STRUCTURAL STEEL EDUCATIONAL COUNCIL

TECHNICAL INFORMATION & PRODUCTSERVICE

December 1993

Common Steel Erection

Problems
and Suggested Solutions

by

James J. Putkey
 Acknowledgements
The author wishes to thank the following persons for their input, review,
and comments on the content of this Steel TIPS publication:

· Members of the Structural Steel Educational Council

· Dave McEuen, California Erectors, Bay Area, Inc.
· William C. Honeck, Structural Engineer with Forell/Elsesser Engineers, Inc.

The information presented in this publication has been prepared in accordance with recognized
engineering principles and construction practices and is for general information only. While it is
believed to be accurate, this information should not be used or relied upon for any specific
application without competent professional examination and verification of its accuracy, suitability,
and applicability by a licensed professional engineer or architect. The publication of the material
contained herein is not intended as a representation or warranty on the part of the Structural Steel
Educational Council, or of any other person named herein, that this information is suitable for any
general or particular use or of freedom infringement of any patent or patents. Anyone making use
of this information assumes all liability arising from such use.
 COMMON STEEL ERECTION PROBLEMS AND
SUGGESTED SOLUTIONS
List of Problems

No
. • P
a_
=e
N o
.

Anchor Bolts
1. Low Anchor Bolts 5
2. Misplaced Anchor Bolts 7
3. Rotated Anchor Bolt Pattern 9
4. Inadequate Anchor Bolts for Column Erection 10

Erection
5. One-Bolt Connections 11
6. Columns or Bents Tied Together With Non-Bolted Steel Joists 15
7. Steel Joists Without Bolted Bridging 16
8. Columns or Bents Tied in With Timber 17
9. Steel Columns or Partial Bents Not Tied In 18
10. Non-Self-Supporting Steel Frames 19
11. Column Splices Too Low or Too High Above Floor 20
12. Columns Interrupted by Beams 21
13. Columns Offset From Beam Framing 22
14. Revisions and Alternates Not Flagged on Drawings 23
15. D o u b l e - F r a m e dBeam Connections to Girder 24
16. D o u b l e - F r a m e dBeam Connections to Column Web 25

Bolting
17. Mixed Bolts 27
18. Mixed Bolt Diameters 28
19. Reuse of High-Strength Bolts 28

Welding
20. Prequalified and Non-Prequalified Weld Joints 29
21. Extending Continuity Plate for Back-up Bar 30
22. Welded Connections to Inside of Column 31
23. Restrained Welded Joints 33
24. F i e l d - W e l d e dCurb Angles 35

Decking
25. Steel Floor Deck Spanning Uneven Surfaces 36

Ge
ner
al
26. Project Specifications 37
 COMMONSTEEL ERECTION PROBLEMSAND
SUGGESTED SOLUTIONS

Introduction

Preface Purpose

About two years ago a structural engineer asked me The purpose of this Steel TIPS is to provide struc-
the following question, "Why don't you write a book- tural designers and steel erectors with a basic and
let on steel erection? We keep seeing the same convenient source of solutions to common steel
erection problems occur over and over again, and it erection problems that involve the structural de-
would be nice to have a reference for erectors, signer.
fabricators, and structural designers to either avoid
a problem or to present a solution to a problem." Organization and Content
The question was posed to two steel erectors, and
they both thought such a publication would be an To provide structural designers with solutions to
excellent idea. The end result is this Steel TIPS. common steel erection problems, 26 common prob-
lems with suggested solutions are provided. The
Many publications exist that inform the structural problems are divided into six categories: anchor
designer on how to select types of steel, design bolts, erection, bolting, welding, decking, and gen-
economically, reduce fabrication costs, and how to eral. In each category a specific problem is shown
design various types of structures or portions of by its title. The problem is then described and the
structures. But what source of information is avail- suggested solution is given.
able to the designer when the steel erector makes
an inquiry regarding the steel design or experiences The content of this Steel TIPS does not address the
problems that require the designer's input? These various methods of erecting steel. If the designer
inquiries or problems may result from: needs to design a structure with unusual features,
or with a required erection procedure or sequence,
· Erection or fabrication errors. then a sponsor firm of the Structural Steel Educa-
· Erection procedures or sequences. tional Council might be consulted to make certain
· Faulty work of other trade contractors. the unusual features can be economically erected.
· Design that can lead to safety problems.
· Erection equipment loads into the structure. The erection problems presented are not only "com-
· Changes or alternates requested by the owner. mon'' problems, but may also be considered basic,
reoccurring problems. So the content is chosen to
Now, looking ahead in the construction timetable, be especially useful to the new structural designer
one might logically ask the following questions, (and maybe experienced designers).
"What source of information is available to the
structural designer to produce a design that can Some of the problems or portions of problems
avoid these erection problems? What are the addressed in this Steel TIPS are mentioned or
details to avoid? What are the desired details? Why addressed in previous Steel TIPS, or in the AISC
doesn't the steel industry provide structural design- publications Modern Steel Construction, and Steel
ers, and others, with solutions to common design- Design Guide Series. These problems and their
related problems experienced bythe steel erector" solutions are now conveniently gathered into this
publication.

4
1. Low Anchor Bolts
Problem Preventative Solution. A"preventative" solution
that anticipates Iow anchor bolts is to design and
Anchor bolts are sometimes set with their tops detail anchor bolts with additional bolt projection.
lower than the detailed elevation. Two situations Examples include:
can exist: 1 ) the bolts are placed so Iow that the top
of the bolt is below the top of the base plate and the · The structural designer shows a 1-inch bolt pro-
anchor bolt nut cannot be engaged, or 2) the bolt jection above the top of the nut in the base plate
top extends above the base plate, but not high details on the structural drawings. This 1-inch
enough to allow full thread engagement of the nut. bolt projection allows bolts to be set an additional
1/2-inch lower than the minus 1/2-inch setting toler-
Setting Tolerances. Section 7.5 of the AISC ance provided by the AISC Code of Standard
Code of Standard Practice requires the owner to Practice, and still obtain full thread engagement.
set anchor bolts in accordance with approved
anchor bolt plans. [1] The Code provides for a · The steel fabricator details anchor bolts with the
+1/2-inch tolerance for the elevation of the top of top of the bolt one bolt diameter above the top of
anchor bolts. The contractor setting the anchor the nut. So for bolts larger than 1-inch diameter,
bolts should be able to meet this tolerance, but even more bolt projection is furnished than the
errors can occur. Section 7.5 in the Commentary above example. For example, the detail of a 2-
on the Code of Standard Practice discusses the inch diameter bolt will show the top of the bolt
installation of anchor bolts. [2] detailed 2 inches above the top of the nut.

Bolt Detailing. Anchor bolt detailing is discussed Full Thread Engagement. Short anchor bolts
in Chapter 7 of AISC Detailing forSteel Construc- that prevent full thread engagement can be a
tion. [3] To match the minus 1/2-inch tolerance frustrating problem. First, the question arises,
noted in Section 7.5 of the Code, the steel detailer What is full thread engagement?. Section IIl.F in
should allow for at least a 1/2-inch projection of the Chapter 2 of AISC Quality Criteria and Inspection
bolt above the top of the nut. If the anchor bolt is Standards discusses full thread engagement for
set 1/2-inch Iow, the nut will still obtain full thread high-strength bolts. [7] Section III.F refers to
engagement. However, when the minus 1/2-inch Section 2(b) of the "Specification for Structural
tolerance is exceeded, the problem of a Iow Joints Using ASTM A325 or A490 Bolts," on page
anchor bolt exists. 5-265 of AISC Manual of Steel Construction. [6]
Section 2(b) states, "The length of bolts shall be
Solution such that the end of the bolt will be flush with or
outside the face of the nut when properly in-
Extending the Bolts. Anchor bolts that are set stalled." The same criteria could apply to nuts on
Iow are commonly called "short anchor bolts." anchor bolts.
Short bolts need to be corrected by making them
longer. Two methods of making the bolts longer Second, what action is necessary if the top of the
are threaded couplers and welded extensions. bolt is just below the top of the nut? Instead of
The "Steel Interchange" feature in Modem Steel lengthening the bolt, the nut might be welded to the
Construction, January 1993, and "Some Practical bolt by filling in the space between the top of the
bolt and the top of the nut with weld metal. How-
Aspects of Column Base Selection," SteelDesign
Guide Series 1: Column Base Plates, discuss ever, welding the nut to the bolt is not always
these two methods. [4, 5] For either correction allowed, particularly if high-strength, heat-treated
method, the erector must work with the structural bolts and nuts are used, and the bolts are subject
designer (and general contractor). If the anchor to tensile loads. See "Steel Interchange" in the
bolts are designed to resist uplift, in addition to December 1992, May 1993, and July 1993 issues
providing column stability during erection, then the of Modern Steel Construction. [8, 9, 10] If the
structural designer may require special proce- erector can prove the '"fill-in" weld is adequate, the
dures. See AISC Manual of Steel Construction, structural designer may approve this welding pro-
Specification J10, page 5-172, for loads on an- cedure. But to provide proper column support, the
chor bolts. [6] weld may need to be made before the lifting line is
released from the column.

5
Instead of welding the nut to the bolt, the erector
might consider limited air carbon arc gouging of
the base plate surface under the nut to provide full
thread engagement. This procedure must be
approved by the structural designer.

