becomes the work coil (Fig. 8.35).
Occasionally, the first turn on the grounded side of the inductor is brazed to
the concentrator. This arrangement then becomes in essence an autotrans-
former, grounding the secondary and providing some cooling via contact with
the water-cooled primary.
Yet another form of current concentrator is depicted in Fig. 8.36. The
exterior turns wrapped around the cylindrical portion of the concentrator
force the total current to be concentrated on the inner bore or slot, thus trans-
forming a low-heat-density setup into a high-heat-density one in the "active
region." Figure 8.37 shows a typical concentrator coil of this type that is used
Preplacedalloy Press-fitted
ring steel cover
oooo
/////i//I
/ / ooooo
Plate-type ~ J
induction coil J
Copper
case
Fig. 8.35. Schematic illustration of a concentrator-type induction coil
used for induction soldering (source: Lepel Corp.)
to melt high-temperature alloys off the ends of bars in vacuum to make spe-
cial powders.
Butterfly Coils
One of the most difficult heating challenges is the creation of an even heat-
ing pattern at the end of a bar or shaft. Patterns developed with a pancake
inductor produce a dead spot at the center due to field cancellation in this
area.
The butterfly coil (Fig. 8.38), so named because of its appearance, utilizes
two specially formed pancake coils. The current paths of the adjacent sides
are aligned so that they are additive. The "wings" of the butterfly may be bent
up to decouple their fields from the shaft, or, if heat is required in this loca-
tion, they may be coupled with the shaft itself. In winding this coil, it is
important that all center turns be wound in the same direction so that they
are additive. Further, only these turns should couple directly with the part to
produce the desired pattern; part rotation is required to provide uniform heat-
ing on the end of the part.
(b)
(a)
Fig. 8.36. Circular (a) and slotted (b) concentrator coils; arrows indi-
cate direction of current flow (from E. May, Industrial High Frequency
Electric Power, Wiley, New York, 1950)
Coil Design and Fabrication 21 7
Split-Return Inductors
If a narrow band of heat is required and heating must be accomplished
from one surface only as in weld-seam annealing, the split-return inductor
offers distinct advantages (Fig. 8.39). With this design, the center runner of
the work coil carries twice the current of each of the return legs. The pattern
on the workpiece, being a mirror image of the coil, produces four times as
much heat under the center leg as in each of the return loops. With proper
balancing, the high-heat path can then be extremely narrow while the heat
produced in each of the return legs is insufficient to affect the remainder of
the part.
Tapped Coils
Induction coils can be provided with taps to allow for differences in heated
length. A typical application is a forging coil for heating "off the end" of
a bar, in which provision must be made to adjust the length being heated
(Fig. 8.40). Taps are brazed to the work coil at locations where a water-cooled
strap can be moved from tap to tap. The active portion of the coil is then
between the power-supply connection and the tap. Water cooling, however,
should be maintained through all portions of the coil, both active and in-
active.
Fig. 8.37. Concentratorcoil for melting the end of a superalloy bar used
in production of metal powder in a vacuum (source:LindbergCycle-Dyne,
Inc.)
(a)
Fig. 8.38. Schematic illustration of a butterfly coil: (a) coil construc-

tion (arrows indicate reinforcing type of current flow in coil) and (b)
coupling between the turns of the coil and the end of a bar to produce
a uniform heating pattern
Transverse.Flux Coils
In heating of parts that have a long longitudinal axis and a thin cross sec-
tion, a circular coil wrapped around the workpiece produces a heating pat-
tern (Fig. 8.41) that, due to coupling distances, is effective only at the edges.
In transverse-flux heating, however, the coil is designed to set up a flux field
which is perpendicular to the sheet or similar part. In this way, the path of
the eddy currents is changed so that it is parallel to the major axis of the work.
For example, in the manufacture of items such as hacksaw blades, the steel
moves between the turns of the coil and the eddy-current path is a circular
one across the flat of the blade. For heating of wide sheet materials, specially
designed transverse-flux inductors have become available in recent years also.
These inductors usually contain laminated iron cores with a series of wind-
ings along the length of the strip which induces a circulating current that flows
across the width of the strip and returns on itself along the edges under adja-
cent pole faces. In this type of arrangement, coil sections are placed on both
sides of the strip to force the magnetic flux to pass transversely through the
Entire coil constructed of

rectangular copper tubing ~ Currentsplits to return
with water flowing I Illl along side conductors
IIIII
through for cooling
II I "~ / ~ ~--~/_...i~ f I Fu!l current flows

in center leg
Induced eddy ~ I~
currents follow ~ /f~" ~ Io I
(a) parallel to coil I ol I"1\ ,N I°_ I
currents and are I ~1 L~\ /L~ I~ I
most intense I ~1 ~"~ Y/ I- I
under center leg I I ~ I I
v
Return circuit for
Sprocket wheel . / / ~ eddy currents spread
~.~'/ ~,~ over two relatively
//~ ~ ~ large areas
// ~ ' ~lduCedeCUrrg~tt~enOt
// ~l for material to reach
/ ~ hardening temperature
¢" =, JlloJ V
Area to be
(b) hardened
(a) Split-return coil for annealing of seam welds in pipe or tube.
(b) Split-return inductor for hardening of surfaces of large
sprocket teeth one tooth at a time (welding fixture not shown).
Fig. 8.39. Two types of split.return coils (from C. A. Tudbury, Basics
of Induction Heating, Vol 1, John F. Rider, Inc., New York, 1960)
strip as opposed to the typical longitudinal flux pattern developed with a coil
which encircles the strip.
Series/Parallel Coil Construction

Often, it is desirable to have long work coils or coils with many turns con-
nected in series. The current through each turn is identical, and it is simple
to balance the heating pattern. Furthermore, if an imbalance occurs in any
one turn (e.g., it is suddenly loaded more heavily), the other turns are affected
equally. Thus, if a slowdown occurs in one location of a conveyor, the power
along the whole line can be adjusted proportionally. In some situations, how-
ever, as the number of coil turns and resultant length increase, the voltage
must also be increased to drive the current through the coil turns. This means
that on long coils, the voltage between the workpiece and the coil can be
extremely high, and arcing can occur. This may be a problem, for example,
in heating of continuous strip, in which speeds are high and coils are there-
fore very long. In these situations, it becomes advantageous to use parallel
coils, thereby reducing the applied voltage.
With parallel coils, the voltage required is limited to that needed to drive
current through a single inductor. However, coil resistance and inductance in
parallel inductors are such that extreme care must be taken to prevent all the
current from going through the inductor closest to the power supply.
Fig. 8.40. Tappedforging coils for heating off the end of a bar (source:
American Induction Heating Corp.)
(a)
(b)
Fig. 8.41. Illustration (a) of one type of transverse coil for heating a
thin section; sketch in (b) indicates the current path in the workpiece
(from F. W. Curtis, High FrequencyInduction Heating, McGraw-Hill, New
York, 1950)
The best method for parallel coil construction makes use of a wide bus
arrangement, as shown in Fig. 8.42. With identical coils mounted to the bus,
this method permits rapid, simple replacement of individual sections as
required, and fabrication of the individual sections is easily accomplished. A
second technique, which ensures an even current distribution, comprises the
interwinding of several coils as shown in Fig. 8.43. Here, an even current dis-
tribution is ensured in that each coil receives its current from the same point
in the bus.
Tuning Stubs (Trombones)

When coils are in parallel, it is often difficult to balance the heating rates
of the individual turns, because their inductances are not necessarily the same.
In addition, they may be coupled to dissimilar loads of different mass. It then
becomes necessary to adjust the individual coils using a tuning stub or "trom-
bone" so that the parts, or different regions of the same part, achieve the same
temperature at the same time. A typical application is a low-voltage, multiturn
Fig. 8.42. Photograph of parallel coils on a bus used to reduce coil volt-
age in heating of moving wire (source: Lindberg Cycle-Dyne, Inc.)
parallel coil (Fig. 8.44) of the type used in the electronics industry for heat-
ing a disk-type graphite susceptor. While it might be simpler to utilize a pan-
cake inductor in which the coupling of the inner turns is changed in order to
control the heating pattern, a parallel construction is frequently chosen to
maintain a lower coil voltage, because the operation is performed in a
hydrogen-filled bell jar. Because each of the turns is in essence an individual
inductor, a series inductance (i.e., tuning stub) is placed in each parallel leg.
This inductance is provided with a shorting bar which, by virtue of the fact
that it is movable over the series inductor length, provides an adjustable
inductance. The various series inductances may be used to drop the actual us-
able voltage on each turn, and thus can be used to adjust or "characterize"
Fig. 8.43. Photograph of parallel coils interwound to reduce coil volt-

age (source: Lindberg Cycle-Dyne, Inc.)
Fig. 8.44. Photograph illustrating trombone adjustment on parallel coils

as used in epitaxial deposition (source: Lindberg Cycle-Dyne, Inc.)
the heating pattern of each turn individually in order to achieve balanced

heating.
An adjustable inductance or trombone is also used in those instances where
a coil is overcoupled. In such a case, the coil tries to couple more energy to
the part than the machine can supply, thus overloading the system. Even
though this is not an efficient method, rather than rebuild the coil, a trom-
bone is inserted between the output station terminals and the coil. This trom-
bone is then adjusted to limit coil voltage to a region within the capability
of the machine. A commercial trombone used for this purpose is shown in
Fig. 8.45.
With coils machined from flat stock (e.g., a multiplace, single-turn induc-
tor), drilling a hole in the slot lead and then gradually increasing its diame-
ter performs the same function as a trombone.
Conveyor/Channel Coils
Often when power densities are low and heating cycles not extremely short,
parts can be processed by use of a turntable or conveyor in a continuous or
indexing mode. The coil must then be designed to permit easy entry and exit
of the part. The simplest conveyor or channel coil used in these situations is
a modification of the hairpin inductor (Fig. 8.46). With the indexing tech-
Fig. 8.45. Photographof a typical tuning stub or "trombone" (source:

Lindberg Cycle-Dyne,Inc.)
nique, in which the part is at rest in the coil during the heating cycle, the ends
of the hairpin can be decoupled to prevent overheating of the ends. These
raised portions or bridges also facilitate passage of the part through the coil.
When a wide heating zone is to be produced on the part, coupling over a
greater area can be effected through the addition of a liner to the coil turn
(Fig. 8.47), or more ampere turns can also be produced with a multiturn chan-
nel inductor (Fig. 8.48). Channel-coil liners may also be configured to pro-
duce specialized heating patterns where greater heat densities are required in
specific areas (Fig. 8.49).
During design o f heating operations utilizing channel coils, there is a "fill
J Coil
J
(,-J
r __
Work {
Bend
L_J ! I
I
II.
Fig. 8.46. Typical channel coil used to heat the edges of discrete lengths
of rectangular bar stock; end of coil is decoupled by bending to pre-
vent overheating of ends (from F. W. Curtis, High FrequencyInduction
Heating, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1950)
Togenerator
Liner ~
Fig. 8.47. Use of a liner on a single-turn channel coil to provide a wider

heating pattern on the workpiece (from F. W. Curtis, High Frequency
factor" which must be considered from an efficiency standpoint. The unused

portion of the coil appears as lead losses. Therefore, parts must be as close
as possible to each other, without touching, to utilize the full capabilities of
the inductor. Another important consideration in the use of a channel coil is
the fact that those areas of the workpiece closest to the coil receive the greatest
portion of the flux and therefore heat the fastest (Fig. 8.50). If conduction
through the part is slow, the part should be rotated while passing through the
coil. Sufficient time (in an indexing conveyor or turntable) or speed variation
i:"
/
Fig. 8.48. Multiturn channel coil used to increase the ampere turns cou-
pled to an induction heated workpiece (source: Lindberg Cycle-Dyne Inc.)
Solder ring
, , / 0 \ I, (;)
- j~ ~ Leads
Condenser can
Channel type coil
Fig. 8.49. Multiturn channel coil with a liner added to control the heat-
ing pattern (from F. W. Curtis, High Frequency Induction Heating,
(in a continuous-motion device) must be provided to allow heat uniformity

to occur in part areas farthest from the coil turns.
COIL FABRICATION
Because of its low resistivity, fully annealed, high-conductivity copper is

most commonly used in the fabrication of induction heating coils. The cop-
per is typically in a tubular form (with a minimum outer diameter of 0.32 cm
or 0.125 in.) to allow for water cooling. Material of this kind is available in
a wide range of cross sections (round, square, and rectangular) and sizes.
0 0 Direction of travel
Q Q Q
Fig. 8.50. Development of the heating pattern in parts moved through
a channel coil
Selection of Tubing
In addition to the I2R loss due to its own resistivity, the coil surrounds the
load and absorbs additional heat through radiation and convection from the
heated surface. Therefore, it is essential that the tubing selected for the work
coil have a sufficient cooling path to remove this heat. Otherwise, the resis-
tivity of the copper will increase due to the temperature increase, thus creating
greater coil losses. In some instances, such as large coils, it may be necessary
to break up the individual water paths in a coil to prevent overheating and
possible coil failure. Figure 8.51 shows a coil used for a line-frequency appli-
cation which has a number of manifolded water paths to prevent steam for-
mation.
Another factor in the selection of tubing for induction coils relates to the
fact that the current in the work coils is traveling at a specific reference depth
which depends on the power-supply frequency and the resistivity of the cop-
per. Accordingly, the wall thickness of the coil tubing should be selected to
reference-depth limits similar to those used for induction heating of copper.
Suggested wall thicknesses for various frequencies are shown in Table 8.2.
However, copper availability must be considered, and often wall thicknesses
less than twice the reference depth are used with only a nominal loss in over-
all coil efficiency. In coils for low-frequency operation, particularly those used
at 60 Hz, the large depth of penetration requires tubing with a particularly
heavy wall. Because the current flows on the ID face of the coil (i.e., adja-
cent to the workpiece), coils for such applications are generally fashioned of
Fig. 8.51. Photograph of a low-frequency induction coil with manifolded

water taps/cooling paths (source: American Induction Heating Corp.)
Table 8.2. Selection of copper tubing for induction coils

Theoretical wall Typical wall
thickness (= 2 x thickness Minimum tube
reference depth)(a), available, diameter(b),
Frequency m m (in.) m m (in.) m m (in.)
6 0 H z . . . . . . 16.8 (0.662) 14.0 (0.550) 42.0 (1.655)

180 Hz . . . . . . . 9.70 (0.382) 8.13 (0.320) 24.3 (0.955)
540 Hz . . . . . . . 5.59 (0.220) 4.67 (0.184) 14.0 (0.550)
1 kHz . . . . . . 4.11 (0.162) 3.43 (0.135) 10.3 (0.405)
3 kHz . . . . . . 2.39 (0.094) 1.98 (0.078) 5.97 (0.235)
10 kHz . . . . . . 1.32 (0.052) 1.07 (0.042) 3.30 (0.130)
450 kHz . . . . . . 0.15 (0.006) 0.89 (0.035) 0.38 (0.015)
1 MHz . . . . . 0.08 (0.003) 0.89 (0.035) 0.19 (0.0075)
(a) Resistivity of copper assumed to be 1.67 × 10-6 fl.cm (0.66 x 10 -6
[2.in.). (b) Tube ID requirements for adequate cooling-water flow should
also be considered.
heavy, edge-wound copper with a brazed cooling path at the outer edge to
reduce cost. Specially drawn tubing (Fig. 8.52) is also available with an off-
set extruded cooling path.
Square copper tubing is also commercially available and is frequently used
in coil fabrication. It offers a considerable advantage in that it couples more
flux to the part per turn than round tubing (Fig. 8.53). Moreover, it is more
easily fabricated in that it will not collapse as readily on bending. It is also
easily mitered (Fig. 8.54) to create sharp, close bends as required. If only
round tubing is available, it can be flattened in a vise or other simple device
(Fig. 8.55) to adjust the resultant thickness dimension. This flattening can be
done with minimal decrease in dimension of the water-flow path.
Coil Forming
In fabrication o f copper coils, it must be noted that the copper work
hardens with increasing deformation. Thus, most fabricators anneal the tub-
Side of inductor toward workpiece
/
Water path
//////////////,I
Fig. 8.52. Heavy-wall tubing used in construction of induction coils
ing every few bends to relieve this condition by heating the tubing until it is
bright red, then cooling it rapidly in water. These intermediate anneals pre-
vent fracture of the tubing during fabrication.
In some forming operations, it may be desirable to fill the coil with sand
or salt to preclude collapse of the tubing. In addition, there are several low-
temperature alloys (with melting points below 100 °C or (212 °F) that are nor-
mally used to perform this same function. When the coil is completed, it is
immersed in boiling water. The alloy then flows out freely and can be reused
at another time. With any of these techniques, once filled, the tubing acts as
a solid rod during forming and can be simply cleared on completion.
Joining of Coils to Power-Supply Leads

Joining of an induction coil to a power supply frequently involves brazing
of copper tubing or connecting small- to large-diameter tubing. In brazing of
copper tubing, it is generally preferable to use a low-silver alloy such as phos-
copper. These alloys do not require the use of flux when making copper-to-
copper joints, and in addition are sluggish when molten. They are thus useful
i I I
Fig. 8.53. Comparative heating patterns produced by using round vs.

square tubing for a solenoid induction coil (from M. G. tozinskii, Indus.
45 ° 45 °
t
1 ii
i ii
ill
i IL
Fig. 8.54. Mitering of square tubing to provide right-angle bends in an
induction coil
in filling pinhole leaks, but will not fill the water path in brazing of small-
diameter tubing.
Most power-supply terminals utilize rather large tubing. Thus, it is fre-
quently necessary to join small-diameter tubing to larger tubing at some point.
Figure 8.56 shows a simple technique for accomplishing this. The larger tubing
is crimped after inserting the smaller-diameter stock, and the joint is closed
Fig. 8.55. Device used to flatten tubing during manufacture of induc-

tion coils (source: Lepel Corp.)
To suit
connectors
9.5 mm (% in.)
Braze
Tube nuts
I I
4.8 mm (3/16
\ / /
\ / /
Squeeze in vise \ / /
Harness for leads

