Civil Engineering Dimension, Vol. 9, No.

1, 914, March 2007

ISSN 1410-9530

THE UNIAXIAL COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF SOFT ROCK

D. S. Agustawijaya
Lecturer, Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Mataram University, Mataram, Indonesia
Email: agustawijaya@telkom.net

ABSTRACT
Soft rock is a term that usually refers to a rock material with a uniaxial compressive strength (UCS) less than
20 MPa. This low strength range might be influenced by physical characteristics, such as size, saturation,
weathering and mineral content. A number of uniaxial compression tests have been conducted onto soft rock
samples. The results showed that the strength reduced significantly in saturation. The reduction was also
caused by weathering, the strength of distinctly weathered rocks were lower than that of partially weathered
rocks. In conjunction with the uniaxial compression test, point load strength index tests, IS(50), have also been
conducted in order to obtain a correlation between the UCS and the point load strength index IS(50). The results
showed that the IS(50) could well be correlated with the UCS. A conversion factor of 14 is proposed for soft rock
materials.
Keywords: soft rock, uniaxial compressive strength, physical characteristic, point load strength index, and conversion factor.

INTRODUCTION These findings [10] reveal that the sensitivity of rock

strength due to changes in moisture content seems
The term soft rock is often referred to rock materials to vary from rock to rock. This sensitivity depends on
with a uniaxial compressive strength (UCS) lower the clay content of the rock being investigated [8]. A
than that of hard rocks and higher than that of soils. similar result was also found by Bell and Culshaw
A rock material can be classified as a soft rock if it [9]. However, Dobereiner and DeFreitas [11] and
has a uniaxial compressive strength below 20 MPa,
Dyke and Dobereiner [12] pointed out that weaker
determined directly by uniaxial compression tests [1,
2, 3, 4]. sandstones are more sensitive to changes in
moisture content than harder rocks. Dyke and
Physical characteristics, such as sample preparation, Dobereiner [12] concluded that the texture of the
size, saturation, and mineral content, influence the rock, that is the proportion of grain contact, is
uniaxial compressive strength of soft rock materials. responsible for reductions in the strength of
These factors can considerably reduce the strength of sandstone. Further, Dyke and Dobereiner [12] found
soft rock materials. that an increase in moisture content tends to
decrease the range of elastic behaviour of sandstone.
The influence of moisture content on the behaviour
of rocks has been investigated for more than thirty
From the discussion above, it is interesting to note
years [5, 6, 7, 8, 9]. It is frequently associated with
mechanisms such as capillary suction and crack that the critical condition for rocks containing fewer
propagation. Most researchers agree that the clay minerals is when the moisture content increases
strength of any given soft rock will decrease as the up to 1%, where a sudden strength loss occurs. The
moisture content increases. However, the correlation reason may be that suction, acting as a confining
between strength and moisture content is not always pressure, suddenly disappears when the moisture
linear. content reaches 1%. However, for rocks which are
rich in clay minerals, suction disappears gradually
Hawkins and McConnell [8] found that, for most up to the degree of saturation of 100% [13].
types of sandstone, a sudden loss of strength occurs
between a moisture content of 0% and 1%, and only
a slight strength reduction above a moisture content Sample preparation for soft rock materials is more
of 1%. Similar results were also obtained by Schmitt difficult compared to that of hard rock materials.
et al. [10] for Fontainebleau and Vosges sandstones, Agustawijaya [13] indicated that the methods of
which show an exponential correlation; but a relati- sample preparation and laboratory testing for soft
vely linear correlation was obtained for Tournemire rocks are similar to those of soils. Such difficulties
shale. have been experienced by Agustawijaya [14] in
preparing mudstone samples for direct laboratory
Note: Discussion is expected before June, 1st 2007, and will be shear testing; and by Bro [15] in preparing samples
published in the Civil Engineering Dimension volume 9, number for triaxial testing. Soft rocks are sometimes so
2, September 2007. friable, that the rocks can easily break apart. Instead
Received 1 Mey 2006; revised 21 July 2006, 18 October 2006; of machining the samples, Akai [16] suggested the
accepted 21 November 2006.
Civil Engineering Dimension
ISSN 1410-9530 print 2007 Thomson GaleTM
http://puslit.petra.ac.id/journals/civil
9
 D S Agustawijaya / The Uniaxial Compressive Strength of Soft Rock / CED, Vol. 9, No. 1, 914, March. 2007

use of hand sculpturing and fine sandpaper to flatten the strength index test used a speed control Instron
the ends of the friable core specimen. Thus, it is machine with a maximum load cell of 5 kN.
crucial to protect soft core samples from damage as Specimens were core samples with a diameter of
much as possible prior to testing, since excellent 37.5 mm, and a thickness of 20 mm. Similar rocks
testing results will depend to some extent on the with that for the uniaxial compression tests were
quality of the samples. tested in the point load tests.