Practical Procedure. A practical procedure is for

the erector to review the as-built survey of the bolt
elevations before starting erection, determine bolts
that are set Iow, work with the contractor to resolve
how to correct them, decide who is to make the
corrections, and make corrections before erection
crews arrive at the jobsite.
2. Misplaced Anchor Bolts
Problem depends on the function of the anchor bolts. All
anchor bolts serve to locate the columns and
The erector discovers anchor bolts are: prevent overturning of the columns during steel
erection. Some anchor bolts tie the column to the
· Incorrectly spaced. foundation to resist uplift, overturning, and shear
· Located off the established column lines. from building design loads. The latter functions
· Tilted (out of plumb). may require more extensive corrective work for
· Bent over flat, damaged, or even broken off. misplaced bolts. In any event, inform the struc-
· Installed with the bolt pattern rotated 90 degrees. tural designer of the corrective work.
See the problem, "Rotated Anchor Bolt Pattern."
· Installed to include anycombination of the above. If bolts are misplaced up to 1/2 inch, the oversized
base plate holes normally allow the base plate and
Installation Conditions. The installation of an- column to be placed near or on the column line.
chor bolts is not an easy task under the best of For example, the 23/4-inch diameter base plate
conditions. If the foundation contractor has a firm, hole for a 13/4-inch diameter anchor bolt allows for
level, dry, and uncongested job site, then the steel a 1/2-inch adjustment of the base plate. If the bolts
erector will probably find properly installed anchor are misplaced by more than 1/2 inch, then correc-
bolts. But we all know most foundation sites are tive work is required.
not in the above listed condition. So misplaced
anchor bolts may be expected. Anchor Bolts Designed to Prevent Overturn-
ing of Column During Steel Erection. For
anchor bolts designed to prevent overturning of
Solution the column during steel erection, corrective work
may include:
Survey of Bolts. The first line of defense for the
· Slotting the base plate or column angle holes.
steel erector against misplaced anchor bolts is to
· Fabricating a base plate to match the misplaced
review the as-built anchor bolt survey before steel
bolts.
erection starts. Then the steel erector will know if
· Fabricating an oversized base plate with stub
any corrective work is required, have the correc-
bolts welded to the base plate in the correct
tive work performed before steel erection starts,
location, and then welding the base plate to the
and not be faced with the frustration and delay
rotated bolts.
expense of correcting the bolts while erecting the
· Making an "s" bend in the bolts. (But not too
columns.
sharp of a bend.)
· Chipping away the concrete to make a larger "s"
Setting Tolerances. Section 7.5 of the AISC
bend.
Code of Standard Practice specifies tolerances for
· Burning off the bolt and placing new expansion
setting anchor bolts. [1] These tolerances ac-
bolts.
knowledge that bolts will not be set exactly as
· Burning off the bolt and welding a new bolt to the
shown on the anchor bolt plan. To allow for
side of the projecting stub.
misplaced bolts, holes in the base plates or holes
in the framing angles from the columns to the base
An extensive discussion on misplaced anchor
plates are allowed to be made oversized. See
bolts is given in "Some Practical Aspects of Col-
Table 6-1 on page 6-12, ManualofSteelConstruc-
umn Selection," by David T. Ricker. [5] A discus-
tion, Vol. II, Connections. [11] For example, 23/4 -
sion on the design and use of column bases and
inch diameter holes are allowed for 13/4-inch diam-
base plates is contained in Chapter 6 of the AISC
eter bolts. Thus, the oversized holes will allow the
Manual of Steel Construction, Volume II, Connec-
erector to overcome some misplacement of the
anchor bolts.
tions. [11]

If the bolts are misplaced too much for the over- Another solution that anticipates anchor bolt mis-
placement is for the structural designer to detail
sized holes to overcome, then corrective work
must be performed. The type of corrective work
oversized holes in the base plates that are even
larger than the oversized holes allowed by Table
 6-1 on page 6-12, Manual of Steel Construction, Anchor Bolts That Resist Uplift, Overturning,
VoL II, Connections. [11] Plate washers with bolt and Shear. For anchor bolts designed to resist
holes 1/16 inch larger than the bolt diameter are uplift, overturning, and shear from building design
then welded to the base plate. This solution allows loads, corrective work may be limited to:
additional tolerances in setting the anchor bolts.
The plate washer is placed between the top nut · Slotting the base plate or column angle holes.
and the top of the base plate, and is welded to the · Fabricating a base plate to match the misplaced
base plate after the column is erected and aligned. bolts.
A bottom plate washer is required above the · Chipping out the concrete, removing the mis-
bottom leveling nut. This bottom plate washer is placed bolts, and concreting in new, correctly
not really added material because it will also be placed bolts (in the extreme case).
needed with the standard oversized holes. See
the following detail for anchor bolt, nut, and plate
details.

COLUMN

EXTRA OVERSIZE HOLE

IN BASE PLATE
WASHER

PLATE

GROUT FORM

- C%OUT%_.-E- B

x_ PLATE
/
WASHER
/ /
•. NOT REQUIRED IF
LEVELING NUT • SHIMS ARE USED
CONCRETE / / / , • /
/// ,ANCHOR
/ /

BASE PLATE DETAIL

Exercise caution before using this detail. If the

anchor bolts are designed to resist column shear
forces (see below), the anchor bolts must be
designed to resist bending because shear forces
to the bolts are applied at the plate washer--which
may be a few inches above the surface of the
concrete.
3 . R o t a t e d A n c h o rB o l t P a t t e r n
Problem Anchor bolt patterns that are rotated 90 degrees
may be corrected using the procedures listed for
The erector discovers anchor bolts placed with the misplaced anchor bolts.
anchor bolt pattern rotated 90 degrees from the
detailed orientation. S u r v e y of Bolts. When the anchor bolts are
surveyed before fabrication, the base plates may
possibly be fabricated to match the bolt spacing, or
the base plates may possibly be rotated on the
I I l columns. Correction methods are discussed in
"Some Practical Aspects of Column Base Selec-
tion.'' [5]

Case H i s t o r y .
On a 20-story building in San
O 1 • - - O Francisco, California, the steel erector surveyed
I I I the as-built location of anchor bolts. The
contractor's superintendent, John, was an "old
timer" and took much pride in his work. He
carefully explained to the surveyor, with his fore-
Detailed men present, that he personally supervised the
Orientation anchor bolt installation. All the bolts were at the
correct elevation, were exactly spaced, and were
"right on" the column lines. After the survey was
complete, the surveyor reported the results to
I I I John, with his foremen present. The surveyor
- - 0 - - + O--
stated all the bolts were at the exact elevation,
correctly spaced, and "right on" the columns lines.
John smiled. But when the surveyor told him the
- - + .. +--
bolts on column lines B2 and B3 were rotated 90
degrees, his smile disappeared. And no matter
how he measured the bolts, they were still rotated
--O--+ - 0 - - 90 degrees.
I I I
As-Built
Orientation

Solution

Uniform Spacing. One means to prevent rotated

anchor bolt patterns is to use uniform bolt spacing.
As stated by David T. Ricker in Steel TIPS, 'q'he
possibility of foundation errors will be
reduced...when anchor bolt spacing is kept uni-
form throughout the job." [12] If a square anchor
bolt pattern is used, a rotated pattern cannot
occur. So the ultimate uniform spacing is to design
a square anchor bolt pattern--if possible.

9
4. Inadequate Anchor Bolts for Column Erection

Problem · The steel erector requests four-bolt anchor bolt

patterns when leveling plates are not used. The
After reviewing the anchor bolt and column base column is then landed on four supporting leveling
design, the erector discovers the anchor bolt and nuts. Shims under the base plate may also be
base plate design do not provide for adequate added to help resist overturning.
resistance to overturning of columns during erec-
tion. This problem can occur when: If proper planning is not performed, the steel
erector may face a safety problem while erecting
· Only two anchor bolts are provided, leveling the columns. The column may need to be guyed-
plates are not used, and shims or wedges cannot off before the lifting line is released. But guys also
be placed under the base plate. present another safety hazard because guys are
not easy to see and something may run into or
· The structural designer or detailer has not made strike the guy. Steel struts similar to tilt-up wall
provisions for the anchor bolts to resist lateral struts may be used. Struts present a less hazard-
forces on the free-standing columns. ous situation because they are easily seen and
take up less space.
Solution
Tall, unsupported columns may require an erec-
Overturning of Column. After the column is set tion engineer to analyze the column base (anchor
on a leveling plate, or on anchor bolt leveling nuts, bolts). For example, an airplane hangar had 90-
or on shims, or on a base plate, the anchor bolt and foot high columns with trusses at the top. The
base plate design must be capable of resisting column bases had multiple anchor bolts that tied
overturning caused by lateral forces on the col- the column base to the foundation. The columns
umn. The lateral forces may consist of wind, other were 30 inches deep and 12 inches wide. The bolt
steel members striking the column, erection equip- design provided adequate support in the strong
ment striking the Column, or even ironworker con- direction of the column, but inadequate support in
nectors at the column top. Chapter 6, page 6-12, the weak direction. The steel erector solved the
in the AISC Manual of Steel Construction, Volume problem by erecting a column "bent" consisting of
II, Connections, mentions overturning due to acci- two columns and the fill-in beams. This "bent"
dental collisions during erection. [11] Overturning gave adequate resistance in the weak direction.
is also discussed in "Some Practical Aspects of The ironworkers still did not trust support in the
Column Selection." [5] Overturning is usually not strong direction, so they added wire rope guys.
a problem when the anchor bolts and column base After all, the ironworkers had to be at the column
are designed to resist overturning and uplift from top to connect the trusses.
building design loads.
Case History. Even with the proper column base
Prevent the Problem. The best method to pre- design, the steel erector must still be cautious. On
vent the above problem is to perform proper plan- one industrial building, the owner scheduled a
ning for anchor bolt and base plate design. Proper small ceremony for the first column erected. The
planning means: column was set on four anchor bolt leveling nuts,
the top nuts were tightened, and the column was
· The erector lets the steel detailer know what then released from the lifting line. The column
lateral loads the column base design must resist. promptly fell over because the column had only
A specified lateral load from any direction at the been tack-welded to the base plate. What a way
column top is provided to handle wind or objects to start? Needless to say, the steel erector made
striking the column. a big impression at the ceremony.