11 I
Coil
Braze (% in.) 1
Coil to suit
Fig. 8.56. Illustration of method for joining small- to large-diameter cop-

per tubing for induction coils (source: F. W. Curtis, High FrequencyInduc-
tion Heating, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1950)
by brazing. The illustration also depicts the c o m m o n use of a flare or com-

pression fitting when making coil connections; these are generally limited
to low-power, high-frequency (RF) coils. Although useful when coils are
changed frequently, such fittings are subject to water leakage under constant
changing. In addition, the twisting imparted to the coil during attachment
tends to distort the coil configuration.
Most low-loss fishtail leads (discussed below) utilize solid block connectors
that are cross-drilled for water flow and are mated with counterbored holes
and "O" ring seals. In these cases, the coil is often held to the output terminals
by brass or phosphor-bronze screws. This type of construction permits coil
changes while preventing bending of the coil during installation (Fig. 8.57).
Bracing of Coils
Because electric currents flow in both the workpiece and the coil, mag-
netomotive forces between the two are developed. The magnitudes of the
forces depend on the magnitudes of the currents. If sufficiently large, the
forces may cause the part to move in the coil. If the part has a large mass,
however, the coil will tend to move relative to the workpiece. The turns may
Fig. 8.57. Multiturn coil showing fishtail-lead construction (source: Lind-

berg Cycle-Dyne, Inc.)
also tend to move relative to each other, it is important, therefore, that the
coil turns be suitably braced to prevent movement and possible turn-to-turn
shorting. Furthermore, coil motion relative to the part must be prevented to
avoid undesirable changes in the heating pattern.
Much of the acoustic noise generated during low-frequency operations also
occurs due to coil vibration, much as a speaker coil and magnet structure
work in an audio system. Bracing and physical loading of the coil to restrict
its movement will aid in reducing this condition. On very large, high-current
coils, the magnetomotive force exerted can be extremely large, and if proper
bracing is not provided, the coil may gradually work harden and finally fail.
With such coils, care should thus be taken to place braces from end board to
end board so that the coils are in compressive loading, thereby minimizing
these effects.
Typical bracing techniques are illustrated in Fig. 8.58. In Fig. 8.58(a), brass
studs are brazed to every other turn. These studs are then secured to insula-
tor posts to hold them in a fixed relation to each other. Nuts on each side of
the stud at the insulator allow adjustment for characterization of the heating
pattern. In Fig. 8.58(b), the insulation has been contoured to hold the turns
relative to each other after the end turns are secured with studs. Figure 8.59
shows construction of a 3-kHz coil used in the forging industry. The insula-
tor boards are notched and hold the turns in rigid location.
The insulation used for bracing applications must meet the criteria for the
coil design. In addition to the installation being capable of withstanding the
heat radiated from the workpiece, its electrical capabilities must permit it to
Plastic
4
(a) J (o)
-- (b)
Cutoff Cement
i Braze
Co)
Glyptal ~ ( : ~ )
Screw
(c)
Fig. 8.58. Typical techniques for bracing of induction-coil turns (from

F. W. Curtis, High FrequencyInductionHeating, McGraw-Hill, New York,
1950)
withstand the voltage between the mounting studs or the turn-to-turn voltages
of the coil. This is of particular concern when using high-voltage RF coils
where up to 12,000 V may be impressed across the total coil. It may be nec-
essary in these instances to provide slots between the stud locations in the insu-
lator boards to increase the creepage path between the studs. It may also be
necessary to increase the heat-resistant characteristics of the insulation by fac-
ing the area exposed to the heated surface with a sheet of high-temperature
insulation.
For purposes of rigidity, cleanness, and protection, it is sometimes desir-
able to encapsulate work coils in a plastic or refractory material. The same
kind of care with respect to voltage and temperature characteristics must be
taken with these materials as with insulating boards. For low-temperature
induction heating applications, epoxy encapsulation of the coil is quite com-
mon. For heating of steel billets, coils are usually cast in a refractory cement
to prevent scale from the part from falling between the turns (Fig. 8.60). In
coating of coils with refractory materials, care must be taken to match the pH
of the refractory to that of the material being heated; for example, an acidic
refractory is required for the ferrous scale which drops off during high-
temperature heating of steels. On larger, low-voltage installations, such as
those encountered in line-frequency heating, the individual turns are typically
wrapped with fiberglass tape and then varnished. This permits close spacing
of coil turns. The coil in Fig. 8.61 is a 60-Hz forging coil being fabricated of
offset tubing having one heavy wall which is faced toward the billet. Note the
multiple water exits which will provide the parallel water paths.
Fig. 8.59. Photograph of a billet-heating induction coil that is braced

using contoured boards to separate the coil turns (source: American
Induction Heating Corp.)
POWER-SUPPLY LEADS
Design Considerations
All coils represent an inductance to the tank circuit. However, in practice,
the working portion of the coil may in fact be only a small portion of the
inductance presented to the tank. Between the output terminals of the gen-
erator or heat station and the heating portion of the work coil, there may be
a considerable distance of output lead. This distance can be minimized
through use of a remote heat station. In any case, however, some finite dis-
tance exists between the heat-station terminations and the actual coil. Design
and construction of these work-coil leads can be a major factor in determining
job feasibility.
The effect of lead construction on system performance can be best under-
stood with respect to the tank circuit of which it is a part (for example, see
Fig. 8.62). The coil/load inductance is represented by L 2. Each lead connect-
ing the tank capacitor to the coil has its own inductance (L1, L3). If the volt-
age in the tank, ET, is impressed across the total of these inductances, then
some voltage drop appears across each. The full voltage will thus never appear
across the work coil. Nevertheless, if the inductance of the coil (L2) is at least
approximately ten times the total inductance of the leads (LI plus L3), a
m a x i m u m of 10% of the total voltage will be lost in the leads. Any loss less
than this can be considered nominal.
Fig. 8.60, Photograph of a billet-heating induction coil that has been

mounted in a cast refractory for purposes of bracing (source: Ameri-
can Induction Heating Corp.)
Coils for low-frequency applications often have many turns, a large cross-
sectional area, and thus fairly high inductance. Hence, the comparative lead
inductance is small. As the frequency increases, coils often become smaller
in size, and their inductance and inductive reactance decrease. As the distance
between the heat station and coil increases, therefore, these lead inductances
can become critical.
Several coil designs which illustrate the effect of lead design are shown in
Fig. 8.63 and 8.64. In Fig. 8.63(a), a coil with leads far apart is depicted.
The space between the leads presents an inductance almost equal to that of
the coil. Thus, a major portion of the voltage will not appear in the work-
Fig. 8.61. Photograph of edge-wound, offset coil stock being prepared

for winding of a 60-Hz induction coil for heating of forging billets
(source: American Induction Heating Corp.)
ET
L1
L3
L21
Fig. 8.62. Schematic circuit diagram indicating the inductance of the
coil leads and induction coil itself: Li,L3-1ead inductances; L2-induc-
tion-coil inductance; Cl-tank capacitance; Ex-tank voltage
ing area. A better design (Fig. 8.63b) minimizes this gap and thus improves
heating efficiency. Figure 8.64 also shows single-turn, multiplace coils with
an extremely poor and an improved lead design.
Another factor to consider is the interaction of the leads with nearby metal
structures. Because all leads have some inductance, they can act as work coils.
Thus, a conductor placed within their field will be heated. Leads placed adja-
cent to metal structures will tend to heat them. In addition to unwanted heat,
this loss reduces the power available to the load. It is important that lead-to-
lead separation be minimized and proximity to metallic structural members
be considered. Whenever possible, duct housings, trays, or conduits must be
of low-resistivity or insulating materials, such as aluminum or plastic.
(a) (b)
Fig. 8.63. Effect of coil-lead spacing on lead inductance; closer spac-
ing, as in (b), reduces lead inductance and thus power losses (from
F. W. Curtis, High FrequencyInduction Heating, McGraw-Hill, New York,
1950)
CoilDesign and Fabrication 237
Typical Lead Design

Induction heating lead designs typically make use of water-cooled copper
plates or tubes.
When coil voltages are low (___800 V), a low-inductance structure known
as a fishtail is often utilized. A fishtail (Fig. 8.65) consists of a pair of par-
allel copper plates which are water cooled to maintain low resistivity. They
are placed with their wide bus faces parallel and are either separated physi-
cally with air as an insulator or held together by nylon bolts and nuts with
teflon or a similar material acting as a spacer. Extending from the heat sta-
tion to a point as close as possible to the operating area of the work coil, they
present m i n i m u m inductance and provide m a x i m u m power at the coil.
Depending on conditions and construction, efficient runs of approximately
5 m (15 ft) are practical. The thickness of the copper plates should be con-
sistent with the frequency, as noted in Table 8.2, and cooling-water paths and
sizes must be consistent with the power being transmitted as well. The cop-
per plates should increase in width with generator power and the distance of
the run. Moreover, they should be spaced as close together as possible with
only enough space for proper insulation to prevent arcing.
i Excessivineductance
Fig. 8.64. Lead construction for multipiace inductors; lead design in (b)
is preferable because of lower lead inductance (from F. W. Curtis, High
Fig. 8.65. Photograph of a radio-frequency two-turn coil with a liner,

showing fishtail-lead construction (source: Lindberg Cycle-Dyne, Inc.)
As the coil inductance increases (e.g., as the number of turns or the coil
diameter increases), lead length becomes less critical, and plain copper tub-
ing leads then become more practical. However, larger coils also require
higher terminal voltages. These leads must also be kept as close as possible
to each other while maintaining sufficient spacing to prevent arcing. However,
good practice still dictates that coil leads be kept to a minimum length and
that copper tubing sizes be used that are consistent with frequency, current,
and cooling requirements.
Rigid leads, whether tubing or bus, built to the above guidelines are inher-
ently more effective than flexible, water-cooled cable. In some cases, however,
it is absolutely necessary to use flexible connections. There are several vari-
ations in flexible leads, but it must be kept in mind that the inductive lead
losses in flexible cables are usually much greater than those for rigid connec-
tions. The most c o m m o n flexible lead is generally used in applications simi-
lar to tilt-type induction melting furnaces and consists of a water-cooled,
spiral-wound inner conductor (similar to BX cable, but made of copper) with
an outer insulating covering. These leads are used in pairs with one for each
lead connection. Not only must they be sized for current and frequency, but
the insulation must be capable of handling the voltage rating of the system.
To keep lead inductance to a minimum, four flexible cables should be used
where possible (with similar polarities opposite), and the flexible leads should
be tied together with insulating straps.
Coaxial leads are also available and may be rigid or flexible. They consist
of an inner conductor and an outer sheath or housing which is also used as
the return conductor. This outer sheath is generally at ground potential. In
addition to providing an extremely low-inductance lead, the outer ground acts
to eliminate possible strong radiation or inductive coupling to adjacent struc-
tures.
(a)
(b)
Fig. 8.66. Semiflexible coaxial cable used to transmit power between
medium- or low-frequency power supplies and heat stations: (a) cross
section of coaxial cable and (b) cable "broken out" for assembly (source:
American Induction Heating Corp.)
Fig. 8.67. Water-cooled flexible coaxial cable used in radio-frequency

induction heating to connect the inductor to the power supply (source:
L. C. Miller Co.)
Rigid coaxial lead is generally quite expensive and is usually limited to those
applications where it is imperative to transmit high power at high frequency
over some distance. A more recent development is the semiflexible solid co-
axial cable (Fig. 8.66). It is used to connect medium- and low-frequency gen-
erators to remote heat stations. Composed of an outer layer of heavy copper
conductor and an inner core of many small-gage wires, it can be pulled like
regular cable and requires no conduit.
A third type of coaxial cable is the water-cooled type generally used at radio
frequencies (Fig. 8.67). It consists of a low-inductance, braided inner conduc-
tor which runs through a water-cooled tube and an outer return braid which
is also water cooled. This construction is generally utilized with medium-to-
high-inductance coils because its construction does not greatly minimize induc-
tance but does provide flexibility. This last type of lead is most common when
the operator must physically move the coil from part to part as in bottle
sealing.
Chapter 9
Flux Concentrators, Shields,

and Susceptors
To a large extent, the induction coil and its coupling to the workpiece deter-
mine the precise heating pattern that is developed. However, it is often desir-
able to modify this pattern in order to produce a special heating distribution
or to increase energy efficiency. At other times, the high heating rates char-
acteristic of induction are needed for processing of nonconductors. Three
broad methods of accomplishing such objectives are described in this chap-
ter. They make use of devices known as flux concentrators, shields, and sus-
ceptors. Flux concentrators and shields are used to modify the field of
magnetic induction (thereby shaping the heating pattern) or to prevent aux-
iliary equipment or certain portions of a workpiece from being heated, respec-
tively. Susceptors are materials which are readily heated by induction and
which subsequently are used to heat electrically nonconductive materials
through radiation or conduction heat-transfer processes.
FLUX CONCENTRATORS
When placed in an induction field, magnetic materials tend to gather the

lines of flux. Such materials are said to have high permeability. On the other
hand, nonmagnetic materials (e.g., copper, aluminum, etc.) do not exhibit
this property when placed in a magnetic field; thus, their permeability is equiv-
alent to that of air. In induction heating design, the relative magnetic perme-
ability, or the permeability relative to that of air, is of importance. The
relative magnetic permeability of air is assigned the value of one. By contrast,
magnetic materials have relative magnetic permeabilities from approximately
100 to 1000, depending on the strength of the magnetic field in which they
are placed. Above the Curie temperature, however, they lose their ferromag-
netic properties, and their relative magnetic permeability drops to unity.
Flux concentrators are magnetic materials which are utilized to gather the
241
flux field set up during induction heating and thus to modify the resultant
heating pattern. The means by which this is accomplished is illustrated in
Fig. 9.1. Here, it can be seen that a flux concentrator in the form of a perme-
able iron core causes distortion of the flux field surrounding the induction
coil. The permeable material presents an easier path for the flux lines; thus,
they concentrate in the permeable material. By concentrating the field and
providing a better path, stray flux can be used to advantage. Because the volt-
age generated in an induction heated workpiece is proportional to AO/At, or
the time rate of change of the number of lines of flux passing through the
part, a greater number of flux lines leads to a higher voltage and therefore
larger eddy currents in the workpiece.
Materials for Flux Concentrators

Materials for flux concentrators are of two basic types: (1) packages of
laminated silicon steel punchings used at frequencies below 10 kHz, and (2)
Flux field with

single-turn coil
Flux field with

single-turn coil
and permeable core
Fig. 9.1. Concentrating effect of a permeable core on a magnetic flux
field
Flux Concentrators, Shields, and Susceptors 243
ferrites or powdered iron combinations for higher frequencies, including those

in the radio-frequency (RF) range.
The laminations for low- and medium-frequency concentrators are usually
of the same grain-oriented silicon steel used for high efficiency in power trans-
formers and electric motors. Such steels would tend to heat dramatically in
the magnetic field were it not for the fact that they are in the form of a lami-
nated structure. By this means, the eddy-current paths are minimized to keep
losses low. The thickness of the individual laminations should be held to a
minimum. Generally, below 3 kHz, the laminations should be on the order
of 0.38 mm (0.015 in.) each. At 10 kHz, a thickness of 0.20 mm (0.008 in.)
is used. The laminations have a highly oxidized or phosphated surface which
acts as insulation between the layers, thereby electrically isolating each for
maximum efficiency.
At RF frequencies, powder metallurgy (PM) materials and ceramics are gen-
erally used because the particle size of the permeable material must be very
s m a l l - i . e . , on the order of 40/zm (1.57 mils) each. Since these must be iso-
lated from each other, they are usually sintered compacts of magnetic powders
which may consist of ferrites or similar components. By design, they have a nar-
row hysteresis loop for low loss, low cohesive force, and a high flux density at
low field strength. Most of these materials are brittle and require grinding or
special machining to fit the application. However, some new materials which
are both flexible and machinable have recently been developed (Fig. 9.2).
Fig. 9.2. Flux concentrators made from a machinable form of ferrite

that are used for induction heating applications (source: R. S. Raffini
and Associates, Inc.)
Because all flux-concentrator materials conduct flux at high densities, there

is some loss generated as heat within their structures. Generally, the lamina-
tions in the coil area are cooled by virtue of the fact that they are in contact
with the coil. In high-power-density situations, it is important therefore that
the coil water-cooling system be designed to handle and remove this additional
heat.
With the ferrites used at RF frequencies, the problem becomes somewhat
different. Although the magnetic particles heat, they are insulated from each
other by a ceramic binder which also provides good thermal insulation. Con-
sequently, although the outer surface of the flux concentrator may be cooled
adequately, the inner particles may continue to increase in temperature.
Accordingly, when flux density is high and high duty cycles are employed, the
inner portions of these materials may attain temperatures above their capa-
bilities and fail in service. They should therefore be designed only for systems
in which they can be readily replaced.
Application of Flux Concentrators

Flux concentrators, whether laminations or ferrites, should be located
directly in or on the coil. For example, placement in the center of a pancake
coil collapses the over-all field to provide a higher density at the coil surface
(Fig. 9.3). In the same manner, insertion of a concentrator in a helical coil
collapses the end flux outside the coil center. These lines then provide a
higher-density field closer to the coil surface.
Size and location of concentrators can effectively control the heating pat-
tern. Figure 9.4 shows the effect of varying the width of a laminated concen-
trator on the length of a heating pattern. With RF systems, the same type of
control can be achieved using ferrite flux concentrators. In addition, ferrites
can sometimes be loaded into the core of an output-impedance-matching
transformer to increase its efficiency. However, water cooling of the core
material in such a high-density field is difficult, and, unless the duty cycle is
low, ferrite life will be very limited.
SHIELDS
In many cases, the flux field surrounding a conductor may produce heat
where it is not desired. For instance, the field at the end of a coil (which is
effective at distances up to 1½ times the coil diameter) may heat the parts of
an adjacent loading mechanism. As another example, stray flux may heat the
center boss on a gear blank while the teeth are being hardened. Similarly,
when separate and independent coils are placed adjacent to each other, as in
a long forging line, the end-effect fields of the coils might cause interaction.
It then becomes necessary to provide a means of cancelling or shielding these
fields from the affected parts or from each other. Devices known as shields
are used for this purpose.
Flux C o n c e n t r a t o r s , Shields, and S u s c e p t o r s 245
Flux field
around a
pancake coil
around a
pancake coil
with a flux
concentrator
Fig. 9.3. Use of a flux concentrator in the center of a pancake coil to

increase the amount of magnetic flux at this point and thus the over-
all heating efficiency
Shield Design
Shields are flat or formed pieces of sheet metal whose thickness is not less
than four times the depth of penetration of the shield material at the partic-
ular frequency used in the induction heating application. Because of its thick-
ness, the shield will absorb the total field to which it is exposed.
As discussed in Chapter 2, the depth of penetration is proportional to the
square root of the electrical resistivity. Therefore, highly conductive materials
(e.g., copper and aluminum) are used as shield materials even at low induc-
tion heating frequencies. At 10 kHz, copper sheet which is 2.5 m m (0.10 in.)
thick is sufficient to act as a shield. At 450 kHz, copper as thin as 0.61 m m
(0.024 in.) can be used reliably.
The power absorption into a shield from the electromagnetic field is a func-
tion of its permeability and resistivity. Copper, with a permeability of # = 1,
will absorb approximately 30 to 50 times less power than mild steel in the
same field. However, some power is always absorbed, and water cooling of
the shield may be necessary under some circumstances.
Typical Applications of Shields

