Lecture 2

2.
MATHEMATICAL MODELS OF SYSTEMS

2.1 INTRODUCTION
To understand and control complex systems, one must
obtain quantitative mathematical models of these systems.
The term model, as it is used and understood by control
engineers, means a set of differential equations that
describe the dynamic behavior of the process. The
differential equations describing the dynamic
performance of a physical system are obtained by
utilizing the physical laws of the process. For mechanical
systems, one utilizes Newton’s laws, and for electrical
systems Kirchhoff’s voltage and current laws. Some
examples are given to demonstrate how to write the
differential equations.
2. MATHEMATICAL MODELS OF SYSTEMS
１． Differential Equations ＆Transfer function
Mechanical systems
The corner stone for obtaining a mathematical model for any
mechanical system is Newton’s law,
F = ma Where
F vector sum of all forces applied to each body in a system, newtons
(N) or pounds (Ib),
a vector acceleration of each body with respect to an inertial reference
frame, m/sec2 or ft/sec2,
m mass of the body, kg or slug.
Consider the simple spring-mass-damper shown below.
(This system could represent, for example, an automobile
shock absorber). In this example, we model the wall
friction as a viscous damper, that is, the friction force is
linearly proportional to the velocity of the mass.
The transfer function of a linear system is defined as the ratio of the

Laplace transform of the output variable to the Laplace transform of
the input variable, with all initial conditions assumed to be zero.
Let be k the spring constant and b the friction coefficient, then
summing the forces acting on M and utilizing Newton’s second
law yields
𝒅𝟐 𝒚（𝒕） 𝒅𝒚（𝒕）
𝐌 𝟐
＋𝒃 ＋𝒌𝒚（𝒕）＝𝒓（𝒕）
𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕
The above equation is a linear constant coefficient differential
equation of second order.
The equation can be rewritten with zero initial conditions as
follows:
𝐌𝒔𝟐 𝒀(𝒔)＋𝒃𝒔𝒀(𝒔)＋𝒌𝒀(𝒔)＝𝑹(𝒔)
Then the transfer function is :
𝒀 𝒔 𝟏
𝐆 𝐬 = ＝
𝑹 𝒔 𝐌𝒔𝟐 ＋𝒃𝒔＋𝒌
2. MATHEMATICAL MODELS OF SYSTEMS f2
Example 1
Wright down the relation X1
k2
X2
between the input and the output f1

K1
Variables M2
f1 U2
M1
k1
M1
X1
𝐴𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑦𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑁𝑒𝑤𝑡𝑜𝑛′ 𝑠 𝑙𝑎𝑤 f2 K2
U2
M2
𝑑2 𝑋1 𝑑𝑋1 𝑑
0= 𝑀1 𝑑𝑡 2 + f1 𝑑𝑡 +k1x1+k2(x1-x2)+f2 𝑑𝑡 x1 − x2 X2
𝑑2 𝑋2 𝑑
𝑢2 = 𝑀2 +k2(x2-x1)+f2 x2 − x1
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡
𝑑 2 𝑋1 𝑑𝑋1 𝑑
0= 𝑀1 2 + f1 +k1x1+k2(x1-x2)+𝑓2 x1 − x2
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Take the Laplace Transform and assume all initial condition by zero
0 = 𝑀1𝑠 2 x1(s)+ f1𝑠 𝑥1(𝑠)+k1x1(s)+k2(x1(s)-x2(s))+s𝑓2 𝑥1(s) − 𝑥2(s)
X1(s)[𝑀1𝑠 2 + f1𝑠 + k1+k2+ s𝑓2]=X2(s)[k2+ s𝑓2]
k2+Sf2
X1(s)= X2(s) (1)
𝑀1𝑆 2 + S(f1+f2)+k1+k2
𝑑 2 𝑋2 𝑑
𝑢2 = 𝑀2 +k2(x2-x1)+𝑓2 𝑥2 − 𝑥1
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡
𝑢2(𝑠) = 𝑀2 𝑆 2 X2(s)+Sf2(X2(s)-X1(s))+k2(X2(s)-X1(s))
𝑢2(𝑠) = 𝑋2(𝑠),𝑀2 𝑆 2 +Sf2+k2]-X1(s)[Sf2+K2]
Substituting about X1(s) from equation (1)
(Sf2+K2)(k2+Sf2)
𝑢2(𝑠) = 𝑋2(𝑠)*(𝑀2 𝑆 2 +Sf2+k2)- }
𝑀1𝑆 2 + S(f1+f2)+k1+k2
Then the transfer function

𝑋2(𝑠)
𝑻. 𝑭 =
𝑢2(𝑠)
𝑆 2 𝑀1+ S(f1+f2)+k1+k2
= 2
(𝑆 𝑀2 +Sf2+k2) ∗ 𝑆 2 𝑀1+ S(f1+f2)+k1+k2 − (Sf2+K2)(k2+Sf2)
Block diagram
U2(s) X2(s)
T.F
Example 2 R1 L1
Wright down the relation between the input and