· The erector coordinates foundation construction

with the general contractor to make certain shims
may be placed under column bases with onlytwo
anchor bolts when leveling plates are not used.
5. One-Bolt Connections

lit
Problem

While reviewing the design drawings, the erector

discovers the structural designer has provided a
connection with no bolts, or with only one bolt.
t I
Code Requirements. The Construction Safety
Orders, Section 1710(c)(1 ), states:

During the final placing of solid web struc-

tural members, the load shall not be re- No Bolt
leased from the hoisting line until the mem-
bers are secured with not less than two
bolts, or the equivalent at each connection
to keep members from rolling and to sustain
anticipated loads. Bolts shall be drawn up
wrench tight. [13]
T IL I
The term "solid web structural member" is in-
tended to mean a beam, channel, girder, or even
a column standing vertically connected at one
end. The two bolts are required to keep the beam
from rolling and to sustain erection loads. Almost
all bolted members are designed with at least two One Bolt
bolts just to take the design load. However, some
welded members may show no bolts.
Solution
Work Practices. Apart from the requirements of
Section 1710(c)(1), two bolts are also required to Provide for Two Bolts. The erector should make
allow the ironworker connector to "connect" the provisions in its estimate for at least two bolt
beam in a safe, quick, and economical manner. connections on all members. During steel detail-
The ironworker will place the tapered shaft of a ing, the erector should coordinate with the fabrica-
spud wrench in one bolt hole, place a bolt in the tor, detailer, and structural designer to make pro-
second bolt hole, and then be able to remove the visions for the required two bolts.
spud wrench shaft to place the second bolt, if the
second bolt is required. If only one bolt hole is Tube Bracing. Steel tube bracing members
provided, the connector obviously cannot use that present special problems to the erector. A typical
bolt hole for both the connecting spud wrench and tube bracing design provides for a slotted end to fit
a bolt. Certain steel members can be erected over a gusset plate. The tube is then fillet-welded
without any bolts, or with only one bolt. However, to the plate. As mentioned under "Problem," the
erection costs are increased because the member design drawings may show no bolts, or only one
must be held with the load line until the single bolt bolt to allow for erection of the tube.
can be placed, or, in the case of no bolts, a
temporary weld is made. The steel tube should not be subject to the provi-
sions of Section 1710(c)(1 ) because it is not a solid
Tubes. Steel tubes, commonly used as bracing web member. Further, the slotted ends will keep
members in braced frames, may be shown on the the tube from rolling when the load line is released.
design drawings without any erection bolts, or with However, the ironworker connector still needs at
only one erection bolt. See the following two least two bolts at each end of the tube to safely
details for examples of this situation. make the connection.
 Erection Angles on Tubes. The following Detail problem by using plates shop-welded to the ends
A shows how one erector solves the two-bolt of the tube. This method has the following advan-
problem by using erection angles atthe ends of the tages:
tube. The two bolts in the erection angle at the top
end of the tube allow the ironworker connector to · The fabricator makes a block and short slot at
safely connect that end of the tube first. The two each end of the tube instead of the difficult long
slotted bolt holes in the connection angle at the slot.
bottom of the tube allow that end of the tube to be · The difficult positioning of the long slot to the
connected with a spud wrench. This method gusset plate is eliminated.
presents the following problems: · The tube is easier to erect and can always be
erected because it is simply brought in sideways.
· Long slots in the tube are difficult to make in the
shop and difficult to fit-up and weld in the field.
· The tube is required to be erected by first posi- Long Bolts. An alternate solution is to place two
tioning the tube in the same vertical plane as the erection bolts through the tube and gusset plate.
gusset plates and then swinging it in into posi- This solution has problems because when the
tion--a task not readily accomplished, if at all. long bolts are tightened to fit up the slot to the
· Panel geometry may not allow the tube to be gusset plate, the tube sides may bend in.
erected unless the tube angles, gusset plates,
and tube slots are specially shaped and the Other Tube Connections. For other tube end
bottom gusset plate is shipped loose. connections, see the article by Lawrence A. Kloiber
titled, "Designing Architecturally Exposed Steel
Plates on Tubes. The following Detail B shows Tubes," in the March 1993 issue of Modern Steel
how structural engineer William C. Honeck solves Construction. [14] However, the one-boltconnec-
both the two-bolt problem and difficult erection tions illusl]'ated in that article are not recommended.

2
 NOTES: 1. REQUEST APPROVAL FROM ENGINEER TO
LET ANGLES REMAIN IN PLACE.
2. THIS DETAIL IS MEANT TO ILLUSTRATE THE
USE OF ANGLES ON THE ENDS OF THE TUBE.
SEE COMMENTS IN THE "SOLUTION" FOR
PROBLEMS WITH THIS DETAIL,

•k

Z ERECTION BOLTS

/ ,

-/
V l/

LONG SLOTTED HOLES IN ANGLE

Z 3x3x 3,8 WITH TWO

DETAIL A
ANGLES ON ENDS OF TUBE - SLOT IN TUBE

13
 THIS DETAIL PRODUCES A VERY SMALL ECCENTRICITY
THAT CAUSES BENDING IN THE BRACING MEMBER,
THIS BENDING SHOULD BE CONSIDERED IN THE
DESIGN OF THE BRACE.

REGULAR HOLES FOR

TWO ERECTION BOLTS

T U B E PL

OPTIONAL
FIELD OR
SHOP WELD

• • GUSSET PL

LONG SLOI-FED HOLES INTUBE PLATE

FOR TWO ERECTION BOLTS
TUBE PLATE ON G
L OF TUBE • •
AND WORK GL

DETAIL B
PLATES ON ENDS OF TUBE

14
6. Columns or Bents Tied Together With Non-Bolted Steel Joists

Problem Solution

The design drawings show columns or bents (par- If the erector discovers column line joists with
tial steel frames) tied together with steel joists that welded end anchorages, the erector should:
have welded end anchorages (no bolts). This
condition is unacceptable to the erector because: · Condition its bid for bolted end anchorages.
· Work with the detailer, fabricator, joist supplier,
· The Construction Safety Orders, Section and structural designer to provide bolted end
1710(c)(3) states: anchorages.

In steel framing, where bar joists are utilized, If for some reason the column line joists are
and columns are not framed in a least two delivered to the jobsite without bolted end anchor-
directions with structural steel members, a ages, the erector must provide the required bolt
bar joist shall be field-bolted at columns to holes in the field.
provide lateral stability during construction.
[13] The SJI Standard Specifications Load Tables and
Weight Tables for Steel Joists and Joist Girders,
· The welded connection provides no fit-up for and Technical Digest, No. 9, Handling and Erec-
spacing adjacent columns or frames. tion of Steel Joists and Joist Girders are must
· The Steel Joist Institute (SJI) requires bolted end references for joist design, fabrication, and erec-
anchorages for joists at column lines to provide tion. [15, 16]
lateral stability during construction.

15
 7. Steel Joists Without Bolted Bridging

Problem The erector should review the design drawings

and work with the fabricator and joist supplier to
Open web steel joists are furnished without bolted make certain that the required bolted bridging is
bridging required for proper and safe erection. furnished.

Code Requirements. The Construction Safety Assemble Joists. The erector can assemble
Orders, Section 1710(c)(4) states: groups of joists on the ground, complete with
bridging, and erect the assembled group to stand
Where Iongspan joists or trusses, 40 feet or alone as a laterally stable unit. This method of
longer, are used rows of bridging shall be erecting joists also solves the problem of erectors
installed to provide lateral stability during working on highly unstable joists. Section 6,
construction prior to slacking of hoisting "Handling and Erection," in Reference 15, also
line. [13] states:

Industry Procedures. The Steel Joist Institute's When it is necessary for the erector to climb
(SJI) Standard Specifications Load Tables and on the joists to install the bridging, extreme
Weight Tables for Steel Joists and Joist Girders caution must be exercised since unbridged
gives various requirements for erecting joists. [15] joists may exhibit some degree of instability
For example, Section 6, "Handling and Erection," under the erector's weight.
for K-Series steel joists requires bolted diagonal
bridging to be installed on certain joists before the Case History. On one project, a metal deck
hoisting cables are released. The SJI Technical foreman happened to walk on the top chord of a
Digest, No. 9, Handling and Erection of Steel newly erected joist that had no bridging installed.
Joists and Joist Girders, also discusses stability of The joist moved laterally and the foreman fell off.
joists and required bolted bridging. [16] The joist erector was following proper erection
procedures, and had reviewed those procedures
Solution with the metal deck contractor. The foreman had
a momentary lapse of safety procedures. This
Joist Design. The structural designer must be example illustrates that the required joist erection
cautious when designing steel joists or using pre- procedures are not to be taken lightly by the
engineered joists. If the designer shows bridging structural designer or erector.
details, then care must be taken to follow the
handling and erection requirements of the Steel
Joist Institute. The Institute's requirements meet
the requirements of the Construction Safety Or-
ders.