Much like flux robbers (Chapter 8), most shields form simple eddy-current
loops or minor modifications thereof. Typical of these designs is the end plate
shown in Fig. 9.5. It is used on a forging-line induction coil to prevent the

fields of adjacent inductors from affecting each other. The plate is fabricated
o f nonmagnetic stainless steel. Design o f the current path involves splitting
o f the closed loop and provision of a larger circuit with annular slots, thus
increasing the resistance and decreasing the respective current. In this way,
shield heating is greatly minimized.
Shields may also be used where a high-power-density field used for harden-
ing might change the metallurgical structure o f adjacent areas on a part. For
example, a copper shield is often used to protect gear teeth while a boss is
being tempered (Fig. 9.6). Similarly, in Fig. 9.7, a collar is used to protect
the shoulder on a shaft while the part is hardened.
Along I-I
(a)
¢:-:: :-;.:.: : :::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: : :.l
(b)
(c)
The short pattern in (a) can be widened, as in (b), by increas-
ing the number of concentrator laminations. An even wider con-
centrator pattern (c) provides deeper heating at the edges of the
part.
Fig. 9.4. Effect of flux-concentrator design on induction heating pat-
terns (from M. G. Lozinskii, Industrial Applications of Induction Heat-
ing, Pergamon Press, London, 1969)
Shields provided for reducing the end-heating effect on large-diameter coils

may also be of the split-current-loop design. In those instances in which the
end turns of the coil cannot be short circuited to collapse the field (Chapter 8),
a split shield may be separately mounted (Fig. 9.8). Coils and shields of this
type are often used in large steel chambers for sintering in vacuum or atmo-
sphere. In these circumstances, the flux field surrounding the coil may also
heat the vessel. The same high-permeability laminations that are used for flux
concentrators can be used to prevent the field from heating the vessel. Spaced
at intervals around the coil, and running its full height, the laminated stacks
(Fig. 9.9), here referred to as "flux diverters," provide a path that directs the
field away from the wall of the vessel.
Shields for RF applications are somewhat different in their requirements.
Because radio waves travel in straight lines, shields cannot be split but must
fully encompass the current-carrying conductor. Aluminum or copper shields
over transmission lines or high-impedance coils must be fabricated with either
interlocking surfaces at right angles (Fig. 9.10) or tightly mating surfaces using
conductive gaskets held together with many screws. In either case, the elec-
trical contact must be very good.
SUSCEPTORS
A susceptor is a material which is heated as a result of its presence in the
induction field, then passes its heat to the workpiece by conduction, convec-
Fig. 9.5. End plate on an induction coil used to heat forging preforms
that acts as a shield to prevent interaction of the magnetic field with
an adjacent coil (source: American Induction Heating Corp.)
\"-k Itj r , J /
Fig. 9.6. Shield used to protect the hardened surface of a gear while
the shoulder on the gear is being tempered (from M. G. Lozinskii, Indus-
tion, or radiation. It is used where the workpiece cannot be heated to the

desired temperature directly by induction. Because it is solely a source of heat
and is not part of the process itself, a susceptor must exhibit certain prop-
erties:
1. It must be readily heated by induction to the process temperature.
2. It must be inert with regard to the process.
3. It must be readily formable or machinable.
Typical uses for susceptors at high temperatures occur in the semiconductor
and fiber-optic industries where silicon, germanium, gallium arsenide, zirco-
nia, etc. are heated to high temperatures. These materials have extremely high
resistivities, almost to the point of being insulators at frequencies below
8 MHz. At extremely high temperatures and high frequencies, these materi-
als can be induction heated, but they first must be brought to these temper-
atures.
Susceptor Materials
The most c o m m o n susceptor material in induction heating applications is
graphite. It has been used successfully as a susceptor material at temperatures
up to 3000 °C (5430 °F). Having a fairly high resistivity, graphite presents an
ideal load to the power supply. The material is readily machined (Fig. 9.11 ),
and can be purchased in the form of a barrel, a cylinder, a boat, or other
shape that is suitable for a specific application. Graphite also comes in a num-
ber of grades. The specific type for each application must be determined in
Heating without a shield Heating with a shield

(a) (b)
Fig. 9.7. Shield used to prevent heating of a shoulder on a shaft while
the remainder of the shaft surface is being hardened (from M. G. Lozin-
skii, Industrial Applications of Induction Heating, Pergamon Press, Lon-
don, 1969)
Fig. 9.8. Split shields used to reduce stray magnetic flux at the ends
of a large induction coil; laminations on the vessel wall act as flux
diverters (source: American Induction Heating Corp.)
Fluxdiverter Stainlesssteelvessel
(runsfull length
of v(
Split
(only
end ofat ~ 7
vessel) ~'
Fig. 9.9. High-permeability laminations used to divert the magnetic flux

field and thus prevent stray heating within a stainless steel vessel
(a)
~ ~ / ~ / / / _ / ~ , RFI gasket
7
~ ' ~ RFI gasketon
(b) I I bare metal
surface
Fig.9.10. Design of shields for RF applications to prevent radio-
frequency interference (RFI).Joints or seams that interlock (a) are
preferable to lap joints (b)
coordination with the supplier. In addition, there is a form of material called

pyrolytic graphite, which, depending on the plane at which it is machined, acts
as an insulator rather than a susceptor. Because it is a form of graphite, it will
withstand the operating temperatures required of other graphite susceptors.
In some semiconductor operations, a carbon-graphite susceptor is contained
in a matching receptor (or cover) of pyrolytic graphite. This receptor acts as
insulation to reduce the losses from the susceptor to the atmosphere.
Graphite oxidizes readily. If it is operated in an oxygen environment, it will
deteriorate. For this reason, it is generally used in applications where air is
not present, as in a vacuum or where a protective gas is used either as part
of the process or specifically to protect the susceptor. In semiconductor pro-
cessing, in which the susceptor must be acid etched occasionally to remove
secondary materials, the graphite is protected by a silicon carbide coating.
In some operations, such as sintering of iron-base PM products, in which
carbon can contaminate the workpiece, molybdenum is a common susceptor
material. Although considerably more expensive than graphite, it has excel-
lent electrical and mechanical properties for induction heating applications.
It is also inert to most processes. Molybdenum is generally used in a hydro-
gen atmosphere and, in larger systems, can be used for sintering high-temper-
ature materials such as tungsten or molybdenum.
Typical Applications of Susceptors
As mentioned above, susceptors may transfer the heat generated in them
to the workpiece by processes such as conduction and radiation. When this
heat transfer occurs by conduction, the susceptor and the workpiece may both
form a part of the final product. For example, when steel tanks are coated
with glass, the body of the vessel is heated by induction. This in turn passes
its heat to the glass flit, which then flows to provide the final glass coating.
Fig. 9.11. Range of sizes and shapes of graphite susceptors used in

induction heating applications (source: GTE Products Corp.)
oo ooooo /
Induction coil Ceramic pipe
I I
I I Fluid flow
Susceptor I I
I I
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Fig. 9.12. Illustration of the application of susceptors for heating elec-
trically nonconductive fluids flowing through ceramic or glass pipes.
The susceptors are heated by induction, and the fluid by conduction
of heat from the suscaptors
In chemical processing, conductive piping can be used as a susceptor to

transfer heat directly to the process fluid. Generally these are low-frequency
systems in which the pipe is heated with line-frequency coils wrapped in a low-
temperature insulation. Air cooling may be sufficient for the inductor in these
cases. In some instances, it is necessary to heat fluids passing through pipes
of nonconducting materials such as glass or ceramics. A susceptor of suitable
material, coated to prevent interaction with the process, may be suspended
in the fluid path (Fig. 9.12). This in turn is heated by an inductor on the out-
side of the pipe, transferring its heat to the process material by conduction.
Susceptors need not have high resistivity if they meet the other requirements
of the process. Accordingly, aluminum foil is the basic susceptor material in
packaging where it is used to transfer its heat to a plastic coating such as poly-
ethylene for making seals.
Although the susceptors discussed above essentially transfer heat by direct
conduction to the workpiece, some applications use radiation to provide a
noncontact method of heating for special processes. In one instance, high tem-
peratures are used in the continuous production of carbon fibers. The material
itself cannot be heated directly by induction due to its small diameter. The
filament is passed through a graphite tube, which is induction heated. The
filament then, in effect, is passing through a high-temperature muffle, and
is heated by radiation from the interior walls of the tube.
A final application involves the manufacture of optical fibers from quartz
using a zirconia susceptor. The dependence of the resistivity of zirconia on
temperature is such that it cannot be induction heated efficiently below 870 °C
(1600 °F). Hence, it is radiation heated to this temperature by an auxiliary
graphite susceptor, after which it is heated directly using a radio-frequency
(3-MHz) induction power supply.
Chapter 10
Materials Handling
Because of its speed and ease of control, induction heating is a process

which is readily automated. It can be integrated with other processing steps
such as forming, quenching, and joining. Hence, the past several decades have
seen the development and marketing of a large number of completely auto-
mated heating/handling/control systems by induction equipment manufac-
turers. Power supplies, coil design, and controls for these systems have been
covered in previous chapters. This chapter deals with materials handling and
automation. Basic considerations such as generic system designs, fixture mate-
rials, and special electrical problems to be avoided are summarized first. This
discussion is followed by a description of typical materials-handling concepts
and illustrations of specific applications.
BASIC CONSIDERATIONSIN MATERIALS HANDLING*
Part Movement Through Induction Coil

The design of the coil and workpiece often suggests methods of material
handling. For example, it is easy to visualize continuous motion of parts
through, into, or under solenoid, pancake, or channel coils (Fig. 10.1). Sim-
ilarly, indexing arrangements involving either movement of a discrete part into
a fixed coil or movement of the induction coil about a stationary part may
be used (Fig. 10.2). Stationary coils frequently allow shorter electrical leads
from the power supply, accommodate coaxial leads, and are therefore pre-
ferred. However, part geometry or other design considerations may necessi-
tate coil motion (e.g., the arrangement in Fig. 10.2b). The movements that
are required in either type of design (part moving or coil moving) are generally
short. They are normally implemented using simple hydraulic or pneumatic
systems actuated electrically. The hydraulic type is thought to be more reli-
*H. U. Erston and J. F. Libsch, LepelReview, Vol 1, No. 16, p 1.
253
254 Elementsof InductionHeating:Design,Control,and Applications
Channel-type
inductioncoil
Ladderconveyor
Part Stationaryinductioncoil
\ /
- l l l
Phosphorbronzespnng (c)
(a) Support
Magazinefeed
Inductioncoil ~ ~
Continuousq, nch~ ID'~I:I
a r t.. . i Pu/her
Q
(b)
(a) Continuous movementthrough a channel-typecoil. (b) Peri-
odic movement through a solenoid coil. (c) Continuous move-
ment under a pancake coil.
Fig. 10.1. Material-handling arrangements involving a fixed coil and
moving parts (from H. U. Erston and J. F. Libsch, LepelReview, Vol 1,
No. 16, p 1)
able because the quality and quantity of the air supply used to power pneu-
matic drives may not be consistent.
Frequently, automatic handling involves another important requirement,
namely the delivery of the part in the correct position at the correct instant
in time. Among the delivery techniques are automatic conveyors with ingen-
ious pickups, magazine feeds, and rotary tables. Tooling for a specific appli-
cation can often be constructed about a standard unit using conventional
movements such as:
• Geneva driver. This type of indexing machine, electrically or air operated,
is most useful for heavy workpieces requiring large-diameter rotary stations.
• Barrel-cam driver. This is a high-speed, motor-driven indexing device that
has nearly zero blacklash. It has better accuracy and acceleration charac-
teristics than the Geneva driver. If the required heating time is to be longer
than the dwell time of the constantly turning indexing cam, an electromag-
netic clutch should be used in conjunction with the programmer.
• Air-operated ratcheting-type indexing turntable. Positive stopping of this
kind of device can be improved by equipping it with a hydraulic damper.

Materials Handling 255
Stationaryinductioncoil
i";
/ Inductioncoil I~---~i '
~~'t~ Part Part
x\ ~ _l~
~ng~ Holding
i r~l.~/~r~
fixture \ i.~1~
"X~t.~ i
Indexing Liftingmechanism
mLi (b) turntable
(a)
RFelectrical ,~
contact ~Xr~\
Double-endedslidingfixture Split-ty~:ingedcoil \ v~(~\
StationaryinductioncoilPa~ - \\
(c)
(a) Part movement into a fixed coil. (b) Coil movement over
parts on an indexing turntable. (c) Double-ended sliding f'Lxture.
(d) Split-type hinged coil.
Fig.10.2.Indexing arrangements for handling-fixture design (from
H.U. Erston and J. F. Libsch, Lepel Review, Vol 1, No.16,p 1)
Materials for Handling Fixtures
Automation of induction heating processes usually involves continuous
feeding of parts into or through the induction coil and auxiliary equipment.
Typically, this involves handling of individual pieces in some sort of fixture.
Because the electromagnetic field extends beyond the coil, fixtures made of
electrically conducting materials (e.g., steel) may be heated also, leading to
a costly loss of energy. For this reason, fixture materials such as aluminum,
which heats less readily and which is easy to cool, and nonconducting mate-
rials are frequently used. Some typical selections for these types of applica-
tions are listed in Table 10.1.
In some induction heating applications, such as end heating of bars, parts
can be held in place far from the coil, thereby permitting irons and steels
to be used in fixturing. On the other hand, in operations such as soldering

and brazing, bonding of the fixture to the workpiece as well as the cor-
rosive and cumulative effects of fluxes must be considered. Aluminum, ti-
tanium, and some nonmetallic materials have been found useful in these
instances. In addition, when the fixture must precisely locate the components
Table 10.1. Structural materials for induction heating fixtures (from H. U. Erston
and J. F. Libsch, Lepel Review, Vol 1, No. 16, p 1)
Material Characteristics and comments
Nonmetals
Diamonite(a) Aluminum oxide; very hard, dimensionally stable; standard
and special shapes; resists high temperatures
Epoxy Fibre Coil-mounting supports; good electrically; also useful for
Glass FF91(b) soft soldering to about 230 °C (450 °F)
Transite II(c) Work-table tops; heat resistant; avoid for coil supports
(electrically poor)
Mycalex, Various grades; useful for high-temperature coil supports;
Supramica(d) special shapes available
Silicone rubber Molds accurately; flexible; useful for soft soldering to 315 °C
(RTV)(e) (600 °F)
Fired Lava(f) Easily machinable before firing; good heat resistance; less
strength than Diamonite
Nonmagnetic Metals(g)
Aluminum alloys Fixture base plates, work tables; useful for soft soldering
(does not bond)
Brass (free Supporting screws, locators adjacent to coils, sinks, etc;
machining) corrosion-resistant pins; quench and recirculating tanks
Titanium Useful for positioning of parts to be silver brazed; does not
stick
Nichrome Excellent high-temperature strength; oxidation resistant;
used for locating and holding of parts
Inconel alloys Useful for locating parts, radiant (susceptor) heating of thin
materials
Magnetic Metals(g)
Low-carbon steel Structural members; cabinets; work tables
Alloy steel Moving parts of fixtures subject to wear
(hardenable)
Stainless steel Moving parts of fixtures subject to wear and corrosion
(hardenable)
(a) Diamonite Products Div., U.S. Ceramic Tile Co. (b) Formica Div., American Cyanamid
Co. (c) John-Manville Co. (d) Mycalex Corp. of America. (e) Dow-Corning Co. (f) American
Lava Corp. (g) Materials listed are available from a number of manufacturers.
of the assembly to be joined, careful attention should be given to the ther-

mal expansion coefficients of the workpiece and fixture.
The induced heating of tooling near the coil, which may not necessarily be
a part of the fixturing, should also be taken into account. Inadvertent cou-
pling between the field of the coil and a conductive loop in the tooling is a
c o m m o n error. It can be avoided by breaking the conductive path with insu-
lation at a convenient point in the tooling.
Use of Controlled Atmospheres or Vacuum*
Despite the rapid heating associated with induction methods, it is sometimes
necessary to utilize a controlled atmosphere, be it inert, reducing, oxidizing,
or vacuum. Applications requiring such precautions include vacuum melting
of special alloys, brazing of stainless steels, and thermal processing of silicon
and germanium in the semiconductor industry.
When the parts to be heated are relatively small and few in number, they
may be processed inside a bell-jar fixture. If a reducing atmosphere such as
hydrogen, which is explosive, is used, the bottom of the bell jar is left a short
distance above the work table. Under normal operating conditions, this allows
slow escape of excess gas. Furthermore, if the gas is fed to the top of the fix-
ture, it may be lifted to remove a finished workpiece and to put a new one
in its place without loss of atmosphere, particularly when the atmosphere is
composed of a light gas such as helium or hydrogen.
Because induction heating is frequently localized, other simple methods of
providing a controlled atmosphere in the heated area are often satisfactory.
For example, a quartz or refractory tube can be used to maintain an atmo-
sphere. The arrangements shown in Fig. 10.3 enable continuous movement
of parts to be heated under controlled atmosphere through the induction coil.
In Fig. 10.3(a), brass parts are brazed in a forming-gas atmosphere; the com-
ponents, properly located in ceramic holders on a turntable, pass through the
channel coil and are cooled in the atmosphere before exiting from the cham-
ber. An elevator-pushrod arrangement for moving parts continuously through
a controlled atmosphere is depicted in Fig. 10.3(b). Lighter-than-air gases
such as helium or hydrogen are introduced at one elevator and flow through-
out the elevator-ceramic tube system. With suitable inversion of the fixture,
heavy gases may also be used.
Sometimes the coil a n d / o r holding fixture itself can be used to introduce
or contain the controlled atmosphere, as shown in Fig. 10.4. While these
arrangements may not provide perfectly controlled atmospheres, they are
sufficient for many applications.
When a controlled atmosphere is used, the amount of gas required is typi-
cally very small. However, the cooling effect of the gas should not be over-
*Anon., Lepel Review, Vol 1, No. 10, p 3.

Controlled Induction
atmosphere coil Ceramic tube
cha
im~,~ , Air-operated pushrods
./
, II
J I
Ceramic jig
with part
p~q
Out I -- ~,r-o~era,(e,eva,or~~ In
valves
(b)
(a) Brazing of brass watchband clips without flux in a forming-
gas atmosphere. (b) Fixture using an elevator-pushrod arrange-
ment.
Fig. 10.3. Methods for continuous movement of parts through a con-
trolled atmosphere during induction heating (from Anon., LepelReview,
Vol 1, No. 10, p 1)
Pyrex tube
I_1
I
()
II I/ll
i~ I I J L I1 InductiOncoil ~ ~ support tube
l Platinum (b) Gas inlet

crucible
Metal ~k~,~ J/~'
Induction coil
/ \ Gas retainer secondary Gas retainer
Gas outlet Insulation pedestal
(a)
~/,J//~///~,//~" Sttubing
asteel
i nIess
Copper tube
Glass tube
Silver
brazing /
alloy
I~ Induction
coil
e%
Gas inlet \
A
Brazed joint
(d)
Nickel can
Steel
pedestal
U
\
Hydrogen
(c)
(a) Coil and fixture forming a chamber for an argon atmo-
sphere. (b) Quartz tube-conical coil arrangement for providing
a localized protective atmosphere. (c) Atmosphere introduced
through a support fixture. (d) Single-turn induction coil and
retainer plates providing an atmosphere chamber for brazed
joints.
Fig. 10.4. Adaptations of coils and holding fixtures for introduction or
containment of controlled atmospheres (from Anon., Lepel Review,
Vol 1, No. 10, p 1)
looked. Often, this necessitates an increase in power to maintain the same

production speed as that employed under an ambient (air) atmosphere.
MATERIALS HANDLING IN INDUCTION BILLET