The International Society for Rock Mechanics The degree of weathering was described according to
(ISRM) [1] suggested a length/diameter (L/D) ratio of the method given by GSEGWP [19]. The two main
2.5 for samples in compression tests. However, it is qualitative classifications were partially weathered
not easy to obtain a sufficient number of samples (PW) rock and distinctly weathered (DW) rock. Some
with an L/D ratio bigger than 2, as the drilling samples were classified into de-structured (DST)
program into soft rock is usually difficult, and it rock, where some parts of the rock have changed to
might only obtain 10-20% of the drilling length [13]. soil.
Thus, the ratio could be less than 2.5.
Samples were further divided into two types of
Due to some degree of technical difficulties, the saturation, dry (0% saturation) and fully saturated
uniaxial compression test for soft rock is often (100% saturation). Dry specimens were obtained by
replaced by a point load strength index test. This test putting the sample in an oven at a temperature of
is simpler in procedures than that of the uniaxial 1050C for 12 hrs. Fully saturated specimens were
compression test, and the test does not need obtained by immersing samples in distilled water.
necessarily cylindrical samples. A conversion factor They were then vacuumed over 24 hrs [13].
is then applied to the point load strength index,
IS(50), for estimating the uniaxial compressive
strength (UCS). RESULT AND DISCUSSION

Broch and Franklin [17] suggested a conversion Results of uniaxial compression tests on 39
factor of 24 as a correlation between UCS and IS(50). specimens are listed in Table 1. As can be seen in
However, this conversion factor is more effective for this table, partially weathered rocks give higher
hard rock materials than soft rock materials. The uniaxial compressive strength (UCS) values com-
strength of soft rock materials is much lower than pared to distinctly weathered rocks. The highest
that of hard rock materials, so the conversion factor UCS value is about 11 MPa for the (PW) LH rock,
should certainly be different. This paper aims to whereas the lowest UCS value is about 1 MPa for
evaluate the uniaxial compressive strength, the the (DW) GW rock.
influence of some physical characteristics on the
Table 1. Uniaxial Compression Test Results
strength of soft rock materials, and the correlation
between the point load strength index and the Rock type Sample Weather- Satura- L/D UCS Ave
uniaxial compressive strength. ing tion (MPa) (MPa)
DV DV9^ PW Dry 1.77 10.54 9.78
Sandstone DVR1 PW Dry 2.00 9.01
METHOD DV3-3DW^ DW Dry 1.72 3.15 3.72
DV3-DW0 DW Dry 2.33 3.07
Methods for uniaxial compression test follows the DV8A^ DW Dry 1.64 4.93
suggested method given by the ISRM [1]. The tests DV2-DW1^ DST Dry 1.75 1.79 1.79
DV3-1S1 DW Sat. 2.17 2.45 2.84
in this study were conducted under drained
DV3-2 DW Sat. 2.00 3.32
conditions. Test specimens were argillaceous rocks DV3-3 DW Sat. 1.92 2.76
(sandstone and siltstone) obtained from rock drilling DV2-S1* DST Sat. 2.34 1.48 1.64
at five different locations, namely, Desert View Motel DV2-S2* DST Sat. 2.22 1.85
(DV), McCormacks dugout (MC), Old Timers DV3-1S2 DST Sat. 2.03 1.52
Shop/Museum (OTM), Gunther Wagners dugout DV3M-S3 DST Sat. 2.12 1.63
DV2-S7 DST Sat. 1.95 1.74
(GW) and Les Hoads dugout (LH) [13]. These
GW GW-7M6 DW Dry 2.20 5.80 4.70
specimens were cut with an L/D ratio of 1.6:1 2.5:1. Siltstone GW1 DW Dry 1.67 5.08
For the uniaxial compression test these samples GW3 DW Dry 1.62 4.53
were grouped into two main groups based on the GW2 DW Dry 2.04 3.38
degree of weathering and the degree of saturation for GW-9M3 DW Sat. 2.29 1.46 1.16
each type of rock. GW-10M1 DW Sat. 2.03 1.00
GW-9M5 DW Sat. 1.97 1.01
Laboratory point load strength test follows the LH LH3-9 PW Dry 2.13 9.92 10.10
Siltstone LH3-11 PW Dry 2.16 9.29
methods suggested by the ISRM [18]. In this study LH3-7 PW Dry 2.14 11.09