16
8. Columns or Bents Tied in With Timber

Problem erector is faced with the problem of determining

how to erect the steel and furnish temporary
The structural designer produces a building de- supports that provide the required lateral stability
sign that uses a combination of timber beams and with the least hazardous working conditions. Any
steel bents (partial steel frames) in order to reduce method the erector chooses to erect the steel and
costs. The timber beams tie the steel bents timber will present greater safety hazards than the
together. The combined frame is usually laterally hazards in erecting an all-steel frame.
stabilized by horizontal and vertical plywood dia-
phragms in the timber direction. Some methods the erector can follow are to:

Erection Supports. The steel erector has the 1. Erect the steel bents supported in all directions
problem of determining how to temporarily sup- and then leave the jobsite. This solution presents
port the steel bents. The steel framing is obviously a hazardous condition because other trades might
a non-self-supporting steel frame as specified in run into or remove the supports---especially if wire
Section 7.9, 'q'emporary Support of Structural rope guys are used. Temporary horizontal steel
Steel Frames," in the AISC Code of Standard struts between the steel bents will allow the use of
Practice. [1] The erector must furnish adequate less hazardous wire rope "X" bracing in lieu of the
temporary supports as required by the Code. The undesirable wire rope guys.
erector is also governed by Section 1710(a), "Brac-
ing,'' of the Construction Safety Orders. [13] 2. Work with the carpenters and erect the steel
concurrently with the timber beams. This method
Solution presents the hazards of two trades working to-
gether, and one relying on the other--not the best
Designate in Contract. First of all, the structural of conditions. Temporary supports will still be
designer must realize the problems inherent in a required, and the ironworkers and other trades will
combination design of steel frames and timber tie- probably not end the project on the best of terms.
in beams. Section 7.9.3 in the Code of Standard
Practice states in part, "Such frames shall be 3. Use a combination of methods 1 and 2.
clearly designated as 'non-self-supporting.'" [1 ] If
the structural designer does not make that state- Case History. On a recent project, a combination
ment in the contract documents, then the steel steel bent and timber beam structure with four
erector may make a claim against the owner. levels of steel was used. The erector chose
method I above--erect the steel, guy it off, and
All-Steel Frame. One solution to the temporary leave the jobsite. The bents were supported with
support problem is for the steel erector to ap- wire rope "X" bracing in the steel frame direction
proach the fabricator, contractor, and structural and wire rope guys in the timber beam direction. In
designer to replace the timber beams on the the timber beam direction, the columns were guyed-
column lines with steel beams. Then, at least the off at three floor levels to anchors in the concrete
erector will have an all-steel frame that will be basement floor. Guys at the third level were so
easier and safer to temporarily support. Ofcourse, steep, their ability to prevent lateral displacement
the best solution from the steel industry's view- was questionable. Fortunately, the frame did not
point is to ask the structural designer to replace all collapse. However, the carpenters had to con-
the timber beams with steel beams. stantly make adjustments to the plywood dia-
phragms in order to keep the building plumb. The
Support Methods. If the structural designer question might be asked, "Would an all-steel frame
cannot change or modify the design, then the steel have been more efficient and economical?"
 9. Steel Columns or Partial Bents Not Tied In

Problem support is to guy-off the columns with wire rope

guys that are anchored to the concrete floor or
The structural designer produces a building de- concrete footings. This solution presents an ex-
sign that uses a combination of steel and other tremely hazardous condition because the wire
building materials. Steel columns may be com- rope guys will interfere with construction opera-
pletely tied in by timber or concrete, or partial steel tions of the steel erector and the othertrades. If the
bents may be tied in by concrete. A variety of wire rope guy is struck by construction equipment
designs may exist, but all of them require tempo- or materials being hoisted, or if the wire rope guy
rary supports by the steel erector. is accidentally slacked-off by a worker who thinks,
"It is in the way," a disastrous accident can occur.
Similar Problem. This problem is similar to the Such an accident did occur on a high-rise building
problem, "Columns or Bents Tied in With Timber." in Toronto, Canada, when a wire rope guywas cut
But this problem presents a more hazardous con- by another trade because it was in the way. Wire
struction condition because the steel is, for the rope guys are also subject to a multitude of prob-
most part, unsupported free-standing columns lems that must be constantly monitored. For
with an irregular steel beam pattern. example, the wire rope clamps must be properly
placed and checked to make certain they have not
Erection Supports. The steel erector has the been loosened. Turnbuckles must also be con-
problem of determining how to temporarily sup- stantly observed to make certain they have not
port the steel members. The steel members are been slacked-off or tampered with. Wire rope
obviously a non-self-supporting steel frame as guys may be the most economical and easiest
specified in Section 7.9, "Temporary Support of type of temporary support to install, but they present
Structural Steel Frames," in the AISC Code of the most hazardous safety condition.
Standard Practice. [1] The erector must furnish
adequate temporary supports as required by the Another safer, temporary support is to provide
Code. The erector is also governed by Section rigid struts from the steel members to the concrete
1710(a), "Bracing," of the Construction Safety floor or footings. Struts are more visible than wire
Orders. [13] rope guys and can take more physical abuse.

Solution Case History. The steel erector should take

advantage of adjacent existing structures to stabi-
Designate in Contract. The structural designer lize the steel being erected. For example, on one
must realize the problems inherent in a combina- project 200-foot-long trusses were erected around
tion design of steel and other materials. Section three sides of an existing hangar. On two sides of
7.9.3 in the Code of Standard Practice states in the hangar the new columns were temporarily
part, "Such frames shall be clearly designated as braced to the existing columns with angle frames.
_non-self-supporting._" [1] Although the steel These frames:
members are obviously non-self-supporting, the
structural designer must make a statement in the · Stabilized the long free-standing columns.
contract documents that the frames are non-self- · Located the columns for vertical alignment.
supporting, or the owner may be subject to a claim. · Stabilized the truss bents until bottom chord
members could be connected.
Hazardous Methods. The temporary supports
determined by the steel erector will present a No wire rope guys were required, which made the
varying degree of safety hazards depending on steel erector and the contractor very happy.
the type of supports. One method of temporary

18
10. Non-Self-Supporting Steel Frames
Problem supporting frame may tax the resources of the
erector. Then if the non-self-supporting frame is
The structural designer produces a building de- not designated as such in the contract documents,
sign where the completed steel frame is not stable. and the erector does not realize this condition until
Section 7.9.3 in the AISC Code of Standard Prac- work is started, the erector may have extreme
tice defines this type of steel frame as a non-self- difficulty in erecting the frame.
supporting steel frame. [1] The AISC definition is:
Solution
A non-self-supporting steel frame is one
that, when fully assembled and connected, Designate on Drawings. The most obvious
requires interaction with other elements not solution, and the course of action required by steel
classified as Structural Steel to provide sta- industry practice, is for the structural designer to
bility and strength to resist loads for which designate non-self-supporting frames in the con-
the frame is designed. tract documents. See page 26 of "Structural Steel
Construction in the '90s," in Steel TIPS. [17] If the
Designate in Contract. Such frames are re- "non-self-supporting" designation is made on the
quired to be clearly designated as "non-self-sup- drawings, erectors will be able to determine during
porting" in the contract documents. The Code of the bidding or negotiating period if they can cope
Standard Practice defines contract documents to with the problems presented by such frames.
mean the contract, plans, and specifications. The
structural designer must convey the "non-self- Analyze Frames. As a second line of defense, the
supporting" designation, preferably on the struc- erector might be wise to use the services of an
tural drawings (plans). If the structural designer erection engineer to analyze any suspicious-look-
does not make such a designation on the draw- ing frames. Even the most experienced erectors
ings, then the owner may receive claims for extra may miss the fact that a frame is non-self-support-
work from the steel erector and contractor. If the ing when that designation is not made in the
drawings are not so designated and the steel contract documents. Section 1710(b) in the Con-
erector does not realize the non-self-supporting struction Safety Orders, requires a civil engineer
condition, and if a construction failure occurs, then currently registered in California to prepare an
the structural designer may wish the steel frame erection plan for trusses and beams over 25 feet
had been designed as a self-supporting frame. long. [13] Hopefully, the engineer would discover
that the frame is non-self-supporting.
New Code. The AISC recently issued a new
version of the Code of Standard Practice, effective Examples. Some examples of non-self-support-
June 10, 1992. This version replaces the Septem- ing frames are:
ber 1, 1986 version contained in the Manual of
Steel Construction. [6] Significant changes are · Concrete shear walls that attach to a non-mo-
made to Section 7.9.3, "Non-Self-Supporting Steel ment steel frame--after the steel is erected.
Frames." Hopefully, these changes will alleviate · Column line beams that need metal deck for
controversies that resulted from varied interpreta- lateral support to carry axial or vertical loads--
tions of language in the September 1, 1986 ver- and the deck is not in place.
sion. · Floor framing that needs metal deck to transfer
horizontal loads--and the metal deck is not in
Erector Furnishes Supports. The steel erector place.
is required to furnish and install temporary sup- · Roof trusses that help provide lateral stability by
ports for the erection operation for both self-sup- frame action--but the bottom chords cannot be
porting and non-self-supporting steel frames. See connected until all¥oof loads are applied.
Section 1710 of the Construction Safety Orders, · Tilt-up walls attached to the non-self-supporting
and Section 7.9 of the AISC Code of Standard steel framo and the walls have no lateral sup-
Practice. [13, 1] For many erectors, furnishing port. See Section 7.9.3 in the Commentary on
temporary supports for self-supporting frames is a the Code of Standard Practice. [2]
difficult task. Furnishing supports for a non-self-