AND BAR HEATING
Handling of stock for induction heating prior to forging, extrusion, and

other fabrication processes usually involves equipment for unloading of cut
preforms, for feeding of the stock through the induction coil or coils, and
finally for discharging of the heated material into the fabrication area. Typical
devices for each operation are shown in Fig. 10.5. They include the following:
• Loading: magazines, hopper feeders, bundle unscramblers, and random-

loaded hopper feeders
• Feeding: dual opposed chain, hydraulic or pneumatic charge cylinders,
walking beams, and drive rolls
• Discharging: extractor forks, power rolls, vee rolls, gravity chutes, and
robots.
Load
Fig. 10.5. Typical methods of material handling in automated induction

heating operations (source: TOCCO Brochure DB-2032-8-80, Ferro Corp.)
In most cases, the over-all handling system must be flexible enough for
heating of billets or bars with greatly differing transverse dimensions. In the
case of circular billets, for example, it is usually required that one unit be
capable of heating stock whose diameter varies by a factor of two to three.
At the same time, it must be capable of heating billets of various lengths.
Feed Mechanisms
Loading and discharging equipment is usually selected on the basis of billet
or bar geometry. In contrast, a number of different mechanisms can be used
to perform the same feeding task. These include continuous, walking-beam,
and billet/bar end heaters.
As their name implies, continuous feed devices (Fig. 10.6) are used to heat
the entire length of a series of bars or billets. The stock is pushed through a
series of coils by variable-speed pinch rolls. Semiautomatic and fully auto-
matic systems are also available. With semiautomatic feeds, bars or billets are
pushed from a manually loaded magazine, for instance, by a hydraulic or
pneumatic cylinder. They are pushed end-to-end through the induction coils
£
/f
,f
(
(a)
(b) I ) I "~
o[~ ) "'I )4L _ b

xJ I
(c) L
Fig. 10.6. Generic continuous in-line heater (a) and semiautomatic (b)
and fully automatic (c) versions of it (source: Inductoheat)
, /
/, l
f
(a)
(bl
Fig. 10.7. In-line (a) and transverse (b) walking-beam feed devices
(sources: Indnctoheat, Westinghouse Electric Corp.)
and, upon exiting, move to the forging, extrusion, or other station under the
force of gravity. In a fully automatic system, loading and unloading of work-
pieces is done automatically.
Walking-beam feeding of bars or billets (Fig. 10.7) is accomplished with-
out touching of consecutive pieces. At the loading end, individual workpieces
are placed on a loading vee by a hydraulic pusher, magazine, or other means.
A second device then loads the billet or bar onto the walking beam, where it
is "walked" through the line by a series of lifting, horizontal transfer, and
lowering motions into consecutive vees in the guidance system. Each motion
is actuated through a dependable mechanical-linkage system. The last billet
comes through by itself, eliminating shutdown scrap. Walking-beam feeds
are of two basic designs. In an in-line heater (Fig. 10.7a), the bar or billet
axis is parallel to the feed direction. With a transverse walking-beam heater
(Fig. 10.7b), the material feed is transverse to the axis.
S
(a)
(b) ~ ~ ~
Fig. 10.8. Oval-coil (a) and conveyor-type (b) bar.end heaters
Feed mechanisms of the third t y p e - t h o s e used for applications involving

heating of bar e n d s - c o m e in a number of forms. The two most common are
the oval-coil feeder and the conveyor-type bar-end heater. Loaded from a
magazine, bars in an oval-coil feed machine (Fig. 10.8a) are pushed one at
a time into the upper end of an inclined-oval inductor. They roll down as
previously loaded bars reach the aim temperature and are pushed out by
another device to the forming machine. The zig-zag motion that the bar fol-
lows gives rise to an alternative designation for this d e v i c e - a Z feeder.
Conveyor-type bar-end heaters (Fig. 10.Sb) make use of a channel induction
coil. Magazine-loaded bars are removed by carriers onto a belt. U p o n mov-
ing through the coil, the end is progressively heated to the required forming
temperature.
Feed-Mechanism Selection Criteria

Each of the various feed mechanisms has advantages and disadvantages that
must be considered during system design. The continuous systems offer the
following advantages:
• The mechanical feed device is very simple whether it is driven hydraulically
or by compressed air.
• The rate at which workpieces leave the coil line can be easily changed by
regulating a timer.
• The equipment is inexpensive.
On the other hand, continuous lines suffer from the problem of billets sticking
together. Furthermore, heating along the axis of the bar or billet may be non-
uniform if its length is not a multiple of the active length of the inductor. Cau-
tion must also be taken when billets become shorter, lines longer, and peak
temperatures higher; under these conditions, the tendency for line buckling
increases, and consideration should be given to walking-beam feed mecha-
nisms which totally eliminate problems of buckling and sticking together of
parts.
Other advantages of the walking-beam method include reduced mainte-
nance and wear of the coil refractory lining and individual support/guide rails.
However, it has two basic drawbacks. First, the inside diameter of the induc-
tor must be greater than that required by other systems with the result that
the efficiency decreases. Secondly, the over-all cost of the feed system is con-
siderably greater because of its complexity and because of the extra guides
needed along the transport path.
One other design feature that must be considered with regard to feed equip-
ment is related to the feed rolls, guide rails, or supports that may hold the
workpieces in place. Feed rolls are used for heating long bars. When guide
rails are used (such as for very short pieces), either two or four are usually
required (Fig. 10.9), depending on the cross-sectional geometry of the material
being heated. These rails are usually constructed of steel tubing which is water
cooled, although high-temperature superalloy and nonmetallic (refractory)
guides, which are not water cooled, are also in wide use. The number of
guides should be kept to a minimum because they tend to absorb part of the
thermal energy developed in the system through radiation, conduction, and
convection, as well as energy due to induced eddy currents if they are metallic.
Keeping the diameter of the guide rails as small as possible helps in minimizing
such energy losses.
MATERIALS HANDLING IN INDUCTION

HEAT TREATMENT
Handling of materials during induction heat treatment, be it hardening,
tempering, or another process, depends to a great extent on part shape. How-
. ........ :......'.....: .,..

R J
:.'.'..-~'.. ......
,....."
bo o " m • i
.'. BIO
.....
~ I ~ f t
:
. 0 .. .t , " - .'.'' ,
R~ J s
• °- Oo ° - ° o ° ° . a o
ii
• ° .° • , . • , ,o
..... ,-: .---..~

II
G G G
S-Induction coil. R-Refractory insulation. G-Guide rail.
Fig. 10.9• Cross sections of common induction coil-guide rail arrange-
ments used in bar and billet handling (from C. Dipieri, Electrowarme
Int. B, Vol 38, No. 1, February, 1980, p 22)
ever, handling devices can be broken into two major categories: those de-
signed for continuous parts of regular cross section, and those for discrete
parts which typically preclude continuous in-line feeding. Several typical han-
dling schemes are discussed next and illustrated with examples. It should be
borne in mind, however, that the kinds of equipment for induction heat treat-
ment are innumerable. New fixtures are constantly designed to fit new and
unique applications.
Continuous Heat Treatment
For parts of regular cross section such as round bars and tubes, materials-
handling systems very similar to those described above for induction heating
prior to hot working are employed. These systems include loading, feeding,
and other equipment. The only major exceptions pertain to added stations
needed for quenching or air cooling or to integration of austenitizing and
quenching stations, for instance. Several examples discussed below illustrate
typical setups of continuous induction heat treatment lines.
Continuous Heat Treatment of Bars and Shafts. Because of high-volume pro-

duction, the continuous heat treatment of automotive parts such as shafts
is readily carried out by induction heating processes. One such line, de-
veloped by Westinghouse Electric Corporation,* is shown schematically in
Fig. 10.10. It includes an automatic handling system, programmable controls,
and fiber-optics sensors. Mechanically, parts are handled by a quadruple-
head, skewed-drive roller system, abbreviated QHD, after being delivered to
the heat treatment area by a conveyor system. The roller drives, in conjunc-
tion with the chuck guides, impart rotational and linear motion to the incom-
ing workpiece. Once a part enters the system, the fiber-optics sensor senses
its position and initiates the heating cycle for austenitization. This sensor is
also capable of determining if the operation is not proceeding normally (e.g.,
if the part is not being fed properly) and can automatically shut down the
system.
In the hardening cycle of the QHD system, the induction generator frequency
is generally either in the radio-frequency range (approximately 500,000 Hz)
for shallow cases or about 3000 to 10,000 Hz for deeper cases. In either
instance, a temperature controller automatically senses if the part has been
heated to too high or to too low a temperature in order to prevent an im-
properly austenitized piece from passing through the system. Assuming that
the part has been heated properly, it then passes through a quench ring which
cools it to a temperature of 95 °C (200 °F) to form a martensitic case prior
to its movement into the tempering part of the heat treatment line. Again, a
fiber-optic system senses the presence of the part and begins the heating cycle
using low-frequency current generally around 3000 Hz, because the desired
tempering temperature is approximately 400 °C (750 °F), or a temperature
at which the steel still has a large magnetic permeability. Once again, the part
is automatically heated, quenched, and moved from the heat treatment station,
this time onto a conveyor which takes it to the machining area for grinding.
*E. Balogh, Heat Treating, Vol 14, No. 9, 1982, p 33.

Supportbase Temperature Induction

Skewedheadassembly Adjustablechuck Skewed sensor heatingcoil
Mainframe '~X \ rollers / ,,/ Adjustable
Outfeed / Infeed
conveyo , conveyor
' - - -
F:uOt;~o/ai ~ Materialflow
H RFcontrol
I~L~achine°/ operating
- -~ , H20quench / ~i and fault
finder
I control I Part-presentfiberoptics
I( Temperingsection ,~ Hardeningsection
Fig. 10.10. Automated, quadruple-head, skewed-drive roller system used
for in-line induction hardening and tempering of automotive parts (from
E. Balogh, Heat Treating, Vol 14, No. 9, 1982, p 33)
AC relaypanel
DCrelaypanel I Main
/
contactors
SCR / Triplers
TrrannSftra~ind Triplers~ [=] [=7 D D D D ~/"
/ Controlpulpit ~ 180-cycle
qqqqq -- heating stations
le0-cycle ~ I
temperingcoils 180-cycle Coolingbed heatingcoils
heatingstations andexittable Entrytable
Pipe enters from the right, is austenitized, quenched, drained,
and tempered. Following tempering, the pipe is transferred to
cooling beds for air cooling.
Fig. 10.11. Schematic illustration of equipment used for in-line induc-
tion through hardening and tempering of pipe-mill products (from R. M.
Storey, Metal Progress, Vol 101, No. 4, April, 1972, p 95)
Continuous Heat Treatment of Line Pipe. Probably the largest application of induc-
tion through hardening and tempering is for piping or tubular goods used for
oil wells and gas pipelines. In a typical installation, such as that at Lone Star
Steel* (Fig. 10. l 1), processing is conducted on a continuous line on which the
steel is austenitized, quenched, tempered, and finally cooled to room temper-
*R. M. Storey, Metal Progress, Vol 101, No. 4, April, 1972, p 95.
r
Inductor
Stitcher
Tension leveling line

first bridle
-I
I
Floor level
Air knives
Quench
Fig. 10.12. Schematic illustration of a transverse-flux induction heat

treatment line used for processing of aluminum alloy sheet (from R.
Waggott, et al., Metals Technology, Vol 9, December, 1982, p 493)
ature at successive stations. In this system, pipes are loaded onto an entry
table and fed onto the conveyor as soon as the heat treatment of the pipe pre-
ceding it is completed. As each pipe passes through the austenitizing station
(consisting of five coils), it is rotated on skewed rollers to ensure temperature
uniformity. Also, because only a small portion of the pipe is heated at one
time, distortion is readily controlled.
After austenitizing, the pipe enters the quench ring several feet down the
line. Upon drawing the water off, it then moves to the tempering station. Fol-
lowing tempering, the pipe continues along the conveyor to cooling beds. It
is rotated during the entire cooling cycle to ensure straightness and lack of
ovality.
Continuous Heat Treatment of Sheet Metal. High-speed continuous heat treatment

of thin sheet metal is also possible using induction heating techniques. It is
most economical with a technique known as transverse-flux induction heating.
In this method, eddy currents circulating in the plane of the sheet are set up
by a magnetic flux field perpendicular to the sheet. A typical sheet-handling
system* for carrying out the processing is shown in Fig. 10.12. Coiled sheet
*R. Waggott, et al., Metals Technology, Vol 9, December, 1982, p 493.

stock is fed from a payoff reel through a stitcher, which allows continuous
processing of consecutive coils without line shutdown. The sheet is then
guided through the inductor at a constant speed by a set of drive rolls. The
inductor is mounted on wheels to allow automatic alignment of the sheet
within it. The drive rolls also provide front and back tension to help main-
tain sheet flatness. After being heated, the sheet is quenched and then dried
by a set of air knives. U p o n exiting the line, the material may be coiled, fed
into a leveling line, or routed to a subsequent processing station for coating
or some other operation. Because the gage may vary, and to account for small
variations in sheet speed, the line is also fitted with thickness and speed mon-
itoring devices whose signals are fed into a controller which adjusts the induc-
tor power to maintain the desired temperature.
Heat Treatment of Discrete Parts

Parts which are irregularly shaped or which are selectively heat treated usu-
ally cannot be processed on a continuous basis. In these cases, special fixtures
or handling techniques are required. Some of the most c o m m o n devices
include special scanning and single-shot equipment, indexing turntables, rotary
tables, and robots, which are briefly discussed below.
Shaft Hardening. Single-shot and scanning equipment is used widely in the

automotive industry for hardening of various kinds of shafts either along their
entire length or selectivity. In a typical vertical induction scanning device, two
to six parts are loaded manually in a group of spindles. Each is then simul-
taneously heated and quenched by an individual scanner. Preset variables con-
trol the scanning speed and the areas to be hardened. The power is also
controlled by preset parameters, as are the quench cycle and the need for part
rotation. Parts are then unloaded manually. Nowadays, however, robots
(Fig. 10.13) are being used with vertical scanners to eliminate the manual
operations.
If in-line automatic processing is preferred over manual operation of a ver-
tical multispindle device, shafts can be heat treated one at a time in a horizon-
tal single-shot or scanning device.* In one setup, shafts are fed to the machine
by a horizontal conveyor or walking-beam device. Here they are picked up
between centers and chucked into a four-station turret. The flange of a typical
shaft is clamped in a three-fingered, rotating chuck, while the spline end is
supported by a rotating center. A center is also provided at the flanged end,
but this only aids in the pickup and initial locating operations; it is retracted
as soon as the flange is chucked. The shaft remains clamped throughout the
machine cycle until it is unloaded. After the initial loading, the shaft is
indexed to the next station, at which a single-shot nonencircling inductor
*H. B. Osborne, Proc. Eleventh IEEE Conference on Electric Process Heating in Industry,
IEEE, New York, 1973, p 59.
moves over the rotating part, heating it to the desired temperature. A guide
shoe on the inductor maintains the proper air gap between the inductor and
the part to ensure uniform heating and to minimize distortion. The rotating
center at the spline end automatically compensates for thermal expansion as
the shaft is heated by applying a fixed load. After being heated, the workpiece
is indexed to a quenching station for the actual hardening operation. The
fourth, and final, station is another quench which removes any residual heat.
Following these operations, the shaft is unloaded by a walking beam onto a
conveyor which then transfers it to the tempering unit, which may be a sim-
ilar induction-based unit or a gas furnace.
Fully automatic, horizontal shaft hardening by scanning methods is also
popular. Some of these devices allow loading and scan hardening of multi-
ple workpieces without operator assistance. This is made possible by careful
design of walking-beam feeding systems and parts chucking in the heat treat-
ing equipment.
indexing Turntables. A popular machine for automated handling and heat treat-
ing of small parts is the rotary indexing turntable. Parts are loaded into an
elevated hopper that feeds the machine along an inclined steel track. Various
fixtures can be designed to locate the parts when they are dropped onto the
table as well as to hold them in place. This is particularly important for main-
tenance of precise distances between the part and an induction coil or an ejec-
tor (which may be used to push the parts into a quench tank) at various stages
Remote quench
T\
Power supply
II
',\
1 /
!I V
Power supply
L/
',\ I
Input-output conveyor
Robot
Robot
console
~
Fig. 10.13. Schematic illustration of an automated heat treatment cycle
including two vertical induction scanning units, a quench station, and
a part-handling robot (from P. J. Miller, Heat Treating, Vol 14, No. 5,
May, 1982, p 40)
during the processing sequence. Often the first stage in such a turntable con-
sists of some sort of checking device. It detects improper loading and is elec-
trically interlocked so that indexing can be stopped if a mislocated part, which
might damage the induction coil, is present. These machines often have very
high o u t p u t s - s o m e t i m e s as high as several thousand parts per hour.
Indexing devices also find use in tooth-by-tooth hardening of gears.
Rotary Tables. Rotary tables, without indexers, also find application in induc-
tion heat treating of small parts. In this instance, a number of parts are usu-
ally loaded into a groove or nest on the periphery of the table and their ends
are heated by a channel-type coil as the table rotates. One application, the
hardening of 20-mm armor-piercing projectiles,* is illustrated in Fig. 10.14.
The table is water cooled from beneath. The overhead induction coil is flared
outward at its lower edge to prevent excessive heating and thus hardening of
the lower portion of the projectile.
As the table carries the projectiles from beneath the coil, they are tipped
into a tank which provides an agitated water quench. The agitation also causes
the parts to be transported along a helical ramp toward a discharge opening
onto a second chute. Here, the projectiles are dropped into a perforated barrel
revolving in a soluble oil. This likewise has a helical partition which finally
elevates and drops the workpieces by gravity into a tray for stress relief in a
batch furnace.
Robots. The development of flexible manufacturing systems and automation

in general has come about in large measure because of industrial robots. In
induction heat treating, robots are now used to transport, load, and unload
parts as well as to perform unpleasant tasks such as quenching.
The application of robots can be illustrated with a heat treating process for
internal ring gears described by L o t h . t Following a washing stage, a robot
first loads the gear in an induction preheating stage. After being heated to
345 °C (650 °F), the part is transported by robot to the second, or final, heat-
ing/austenitizing station. At the completion of this heating cycle, it is auto-
matically lowered into a quench tank. Next, the gear is transferred by robot
to a two-stage washer to remove the quench oil from the part prior to the tem-
pering operation. Again, the robot takes the part to the tempering station,
after which it removes it and places it onto a conveyor leading to a machin-
ing area.
The use of robots for part handling/manipulation is sure to increase as the
"vision" and tactile capabilities of such machines are developed more fully.
*Anon., Lepel Review, Vol 1, No. 2, p 8.

tR. W. Loth, Production, Vol 89, No. 4, April, 1982, p 80.
Ejected shot to quench ~
Ejector finclers I [
760 mm (30 in.)
Rotating joint I
Water out I
I
I
i2:!
Stationary bench Heating coil
\ I
I
i
• "~"" .......... ,, 'l~-
~L''I ~,,
Sprocket drive Water in

Rotating joint
Section A-A
Fig. 10.14. Plan and cross-sectional views of a rotary table arrange-
ment used in induction heat treatment of armor-piercing projectiles (from
Anon., Lepel Review, Vol 1, No. 2, p 8)
MATERIALS HANDLING IN INDUCTION SOLDERING

AND BRAZING
Soldering and brazing, like heat treatment, frequently involve induction
heating of discrete parts. Often these parts are very complex in geometry.
Thus, materials-handling considerations in these instances consist primarily
of design of special jigs to hold one or a series of components in place while
they are being heated for the joining operation. Several examples from the
Lepel Review* illustrate the kinds of designs used; in practice, however, each
induction brazing or soldering application requires its own specially designed
fixture.
Solderring
. ~ , ~ , ~ Induction
""~1 ~ coil
Fig. 10.15. Nest fixture used in induction soldering when the preform
is difficult to hold in place; the nest also permits component alignment
prior to joining if preassembly is inconvenient (from J. Libsch and
P. Capolongo,Lepel Review, Vol 1, No. 5, p 1)
Figure 10.15 depicts a ceramic or fiberglass nest used to position solder pre-
forms employed in joining of the components of capacitor cans by induction
heating. The small nest is designed to fit into the inductor and to provide
proper positioning of the parts to be joined by a close fit with the capacitor-
can contour.
Several concepts for carrying out multiple soldering operations sequentially
or simultaneously are shown in Fig. 10.16 and 10.17. Figure 10.16 shows a
turntable with a conveyor-type coil used to join parts on which solder and flux
have been previously placed. The components are moved continuously through
the coil at a previously determined speed in order to bring the joint area to
soldering temperature. Alternatively, the turntable may be set up with an
indexing fixture in cases for which the heat must be localized. With this type
*J. Libsch and P. Capolongo, Lepel Review, Vol 1, No. 5, p 1.