10
 D S Agustawijaya / The Uniaxial Compressive Strength of Soft Rock / CED, Vol. 9, No. 1, 914, March. 2007

LH1-1 DW Dry 2.13 4.07 4.26 Some researchers [7, 9, 11, 21, 22] have conducted
LH1-22 DW Dry 2.09 4.33 compression tests on soft rocks with an L/D ratio of
LH1-13 DW Dry 2.19 4.39 2.0. Chiu et al. [7] conducted drained triaxial tests on
MC MC2-3-5 DW Dry 1.68 5.07 5.36 Melbourne mudstone with L/D ratios from 0.5 to 3.0,
Siltstone MC22 DW Dry 2.27 5.65
MC4 PW Sat. 1.98 6.97 6.05
and found that the trend of peak deviator stresses
MC19 PW Sat. 2.09 7.20 and secant Youngs modulus tend to be constant
mc16 DW Sat. 2.03 3.99 3.99 when the ratio is at least 2.0.
OTM OTM2-10-2 DW Dry 2.27 4.31 4.92
Siltstone OTMi-14 DW Dry 2.26 5.53 Chiu et al. [7] pointed out that increased strength
OTMo-15 PW/DW Sat. 2.50 5.50 5.25 with a shorter specimen is due to lateral restraint at
OTMo-17 PW/DW Sat. 2.21 5.00 the ends of the specimen. It is understood that this
OTMo12 DW Sat. 1.89 1.58 2.05 lateral restraint is caused by the platens, which may
OTM2-8A DW Sat. 1.66 2.13
cause non-uniform stress distributions under
OTM2-11 DW Sat. 1.87 2.43
compression [20]. The volume of the specimen may
From Table 1, it can be seen that the average UCS also influence the results of the test. However, it is
values are far below 20 MPa, and only the UCS of the material properties that seem to cause the major
LH siltstone is about 10 MPa. It seems that effects on the mechanical behaviour of soft rocks.
weathering and saturation play an important role in Matthews and Clayton [20] found that samples with
strength reduction. The discussion of strength ratios of 2.0 and 2.5 both displayed similar behaviour
reduction follows. under uniaxial compression stresses. They noted
that the uniaxial compressive strength of chalk was
Influence of L/D Ratio more likely to be influenced by the dry density and
porosity, rather than by the ratio of the sample
The ISRM [1] recommended an L/D ratio of at least dimensions.
2.5:1 for compression tests. However, a sufficient
number of specimens with this ratio are often Influence of Saturation
difficult to obtain [13]. With L/D ratios of 1.6:1 to
2.5:1, no significant indication has been found that The influence of water on rock strength has been
the UCS is influenced by the L/D ratio. known for years [13], it is also known that strength
reduction due to saturation varies from one rock to
another. The strength reduction for weathered
argillaceous rocks can be seen in Table 2.
8.00
Table 2. Influence of Saturation in Uniaxial Com-
pressive Strength
6.00
UCS ave.
Reduction Mean
Rock type Weathering (MPa)
(%) (%)
UCS, (MPa)