19
 11. Column Splices Too Low or Too High Above Floor
Problem and 45 inches above design finish floor height as
required by Section 1710(e)(3) of the Construction
On one tier building, the column splices are de- Safety Orders. [13] The 4'-0" splice meets this
signed at 6'-0" above the top of steel. On another height requirement for most cases. The determin-
tier building, the splices are designed at 3'-6" ing factor is the floor thickness. If the floor is too
above the top of steel. The 6'-0" splices are too thick, the height of the column splice should be
high to allow the connectors, bolters, and welders increased. The 4'-0' height is recommended in
to work without scaffolding or floats. The 3'-6" Chapter 6, page 6-19, of the Manual of Steel
splices are not high enough to allow safety wire Construction, Volume II, Connections, and by
rope attachments for exposed floor edges at the Barry L. Barger in "What Design Engineers Can
periphery of the building or at interior floor open- Do to Reduce Fabrication Costs." [11, 12]
ings.
· Allow the erectors, bolters, and welders to work *
without scaffolding or floats. The article, "Value
Solution Engineering and Steel Economy," by David T.
Ricker, in Steel TIPS, discusses splices that are
Splice Design. Designthecolumnsplices atleast too high. [18]
4'-0" above the top of steel. This height will: · Provide for uniformity in shipping, unloading,
sorting, and erecting columns. If column splices
· Allow attachments for the top safety wire rope to are designed at different heights above the floor
be placed on the column. The attachment for the elevation on the same floor, or are designed with
top wire rope needs to be located to provide the the same tiers spliced at different floors, then
correct height for both the erector and contractor, erection costs will increase.
if the contractor wants to use the wire rope
installed by the erector without moving the wire Erector Requests. The structural designer should
rope. consider requests from the erector to increase or
decrease the designed column splice heights.
Column attachments for the safety wire rope need
to be placed so the wire rope is located between 42

20
12. Columns Interrupted by Beams
Problem Suspended Beams. In addition to thecontinuous
beams, the design utilizes cantilevers with sus-
On a two-floor shopping center building, the col- pended beams between the two cantilevers. See
umns, rather than being one continuous piece elevation sketch below. This type of design in-
from the base plate to the roof, are interrupted by creases erection and plumbing costs even more
the beam framing. The structural designer has than just continuous beams because the bent
used the interrupted-column-framing system to units must be plumbed individually to allow the
utilize continuous, supported beams. suspended beams to be erected.

More Difficult Erection. The interrupted columns will Vibration. Continuous beam framing, especially
make steel erection more difficult and more costly with cantilevers, may produce a design with ex-
because: cessive vibration. This vibration is not really an
erection problem, but the ironworkers will
I • S
USP
END
EDB
EAM
S notice and comment on the vibration. And
I surely, if the ironworkers feel the vibration,
the tenants will also feel the vibration.

i ii/ II II
1 II Solution

U H In this particular case, the steel erector

must work with the design presented.
However, on future projects the structural
designer should realize the interrupted-
column design will increase the erector's
Elevation
cost. Any savings visualized by using
continuous beams may be negated by the
increased erection cost. The structural designer
· More pieces are required to be erected. may want to perform a brief value engineering
· The columns are more difficult to plumb and keep exercise on using full-length columns versus inter-
plumb. rupted columns.
· The complete frame is more difficult to plumb.
· The sequence of and direction of erection may
be limited.

21
 13. Columns Offset From Beam Framing

Problem

On a tier building, some of the columns are offset

from the beam framing grid line. See sketch
below. This offset will present erecting and deck-
ing problems to the steel erector.

mB
J T
T
OFFSET

F F•

FLOOR PLAN

Solution

If possible, the structural designer should arrange

the framing so the columns and beams are tied
together on the main column lines without offsets.
Keeping the framing on common column lines
allows for more efficient loading, erecting, and
decking procedures. Also, lateral loads from erec-
tion equipment are more easilytransmitted through
the floor framing system.

22
14. Revisions and Alternates Not Flagged on Drawings

Problem Solution

Design drawings are issued without revisions high- Indicate on Drawings. The structural designer
lighted, marked, or flagged to clearly indicate the must clearly indicate revisions and alternates on
revisions. The fabricator and erector do not notice the design drawings by:
the revisions. During construction, the structural
designer, contractor, or owner asks, "Why is that · Using the standard symbol for a revision.
door framing there?," or in an extreme case, "Isn't
the weld on those box columns too small?" · Placing a "cloud" around the revision or alter-
or nate, and identifying the cloud with the revision
During bidding, the bid form and specifications symbol or alternate number.
request and describe alternates, but the drawings
do not clearly indicate the alternates. As a result, · Using some other highlighting or flagging method
the fabricator and erector miss the scope of an to show the revision or alternate.
alternate. During construction, the structural de-
signer, contractor, or owner asks, "Where is eleva- By Fabricator and Erector. The fabricator and
tor No. 6 going to fit?." erector must follow the above practice whenever
they make revisions to their shop, erection, and
erection scheme drawings.

Flagging. "Flagging" revisions is discussed by

Bob Petroski, Eugene Miller, and David T. Ricker
in the article, "What Design Engineers Can Do to
Reduce Fabrication Costs," in Steel TIPS. [12]

23
 15. Double-Framed Beam Connections to Girder

Problem are removed, the connection no longer complies

with the requirements of Section 1710(c)(1 ) of the
If two opposing beams, each with double framing Construction Safely Orders. [13] This section
angles, connect to the same girder and share requires each end of a beam to be secured with not
common bolt holes, an erection safety hazard less than two bolts before the hoisting line is
exists. This type of connection is shown in Detail released.
A • below. Detail A---4 is shown on page 5 of
Solution

L To avoid this hazardous connection, design the

connection as shown in Detail A--1 on page 4 of
Steel Connections/Details and Relative Costs.
[19] Connection Detail A - - l , shown below, uses
single shear tabs (plates) shop-welded to the
carrying girder and field-bolted to the beams.

DOUBLE FRAMING ANGLES

SHOP AND FIELD BOLTED

,,,A--4--. .-.f,.
Relative Cost
1.05 t
Whereas the previous connections of this series have employed
single shear elements, A-4 is the standard connection consisting of
double framing angles which are both shop and field bolted. The SHOP WELDED TAB-FIELD H.S. BOLTED
Rela•ve Cost Index of A-4 is 5% above the single tab shear base
connection A-l, but large beam loading could influence the eco- =..A--1 . . ,
nomics and use this connection relative to A-1 because of an Relative Cost
increase in weld size. There is a safety hazard in erection when 1.00
using this connection. Placing pins and bolts while tnjing to align
two opposing beams through common holes may require the addi- Connection A-1 is the most economical for this series of shear con-
tion of seat angles on one or both sides of the girder to keep the nections and is assigned a Relative Cost Index of 1.00. This connec-
beam in position. Eliminating this hazard, as required by OSHA tion employs a single shear tab shop welded to the carrying girder
laws, will add additional cost to this connection. and field bblted to the beam.

Steel Connections/Details and Relative Costs. Detail A--1 provides a more economical connec-
[19] Note: Both the detail and complete accompa- tion than Detail A--4, because it provides for safer
nying comments are shown. Portions of the com- erection, faster erection, and better ironworker
ments regard relative costs for both shop and field, morale. As stated byW. A. Thornton in Steel TIPS,
may refer to a detail sequence, and may not apply "As this example illustrates, single angles will work
to the subject matter of this problem. However, the even in heavy industrial applications, and they are
complete comments are shown because the rela- much less expensive than double angles, espe-
tive costs should be of interest to most readers. cially for erection." [20]
This note also applies to details in subsequent
problems that are taken from Steel Connections/
Details and Relative Costs.
The hazard exists because the ironworker must
remove the bolts from the first beam connected, in
order to connect the second beam. Once the bolts

24
16. Double-Framed Beam Connections to Column Web
Problem

If two opposing beams, each with double framing shown in Details BW--4 and BW--5 below. These
angles, connect to the same column web and details are shown on page 9 of SteelConnections/
share common bolt holes, an erection safety haz- Details and Relative Costs (Steel TIPS). [19]
ard exists. Additionally, beam erection and bolt
access is difficult. This type of connection is

1· RETURN

1
SHOP WELDED ANGLES TO BEAM DOUBLE ANGLES
H.S. BOLTED TO COLUMN WEB SHOP AND FIELD H.S. BOLTED

--- B W - - 4 - - - ,,-,,BW--5 = · =
Relative Cost Relative Cost
1.20 1.30

Double angle connections BW-4 and BW-5 have relative costs of 1.20 and 1.30. The shop-welded angles are
slightly less. Installation of these connections is hazardous because of the difficulty in placing pins or erection
bolts through common holes. Addition of angle seats under the beams may be necessary to keep the beams from
falling. The relative costs of BW-4 and BW-5 will then be even higher than those noted. Use of connections BW-
4 and BW-5 may not be possible at columns with moment connections to the flanges because continuity plates
or stiffeners, as shown in the "CF" series connections, would interfere with entry of the beam. A design engineer
may wish to use connections similar to BW-1 or BW-2 to avoid this problem as well as to take advantage of the
obvious economies.

25
 The hazard exists because the ironworker must
remove the bolts from the first beam connected in
order to connect the second beam. Once the bolts
are removed, the connection no longer complies
with Section 1710(c)(1) of the Construction Safety
Orders. [13] This section requires each end of a
beam to be secured with not less than two bolts
before the hoisting line is released.