Fig. 10.16. High-production induction soldering fixture utilizing a turn-

table and conveyor-type coil which allows continuous part movement;
the inset shows an indexing arrangment for applications where local-
ized heating is required (from J. Libsch and P. CapolongooLepelReview,
Vol 1, No. 5, p 1)
of arrangement, the coil is automatically raised during indexing and lowered

prior to the beginning of the heating cycle.
Figure 10.17 shows a multiple-position fixture for induction soldering of
four assemblies at once. After the parts to be soldered have been placed in
a jig, the jig is closed. Pressure pins located in the top of the fixture are uti-
lized to force each tube into proper position in the flange when the preplaced
solder melts.
A last example, one involving induction brazing, is illustrated in Fig. 10.18.
This is a simple, manual arrangement for brazing gold rings to settings with
a gold brazing alloy. The ring and setting are held in position by a spring-
loaded fixture constructed of an insulating material such as transite. There
is also a split nickel alloy liner surrounding the workpiece, but inside the coil.
The liner is induction heated to a temperature determined by its thickness;
however, it does not prevent the setting assembly from being induction heated
as well. Therefore, the ring/setting components are brazed as a result of both
induction and radiation heating.
Pressure
by spring-
loaded pins
/ Tube
Solder
Induction
ring / coil
lange X
Fig. 10.17. Multiple-position fixture for soldering of four assemblies

at once; pressure pads ensure proper component positioning during
induction soldering; the sketch at bottom illustrates positions of induc-
tion coil and solder ring (from J. Libschand P. Capolongo,tepel Review,
Vol 1, No. 5, p 1)
MATERIALS HANDLING IN OTHER INDUCTION

HEATING PROCESSES
Two other induction heating processes in which material handling plays an

important role are welding and melting. The fabrication of high-frequency
induction welded tubing has been discussed in Chapter 6 on design guidelines.
For this product, process design and material handling must be considered
together. Induction welding can also be used for manufacture of structural
shapes. Among the advantages of this process are the ability to form parts
whose individual sections are relatively thin and the ability to make structural
members whose components are of different metals. The former attribute is
especially attractive in comparison with conventional hot rolling methods, in
which rolling loads increase dramatically with increases in reduction and

decreases in section thickness.
An arrangement for continuous welding of H sections is shown in Fig. 10.19;
similar setups can be envisioned for other shapes such as T's, channels, and
various asymmetrical shapes. As shown in the figure, slit strip is fed into the
line from a series of uncoilers. Several series of rolls orient the strip. Before
the strip enters the welding station, the edges of the web might be upset or
another operation carried out on some or all of the individual strips. Some
systems are also flexible enough to enable H sections with thick flanges to be
fabricated. For such a product, the two coils supplying flange material are
removed from the line and individual pieces of flange metal are fed automat-
ically, one immediately after another, into the weld station by a magazine-
type device. After passing through the welding area, the structural member
is scarfed, cooled, cold straightened, and cut to length.
In conventional induction melting in air, the type and weight of charge
materials and the furnace cycle time influence the size of magnets, cranes,
Steel spring
/
/
Transite
Split Inconel
liner
~ Thermal
insulation
Induction
double-layer
coil
Gold ring
and setting
Fig. 10.18. Hand-operated fixture for brazing of jewelry settings to gold

rings by induction methods (from J. Libsch and P. Capolongo, Lepel
Review, Vol 1, No. 5, p 1)
I
K
G
F
Weld I ~,
S'r o ing
conta~ station
A-uncoilers and flatteners. B-cut flangefeeder. C-web upset-

ter. D-flange prebender. E-welder, one each side. F-cooling
zone. G-straighteners,longitudinaland flange. H-cutting saw.
I-runout and takeaway. J-scarfing. K-flange joint finder.
Fig. 10.19. Schematic illustration of facility utilizing high-frequency
welding for fabrication of structural members (source: Thermatool)
hoists, and charging buckets that are required for materials-handling pur-
poses. A simple large charge may require very large and expensive handling
equipment that might be in use only a few minutes each hour. It is therefore
preferable to charge induction furnaces with two or more buckets which can
be stored until the furnace is ready to accept them.
As discussed by Alexander,* there are several major problems associated
with the charging of either coreless or channel furnaces. These problems com-
prise the following:
• The risk of refractory damage due to heavy metals hitting the furnace lin-
ing. Very heavy solid charge materials should be placed carefully into the
furnace bath and usually require handling by either an open magnet or
some form of sling or caliper device to ensure that they are lowered into
the molten metal rather than dropped. The same is true if the furnace is
empty. Heavy scrap should be lowered to the bottom carefully to prevent
*A. P. Alexander,"ChargeMaterials Handling,"ModernCasting TechnicalReport No. 734,

American Foundrymen'sSociety, Des Plaines, IL, February, 1973.
damage to the refractory lining. To prevent wash of the lining when charg-
ing a furnace with molten metal, a layer of dry, solid scrap should be placed
in the bottom first.
• Metal splashing due to materials being dropped into a molten metal bath.
Because of this hazard, very little charging is done by hand or by opera-
tors in cranes directly over an induction furnace. Use of a tilting bucket on
the end of a mobile crane is the preferred method. Typically, this involves
loading of scrap into a chute which leads down to an opening in the fur-
nace. An alternative device is the drop-bottom bucket, consisting of a heavy
shell with a lifting yoke at the top and petal-type or clamshell doors at the
bottom. The doors are opened by the crane operator or by gravity when
the bucket is placed on the furnace.
• Explosions due to water or oil entrapped in the charge material and car-
ried below the surface. Preheating of the charge to a temperature between
260 and 315 °C (500 and 600 °F) eliminates this problem.
To avoid these and other problems, conveyors and special drying equipment
for scrap are being used increasingly in induction furnace charging operations.
Conveyors may be of the vibrating type, the fiat-stroke type, or the belt type.
Charge materials can be spread out uniformly and charged at a given, con-
stant rate to prevent the furnace from being overfilled. Rotary barrel driers
for preheating and drying of scrap prior to loading onto a conveyor are also
increasing in popularity.
ROBOT DESIGN
With the increase in factory automation, the use of robots in induction
heating is becoming more widespread. The main elements of a robot are gen-
erally a pick-and-place mechanism and its associated controls.* These con-
trois can be a part of the robot package itself (programmable robot) or can
be derived from software contained in a remote or integrated CAM (com-
puter-aided manufacturing) system. The main advantages of programmable
robots include easy setup and the ability to unload parts from a variety of
devices such as conveyors, in-line bar feeders, etc.; such devices are used in
machining, inspection, and various types of induction heating and heat treat-
ing cells. In contrast, parts must be palletized in CAM-controlled robots. This
disadvantage is often outweighed by high production rates, easy start-up, and
good reliability. The main features of robot design, irrespective of whether
it is programmable or CAM controlled, are its drive mechanism, its arm con-
struction and motions, and its precise method of control and programming.
These features are discussed by Faber and Welch and by Bobart.1-
*M. R. Faber and G. P. Welch, Industrial Heating, Vol 53, No. 7, July, 1986, p 24.
tG. F. Bobart, "Part Handling Systems and Process Control," Lesson 8, ASM Induction
Heating Homestudy Course, ASM International, Metals Park, OH, 1986.
Robot Drive Mechanisms

Robot drives are generally of three types: pneumatic, hydraulic, and elec-
tric. The pneumatic type is best suited for fast cycle rates in the processing
of light loads. In contrast, hydraulically driven robots are most often utilized
for heavier loads (e.g., induction billet heating) which do not require rapid
part motions; the use of such robots may involve special start-up provisions
to bring the hydraulic fluids to the proper operating temperature. Electrically
driven robots are being used increasingly because they can handle moderately
heavy loads at high speeds with good part-positioning accuracy.
Robot Tooling Systems and Motions

All robots use one or more arms in order to handle parts within a pre-
scribed area. Often, the system consists of one, two, or three arms; the selec-
tion is based on application requirements*:
• One-arm robots usually have no rotational capability and are used in low-
production situations.
• Two-arm robots generally are used in medium-to-high-production applica-
tions, particularly in induction heat treatments involving integral or sub-
merged quenching.
• Three-arm robots are used in high-production multistage heating/heat treat-
ing or in heat treating using multiple zones. A schematic illustration of a
three-arm robot with 90 ° wrists and gripper rotation is shown in Fig. 10.20.
Often the end "effector" of a robot arm is designed with several grippers
or hands in order to load and unload several parts at a time. Hands are usu-
ally custom designed for the application and can be cam, cylinder, or elec-
trically actuated. The gripping action is typically achieved by stationary,
moveable, or self-aligning jaws or fingers; by electromagnetic pickup plates;
or by vacuum cups.
The application also determines the kind of motion that the robot arm (or
wrist) must perform. These motions may rely on cylindrical, spherical, revo-
lute (jointed), or rectangular (Cartesian) coordinate systems.
Control and Programming of Robotsl"

Control techniques for robots include nonservo-controlled point-to-point,
servo-controlled point-to-point, and servo-controlled continuous-path systems.
The first of these is the simplest kind of system, utilizing relay logic control
and limit switches for part location.
The other two (servo-controlled) systems use feedback devices such as opti-
*M. R. Faber and G. P. Welch, Industrial Heating, Vol 53, No. 7, July, 1986, p 24.
I"G. F. Bobart, "Part Handling Systems and Process Control," Lesson 8, ASM Induction
Heating Homestudy Course, ASM International, Metals Park, OH, 1986.
Power supply
(50 kW, 10 kHz)
Position sequence
Open grippers ~
Close grippers.
Dwell. Raise. l i Wrist 'A'
Rotate wrist
'A' 90° Rotate arm 90 ° T
f l m ' ~ .....~ / Pick-and-place
\
Entry conveyor
f • ~,'\ - '
mecnan,sm
Lower ~ F
Open grippers. Raise.

Wrist,A, ~ // lJl "'~
I / ~ Quench
Rotate wrist 'A' 90° ~ ~ tank
Rotate arm 90°
counterclockwise. t O0ec'ce;t?ert° /
Open gripper at 45 °
to reject part t
chute
Lower to
repeat cycle
Fig. 10.20. Robot design including three arms, 90 ° wrists, and grip-
per rotation (from M. R. Farber and G. P. Welch, Industrial Heating,
Vol 53, No. 7, July, 1986, p 24)
cal encoders, resolvers, tachometers, and potentiometers to maintain the

velocity and position of each axis and thereby to provide a feedback control
signal. In point-to-point servo systems, control is programmed by storing dis-
crete points in the robot's memory, which are then used subsequently to carry
out the desired sequence of motions. A hand-held pendant with separate but-
tons for each axis of motion is normally used to "teach" the program to the
robot.
Continuous-path servo-controlled systems are similar to point-to-point sys-
tems except that more extensive data storage is involved, usually in a mem-
ory storage system such as a cassette or floppy disk. Another difference lies
in the method by which the robot motion is taught. In continuous systems,
the end of the arm is grasped and led through a pattern of motions while the
control system continuously samples and records feedback data from the axis-
position sensors. Most often, applications requiring high speeds a n d / o r con-
trol of five or more axes of motion (e.g., induction heat treating and brazing)
employ continuous-path servo-controUed systems.
Chapter 11
Special Applications of
Induction Heating
In a large number of applications, induction heating is utilized to raise the

temperature of a metal prior to forming or joining, or to change its metal-
lurgical structure. In most cases, the induction process is chosen over other
methods of heating because of special features such as:
• The ability to provide surface or localized heating
• The ease of control of the heating rate and heating cycle
• The ability to obtain very high processing temperatures
• The ability to heat the workpiece inside a nonconductive vessel which holds
a protective atmosphere
• High energy efficiency and good process repeatability.
Recognizing that these are rather unique properties, induction heating should
be viewed, therefore, as a specialized heating technique rather than as a m e t a l
heating process p e r se. In this chapter, some of the special applications of
induction heating which make use of the above features are summarized.
These include applications in the plastics, packaging, electronics, glass, and
metal-finishing industries.
INDUCTION HEATING APPLICATIONS IN THE PLASTICS

AND RUBBER INDUSTRIES
Applications of induction heating in the plastics industry include bonding

or forming of plastics, coating of metals, and salvage operations. Some typical
examples are discussed below.
Bonding and Forming of Plastics

Many plastics such as polyethylene cannot be bonded using conventional
adhesives. However, they can be joined by being heated and flowed under
281
Fig. 11.1. Polyethylene assembly with a steel ring insert that is joined
using induction heating (source: Lepel Corp.)
localized heating conditions. To accomplish this, a susceptor (Chapter 9),
which becomes a part of the final assembly, is often used. For example, inser-
tion of a wire ring in a special cavity of the assembly permits the use of induc-
tion for local heating of the area to be joined. Toilet-tank floats have been
made in this manner (Fig. 11. I) by using a steel wire ring inserted where the
two float halves join. Placing the wire ring in an induction field causes it to
heat rapidly. This in turn melts the adjacent rims of the plastic hemispheres,
causing them to form a plastic-to-plastic bond. In this technique, proper joint
design ensures that the metal ring is fully encompassed by the plastic at the
completion of the operation, precluding subsequent rusting of the wire. If it
is desired to heat the plastic more slowly, a gap can be left between the ends
of the metal ring.
In a similar approach, the application of localized heat to thermoform-
able plastics may be employed to create a mechanical bond. Typically, the tang
of a metal kitchen utensil such as a knife or a fork (Fig. 11.2) is heated to
the flow temperature of the plastic handle to which it is to be joined. The
heated tang is then inserted in the predrilled or premolded handle, melting the
adjacent material and forming a strong mechanical bond on cooling. If holes
or ridges are provided on the tang, greater mechanical strength can be ob-
tained through the ability of the plastic to flow into these areas. Twisted wire-
handle brushes, similar to bottle brushes, are assembled in this manner as
well. The plastic is deformed on contact with the heated wire, causing it to
match the ridges in the twisted wire handle.
At other times, the metal susceptor does not remain a part of the final
assembly but is used solely as a means of supplying heat to a plastic preform
which is to be shaped. As an example, catheters for medical treatment are
Special Applications of Induction Heating 283
Fig. 11.2. Application of induction heating for attaching knife and brush
handles (source: Lepel Corp.)
formed of inert plastic tubing and must have specific shapes at their ends so
that they can be coupled to intravenous or similar types of apparatus. In these
instances, a stainless steel forming die is fabricated with internal channels for
water cooling (Fig. 11.3). In operation, the die is heated by an induction coil
on an automatic forming machine. When the die is raised to the forming tem-
perature of the plastic, the tubing is mechanically pressed against it. Thereby,
the tubing assumes the shape of the die. The induction power is turned off
and the die water cooling system is activated to cool the plastic and thus set
it in its new shape. Because these dies are normally rather small, most
machines of this type heat and form multiple parts simultaneously.
In some instances, it is not possible to insert a metal ring or preform into
an assembly where the deformation is carried out. The technique described
above for forming of catheters can then be utilized with a movable die. In this
case, the die is heated by induction. When it is at proper temperature, it is
then moved through the coil and pressed into the assembly to deform the plas-
tic. Induction heating is preferred to resistance heating of the die because of
Work coil
OC~O00 Water-cooled die
It
I,//[//////////~
~, r
t//11/1////1/~ Water cooling
Plastic catheter tubing
0 0 0 0 0
Fig. 11.3. Schematic illustration of induction heating method used to
form catheter ends on tubing
its capability for rapid heating. Unlike resistance, it can provide the die with
a high recovery heating rate for high-production applications. Typically, glass
lenses are staked in a lens tube (Fig. 11.4) using a die that is slightly larger
than the ID of the plastic tube.
0 0
Induction coil
0 Die (up position)
0 0
0 0
0 0
Die (staking
position)
Plastic lens-
J
support tube
Fig. 11.4. Schematic illustration of induction technique used for stak-

ing of lenses in plastic tubes
Plastic Coatings
Application of plastic coatings (epoxy, vinyl, nylon, teflon, etc.) on met-
als results in parts with attractive combinations of strength and wear resis-
tance, thermal and electrical insulation, corrosion resistance, and aesthetic
qualities. Typically, the coating material is in powder form and is suspended
in a fluidized bed by an air-flow system (Fig. 11.5). The material to be coated
is raised to the temperature necessary for reflow of the coating material by
induction methods, and, as it is passed through the bed, the powder melts on
the surface of the part. The thickness of the coating is dependent on the metal
temperature among other variables. When induction heating is used in such
applications, only the surface of the metal need be brought to temperature,
as compared with standard oven techniques, in which the entire mass is
heated; thus, efficiency is greatly improved.
During coating of thin materials, temperature is lost in transporting the
material from the oven to the bed containing the plastic. Because the induc-
tion coils being water cooled are at low temperature, they can therefore be
placed directly in the bed. The material is then heated in the coating medium
with no subsequent heat loss during transport, and coating can be closely con-
trolled. Again, if localized coating is required, as on the handles of hand tools,
scissors, etc., the heat and thus the coating can be restricted to a specific area.
Thermosetting materials can also be applied electrostatically to the base
metal, as is done in the manufacture of coated anchor chains. Unlike the
methods described above, the dry powder is given a negative charge as it exits
Adiustablp. wry.rich
Epoxy fluidized bed
Epoxy layer
Induction coil
Fig. 11.5. Setup for epoxy coating of tool handles in a fluidized bed
using induction heating (source: Lepel Corp.)
Fig. 11.6. Photograph of a processing line for induction curing of a poly-

imide film on wire (source: Lepel Corp.)
from a spray gun and is attracted to the positively charged metal being coated.
The part is passed through an induction heating coil of proper frequency with
a suitable power density, which results in heating of the powder and excel-
lent flow characteristics.
In each instance, the thermal conductivity of the coating plays an impor-
tant role in the process. Because heat is transferred to the powder by conduc-
tion from the metal surface, the extent of heat transfer from the substrate to
the powder decreases as the powder thickness increases. Coating thickness is
therefore limited by the properties of the plastic itself.
Similar techniques are employed in insulating electrical conductors using
polyemide film or tape. The high-temperature resistance of the polyemide
film, which is applied in the form of high-integrity tape heat sealed to the con-
ductor, permits thinner insulation than was previously possible. In this case,
because the material will not bond directly to copper, one or both sides of the
tape are coated with a fluorocarbon resin to provide a heat-sealable surface.
The over-all arrangement of equipment for continuous processing of insulated
conductors is shown in Fig. 11.6 and 11.7. It consists of equipment for
continuously transporting the conductor and tape; an arrangement for me-
chanically and chemically cleaning the conductor; dual-lead tape-wrapping
machines; an RF induction generator with infrared temperature control; and
Dual-headwrapping
machineanddrive
Radiant Induction Transport ~ Air-blastdryer
Water, heaters heater \ I ~. / Detergentbath ,,,.
quenc~ ~ ~ \ t'~ ~ / / Wirebrush straigVVh;eners
Wind~up ~ /' / I ~,~ Un~t~n~ng
Fig. 11.7. Schematic diagram o| the processing line for induction cur.
ing shown in Fig. ! 1.6 (source: I.epel Corp.)
radiant heaters for final curing, if desired. A 40-kW RF generator operating

at 450 kHz heats the wire conductor to approximately 300 °C (570 °F) at a
speed of 5 m / m i n (15 fpm). The infrared radiation pyrometer focused on the
conductor at the exit end of the work coil continuously monitors the temper-
ature of the wire. It can thus be used to control the power of the induction
generator to maintain a specific processing temperature.
Salvage Operations
When coated materials have exhausted their useful life, the base-metal
structure may still have considerable value and can be salvaged. Printing rolls,
vibration eliminators, and doffer disks on cotton machinery are typical of
assemblies that can be usefully and economically salvaged with induction heat-
ing. For example, Fig. 11.8 depicts a coil that is used to heat 152-cm- (60-in.-)
diam printing rolls for this process.
In practice, the part is placed in a work coil (Fig. 11.9), and the heat pro-
duced solely on the surface of the metal breaks the bond at the interface
Fig. 11.8. Induction heating arrangement used to strip 152-cm (60-in.)