4.00 Dry Sat

DV Sandstone DW 3.72 2.84 23.5 38.2
DV Sandstone DST 1.79 1.64 8.2
2.00 GW Siltstone DW 4.70 1.16 75.4
MC Siltstone DW 5.36 3.99 25.6
OTM Sandstone DW 4.92 2.05 58.4
0.00
1.00 1.50 2.00 2.50 From Table 2, the UCS reduction could be up to 75%,
L/D ratio
although, for de-structured rocks, DV (DST), the
reduction might only be 8%. Under dry and fully
GW (DW, dry) DV (DW, sat.) DV (DST, sat.) saturated conditions, these DV (DST) rocks had very
low UCS values, below 2 MPa. Thus, in general, the
Figure 1. Correlation Between UCS and L/D Ratio mean value of strength reduction due to water for all
rock samples would be about 38%, which is close to
Figure 1 shows a scatter of UCS data of some the strength reduction of sandstone (36%) found by
samples related to their L/D ratios, and there is no Bell and Culshaw [9].
general trend to indicate an influence of the ratio on
the UCS. For example taking the DV(DST, sat.) Influence of Weathering
samples, the UCS values for these specimens are
relatively similar for each different ratio. The Data in Table 3 show that strength reductions due to
scattered data may simply be due to the physical weathering could be quite high, to about 82%. Dry
characteristics of the samples. Matthews and and fully saturated samples show similar charac-
Clayton [20] found a similar result for chalk tested teristics.
with ratios of 2:1 and 2.5:1.

11
 D S Agustawijaya / The Uniaxial Compressive Strength of Soft Rock / CED, Vol. 9, No. 1, 914, March. 2007

Table 3. Influence of Weathering on Uniaxial Com- Influence of Mineral Content

pressive Strength
As the degree of weathering increases, the clay
Rock type Satura- UCS ave. (MPa) Reduc- Mean
tion PW PW/DW DW DST tion (%) (%) content of the weathered rock increases. For
DV Sandstone Dry 9.78 - 3.72 - 62.0 56.5 example, the (PW) DV rock may contain a greater
DV Sandstone Dry 9.78 - - 1.79 81.7 proportion of quartz than the (DW) GW rock, which
DV Sandstone Sat - - 2.84 1.64 42.2 contains dominant kaolinite. It is important to note
LH Siltstone Dry 10.10 - 4.26 - 57.8 that gypsum is commonly found in argillaceous
MC Siltstone Sat 6.05 - 3.99 - 34.1 rocks. It appear in every level of weathering, but it is
OTM Siltstone Sat - 5.25 2.05 - 61.0
most commonly found in distinctly weathered rocks.
Dry density and porosity as weathering indicators Robertson and Scott [23] noted that the presence of
[13, 20] were correlated with uniaxial compressive sulphate minerals, such as gypsum, is due to
strength, and both parameters show a good corre- oxidation of pyrite, which is commonly found in
lation with uniaxial compressive strength (Figure 2). unweathered sandstone. As sandstone weathers,
gypsum may become more apparent. However,
From Figure 2, it can be seen that when the dry weathered sandstone is pre-dominated by kaolinitic
density increases, the UCS increases. Similarly, as silty or sandy minerals, which may become a good
the porosity increases, the UCS decreases, although indicator for weathering in argillaceous rocks [23].
the correlation between UCS and porosity has a
lower R2, which is about 0.66. These correlations
could mean that when rock weathers, its dry density Hawkins and McConnel [8] pointed out that the
and porosity change, so does its UCS. sensitivity of sandstone to change in moisture
content is controlled mainly by the mineralogy and
12.0 to a lesser extent by texture and microstructure.
However, Dobereiner and DeFreitas [11] and Dyke
10.0 and Dobereiner [12] found that the weaker the
sandstone, the more sensitive its strength to
moisture content variation.
8.0
UCS, (MPa)

The important phenomenon observed during the

2
R = 0.84
6.0
current investigations on argillaceous rocks are that
weathering, is a complex feature that may involve
4.0 not only one process, but also other processes which
can occur simultaneously. Referring to Agustawijaya
2.0 [13], chemical weathering and physical weathering
may occur one after the other. As products of
0.0 weathering, it may be difficult to quantify clay
0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 minerals that may dominate over dry density and
Dry density, d (Mg/m )
3 porosity in controlling the mechanical behaviour of
weathered rocks. Thus, both mineralogy and texture
(a)
should have, to some extent, an equal contribution to
12.0
the mechanical characteristics of rocks, particularly
the uniaxial compressive strength, depending on the
10.0
degree of weathering.
2
8.0 R = 0.66 Correlation Between UCS and Point Load
Strength Index
UCS, (MPa)