Solution

To avoid this hazardous connection, design the

connection as shown in Detail BW--1 on page 8 of
Steel Connections/Details and Relative Costs (Steel
TIPS). [19] Connection Detail BW--1, shown be-
low, uses single shear tabs (plates) and horizontal
stiffener plates shop-welded to the column with the
single shear plates field-bolted to the beams.
Detail BW--1 provides a more economical connec-
tion than Details BW--4 or BW--5, because it
provides for safer erection, faster and easier erec-
tion, easy bolt accessibility, and better ironworker
morale.

COL. FLG.

SHOP WELDED TAB AND PLATES

FIELD H.S. BOLTED
, , ,BW--1 ,,,
Relative Cost
1.00

For simple shear connection to column web the base 1.00 index
connection BW-1 has a single vertical plate welded to the column
web with horizontal stiffener plates (normally 1/2" thick) welded at
its top and bottom. The bolt holes are located outside the toe of the
column flanges, which allows for easy erection entry of the beam as
well as accessibility for impacting the high strength bolts.

26
17. Mixed Bolts
Problem · The use of A490 bolts is limited to similar connec-
tions throughout the job--say all 36-inch-deep
The structural drawings show a mixed "bag of beams, or all bracing connections.
bolts" throughout the structure. Different kinds of · The single-plate shear connections are designed
bolts shown include: to allow fully-tightened bearing bolts. This design
assumes some transfer of moment is allowed.
· A325 bearing bolts in single-plate shear connec- Fully-tightened bolts should be allowed because
tions for the connections of fill-in beams. Some allowable loads for single-plate shear connec-
of the connections require a snug-tight condition tions as tabulated in Table X on page 4-52 in the
of the bolts to prevent moment transfer. Other Manual of Steel Construction are based on fully-
connections allow snug-tight or fully-tightened tightened or snug-tight bearing bolts. [6]
bolts.
· A325 slip-critical bolts and A490 slip-critical bolts Steel erectors have discovered that the difference
for beam-to-column web connections at the same in cost of installing snug-tight bearing bolts, fully-
column work point. tightened bearing bolts, and slip-critical bolts (fully-
· A325 slip-critical bolts and A490 slip-critical bolts tightened) is not distinguishable. Let's look at the
for bracing connections at the same work point. installation requirements for bearing bolts. Sec-
tion 8(c), "Joint Assembly and Tightening of Shear/
Bolt Design on Most Projects. The majority of Bearing Connections," in the "Specification for
projects are designed with only one kind of bolt-- Structural Joints Using ASTM A325 or A490 Bolts,"
fully-tightened A325 bolts. Designing for different in the Manual of Steel Construction states:
kinds of bolts requires additional quality control,
with resulting added cost, to prevent the erector Bolts in connections.., shall be installed in
from installing the wrong kind of bolt. Additional properly aligned holes, but need only be
quality control includes the following actions: tightened to the snug tight condition. The
snug tight condition is defined as the tight-
· The fabricator (or erector) must prepare an erec- ness that exists when all plies in a joint are
tion drawing that shows--in addition to the bolt in firm contact. This may be attained by a
diameter and length---whether the bolt is A325, few impacts of an impact wrench or the full
A490, slip-critical (fully-tightened), bearing (snug- effort of a man using an ordinary spud
tight or fully-tightened), or bearing (snug-tight wrench. [6]
only).
· The erector must not only distribute A325 and So after figuring out which bolts are bearing bolts,
A490 bolts of the correct diameter and length to the ironworker now has a choice of using the full
the work points, but must make certain that the effort of a spud wrench or a few impacts of an
A325 and A490 bolts are installed in the correct impact wrench. The choice is obvious. The
connection at a work point. ironworker will use the impact wrench, and prob-
· The erector must set up procedures and checks ably fully tighten the bolts, whether or not the bolts
to make certain that bearing bolts required to be need full tightening.
snug-tight are not accidentally fully-tightened.
· The inspector must set up procedures to deter- Bolt Uniformity. As stated by David T. Ricker, in
mine that each kind of bolt is properly installed "What Design Engineers Can Do to Reduce Fab-
and tightened. rication Costs," in Steel TIPS:

Solution Bolt Uniformity. Minimizing the number of

diameters and types of bolts on a given job
Bolt Design. The possibility of the erector using lessens the chance for a mixup in the shop
the wrong kind of bolt can be reduced or elimi- or field... [12]
nated, and costs reduced, if:

· A325 and A490 bolts are not used at the same

connection point.

27
 18. Mixed Diameter Bolts
Problem
Minimize Number of Diameters. If structural
The structural drawings show various bolt diam- drawings require several diameters of bolts, the
eters. The different diameters of bolts increases erector should work with the fabricator and struc-
the chance for the wrong bolts to be supplied or tural designer to minimize the number of diam-
installed. Additionally, installation cost is increased eters to be used. For example:
due to added quality control, more supervision,
more tools, and tool changes. · Replace large-diameter machine boits with
smaller-diameter A325 bolts to match other A325
bolt diameters.
Solution
· Keep the A325 bolt diameters the same by using
Bolt Uniformity. The structural designer should either more or less bolts.
be aware that different diameters of bolts will add
to the fabrication and bolting cost. As stated by · Limit the number of bolt diameters. Instead of
using 3/4-inch, 7/8-inch, 1 -inch, and 11/B-inch diam-
David T. Ricker in "What Design Engineers Can
eters, try to use just 7/8-inch and 1 -inch diameters.
Do to Reduce Fabrication Costs," in Steel TIPS:
· Avoid using large-diameter A490 bolts. 13/8-inch
Bolt Uniformity. Minimizing the number of
diameters and types of bolts on a given job and 11/2-inch diameter A490 bolts require bigger,
heavier, and more costly equipment to tighten
lessens the chance for a mixup in the shop
or field and allows more efficiency in drilling the bolts. Some erectors do not have this equip-
ment. Further, the ironworkers certainly don't
or punching operations. [12]
like to use the heavy equipment.

19. Reuse of High-Strength Bolts

Problem Construction, prohibits the reuse of A490 bolts

and galvanized A325 bolts, but allows the reuse of
To correct alignment of exterior beams connected other A325 bolts, if approved by the responsible
with A325 slip-critical bolts, the erector loosens engineer. [6]
and retightens some bolts and loosens, removes,
reinstalls, and retightens other bolts. However, The steel erector should bring to the attention of
the inspector and engineer claim that retightening the inspector and engineer Section 8(e), page 5-
the bolts constitutes reuse of the bolts, and they 276, "Reuse of Bolts," in the Specification. The
request that the bolts be replaced. Specification, along with the AISC recommenda-
tions on page 17 in Quality Criteria andlnspection
Standards (AISC publication S323), should allow
Solution the erector to obtain approval from the engineer
for the reuse of A325 bolts. [6, 7]
Reuse of A325 Bolts. The "Specification for
Structural Joints Using ASTM A325 or A490 Bolts" The "Steel Interchange" feature in Modern Steel
(Specification) in Part 5 of the Manual of Steel Construction, March 1992, contains an excellent
discussion on the reuse of non-galvanized A325
bolts. [21]

28
20. Prequalified and Non-Prequalified Weld Joints

Problem Take Precautions. The fourth essential step

requires the steel erector to take precautions while
Both prequalified weld joints and non-prequalified welding, and not take the attitude that a qualified
weld joints are used in the structure. Either the joint--prequalified or non-prequalified--will pro-
structural designer designs a connection with a duce a successful weld. As further stated in the
non-prequalified weld joint that requires a quali- article quoted above, a successful weld also re-
fied-by-test weld joint, or the erector decides that, quires attention to:
for cost considerations, a qualified-by-test joint is
more appropriate than a prequalified weld joint. · The magnitude, type, and distribution of forces to
When problems occur using the qualified-by-test be transmitted.
joint, or even the prequalified joint, a finger-point- · Accessibility.
ing contest is sometimes generated, and correc- · Restraint to weld metal contraction. See the
tive action is required. problem, "Restrained Welded Joints."
· Thickness of connected material.
· Effect of residual welding stresses on connected
Solution material.
· Distortion.
By Welding Code. The article, "Welded Joints -
Requirements," in Part 4, page 4-152, of the The articles, "Avoiding Weld Defects," "Correcting
Manual of Steel Construction states in part: Weld Defects," "Nondestructive Testing (NDT),"
and "Projects Specifications," contained in "Struc-
AWS prequalification of a weld joint is based tural Steel Construction in the '90s," in Steel TIPS,
upon experience that sound weld metal with contain much valuable information on producing
appropriate mechanical properties can be successful welds. [17]
deposited, provided work is performed in
accordance with all applicable provisions of Welding Procedure. The essential step, and
the Structural Welding Code. [6] one that is often overlooked, is for the erector to
produce a complete and comprehensive welding
Design with Prequalified Joints. So the first procedure for each project. The welding proce-
essential step for a sound weld is to design con- dure should include:
nections that can use prequalified weld joints.
These joints are shown in Part 4 of the Manual of · A weld sequence for both the complete frame
Steel Construction, and in Section 2 of the Struc- and the individual joint. The joint sequence
tural Welding Code. [6, 22] should include when beam-to-column web joints
are tightened, if the webs are bolted.
Use Prequalified Joints. The second essential · The prequalified and qualified-by-test joint weld-
step is for the steel erector to use prequalified weld ing procedures.
joints at the connections, and to follow all the · A requirement that only certified welders may be
required procedures. used, and that they must be certified for the
process used and the weld position. A weld joint
Qualified-By-Test Joints. If prequalified weld may be properly designed, be prequalified, and
joints are not used, either by necessity or by be thoroughly planned, but the success of the
choice, the third essential step is to use a qualified- weld produced depends on a certified and dedi-
by-test weld joint. The AWS Structural Welding cated ironworker making the weld.
Code sets forth the requirements for testing and
qualifying non-prequalified weld joints. [22]

29
 21. Extending Continuity Plate for Back-up Bar

Problem Extending the continuity plate is also recommended

on pages 4-11 and 6-55 in the AISC Manual of
In certain beam-to-column web welded moment Steel Construction, Volume II, Connections. [11]
connections, the back-up bar for the flange weld
fouls on the column flanges. Fabricator or Erector Requests. Ifthe structural
designer has not provided for an extended conti-
Solution nuity plate, the fabricator or erector will probably
request the plate to be extended. The structural
Plate Design. To provide adequate clearances designer should grant that request.
for back-up bars, design the connection with con-
tinuity plates extended beyond the column flanges.
See Detail DW--1, on page 12 of Steel Connec-
tions/Details and Relative Costs (Steel TIPS). [19]
Detail DW--1 and "Note" also discuss correct
welding of the continuity plate. For convenience,
a modified Detail DW--1 is shown below.