printing roils (source: American Induction Heating Corp.)
Steel
J insert
I - I
Induction
coil
case \~'[ r~ r~ll~ 1
Rubber...~ ~11~ I~11~
I,n,ng ~ / / ] r~
Fig. 11.9. Typical setup for stripping rubber by an induction heating

method (source: Lepel Corp.)
between the materials. The parts can then be easily separated. Short process-
ing times prevent appreciable heating and, when rubber is the second mate-
rial, deterioration of the nonconductive coating is minimal, allowing both
parts to be saved for reuse.
In the case of printing or drive rolls, the assembly can be heated on a pro-
gressive basis, and the coated cover can be split with a skiving knife follow-
ing the coil. The covering material is thus easily removed, leaving an
essentially clean surface that can be recoated. Rubber linings on brass, alu-
minum, and steel parts can all be reclaimed with this process.
BONDING APPLICATIONSOF INDUCTION HEATING

Several c o m m o n applications of induction heating in the area of joining
include adhesive bonding and setting of metallic-particle gaskets. Adhesive
bonding relies on the localized heating of a metallic substrate to achieve melt-
ing and curing of an adhesive. In a typical example, shafts are bonded directly
to squirrel-cage rotors in the manufacture of small motors (Fig. 11.10 and
11.11). An adhesive with a high-temperature, short-time curing cycle is coated
on the shaft which is inserted in the fixture. The laminated steel rotors are
then placed in position and the assemblies are lifted into a six-place single-
turn coil. The rotors are heated, thus setting the adhesive and precisely locat-
ing the shaft with respect to the rotor. The mechanical position is now set;
however, the full curing time of the adhesive is somewhat longer. Neverthe-
less, the large thermal mass of the rotor continues to cool slowly after this
operation, thus maintaining sufficient heat to fully cure the adhesive as the
parts progress to the next operation.
In the manufacture of copying machines, plastic components are adhesively
bonded to aluminum rotors in a similar operation. Operated by a robot, the
Fig. 11.10. Photograph of multiplace induction coil used for adhesive

bonding of rotors to shafts (source: Lindberg Cycle-Dyne, Inc.)
system uses a single RF generator operating two alternate remote tanks and
bonds both sides of the assembly in approximately 12 s. A similar approach
is utilized in the automotive industry where insulation panels are bonded to
body parts. The induction coil is on flexible leads. The adhesive to be cured
is preplaced on the stamped metal panels. The insulation is put in place, and
Fig. 11.11. Photograph of rotor-and-shaft assemblies being induction

heated during an adhesive bonding operation (source: Lindberg Cycle-
Dyne, Inc.)
the adhesive is activated and then cured by induction heating of the metal
panel at the bond location. In addition, hot melt adhesives can be preplaced
with this technique, allowing them to be located in an earlier operation and
then activated when bonding is desired.
Joining of plastic assemblies using metallic-particle gaskets is similar to plas-
tic bonding using metal rings, described earlier in this chapter. The major dif-
ference in the present case is that a gasket formed of the base plastic is used
rather than a solid metal susceptor (Fig. 11.12 and 11.13). However, the gas-
ket material does contain a dispersion of ferrous particles which serve essen-
tially the same purpose. When placed in the induction field, the ferrous
particles heat, in turn melting the plastic gasket material in order to complete
the bond. The number, size, and dispersion of metallic particles in the gas-
ket material are closely controlled. The operating frequency of the induction
generator is generally 3 to 5 MHz because of the small size of the particles.
Since the current through the coil at these high frequencies is not great, the
7
m
Before welding
L During welding After welding
Fig. 11.12. Illustration of a typical plastic-to-plastic welding applica-
tion using a metallic-particle gasket (source: Emabond, Inc.)
flux field is comparatively weak. The coil must therefore be designed to be

as close to the joint as practical while maintaining minimum over-all coil
inductance.
INDUCTION CAP SEALING AND PACKAGING
The food, drug, and chemical industries require easily assembled tamper-
proof seals that assure users of their products that no contamination has taken
place between the manufacturing site and the place of purchase. Induction cap
sealing is a unique process in which an aluminum disk or seal is bonded to
a product container. These seals can be used with most caps and correspond-
ing containers to provide hermetic bonds suitable for use with foods, drugs,
beverages, alkalis, most acids, oils, organic solvents, and corrosion inhibitors
in liquid, powder, or pellet form. These seals meet the requirements of the
Food and Drug Administration and can be used on containers made of glass,
polyethylene, PVC, and most other thermoplastics, and are suitable for use
with screw-type, snap-on, child-resistant, and other custom closures.
Like most conventional lining materials, such inner seals are supplied in
coiled strips or special shapes, and are handled by conventional cap-lining
equipment. Most have the same basic components: a pulpboard backing, a
wax coating, aluminum foil, and a heat-sealable polyester film coating. This
four-part disk is inserted in the product cap. The container is filled, and the
cap is tightened. The capped container is then passed through a medium- or
high-frequency induction field (Fig. 11.14). The field penetrates the cap and
heats only the outer edge of the foil, melting the polyester coating beneath
it. As the product leaves the induction field, the coating cools, bonding the
Fig. 11.13. Typical parts made with metallic-particle gaskets (source:

Emabond, Inc.)
Fig. 11.14. Schematic illustration of a typical cap-sealing application

in the packaging industry (source: Lepel Corp.)
foil to the lip of the container. When the cap is removed, the waxed pulp-
board remains in the cap to permit resealing after the foil seal has been
removed or punctured. The consumer removes the closure and then peels off
the foil seal to gain access to the product.
Cap-sealing operations are usually continuous, utilizing a channel coil in
a conveyorized processing system. However, low-production operations can
be accomplished using single-turn coils at the ends of flexible leads. In some
cases-particularly with large-diameter seals, for which the heat toward the
middle of a channel coil might be a p r o b l e m - t h e part can be indexed on a
conveyor and the coil lowered into position for the bonding operation.
Tubes for toothpaste, hair conditioner, etc. are also formed from laminated
materials on automated systems (Fig. 11.15). In these operations, however,
the sheet material is wrapped on a mandrel with the end of the sheet over-
lapping the front. A narrow sealing band is required, which could be pro-
duced with a split inductor. However, a single-turn hairpin loop utilizing a
powdered-ferrite core, as shown in Fig. 11.16, is also highly effective. In oper-
ation, the side of the coil is insulated and is mechanically pressed against the
seal area. This places the two sides of the seal in close physical contact while
minimizing the coupling distance from the coil. Sealing times on the order of
0.1 s are achieved with a 3-kW generator operating at 450 kHz.
INDUCTION HEATING APPLICATIONS IN THE

ELECTRONICS INDUSTRY
The ease of control and the localized heating capabilities of induction heat-
ing are widely used in the electronics industry. The manufacture of semicon-
Construction of the SAESA®Tube

Com )onents
Screw cap
~ Screwcap
Barrier cap
Shoulder
Barrier cap
Shoulder
dy
Body
~ Seam
Fig. 11.15. Construction of toothpaste tubes that are assembled using

high-frequency induction heating (source:SAESA/GoodwayTools Corp.)
ductor materials, silicon solar cells, and vacuum tubes are but a few of the
products which make use of this heating technique. These and other appli-
cations are described next.
Zone Refining of Semiconductors

During manufacture of semiconductors, induction heating is used for refin-
ing, doping, and processing of crystalline materials. The high resistivities of
semiconductor materials such as germanium, silicon, and gallium arsenide pre-
clude direct induction heating, however. The use of susceptors, together with
the ability to provide close temperature control by induction, provide specific
benefits in the electronics industry.
In the processing of germanium and silicon, for example, the material must
first be refined to remove impurities. The technique utilized to perform this
function is called zone refining. In this method, the material is incrementally
melted while being gradually moved through an induction coil, thus producing
a narrow molten zone. The impurities tend to remain in the narrow molten
zone, much as slag is formed in conventional melting. Thus they are driven
to one end of the bar as it proceeds through the coil, and the molten zone
stays within the confines of the coil. Successive passes through the induction
coil further refine the product. In operation, a multiturn coil, with sections
counterwound to provide repetitive narrow zones (Fig. 11.17a), produces the
same effect as multipass heating but in a single pass. The degree of refining
is related to the number of passes through the molten zone, within practical
limits. Purities achieved have been reported to be within one part per billion
of electrically active impurities.
In processing of germanium at 950 °C (1740 °F), the material is generally
carried through the coil in a carbon susceptor or boat. During zone refining
of silicon (or gallium arsenide), however, the carbon from a graphite suscep-
tot or boat can contaminate the product. Hence, a process known as float-
zone refining (Fig. 11.17b) is utilized. In this technique, a balance between
the temperature of the molten zone in the rod and its surface tension must
be maintained; thus, no boat is required to support the molten zone. In float-
zone refining, the material can be passed through the coil, or the coil can be
moved along the rod. The molten zone, at 1450 °C (2640 °F), in effect con-
centrates the impurities at the ends of the rod. Because of the extremely high
resistivity of silicon, it cannot be heated with 450-kHz current until it has been
raised in temperature. If a frequency in excess of 3 MHz is used, the mate-
rial may be heated directly. However, preheating of the silicon by a resistance
method can be used to permit power-supply operation at 450 kHz. Due to the
fact that control of zone length is critical, and proper surface tension on the
molten zone must be maintained, automatic closed-loop control of temper-
ature and power is used for this process.
Growth of Semiconductor Single Crystals

After an electronic material has been refined, a single crystal of the prod-
uct must often be grown. The material is placed in a graphite crucible
(Fig. 11.17c), with a quartz liner in the case of silicon and gallium arsenide.
Impurities are added to the crucible in controlled amounts to produce the
Induction
coil
Ferrite
J Seal area
Aluminum/polyethylene to aluminum/polyethylene lap joint
Fig. 11.16. Bonding of aluminum/polyethylenejoints (such as for tooth-
paste tubes) with a high-frequency induction coil and ferrite flux
modifier
desired electrical characteristics. The material is brought to its melting tem-

perature, and a seed crystal of the proper orientation is inserted into the melt,
rotated, and slowly withdrawn. The molten element solidifying on the end of
the seed crystal continues the formation of the single crystal. Temperature,
speed of seed withdrawal, and rotation of the crucible are all critical to the
process and control both the diameter of the crystal and the dispersion of
impurities. The process is temperature controlled on a programmed basis and
is performed in either an atmosphere or a vacuum. An infrared temperature
monitor or a sapphire rod thermocouple system is used to sense and control
the temperature.
Germanium crystals can also be grown by the zone-leveling method, which
employs essentially the same equipment as that used in the germanium zone-
refining method, with a single, oriented, impure seed added to one end of the
Multiturn
induction coils
Moltenzone (in series) Protective
Quartztube / ~ atmosphere
/°
/°
oooo/ Direction of
~Y/'/////.~/ 7.,/_.///.~. ,J~ ~- m o v e m e n t of
I0000 / 00/00 ~ boat

' Carbon boat ~ Pure zone
Impure end Molten zone
Germanium zone refining Rotating rod,

pulling up
Silicon rod
-- Tube
Protective o Seed
atmosphere o
(~ Coil
o
o
o
I1! Crystal
Melt
oo
~ Molten zone Thermocouple
with high o Multiturn coil
surface
tension
t', III o Protective
atmosphere
Silicon refining and Radiation
crystal growing pyrometer
Crystal pulling
Fig. 11.17. induction heating techniques used in processing of semi-
conductors (from J. Davies and P. Simpson, Induction Heating Hand.
graphite boat. The rest of the boat contains purified germanium; as the boat
is pulled through an induction coil, a single crystal of the desired purity is
formed.
The float-zone refining technique for silicon, also called the Czochralski
crystal growing method, is another common technique. Essentially it is a float-
zone method. However, one end of the rod is a perfect crystal of the proper
purity. Moving the rod through the coil, or the coil along the rod, in the
proper direction and at the proper rate causes the material from the molten
zone to solidify and assume the proper crystalline orientation.
Epitaxial Deposition
After a semiconductor crystal has been formed, it is subsequently cut into

wafers, which are then lapped and polished. Using photographic techniques,
multiple exposures of the desired circuitry are produced on the wafers. These
circuits are then etched into the substrate surface. Frequently, an epitaxial
layer of silicon is then deposited on the etched areas, or a reactive material
is deposited by CVD (chemical vapor deposition) methods.
Epitaxial deposition involves heating of the wafer by placing it on a graphite
susceptor within a quartz tube. The temperature is then raised to approxi-
mately 1350 °C (2460 °F), and silicon vapor is passed over the wafer. The sil-
icon is deposited on the wafer in the etched areas and grows in a crystalline
structure.
Originally, epitaxial deposition was performed in a vertical reactor (so
called because of the direction of gas flow) using a disk susceptor with a pan-
cake coil (Fig. 11.18a). Because this is essentially a batch process, it was
desired to design a system by which larger numbers of wafers could be pro-
cessed economically. The first step in this direction was the horizontal reac-
tor (Fig. 11.18b). In this system, a graphite susceptor which typically measures
approximately 10.2 by 76.2 by 1.3 cm (4 by 30 by 0.5 in.) is used. The major
design considerations are as follows:
• The frequency (450 kHz) of the power supply is chosen on the basis of the
thickness of the susceptor for most effective heating. To prevent field can-
cellation, the susceptor thickness must be at least three times the reference
depth. It is desirable to keep this thickness to a m i n i m u m consistent with
efficient heating in order to minimize the cooling time following process-
ing. However, some thickness greater than the reference depth is required
to minimize thermal gradients in the substrate (wafer).
• Power requirements are not determined by the mass of the susceptor as
much as by radiation losses from its free surface. At 1350 °C (2460 °F),
this radiation loss is 40 W / c m 2 (250 W/in. a) for a total loss of approxi-
mately 69 kW for a susceptor of the above dimensions. An additional 10%
allowance for loss to the hydrogen gas must also be made.
f\
old' =~o
o iz II 0
0 n II 0
0 ~L..~/0
(a) b
k
f/~LO o o o o
(b) o o o o
| |
oI II
o/I
0/ l ll,',lr~\,',\ ~u / o
gl p//Ultg\U\~l I~
(c)
(d)
Fig. 11.18. Induction systems for epitaxial deposition and CVD coat-
ing of semiconductors (from S. Berkman, V. S. Ban, and N. Goldsmith,
Hetereepitaxial Semiconductors for Electronic Devices, G. W. Cullen and
C. C. Wang, eds., Springer-Verlag, New York, 1978, p 264)
A further increase in the number of wafers that can be processed at any

one time has been achieved with the design of the barrel or drum reactor
(Fig. 11.18c). Here, the wafers are mounted in pockets on the outer surface
of a cylindrical susceptor. The coil surrounds the susceptor, which is rotated
for uniformity. The susceptor is somewhat conical to equalize gas flow across
the over-all surface. With this technique, it is possible to treat the susceptor
wall (for induction purposes) as a portion of a tube; thus, a frequency of only
10 kHz satisfactorily heats a susceptor of this size without the problem of field
cancellation.
Because more power is drawn from an induction generator while bringing
the susceptor to temperature, a large portion of the heating capacity is left
unused. One means of more fully utilizing a motor-generator system is by
employing multiple heating stations which can utilize the excess power. How-
ever, this is not possible with most solid-state power supplies, which can oper-
ate only one heating station at a time.
Production of Silicon Solar Cells

Conventional methods of growing silicon crystals for solar cells are typi-
cally batch processes. However, the normal crystal-growing technique, in-
volving subsequent wafer slicing and polishing, is too costly for practical
applications. The development of a continuous method of producing inexpen-
sive crystals has been sought as a means of lowering the cost of this material
for solar cells. Continuous ribbon growth using induction as a power source
is thus used as a way of greatly reducing the cost of such substrate materi-
als (Fig. 11.19). In this method, material is melted in a graphite crucible using
induction as a basic heat source. Molten silicon is drawn through a graphite
die by capillary action. Solidifying silicon is pulled upward from the die by
a belt. A similar process eliminates the die by growing a single, continuous
dendritic crystal that is shaped like a dog bone. This crystal is thicker at the
sides than in the middle, which constitutes a mechanically stronger shape.
Hermetic Sealing and Salvage

of Electronic Components
Hermetically sealed enclosures are often necessary for protection of elec-
tronic components. Hermetic sealing generally calls for a continuous solder
seal at the periphery of a metal package. However, it is necessary that the con-
tents be protected from excessive heat while the cover is being soldered to the
assembly. Conventional soldering techniques, which use conduction to seal
the part, are slow, allowing considerable time for heat transfer. Accordingly,
by the time the seal is made, the package contents generally attain a temper-
ature approaching that of the solder and may therefore be damaged.
Induction provides rapid, localized heating that can be introduced at all
areas of the joint simultaneously, thus greatly reducing heat transfer to the
contents of the package. Figure 11.20 shows a typical assembly of a case and
a header that is soldered quickly in a single operation. The coil is designed
to place the greatest amount of heat into the larger mass of the header. A case
vent is provided to allow the escape of heated air as it expands in the case.
If this were not provided, the heated air would vent through the molten sol-
der, preventing an optimal peripheral seal. At the completion of the solder-
ing operation, the vent may be used to introduce a protective atmosphere
before it is sealed. The soldering of the periphery of a semiconductor flat pack
can also be done using induction heating. Because the area to be heated is
greatly restricted, a metallic susceptor is heated by the induction coil. The sus-
ceptor is then pressed against the flat pack to effect a seal. The die (suscep-
tot) is designed to contact the assembly only at the periphery of the cover.
Sometimes it is necessary to open a hermetically sealed assembly for re-
pair or removal of the contents. The metal case may be easily destroyed if
a torch or iron is used, because only one seal area can be heated at a time. By
use of an induction coil, however, the assembly can be heated throughout the
full joint area with the same advantages (rapid, even heating) realized in the
initial sealing operation. Under these conditions, the assembly can be safely
opened, and the case can generally be salvaged for reuse.
Completed ribbon
Inducti ;rucible
heatir
coil.,
olten silicon
Fig. 11.19. Illustration of the use of induction heating in growth of con-

tinuous silicon ribbon (source: Mobil Tyco Corp.)
Induction coil Header

S o l d e r ring
U U
Case
Vent
/
Fig. 11.20. Hermetic solder sealing of electronic case assemblies
(source: Lepel Corp.)
Manufacture of Vacuum Tubes