6.0
The point load strength index, IS(50), has been used
4.0
to predict the uniaxial compressive strength (UCS),
with a conversion factor of about 24 [17, 24, 25, 26].
However, this conversion factor may only adequately
2.0
predict the UCS of hard rocks. For soft rock, the
conversion factor could be much less than 24.
0.0
0.0 10.0 20.0 30.0 40.0 50.0 60.0 70.0
Porosity, n (%)
Forster [27] found that the conversion factor for
sandstone falls in the range between 7.4 and 17.6.
(b) More recently, Bowden et al. [28] found that the
Figure 2. Correlation Between UCS and Dry Density and conversion factor for chalk is from 5 to 24.
Porosity

12
 D S Agustawijaya / The Uniaxial Compressive Strength of Soft Rock / CED, Vol. 9, No. 1, 914, March. 2007

In the current research, the UCS and the IS(50) of REFERENCES

the argillaceous rock samples were correlated, as can
be seen in Figure 3. The IS(50) has a good correlation 1. International Society for Rock Mechanics (ISRM),
with the UCS, with a correlation coeficient of about Rock Characterization, Testing and Monitoring,
0.9. This is a good correlation that has also been ISRM Suggested Methods, Brown, E. T. (Editor).
indicated by Bell and Culshaw [9]. Pergamon Press, Oxford, 1981.
2. Bieniawski, Z. T., Engineering Rock Mass Classi-
12.00 fications, John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1989.
3. Franklin, J. A. and Dusseault, M. B., Rock Engi-
10.00 y = 13.40x
2
neering, McGraw-Hill Publishing Company, New
R = 0.89 York, 1989.
8.00
4. Bell, F. G., Engineering in Rock Masses, Butter-
worth-Heinemann, Oxford, 1994.
UCS (MPa)

6.00
5. Colback, P. S. B and Wiid, B. L., The influence of
moisture content on the compressive strength of
4.00
rock, Proceedings of the 3rd Canadian Rock
Mechanics Symposium, 1965, pp. 65-83.
2.00
6. Chiu, H. K., Johnston, I. W. and Donald, I. B.,
Appropriate techniques for triaxial testing of
0.00
saturated soft rock, International Journal of Rock
0.00 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80 1.00
Mechanics and Mining Science & Geomechanics
Is 50 (MPa) Abstract, 20, 3, 1983, pp. 107-120.
7. Chiu, H. K. and Johnston, I. W., The uniaxial
Figure 3. Correlation Between UCS and Point Load Strength properties of Melbourne mudstone, 5th Congress
Index of the International Society for Rock Mechanics,
Melbourne, 1983, pp. A209-A214.
From Figure 3, the conversion factor for weathered
argillaceous rocks is about 13.4. The conversion 8. Hawkins, A. B. and McConnell, B. J., Sensitivity
factor agrees well with the theoretical conversion of sandstone strength and deformability to
changes in moisture content, Quarterly Journal
factor given by Chau and Wong [29], which is about
of Engineering Geology, 25, 1992, pp. 115-130.
14.9. Comparing between the current conversion
factor and published data [27, 28, 29] it seems that 9. Bell, F. G. and Culshaw, M. G., Petrographic and
the value of 14 is the median of all values falling in engineering properties of sandstones from the
the range from 4 to 24. This value is 58% of the Sneinton Formation, Nottinghamshire, England,
conversion value for hard rocks, (24), given by Broch Quarterly Journal of Engineering Geology, 31,
and Franklin [17]. 1998, pp. 5-19.
10. Schmitt, L., Forsans, T. and Santarelli, F. J.,
CONCLUSION Shale testing and capillary phenomena, Inter-
national Journal of Rock Mechanics and Mining
The uniaxial compressive strength (UCS) values of Science & Geomechanics Abstract, 31, 5, 1994, pp.
soft rocks have been found to be far below 20 MPa. 411-427.
The UCS value of some samples approached 1 MPa.
This value is certainly very low for rock materials. 11. Dobereiner, L. and DeFreitas, M. H., Geotech-
Weathering and saturation seem to play a nical properties of weak sandstones, Gotechni-
significant role in reducing the strength of soft rock que, 36, 1, 1986, pp. 79-94.
materials. The strength reduction could be up to 12. Dyke, C. G. and Dobereiner, L., Evaluating the
about 80%. strength and deformability of sandstone, Quar-
terly Journal of Engineering Geology, 24, 1991,
The UCS values were then correlated with the point pp. 123-134.
load strength index values, which show a good
correlation. The conversion factor for soft rocks is 13. Agustawijaya, D. S., The Development of Design
found to be about 14, which is about 58% of the Criteria for Underground Excavations in Coober
conversion factor for hard rocks. Pedy Arid Soft Rocks, Ph.D. Disertation, Univer-
sity of South Australia, 2001.