/
-T- tE
- - EXTENSION

T&B FLANGE > tx,

II

WEB BOLTED - FLANGE BUTT WELDED

30
22. Welded Connections to Inside of Column

Problem

The structural drawings show beam-to-column DW--4 below. Some of these welds are difficult to
web connections made with field welds inside the make because of electrode positioning, equip-
column flange areas. See Details BW--3 and ment access, welder access, and welder visibility.

NON-MOMENT CONNECTION M O M E N TC O N N E C T I O N

1" TYP.
, . • - 1 • IF REQ'D.

Itl I
I

OPTIONAL

EA. SIDE
TO COL. FLG.

SHOP WELDED SEAT- FIELD WELDED TO BEAM

•- NO TAPER
OPTIONAL
--=BW--3=== TRIM LINE
Relative Cost
1.09
The extra connection pieces as well as the drilling of holes through
the beam flange add to the cost of this connection. If the column
has moment connections to its flange with column stiffeners, the
use of this connection may be prohibited as in the cases of connec- WELDED MOMENT PLATES WITH SEAT
tions BW-4 and BW-5.

...DW--4..=
Relative Cost
1.50

Connection 0W-4, which is all welded, is not popu-

lar because of its high relative cost compared with
the first two connections in this Plate prepa-
ration and the full penelTation welding of flange
plates to the column results in an increase of the
relative cost to 50% over base connection 0W-1.

31
 Solution

To avoid the above problems, make the beam-to-

column web connections as shown in Details
B W - - 1 and D W - - 1 below. The fabricator and
erector should work with the structural designer to
change the undesirable details to the desirable
details.

N O N - M O M E N TC O N N E C T I O N M O M E N TC O N N E C T I O N

) COL. FLG.
T. & B. FLANGE
/+
I

- E '1 1 M
i I

! I

WEB BOLTED- FLANGE BUTT WELDED

. . . DW--1 . . .
Relative Cost
1.00
SHOP WELDED TAB AND PLATES
FIELD H.S. BOLTED DW-1 is the base 1.00 index connection and
employs a bolted vertical web extension plate.
,,,,. BW--1 ,,-,,
Note that only fillet welds are necessary for the
Relative Cost
ver'dcal web plate. Flanges are folly welded to the
1.00
continuity plates.

For simple shear connecUon to column web the base 1.00 index
connection BW-1 has a single vertical plate welded to the column
web with horizontal stiffener plates (normally 1/2" thick) welded at
its top and bottom. The bolt holes are located outside the toe of the
column flanges, which allows for easy erection entry of the beam as
well as accessibility for impacting the high strength bolts.

All the above details are from Steel Connections/Details and Relative Costs (Steel TIPS). [19]

32
 23. Restrained Welded Joints
Problem Solution

In beam-to-column flange moment connections, Acceptable Procedure. For most beam flanges,
the most economical and most common design the structural designer should allow the web bolts
uses welded flanges and a high-strength bolted to be tightened before the welds are made. This
web with ' bolts.
• This connection is procedure is acceptable because:
shown in Detail CF--1 on page 10 of Steel Con-
nections/Details and Relative Costs (Steel TIPS). · While the welds are cooling, the shrinkage force
[19] Detail CF--1 is shown below. in the weld will overcome the allowable load on
the bolts. The bolts will slip horizontally and go
Problems may occur on large beams with thick into bearing. After the weld has cooled, the bolts
flanges and deep webs. If the web bolts are will not slip again.
tightened before the welds are made (the most · After the weld is made, the bolts will still act as
desired erection sequence), then the welds will be slip-critical bolts--as designed.
restrained by the bolts while cooling, which could
result in lamellar tearing of the column flange, or Special Procedures. For beams with too many
cracked welds. web bolts, the weld shrinkage force will not be able
to overcome the allowable bolt load. Special
CF--1 design and erection procedures should be fol-
lowed, because the weld area must be allowed to
T. & B. FLG. F--2 shrink. Additionally, "snugged-up" bolts may not
be able to be tightened after welding because the
bolts will bind as the weld shrinks and prevent
proper tightening. Two methods can be used to
solve the problem:

· Keep the design of bolted webs. Provide hori-

zontal slotted holes in the column shear plate for
weld shrinkage. Bolts are then fully-tensioned
after the flange welds are made.
· Change the design to welded webs. Some
erectors use horizontal slotted holes in the col-
umn shear plate for standard bolts. Other erec-
tors use standard holes in the shear plate and
use erection bolts. After the flange welds are
WEB BOLTED- FLANGE BUTT WELDED made, the web is then welded to the column as
shown in Detail CF---4, on page 11 of Steel
Connections/Details and Relative Costs (Steel
· ==CF--1 =,, ,,=CF--2 , , , TIPS). [19] The web weld is restrained by the
Relative Cost Relative Cost welded flanges. However, since the weld size is
1.00 1.06 much smaller than the flange welds and distrib-
uted over a larger area of the column flange,
For this category of connecUon, the beam-to- lamellar tearing or a cracked weld should not
column moment connection CF-1 is the base Rela- occur if proper welding techniques are used.
live Cost Index 1.00 connection, with a single
shear plate being fillet welded to the column Welding Techniques. Proper welding techniques
flange. Beam flanges are fully welded to the including preheat, peening, postheat, controlled
column flange, providing a very ductile and eco- cooling, and electrode selection will help to avoid
nomical moment connection. Attaching the shear defects in restrained welds. For information on
tab to the column with a full penetration weld
restrained welded joints see:
rather than a double fillet weld increases the rela-
•ve cost 6%.

33
 · "Avoiding Weld Defects," on page 14 of "Struc-
tural Steel Construction in the '90s," in Steel
TIPS. [17]
· Page 4-152 in the Manual of Steel Construction.
[6]
· "Commentary on Highly Restrained Welded Con-
nections,'' AISC Engineering Journal. [23]

Records. The structural designer may require the

erector to provide proof that webs can be bolted
before successful flange welds are made. Records
of past experiences will be helpful to provide the
required proof. The records will be available if the
erector has made welding procedures for prior
projects that include a welding sequence where
the webs are bolted before the flange welds are
made.

34
24. Field-Welded Curb Angles
Field Attachment. Two methods of field-attach-
Problem ing the angles to provide adjustment and to avoid
the overhead welds are:
The structural drawings show curb angles (or bent
plates) field-welded to periphery beams with over- . Field-bolting. Space bolts as required.
head welds. See design detail below. These
overhead welds are costly and require the welder · Field-welding with slotted plug welds near the
to work on the exterior of the building--a safety toe of the beam flange. Space welds as required.
hazard not only to the welder, but to workers and
others below the welder. See details below for these suggested two attach-
ment methods.

I V
iN PL Or ANGLE

·•' • A325 SC J
/•L VOP
!

•HOLES
IN BEAM
I @P
NOTE: P=CENTER TO CENTER
Design Detail SPACING

Solution

Tolerances. Field-adjustment of curb angles is

necessary when the alignment of the angles re- Suggested Bolting Detail
quires limits closer than the normal steel frame
alignment tolerances specified in Sections 7.11.3.1
and 7.11.3.2 in the Code of Standard Practice. [1]
When alignment of the angles is allowed to follow
the normal steel frame alignment, then the angles
are shop-welded. Tolerances for adjustable items
are specified in Section 7.11.3.3 of the Code. Do @p
not expect the steel erector to adjust the angles to • • 1 • . L VOP
a "zero tolerance."
' t '
The alignment of these adjustable items requires
an adjustable connection to accommodate mill,
fabrication, and erection tolerances. See the last
paragraph on page 48 of the Commentary on the
Code of Standard Practice. [2]

! I

Suggested Welding Detail

35
 25. Steel Floor Deck Spanning Uneven Surfaces
Problem

While placing the steel floor deck, the steel deck The saw cut is made to the top surface and vertical
contractor can not make the deck bear on adjacent surfaces of the ribs, but not the bottom surface
supports. This condition exists when: bearing on the beam. The resulting gap is taped
to contain the wet concrete. As the concrete is
· Fill-in beams or trusses with large camber are poured, the fill-in beams will deflect and the gap
adjacent to column line beams or trusses with may close.
much smaller camber.
· Beams, trusses, or joists with large cambers are Note: The structural designer usually designs the
adjacent to deck shelf angles attached to con- deck to span continuous over at least two supports
crete walls. to take advantage of deck continuity over multiple
supports. This continuity reduces moment and
The elevation differential of adjacent supports is deflections in the deck. Before the deck is cut, the
too great to allow the steel deck to deflect and bear structural designer must be notified.
on each support. See following elevation:
The taping of gaps at butted ends is found on
page 16, Article 4.3, "Lapped and Butted
STEEL FLOOR DECK 2 Ends," in the Design Manual for