Induction heating is also widely used in the manufacture of TV and
cathode-ray tubes. It is utilized in outgassing and band sealing (a shrink-fitting
process).
The metallic parts of the tubes are fabricated in an air environment, and
thus oxygen becomes entrapped in the metal. The heat produced by the fila-
ments in such tubes during operation would release this oxygen, thereby oxi-
dizing the metal and reducing service life. Outgassing during production is
thus required. Typically, during outgassing, each tube rests on a rolling cart
which proceeds through a long oven. The cart contains its own vacuum pump-
ing system which exhausts the air in the tube as it proceeds through the oven.
The cart also carries a work coil which surrounds the electron-gun structure
in the tube. This coil is connected by flexible leads and brushes to a length
of buswork which in turn is connected to an induction heating power supply.
The metallic parts contained in the tube are induction heated to 850 °C
(1560 °F) as it travels through the oven, and the entrapped oxygen is driven
off. When the tube exits the oven, it is "tipped off" or sealed to maintain the
vacuum.
After the tube has been sealed, a slight amount of oxygen still remains in
the tube envelope. A small amount of material which rapidly oxidizes at high
temperature, usually barium, is incorporated as part of the assembly in each
tube. This is called a "getter." In a subsequent operation, the getter is heated
Fig. 11.21. Photographof a getter flashing system used in production

of television tubes (source: Lindberg Cycle-Dyne, Inc.)
by coupling it to a high-frequency induction coil (Fig. 11.21). When the getter

is flashed (i.e., brought to its flashpoint temperature by the induced field of
the coil), it oxidizes at a rapid rate, "getting" the remaining oxygen in the
tube.
In some types of cathode-ray tubes, the face of the tube, for reasons of sim-
plicity in manufacture, is separate from the neck and "funnel." It is neces-
sary to join these components by shrink fitting a steel band around the
juncture of the two parts. The band is heated with an induction coil, creat-
ing sufficient expansion to enable it to be slipped over the assembly. The resul-
tant compressive forces on the glass, as the band cools to its original
dimensions, provide an airtight, mechanically strong seal.
INDUCTION HEATING APPLICATIONS

IN THE GLASS INDUSTRY
Applications of induction heating in the glass industry involve joining of
glass to metal, repair of glass tanks, lens blocking, and manufacture of fiber
optics.
Glass-to-Metal Sealing
Glass-to-metal seals are often required in the fabrication of components
such as connectors. Problems associated with dissimilar rates of thermal
expansion and contraction, leading to cracking, have been solved through the
use of an intermediate material called Kovar ®, which can be fused to the glass
and soldered to the base-metal assembly. Induction is used to provide even
heating around the joint between the two materials so that the expansion and
contraction are uniform. A lead-tin alloy is generally used as a low-temper-
ature solder, and a liquid noncorrosive flux or reducing atmosphere removes
the surface oxides. In some instances, where assemblies require slow cooling
to prevent cracking due to residual stresses, the parts to be assembled are
mounted on a graphite susceptor whose thermal mass retards the heat dissi-
pation on cooling.
Glass Melting
In manufacture of glass for production of optical lenses and special glass
components, the molten glass must be kept free of contaminants. For this rea-
son, it is generally melted in a platinum crucible. It is also important that the
glass be kept free of the products of combustion. Hence, the platinum cru-
cible is induction heated. Because platinum has a low resistivity, low frequen-
cies in the range of 1 to 3 kHz can be used with very thin platinum crucibles,
reducing costs considerably.
In some melting operations, induction is also utilized to control the flow
of glass from the "spigot" of a melting tank. There is a relatively narrow tem-
perature range over which the glass begins to flow freely. By utilizing a plat-
inum or molybdenum "spigot" within the coil of a low-power induction
heater, the spigot temperature can be regulated to start or stop glass flow,
much as a stopcock controls the flow from a pipe.
Lens Blocking
When optical lens blanks have been received from a casting system, they
must be ground to specific contours depending on their ultimate application.
This operation is performed by mounting the blank(s) on a cast iron or steel
block which is used as a fixed base in grinding or polishing equipment. This
block is coated with pitch. The pitch is then heated to a soft condition, uti-
lizing an induction coil to heat the metal base. The blanks are locked in place
as the base cools and the pitch solidifies. This heating operation generally
takes a matter of minutes as compared with the long oven soaking times previ-
ously required. Depending on the mass of the base, power supplies for this
application range from small RF generators to multiple blocking stations oper-
ated from a central motor-generator or solid-state supply.
Fiber-Optic Manufacture
Production of fiber-optic waveguides for telecommunications has become
a major technology. It is estimated that most of the world's communications
will be carried on optical fibers by the year 2000.
In its simplest form, an optical waveguide is a glass tube that has been
coated on its inner or outer surface with an oxide layer that prevents light
from passing through its walls. This tube is then drawn into a fiber as small
as 125 #m (5 mils) in diameter. In one process, the glass preform, approxi-
mately 25 to 50 m m (1 to 2 in.) in diameter, is filled with a gaseous form of
germanium or silicon. An induction power supply operating at 2 to 5 MHz
is connected to a work coil that is passed at a controlled rate over the
preformed tube. A gas plasma is created which oxidizes approximately 85%
of the germanium or silicon, evenly distributing the coating over the inner sur-
face of the preform and producing a light pipe or light conductor. The treated
tube is then placed in a vertical chamber known as a draw tower (Fig. 11.22),
where it is maintained in either an inert atmosphere or a vacuum. Here, the
glass is heated by radiation from an induction heated susceptor to a temper-
ature at which it becomes electrically conductive (815 °C, or 1500 °F). The
susceptor is removed, and an RF generator operating at 2 to 5 MHz then cou-
ples its energy directly into the now-conductive glass, raising it to the re-
quired final temperature which, depending on the material, can be as high as
2500 °C (4530 °F). The tubing is drawn from the narrow molten zone at a
controlled rate to the final diameter to produce the finished optical waveguide.
INDUCTION HEATING APPLICATIONS

IN STEEL FINISHING
Steel sheet products are often coated or painted for aesthetic reasons or to
prevent corrosion. Induction heating is widely used in such applications to
reflow (or smooth) an electrolytically deposited coating or to cure paint.
: ¸¸¸%¸¸
Fig. 11.22. Draw tower used in manufacture of optical fibers (source:

Astro Industries, Inc.)
Tin Reflow
In the manufacture of tinplate, tin is electrolytically deposited on steel sheet.
It is desirable to "flow-brighten" the tin coating by heating it to a tempera-
ture above its melting point (230 °C, or 450 °F). This causes the tin surface
to melt and flow into a uniform, tightly adhering layer. Pinhole voids in the
plating are also reduced by this means.
The tin-reflow operation is generally performed with wide coils wound
around the strip as shown in Fig. 11.23. Due to the fact that the strip is usu-
ally of thin-gage material (0.18 to 0.36 mm, or 0.007 to 0.014 in.), RF heating
is generally used. However, for thicker materials, 10-kHz heating has been
utilized. Strip in widths up to 1.5 m (60 in.) has been processed by this tech-
nique. Strip speeds can reach 610 m/min (2000 fpm).
:oaxial cables
ng coil
,,king and
•ding of
erature
Fig. 11.23. Schematic illustration of an induction-based, tin-reflow sys-

tem (from J. Davies and P. Simpson, Induction Heating Handbook,
McGraw-Hill, Ltd., London, 1979)
Paint Curing
In recent years, paints that cure almost instantly when heated to an elevated
curing temperature have come into wide use. Coatings of this type are espe-
cially suitable for strip-type products which require the material to be rolled
into coils immediately after painting. Typical of these products are steel tape
measures (Fig. 11.24). Steel strapping and banding of the types used on pack-
ing crates and in related packaging applications are also now largely protected
by this type of coating.
The use of induction heating produces heat at the interface between the
metal and the coating, as compared with the surface curing performed in
ovens. In a conventional oven, the outer surface of the coating is heated and
cured first, trapping the volatile compounds between the surface and the base
Induction
power
supply
/
Controls
Inductioncoil ._.~1 I-~
(1 of 5) . .
/ /
l Fromcoatingarea
Fig. 11.24. Schematic illustration of an induction-based paint-curing line

(source: H. Hanser)
metal. In extreme cases, the coating spalls, or porosity, which weakens the
coating, is developed. By contrast, the induction heating technique cures from
the inside out, eliminating volatile elements through the uncured coating and
achieving a much stronger bond between coating and base material.
In a typical high-speed induction curing line, the heating portion of the sys-
tem occupies approximately 3 m (10 ft) of line length. Material moves at a
maximum speed of approximately 180 m/min (600 fpm). Line speeds are lim-
ited only by the mechanical capabilities of the facilities. Because the only heat
produced in the process is that which occurs in the metal, working conditions
are cool and quiet, and maintenance costs are negligible. Automatic line-
temperature feedback control adjusts the heating-equipment power level to
maintain a constant curing temperature regardless of line speed. Scrap due
to improper curing is virtually eliminated. By-products of the induction curing
process are limited to vapors and solvents which are evaporated from the paint
during the process.
In a typical system for curing of paint on wide (1.5-m, or 60-in.) steel strip,
the material moves vertically through the coater and the induction heating sec-
tion. The latter consists of two induction coils, each controlled independently.
This gives the line the needed flexibility to cope with the variety of coatings
the plant handles. Typically, most of the solvents are evaporated when the
strip passes through the first coil; the second coil heats the strip to curing tem-
perature. The solvents are collected by a blower system and ducted to a unit
on the plant roof. This unit mixes large amounts of ambient air with the
solvent-saturated mixture in the required ratio, which can be adjusted. Some
of the solvents and particulate matter condense and collect at the bottom of
an inner shell from which they are removed. Upon exit from the induction
line, the strip is air cooled and then passed over water-cooled rolls prior to
coiling at a temperature close to ambient.
VESSEL HEATING
In recent years, line-frequency induction heating of vessels has come into
use in the chemical, paint, plastics, and related industries. The greatest use
of such heating methods is probably in the manufacture of synthetic resins.
Typical holding capacity and power requirements for this application are given
in Table 11.1.
In a typical setup, a coil wound around the outside of the metal vessel
(Fig. 11.25) induces low-voltage, high-current flow within the vessel wall when
energized at line frequency. The wall acts as a single, short-circuited secondary
turn, causing the vessel to heat, which in turn rapidly transfers heat to the ves-
sel contents. Any tank can be successfully heated by induction provided it is
constructed from a metallic or electrically conductive material. In line-fre-
quency heating, the tank is generally constructed from 6-mm (0.25-in.) or
thicker mild steel plate which may be internally clad with stainless steel or
Table 11.1. Typical sizes and ratings of induction units

used for vessel heating (source: Cheltenham Induction
Heating, Ltd.)
Vessel Typical
working vessel Nominal Typical
heater
capacity diameter temperature rating,
L gal(a) mm in. °C °F kW
5 1 200 8 300 570 2

45 10 380 15 300 570 10
115 25 530 21 300 570 20
225 50 610 24 300 570 30
450 100 760 30 300 570 50
1,150 250 1000 40 300 570 100
2,300 500 1375 54 300 570 150
3,500 750 1525 60 300 570 200
5,000 1100 1830 72 300 570 300
7,000 1500 1980 78 300 570 375
8,500 1800 2150 84 300 570 450
10,000 2200 2300 90 300 570 550
12,000 2600 2440 96 300 570 600
14,000 3000 2590 102 300 570 675
(a) Imperial gallons.
glass as process requirements dictate. Solid stainless steel vessels or vessels with
external jackets can also be efficiently heated.
With induction heating of vessels, it is possible to achieve input power den-
sities much higher than those of other heating systems. Inputs on the order
of 60 k W / m 2 (20,000 Btu/ft 2. h) are easily obtained. The only limitation is
the absorption capacity of the product or process. By comparison, the max-
imum operational power density of electrical-resistance heaters is usually lim-
ited to approximately one-tenth that of induction systems to reduce element
burnout. Another advantage of induction heating is the fact that heat is gen-
erated uniformly within the vessel wall. There are no hot spots which can
cause local overheating of the contents or deterioration of the tank. In addi-
tion, there are no entry and exit temperature gradients as are normally
encountered in vessels heated by noninduction methods. Induction heating
also results in minimal thermal inertia because only the vessel wall and con-
tents are at elevated temperatures. This in turn gives rapid control response
with minimum temperature overshoot. Because the vessel wall is the heat
source in the induction heated system, the over-all temperature gradient is sig-
nificantly lower than with other methods. For example, the typical maximum
temperature differential between the batch and the vessel wall is 20 °C (35 °F)
while heating to temperature and 5 °C (10 °F) during holding at the set point.
Coupled with the low thermal inertia, this allows extremely close control of
process temperature.
water-coolingcoil
~elthermal-insulation
et
Heaterterminalboxf Inductionheating
coils
HeaterI
Fig. 11.25. Schematic illustration of vessel heating using low-frequency

induction (source: Cheltenham Induction Heating, Ltd.)
APPLICATION OF INDUCTION HEATING

FOR VACUUM PROCESSES
The processing of many special metals and semiconductors often requires

an atmosphere free of oxygen or other gases which might act as contaminants.
Accordingly, induction heating in vacuum has progressed from a laboratory
curiosity to a production process.
The area of greatest concern in vacuum processing generally is related to
the creation of an ionized gas or plasma due to the voltages encountered with
induction. Therefore, it is desirable that the applied voltage at the incoming
terminals of the vacuum feedthrough be limited to a maximum of 200 V. In
addition, because the voltage generated in the workpiece is directly related to
the frequency, there is a predisposition to create a plasma or arcing between
turns at higher power-supply frequencies. Thus, good practice dictates use of
the minimum frequency consistent with the application. Further, when back-
fill gases are used, selection should be based on the maximum ionization volt-
age as well as the appropriateness of the atmosphere for the process.
Fig. 11.26. Two views of a small vacuum induction melting furnace

(source: Vacuum Industries, Inc.)
Vacuum Melting
Probably the most basic vacuum induction process involves metal melting.
Figure 11.26 illustrates a small laboratory setup utilizing a 20-kW, 10-kHz
power supply capable of melting 2.3 kg (5 lb) of iron or steel. For melting
of nonferrous materials, graphite crucibles are common. The crucible is held
by means of insulating material in the work coil which is connected to the
power supply by a rotary vacuum feedthrough assembly called a coax. This
enables the crucible to be tilted manually when the melt has been made, thus
pouring the metal into a mold which is also in the chamber. Provision is also
made for the addition of alloying materials to the crucible during the melt-
ing process. A remotely removable cover on the crucible conserves heat during
the melting operation. Some larger systems feature air locks so that the cru-
cible may be charged with additional material for melting without breaking
the vacuum seal. In addition, some systems contain additional air locks so that
preheated molds can be introduced into the main chamber, filled with mol-
ten material, and then removed, also without breaking the vacuum seal.
Directional Solidification
Directional solidification is another popular vacuum melting process. It
is frequently used in the manufacture of superalloy blades for jet engines
(Fig. 11.27). In this technique, the mold is supported on a pedestal whose
movement is closely controlled. The mold rests vertically in the pouring posi-
tion within an induction heating coil whose power supply is separate from that
of the induction melter. When the mold is filled from the crucible, the ped-
estal slowly lowers the unit out of the mold heating coil. Then, similar to the
process of crystal growth for semiconductors, the slow controlled cooling cre-
ates a single crystal or columnar grain structure in the shape of the m o l d -
i.e., a turbine engine blade. The creep strength of this structure at the high
service temperatures which it undergoes is superior to that of the normally cast
or forged product.
Levitation Melting
Minimal contamination of melted metal is obtained by a melting technique
known as levitation melting, which is frequently carried out in vacuum. Gen-
Fig. 11.27. Photograph of a vacuum induction furnace used for con-

trolled solidification of metals (source: Vacuum Industries, Inc.)
Special Applications of Induction Heating 31 1
eraUy it is used for producing small quantities of electrically conductive mate-

rials while suspending them electromagnetically. It offers a rapid means of
preparing melts of reactive or high-purity metals without the danger of cru-
cible contamination in either a vacuum or an inert atmosphere. Levitation and
melting are accomplished in a specially shaped induction coil; casting is per-
formed subsequently by turning off the power and allowing the melt to fall
into a mold.
When a conductor is placed in an induction field, the induced current heats
the conductor. It also creates an opposing magnetic flux that tends to push
the object into a region of lower field strength-i.e., out of the field (or coil).
This force may be computed using the Lorentz equation. If the magnetic field
is uniform, there is no net force on an object that is placed in it. A field gra-
dient is needed to provide a lifting force. To create a strong magnetic field
and a strong field gradient, it is customary to use a conical induction coil such
as that shown in Fig. 11.28. Note the bucking plate located above the induc-
tion coil. Induced current created in the bucking plate causes an opposing
magnetic field, distorting the magnetic flux and creating a stable pocket of
balanced magnetic forces for the levitated sample.
When given enough current, most coil configurations capable of provid-
ing a field gradient will levitate a sample. A conical coil with five to seven
turns of small-diameter tubing provides a stable support for molten charges.
An extra turn of tubing outside the lower turn of the levitation coil increases
the strength and gradient of the magnetic field and thus the lifting force
exerted on the specimen. One or two reversed turns or a bucking plate are
used over the coil for horizontal stability. The coil shown in Fig. 11.29 pro-
Bucking plate
Flux lines
Fig. 11.28. Induction coil used for levitation melting of metals (source:
Lepel Corp.)
Water cooling
p
F////////A V///////M
A
Bucking
T ()
(k plate
(3 (~ Levitation
coil
() O
() ( ) Extra coaxial
() ~-~ turn
0 ()
L
Typical parameters:
8 -- 30 to 45°
d -- 9.5 to 19 mm (3/8to 3/4 in.)
A -- 1.6 to 9.5 mm (1/18to % in.)