13
 D S Agustawijaya / The Uniaxial Compressive Strength of Soft Rock / CED, Vol. 9, No. 1, 914, March. 2007

14. Agustawijaya, D. S., The Mechanical and Geome- Mechanics and Mining Science & Geomechanics
trical Properties of Discontinuities in Leigh Creek Abstract, 14, 1977, pp. 193-202.
Coalfield Rocks, M.Eng Thesis, University of
South Australia, 1996. 26. Greminger, M., Experimental studies of the
influence of rock anisotropy on size and shape
15. Bro, A., A weak rock triaxial cell, International effects in point load testing, International
Journal of Rock Mechanics and Mining Science & Journal of Rock Mechanics and Mining Science &
Geomechanics Abstract, 33, 1, 1996, pp. 71-74. Geomechanics Abstract, 19, 1982, pp. 241-246.
16. Akai, K., Testing methods for indurated soils and 27. Forster, I. R., The influence of core sample
soft rocks Interim report, Geotechnical Engi- geometry on the axial point load test, Interna-
neering of Hard Soils Soft Rocks, Anagnos- tional Journal of Rock Mechanics and Mining
topoulos et al. (Eds.), Balkema, 1997, pp. 1707- Science & Geomechanics Abstract, 20, 6, 1983, pp.
1736. 291-295.
17. Broch, E. and Franklin, J. A., The point load 28. Bowden, A. J., Lamont-Black, J. and Ullyott, S.,
strength test, International Journal of Rock Point load testing of weak rocks with particular
Mechanics and Mining Science & Geomechanics reference to chalk, Quarterly Journal of Engi-
Abstract, 9, 1972, pp. 669-697. neering Geology, 31, 1998, pp. 95-103.
18. International Society for Rock Mechanics (ISRM), 29. Chau, K. T. and Wong, R. H. C., Uniaxial
Suggested methods for determining point load compressive strength and point load strength of
strength, International Journal of Rock Mecha- rocks, International Journal of Rock Mechanics
nics and Mining Science & Geomechanics Abst- and Mining Science & Geomechanics Abstract,
ract, 22, 1985, pp. 53-60. 33, 2, 1996, pp. 183-188.
19. Geological Society Engineering Group Working
Party (GSEGWP), The description and classifica-
tion of weathered rocks for engineering purposes,
Quarterly Journal of Engineering Geology, 28,
1995, pp. 207-242.
20. Matthews, M. C. and Clayton, C. R. I., Influence
of intact porosity on the engineering properties of
a weak rock, Geotechnical Engineering of Hard
Soils Soft Rocks, Anagnostopoulos et al. (Eds.).
Balkema, Rotterdam, 1993, pp. 693-701.
21. Yoshinaka, R., Osada, M. and Tran, T. V.,
Deformation behaviour of soft rocks during
consolidated-undrained cyclic triaxial testing,
International Journal of Rock Mechanics and
Mining Science & Geomechanics Abstract, 33, 6,
1996, pp. 557-572.
22. Hayano, K., Sato, T. and Tatsuoka, F., Defor-
mation characteristics of a sedimentary soft
mudstone from triaxial compression tests using
rectangular prism specimens, Gotechnique, 47,
3, 1997, pp. 439-449.
23. Robertson, R. S. and Scott, D. C., Geology of The
Coober Pedy Precious Stones Field, Result of
Investigations, 1981-86, Report of Investigations
56, Department of Mines and Energy, Geological
Survey of South Australia, 1990.
24. Bieniawski, Z. T., Estimating the strength of rock
materials, Journal of the South African Institute
of Mining and Metallurgy, March 1974, pp. 312-
320.
25. Brook, N., The use of irregular specimens for rock
strength tests, International Journal of Rock

14