-F
Composite Decks, Form
J • GAP Decks and Roof
, /
Decks. [24]
FILL IN COLUMN LINE BEAM OR
CONCRETE WALL WITH Roof Deck.
SHELF ANGLE The installa-
tion of steel
Deck Not Bearing
roof deck on
differential
warped sur-
Solution faces is discussed in the January 1992 issue of
Steel TIPS, titled, "Steel Deck Construction." [25]
Practical Solution. A practical, and probably the
only solution, is to saw-cut the deck at the support(s)
adjacent to the support that is not bearing. The
deck will then change from a cantilevered to a
simple span. See following elevation:

STEEL FLOOR DECK2 •SAW CUT

FILL COLUMN LINE BEAM OR

CONCRETE WALL WITH
SHELF ANGLE

Deck Bearing

36
26. Project Specifications
Problem · Follow the specification requirements set forth in
Section 3, "Plans and Specifications," in the
At times the specifications may: Code of Standard Practice, and the checklist
contained in Section 3 in the Commentary on the
· Be vague. Code of Standard Practice. [1,2]
· Include implied statements. · Review the structural steel specification sugges-
· Include requirements inappropriate to the project. tions in "What Design Engineers Can Do to
· Be more restrictivethan necessaryfor the project. Reduce Fabrication Costs," and in "Value Engi-
For example, plumbing requirements that are neering and Steel Economy," in Steel TIPS. [12,
more restrictive than specified in the Code of 18] However, items 11 and 12 in "Value Engi-
Standard Practice. [1] neering and Steel Economy" may be a little
· Require fabricator to complete design in order to misleading. Specification writers should not as-
make a bid. If so, the erector must also make sign work to subcontractors because the specifi-
assumptions. cations are normally directed to the general con-
· Conflict with the drawings or with notes and tractor. Instead, all of the required work and
specifications on the drawings. Note: In Califor- items to be furnished should be specified in the
nia, the structural designers typically place speci- appropriate specification section.
fication-type notes on the drawings. · Make certain the drawings show items required
· Not be written for the specific project. by the specifications. For example, if the speci-
· Assign work to the steel fabricator, erector, mis- fications state, "Construction limits for erection
cellaneous metal contractor, etc. equipment are shown on Drawing S-6," then the
construction limits must be shown on that draw-
ing.
Solution
· Include Charpy requirements for Groups 4 and 5
rolled shapes that require full penetration welds.
Avoiding Specification Problems. The fabrica-
See "Heavy Structural Shapes in Tension Appli-
tor and erector must live with and comply with
cations,'' in Steel TIPS. [27]
specifications and drawings developed by the
structural designer. To avoid specification prob-
Specifications on Jobsite. Specification writers
lems, the structural designer should:
and structural designers are sometimes disturbed
to discover the steel erector is not using the
· Either prepare the specifications following the
specifications or structural drawings to erect the
Construction Specifications Institute's (CSI)
steel. The specification writer and structural de-
Manual of Practice, or coordinate structural steel
signer should realize the shop drawings, erection
requirements with the specification writer when
drawings, bolt lists, welding procedures, and some-
the project has a specification writer. [26] Hope-
times erection equipment used by the steel erector
fully, the specification writer will follow the CSI
are all developed from, are based on, and are
format.
extensions of the specifications and drawings.
· Make certain specification-type notes placed on
The steel erector's field crews will use these
the structural drawings agree with the structural
documents to erect the steel, and not the specifi-
steel specification section.
cations and drawings prepared by the structural
designer.

37
 Reference List
1. Code of Standard Practice for Steel Buildings 13. Article 29, "Erection and Construction," CALl
and Bridges, AISC, Chicago, June 10, 1992. OSHA State of California Construction Safety
Orders, BNI Books, Los Angeles, June 1989, p.
. Commentary on the Code of Standard Practice 244.
for Steel Buildings and Bridges, AISC, Chicago,
June 10, 1992. 14. Lawrence A. Kloiber, "Designing Architecturally
Exposed Steel Tubes," Modern Steel
3. Detailing for Steel Construction, AISC, Chicago, Construction, AISC, Chicago, March 1993, 30-
1983. 38.

. David T. Ricker, "Steel Interchange," Modern 15. Catalog of Standard Specifications Load Tables
Steel Construction, AISC, Chicago, January and Weight Tables for Steel Joists and Joist
p. 9. Girders, Steel Joist Institute, Myrtle Beach,
South Carolina, 1992.
. David T. Ricker, "Some Practical Aspects of
Column Base Selection," Steel Design Guide 16. Technical Digest, No. 9, Handling and Erection
Series 1: Column Base Plates, AISC, Chicago, of Steel Joists and Joist Girders, Steel Joist
1990, 43-51. Institute, Myrtle Beach, South Carolina, 1992.

6. Manual of Steel Construction: Allowable Stress 17. F. Robert Preece and Alvaro L. Collin,
Design, 9th ed., AISC, Chicago, 1989. "Structural Steel Construction in the '90s," Steel
TIPS, Structural Steel Education Council,
7. Quality Criteria and Inspection Standards, 3d Walnut Creek, California, September, 1991.
ed., AISC, Chicago, 1988. 1 8 . David T. Ricker, "Value Engineering and Steel
Economy," Steel TIPS, Structural Steel
. Vijay P. Khasat, "Steel Interchange," Modern Educational Council, Moraga, California, August
Steel Construction, AISC, Chicago, May 1993, 1992 (Printed from Modern Steel Construction,
p. 10. February 1992).
and
. David T. Ricker, "Steel Interchange," Modern David T. Ricker, "Value Engineering and Steel
Steel Construction, AISC, Chicago, July 1993, Economy," Modern Steel Construction, AISC,
p. 9. Chicago, February 1992, 22-26.

10. Thomas C. Powell, "Steel Interchange," Modern 19. Steel Connections/Details and Relative Costs,
Steel Construction, AISC, Chicago, December (Steel TIPS), The Steel Committee of California,
1992, p. 12. Walnut Creek, California, 1986.

11. Manual of Steel Construction, Vol. II, 20. W. A. Thornton, Ph.D., P.E., "Designing for Cost
Connections, AISC, Chicago, 1992. Efficient Fabrication," Steel TIPS, Structural
Steel Educational Council, Moraga, California,
12. "What Design Engineers Can Do to Reduce April 1992 (Printed from Modern Steel
Fabrication Costs," Steel TIPS, Structural Steel Construction, February 1992).
Educational Council, Moraga, California, June and
1992 (Printed from Modern Steel Construction, W. A. Thornton, Ph.D., P.E., "Designing for Cost
February 1992). Efficient Fabrication," Modern Steel
and Construction, AISC, Chicago, February 1992,
"What Design Engineers Can Do to Reduce 12-20.
Fabrication Costs," Modern Steel Construction,
AISC, Chicago, February 1992, 28-33. 21. "Steel Interchange," Modern Steel Construction,
AISC, Chicago, March 1992, p. 10.

38
22. Structural Welding Code--Steel (D1.1), AWS, 25. "Steel Deck Construction," Steel TIPS,
Miami, 1992. Structural Steel Educational Council, Moraga,
California, January 1992.
23. "Commentary on Highly Restrained Welded
Connections," AISC Engineering Journal, 26. Manual of Practice, The Construction
Vol. 10, No. 3, 3d Quarter 1973, 61-73. Specifications Institute, Alexandria, Virginia.

24. "SDI Specifications and Commentary for 27. "Heavy Structural Shapes in Tension
Composite Steel Floor Deck," Design Manual Applications," Steel TIPS, Structural Steel
for Composite Decks, Form Decks and Roof Educational Council, Moraga, California,
Decks (Publication No.26), Steel Deck Institute, October 1993.
Inc., Canton, Ohio, 1987, 14-21.

About the author

James J. Putkey is a consulting civil engineer in Orinda, California.

He received a BCE degree from the University of Santa Clara in
1954. After two years in the U.S. Army, 19 years with the Erection
Department of Bethlehem Steel Corporation--Pacific Coast Divi-
sion, and seven years with the University of California--Office of the
President, he started his own consulting business. He has provided
consulting services to owners, contractors, attorneys, and steel
erectors for the past 12 years.

39
 STRUCTURAL STEEL EDUCATIONAL COUNCIL
470 Fernwood Drive
Moraga, CA 94556
(510) 631-9570

SPONSORS

Adams & Smith Martin Iron Works, Inc.

Allied Steel Co., Inc. Mid West Steel Erection

Bannister Steel, Inc. Nelson Stud Welding Co.

Bethlehem Steel Corporation Oregon Steel Mills

C.A. Buchen Corporation PDM Strocal, Inc.

Butler Manufacturing Co. Reno Iron Works

G.M. Iron Works Co. H.H. Robertson Co.

The Herrick Corporation Southland Iron Works

Hoertig Iron Works Stockton Steel

Hogan Mfg., Inc. U.S. Steel Corporation

Junior Steel Co. Verco Manufacturing, Inc.

Lee & Daniel Vulcraft Sales Corp.

McLean Steel, Inc.

I
- The- local structural Steel industry (above sponsors) stands ready to assist You in - [
-. determining the most economical solution for your products. Our assistance can
· range from budget prices and estimated tonnage to cost comparisons, fabrication
details and delivery schedules.
I
Funding for this publication provided by the California Iron Workers Administrative Trust.