Coil frequency, -250 kHz
Coil current, to 650 A
Fig. 11.29. Induction-coil design parameters used in levitation melting

of metals (source: Lepel Corp.)
vides a good electrical match and good levitation in a 10-kW system. Cop-
per tubing 3.2 mm (0.13 in.) in diameter provides the best compromise
between the high turn density needed for maximum magnetic field strength
and field gradient and the current-carrying capacity which is limited by
cooling-water flow rate.
Levitation melting systems have been used successfully for melting alumi-
num, copper, iron, chromium, and their alloys, primarily to produce high-
purity materials free of crucible contamination. Typical melts of 5 to 15 g
(0.18 to 0.53 oz) have been melted and cast in less than 1 min. Melting in
vacuum or in a protective atmosphere is completed as desired.
In addition to melting of reactive materials, uses of levitation melting
include:
• Rapid alloy preparation

• Gas-metal reaction kinetic studies
• Solidification studies
• Liquid slag and refractory reaction studies
• Melt purification and homogenization.
Levitation melting has also been performed aboard the space shuttle, pro-
viding an opportunity to work in an almost perfect vacuum and thus produce
ultrapure materials for testing. In addition, working in a weightless condition
permits the creation of special alloys that cannot be produced under the influ-
ence of the earth's magnetic and gravitational fields because of the high den-
sities of their components. The properties of these alloys are presently being
examined.
Chapter 12
Economics
Induction heating affords a rapid, efficient technique for producing local-

ized or through heating in a wide range of industries. The economics as well
as the technical feasibility of induction heating should be important consider-
ations prior to investing in such a system. A number of different cost elements
enter into the analysis. These include equipment and energy costs, production
lot size and ease of automation, material savings, labor, and maintenance.
Each of these factors is discussed below. There are also several secondary
benefits such as those related to improved working conditions and special pro-
cess capabilities which impact productivity but which are not readily quan-
tifiable except on a case-by-case basis.
In the discussion that follows, the cost elements of induction heating are
compared with those of its main rival in large process heating applications-
namely, the gas-fired furnace.
COST ELEMENTS OF INDUCTION HEATING

EquipmentCosts
Induction power supplies, which constitute the major cost items in induc-
tion systems, typically cost 2~ to 3 times as much as gas-fired furnaces of
equal capacity. Gas furnaces with recuperators (used to preheat combus-
tion air) have higher efficiencies than conventional furnaces and cost about
one-half as much as comparable induction equipment. Both induction power
supplies and gas furnaces have very long service lives. Because of this, amor-
tization of both types of equipment is readily spread over 5 to 10 years or even
longer. Thus, induction heating equipment will cost more, but the cost can
usually be offset by increases in productivity and by energy and materials
savings.
The absolute cost of induction generators varies with frequency and power
rating. For a given power rating it increases with frequency, and for a given
frequency, it scales linearly with power. In terms of 1983 dollars, typical costs
315
316 Elementsof InductionHeating: Design,Control, and Applications
range from $100 to $200 per kilowatt for 60-to-1000 Hz generators, from $200
to $300 per kilowatt for 3-to-10 kHz generators, and from $300 to $400 per
kilowatt for radio-frequency (RF) generators. A typical gas-fired furnace costs
$6000 to $7000 per million Btu/h capacity. This corresponds to approximately
$25 per kilowatt. Frequently, furnaces are only about one-fourth as efficient
as induction heating units; hence a furnace comparable to an induction sys-
tem, in terms of useful energy supplied to the part, would cost about $100 per
kilowatt.
Energy Costs
Energy costs are determined by the base fuel cost and the over-all efficiency
of the heating system. On the average, electricity costs about 3.5 times as
much as natural gas in recent years (Fig. 12.1). However, heating-system effi-
ciencies can mitigate this difference in fuel cost. Efficiency is the ratio of
energy used for actual heating to the energy supplied to the system. For induc-
10
I I
Coal " ~ ' ~
-~_ 6
o~
§° 4
0
0 I I
1960 1970 1980
Year
Fig. 12.1. Ratios of the price of electricity (per contained Btu) to the
prices of the indicated fossil fuels (per contained Btu) paid by manufac-
turers (from C. C. Borwell, "Industrial Electrification: Current Trends,"
Research Memorandum ORAU/IEA-83-4 (M), Institute for Energy Anal-
ysis, Oak Ridge Associated Universities, Oak Ridge, TN, February, 1983)
Economics 317
tion heating, system efficiencies of 55 to 85°/o are typical. For gas furnaces,
in which heat losses through doors, walls, etc. are common, typical efficiencies
are 15 to 25%; with special insulation methods, which, of course, increase the
furnace cost, it is reported that these efficiencies can be increased to perhaps
40 to 50%. In any case, it is obvious that the higher efficiencies of induction
units can often offset the high cost of electricity.
Besides the energy used during the actual processing of material, the energy
required during idle periods should also be taken into account. With induc-
tion systems, start-up is instantaneous. In addition, standby power (needed
during short delays in production) is rather small, amounting to much less
than 1 kVA for line-frequency and solid-state equipment. For RF tube-type
power supplies, filament power is generally shut off when delays exceed
30 min. In comparison with induction units, furnaces must be idled at fairly
high temperatures even when not in use during off shifts. Thus, considerable
energy is still used during these periods. The effects of utilization level on
energy costs for several means of heating prior to forging are illustrated in
Fig. 12.2. In this plot, data are given for a typical motor-generator induction
system as well as for a direct-resistance heating method. Not shown is the
trend for solid-state induction power supplies, which lie between "whole-piece"
induction heaters and direct-resistance units.
Production Lot Size and Ease of Automation

Because a given induction coil can often be used only for a given part and
heating application, induction heating is almost always selected for large pro-
duction runs of a given product for which coil changes are not necessary. Such
processes are best carried out on an automated basis, which can lead to sub-
stantial economic benefits.
As shown in previous chapters, the major factors inherent in the induction
process (i.e., time, temperature, power, and coil/part placement) all combine
to provide a repeatable, uniform process. Control of these factors enables the
system to repeat the particular operations within specified process parameters
on a consistent basis. Product uniformity and quality therefore are indepen-
dent of changes in operator capability. It is apparent that time, temperature,
and output power can be monitored and controlled within close limits for any
operation. Therefore, the equipment can be simply integrated into an auto-
mated handling system once the part/coil location has been precisely deter-
mined. Process time can then usually be adjusted by means of power control
or coil design to permit operations to mesh within allowable constraints. In
addition, the lack of undesirable heating of the surroundings simplifies inte-
gration directly into a production line without the need to employ off-line heat
processing. This in turn greatly reduces handling costs. Moreover, quality-
control and inspection techniques may be incorporated directly into the induc-
tion process to monitor the results and maintain process requirements.
140
I I I I I
120
100 Lypical
icity.
t-
O 80--
0
t..)
0")
t-
t~
60-- • furnace
-1- :iency = 18%)
pical induction
40-- - r-end heater
Whole-piece
J induction
20-- heater
ct resistance heater
O ~
0 20 40 60 80 100
Operating output capacity, %
Fig. 12.2. Effect of reduced output on heating efficiency of various

methods as reflected in cost per ton of product (from A. Perkins, Metal-
lurgia, Vol 48, December, 1981, p 568)
Scale and Scrap Losses

Scale and scrap losses are of particular importance in an economic anal-
ysis because a large part of total production cost is tied up in the workpiece
material itself. Often, the material cost constitutes as much as one-half or
more of the net cost of the finished product. Because of this, material loss,
as scale or scrap, is a prime factor in any economic analysis.
Scaling occurs during heating of steels prior to forming or during heat treat-
ing processes. In heating of steel billets to hot working temperatures in air
Economics 319
using gas-fired furnaces, scaling often amounts to 2 to 4% of total part

weight. At hardening temperatures, the amount of scale formation is some-
what less, around 1 to 2% for furnaces. In contrast, the shorter heating times
characteristic of induction heating lead to considerably less scale, usually no
more than one-fourth of the amount formed during furnace heating processes.
In forging installations, scale formation is also a serious consideration with
regard to die wear. It has been shown that major increases in die life and thus
reduced die costs result from the reduction in scale generated during induc-
tion, as opposed to furnace, heating.
Scrap losses due to improper heating are usually higher in gas-fired furnace
operations. In furnace-based processes, thermal cracking and distortion are
the usual causes of part rejection. Such defects cause scrap losses of 1 to 2%
for steels. Scrap losses associated with induction heating are typically around
0.25 to 0.5%. Thus, considering both scale and scrap losses, induction heating
could result in materials savings of as much as 3 to 4%.
Labor Costs
Induction systems require less labor for both operation and maintenance
than do comparable furnace-based heat treating systems. This is because the
widespread use of reliable solid-state power generators, and the fast response
and controllability of induction heaters, make these systems very amenable
to automation. On the other hand, furnace heat treating processes normally
require a considerable amount of labor for loading, unloading, and handling
of the steel to be processed. In addition to requiring fewer operators, auto-
mation also allows the use of less-skilled operators with a minimal amount
of training. The use of automatic as opposed to manual operation in a single-
shot induction application has reduced labor requirements as much as 50 to
80% in some instances. Taking all these factors into account, a general rule
of thumb for cost-analysis purposes is that induction heat treating usually
requires one-half the labor needed for furnace processes with an equivalent
production rate.
Maintenance Costs
Induction-based heating systems normally require considerably less main-
tenance than gas-fired furnaces. Total system rebuilding is not a typical
requirement for induction equipment as it can be for gas furnaces. An annual
allowance of approximately 2 to 3% of the installation cost should be bud-
geted for repair of coils and other maintenance. When mechanical handling
or poor maintenance procedures decrease coil life, this figure can approach
4%. By contrast, the refractory linings of gas furnaces are subject to severe
service conditions and may deteriorate rapidly, particularly when furnace tem-
peratures are cycled. The cost of relining is not inconsiderable, and lost pro-
duction time during the repair operation can become an expensive factor.
Other Cost Elements

Other cost factors that may enter into a cost analysis concern the quality
of the final product. For example, much less decarburization of steel surfaces
occurs during induction hardening than during longer furnace-hardening
cycles. Reduced decarburization translates into lower costs for finish machin-
ing (to remove the decarburized layer) and lower material losses during such
final machining. In addition, because distortion is generally lower in induc-
tion-based processes, straightening and final machining of induction heated
parts are usually less costly than for identical furnace-heated or furnace heat
treated parts.
TYPICAL COST COMPARISONS

The above (and other pertinent, application-dependent) factors can be
employed to estimate the economic feasibility of candidate induction heating
processes. Several typical examples are given below to illustrate the method-
ology.
Heating of Steel Billets Prior to Forging
Cost analyses for the induction heating of steel billets prior to forging have
been quoted many times in the literature. Invariably, it is concluded that
induction heating for steel forging is very attractive. Examples of such anal-
yses are given in Tables 12.1 and 12.2.
The first example (Table 12.1) is for an induction system operating at 52°/o
efficiency and a gas-fired furnace at 17.5°70 efficiency. Neglecting the capi-
tal investment, it can be seen that the only item for which induction poses a
greater expense is energy. With the more rapid increase in gas prices since 1980
(the most recent year for which costs are estimated in the table), the differ-
ential has decreased somewhat. It can also be noted that substantial savings
in labor and in scrap and scale losses are realized through the use of induc-
tion, leading to lower over-all operating costs. Such lower costs can aid in the
amortization of the induction equipment in an equal or shorter period of time
in a high-production shop.
The second example cost analysis (Table 12.2) results in similar conclusions.
In this example, the net energy cost includes the effects of the base fuel price,
the thermal efficiency of the equipment, and the expense of idling the equip-
ment when not in use. The bottom-line operating-cost difference of $300,000
per year suggests a reasonable payback period for the induction system, whose
estimated initial investment cost was $600,000.
Heating of Nonferrous Billets Prior
to Forging/Extrusion
Cost data for forging/extrusion of nonferrous metals are not as abundant
as those available for steel. In one analysis,* the costs of preheating alumi-
*J. Stott, Metallurgia and Metal Forming, Vol 44, No. 5, May, 1977, p 212.
Economics 321
Table 12.1. Hot forging operating costs that differ

between induction and natural gas (from N. W. Lord,
R. P. Ouellette, and P. N. Cheremisinoff, Advances in
Electric Heat Treatment of Metals, Ann Arbor Science
Publishers, Ann Arbor, MI, 1981)
Item 1977 cost(a) 1980 cost(b)
Induction
Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $8.34 $12.70
Production labor . . . . . . . . . . 0.93 1.25
Maintenance labor . . . . . . . . 0.33 0.44
Scale loss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.75 2.33
Scrap loss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.75 2.33
TOTAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $13.10 $19.05
Natural Gas
Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $5.93 $9.20
Production labor . . . . . . . . . . 1.87 2.49
Maintenance labor . . . . . . . . 0.67 0.89
Scale loss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.00 9.34
Scrap loss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.00 9.34
TOTAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $22.47 $31.26
(a) Cost per ton of product in 1977 dollars. (b) Cost per ton
of product in 1980 dollars.
n u m billets prior to extrusion using induction and gas furnaces were esti-
mated. The analysis showed the cost of the former method to be about twice
that for the latter when the cost elements o f fuel, thermal efficiency, and cap-
ital equipment were included. Because a l u m i n u m does not scale, this cost
driver was not included for a l u m i n u m extrusion. Despite the apparent cost
penalty for induction, however, it was estimated that the excess cost of induc-
tion heating could be recovered if a production time savings of only 5 min per
shift could be realized. In fact, a time savings o f 30 min per shift was real-
ized by using induction. In addition, the analysis demonstrated that the dif-
ference in equipment cost between the induction unit and the gas furnaces
could be offset by the substantially smaller floor space required by the induc-
tion equipment.
Heat Treating of Steel

Analyses similar to those for preheating prior to forging may be performed
in order to compare the costs of induction and furnace heat treatment of steel.
For through heat treatment, the analyses* demonstrate that induction-based
processes are quite competitive.
*S. L. Semiatin and D. E. Stutz, Induction Heat Treatment o f Steel, American Society for
Metals, Metals Park, OH, 1986.
Table 12.2. Economic comparison between induction and gas-fired fur-

nace heating of forging billets(a) (from J. Skelton, private communica-
tion, Battelle Columbus Division, Columbus, OH, September, 1984)
Induction Gas-fired
Item installation furnace
Installation cost $600,000 $200,000

Heating efficiency 60% 15%
Annual energy cost $720,000 $540,000
Scale loss 1/2% 2%
Scrap loss 1/4% 1%
Annual scrap and scale loss cost $150,000 $600,000
Labor requirement 1 operator; 1/4 2 operators; 1/2
maintenance maintenance
Annual labor cost $60,000 $120,000
Total annual operating cost $930,000 $1,230,000
(a) Hot forging of steel. Annual throughput, 30,000 tons. Annual hours of
operation, 4000. Value of raw material, $500/ton. Value of product scrap, $t000/
ton. Labor cost, $12/h. Energy cost: electricity, $0.06/kW.h; gas, $4/MBtu.
For surface-hardening applications, induction appears to hold a consider-

able cost advantage over other established methods. These other methods
include salt-bath nitriding, gas nitriding, and carburizing. Using pricing data
f r o m commercial heat treaters, it has been estimated that the over-all costs
o f the various processes are in the ratio o f 0.11 to 1.75 to 8 to 2.5 for induc-
tion, salt-bath nitriding, gas nitriding, and carburizing methods o f case
hardening.* Thus, in applications in which geometry and production volume
allow the use o f induction, it is the preferred surface-hardening method from
a cost standpoint.
Several recent technologies have emerged that could compete with induc-
tion surface hardening on a cost basis. These are laser and electron-beam sur-
face hardening. Generally these processes are employed to obtain rather
shallow case-hardened depths (0.05 cm or 0.02 in., or less). In these instances,
and for complex geometries for which induction coils are difficult to design,
these emerging technologies may be less expensive.t Nevertheless, in situations
in which case depths o f 0.05 to 0.10 cm (0.02 to 0.04 in.) are required, induc-
tion systems which produce very high power inputs per unit o f surface area
(i.e., "high-intensity" induction setups) can compete effectively because o f
lower capital costs, higher productivity, less maintenance, and lower floor-
space requirements.
*F. H. Reinke, "The Different Applications of Induction Heat Treatment with Particular
Respect to Energy Demand," Proc. World Electrotechnical Conference, Moscow, June 21-25,
1977.
tR. Creal, Heat Treating, Vol 14, No. 9, September, 1982, p 21.
Economics 323
Table 12.3. Comparison of energy requirements for high-frequency

welding and arc welding of carbon steel(a) (source: Thermatool Corp.)
Energy,
Speed, k W . h per
Thickness, Arc Arc Power, m/h 30 m or
Process(b) cm (in.) volts amps kW (ft/h) 100 ft
FCAW ..... 0.32 28 325 9.1 60 4.6

(0.125) (200)
HFRW .... 0.32 ...... 275(c) 4,025 2.1
(0.125) (13,200)
FCAW ..... 0.64 28 475 13.3 40 10.6
(0.25) (125)
SAW ...... 0.64 33 900 29.7 40 22.8
(0.25) (130)
HFRW .... 0.64 ...... 555(d) 3,600 4.7
(0.25) (11,820)
SAW ...... 1.27 34 1100 37.4 25 41.6
(0.50) (90)
HFRW .... 1.27 ...... 1100(e) 2,560 13.2
(0.50) (8,400)
(a) Data for arc welding are from Welding Handbook, 7th Edition, Vol 2,
W. H. Kearns, ed., American Welding Society, Miami, 1978, pp 177, 179, and 210.
Data for high-frequency welding are from Thermatool Corp. (b) FCAW = flux-
cored arc welding. HFRW = high-frequency resistance welding (similar to high-
frequency induction welding). SAW = submerged-arc welding. (c) Input-power
requirement for 160-kW welder output capacity. (d) Input-power requirement for
300-kW welder output capacity. (e) Input-power requirement for 600-kW welder
output capacity.
Tube Welding
The use of high-frequency induction and resistance heating for tube welding
also appears very attractive from a cost viewpoint. Not only is the cost per
unit of product considerably less with these techniques than with submerged-
arc welding (SAW) and fluxed-cored arc welding (FCAW), but production
rates are more than an order of magnitude greater (Table 12.3), thus giving
rise to substantially lower labor costs.*
*H. N. Udall, "Energy Saving Through High Frequency Electric Resistance Welding,"
unpublished paper, Thermatool Corp., Stamford, CT, 1984.

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Elements of Induction Heating Copyright © 1988 ASM International®

Stanley Zinn, Lee Semiatin, p 1-8 All rights reserved.

Electromagnetic induction, or simply "induction," is a method of heating

Table 1,1. Induction heating applications and typical products

Forging Surface Hardening, Seam Welding Air Melting of Steels

tions of special design features (Chapter 9), materials-handling systems (Chap-

Following the acceptance of induction heating for metal melting, other

APPLICATIONS OF INDUCTION HEATING

Fig. 1.1. Conversion efficiency of induction heating power supplies

1948 1953 1958 1963 1968 1973 1978 1981

Preheating Prior to Metalworking. Induction heating prior to metalworking is well

Heat Treating. Induction heating is used in surface and through hardening,

Welding, Brazing, and Soldering. High-frequency induction welding offers sub-

Curing of Organic Coatings. Induction is used to cure organic coatings such as

Semiconductor Fabrication. The growing of single crystals of germanium and sil-

Sintering. Induction heating is widely used in sintering of carbide preforms

ADVANTAGES OF INDUCTION HEATING

Prior to the development of induction heating, gas- and oil-fired furnaces

• Quick heating. Development of heat within the workpiece by induction pro-

Bar section, in.

Fig. 1.3. Comparison of times for through heating by induction and

In addition to those listed above, other advantages that induction heating

Theory of Induction Heating

An induction heating system consists of a source of alternating current (ac),

BASIS FOR INDUCTION HEATING

described by the same relationships that pertain to other ac circuits or to dc

The current is emerging from the page. The relationship between

Fig. 2.2. Schematic illustration of the field of magnetic induction asso-

where #0 is the permeability constant (4~- x l 0 - 7 W b / A . m ) , n is the num-

Direct current in coil

(~) Current flowing awayfrom you ® Currentflowing toward you

The deeper currents

Fig. 2.5. Qualitative variation, as a function of radial position, of the

d = 3160 pv~#f (English units)

d = 5000 pv~#f (metric units)

where d is the reference depth, in inches or centimetres; p is the resistivity of

*e - base of the natural logarithm = 2.718.

~ ~ Iron at 815 °C (1500 °F)

Copper at 20 °C (70 oF) / ~ I "~ ] ~ ' ~

the resistivities of conductors vary with temperature. Furthermore, for mag-

EQUIVALENT RESISTANCE AND EFFICIENCY-

Fig. 2.7. Reference (skin) depth for magnetic steel as a function of

between the ID and OD of the equivalent sleeve. The dependence of Req on

Electrical diameter of workpiece, a/d

Fig. 2.8. Workpiece resistance correction factor used for calculating

The equivalent resistance, or the workpiece resistance as reflected in the coil

Fig. 2.10. Relationship between relative efficiency and critical fre-

Req = (2w + 2e)p/t 2

where w, t, p, and t are sheet width, inductor length, workpiece resistivity,

For irregular geometries for which efficiency calculations as described above

Ratio of outside diameter to

Fig. 2.12. Workpiece resistance factor used for calculating workpiece

DETERMINATION OF POWER REQUIREMENTS

As discussed above, the ac frequency, through its effect on reference depth

Ratio of thickness to reference depth (T/d)

Fig. 2.13. Workpiece resistance factor used for calculating workpiece

Radiation losses are calculated by means of the expression P2 = Aeo( T4 -

Tuning of Induction Heating

The previous chapter described the fundamentals of induction heating with

Generator Capacitor Inductor