L3
𝐸0(𝑠) ei L2 eo
the output Variables 𝐸𝑖(𝑠) R2
Applying Kirchhoff’s low:

𝑑𝑖 𝑆𝐿2 (𝑅2 +𝑆𝐿3 ) 𝑑𝑖
𝑒𝑖 = 𝑍1 + 𝑍2 Where 𝑍2 = , 𝑍1 = 𝑅1 + 𝑆𝐿1 & 𝑒0 = 𝑍2
𝑑𝑡 𝑅2 +𝑆(𝐿2 +𝐿3 ) 𝑑𝑡
Take Laplace transform and assume all

initial conditions equal zero
𝑆𝐿2 (𝑅2 +𝑆𝐿3 )
𝐸𝑖(𝑆) = (𝑅1 + 𝑆𝐿1 + )*𝐼(𝑆)
𝑅2 +𝑆(𝐿2 +𝐿3 )
𝑆𝐿2 (𝑅2 +𝑆𝐿3 )

𝐸0(𝑆) = *𝐼(𝑆)
𝑅2 +𝑆(𝐿2 +𝐿3 )
𝑆𝐿2 (𝑅2 + 𝑆𝐿3 )
𝐸0(𝑆) 𝑅2 + 𝑆(𝐿2 + 𝐿3 ) 𝑆𝐿2 (𝑅2 + 𝑆𝐿3 )
𝑇. 𝐹 = = =
𝐸 𝑆𝐿2 (𝑅2 + 𝑆𝐿3 )
𝑆𝐿2 (𝑅2 + 𝑆𝐿3 )
𝐸0(𝑆) 𝑅2 + 𝑆(𝐿2 + 𝐿3 )
𝑇. 𝐹 = =
𝐸𝑖(𝑆) 𝑆𝐿2 (𝑅2 + 𝑆𝐿3 )
(𝑅1 + 𝑆𝐿1 + )
𝑅2 + 𝑆(𝐿2 + 𝐿3 )
𝑆𝐿2 (𝑅2 + 𝑆𝐿3 )
=
𝑅1 + 𝑆𝐿1 ∗ (𝑅2 + 𝑆 𝐿2 + 𝐿3 + (𝑆𝐿2 (𝑅2 + 𝑆𝐿3 )
1
=
𝑅1 + 𝑆𝐿1 ∗ (𝑅2 + 𝑆 𝐿2 + 𝐿3
+1
𝑆𝐿2 (𝑅2 + 𝑆𝐿3 )
Block diagram:
𝐸𝑖(𝑠) 1 𝐸0(𝑠)
𝑅1 + 𝑆𝐿1 ∗ (𝑅2 + 𝑆 𝐿2 + 𝐿3
+1
𝑆𝐿2 (𝑅2 + 𝑆𝐿3 )
2. Laplace Transform
The Laplace transform method substitutes relatively easily solved algebraic
equations for the more difficult differential equations ,The time-response
solution is obtained by the following operations:
1. Obtain the linearized differential equations.
2. Obtain the Laplace transformation of the differential equations.
3. Solve the resulting algebraic equation for the transform of the variable of interest.
∞
𝐹 𝑠 = 𝑓 𝑡 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = ℒ*𝑓 𝑡 +
0−
The inverse Laplace transform is written as

𝜎+𝑗∞
1
𝑓 𝑡 = 𝐹(𝑠)𝑒 +𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑠
2𝜋𝑗 𝜎−𝑗∞
Example: Solution of a differential equation
Obtain the response of the system represented by the differential equation:
𝑑 2 𝑦（𝑡） 𝑑𝑦（𝑡）
＋4 ＋3𝑦（𝑡）＝2𝑟（𝑡）
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑦
Where the initial conditions are y(0)=1, 0 = 0, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑟 𝑡 = 1, 𝑡 ≥ 0
𝑑𝑡
Solution
The Laplace transform yields
[𝑠 2 𝑌 𝑠 − 𝑆𝑌(0)-＋4,𝑠𝑌 𝑠 − 𝑌(0)-＋3𝑌(𝑠)＝2𝑅(𝑠)
1 2
[𝑠 2 𝑌 𝑠 − 𝑆-＋4,𝑠𝑌 𝑠 − 1-＋3𝑌(𝑠)＝2 = Y(s),𝑆 2 + 4𝑆 + 3- − 4 − 𝑆 =
𝑠 𝑆
2 2 2+4𝑆+𝑆 2 𝑆 2 +4𝑆+2 (𝑆 2 +4𝑆+2)

Y(s),𝑆 + 4𝑆 + 3- = +4+S= ,𝑌 𝑆 = =
𝑆 𝑆 𝑆(𝑆 2 +4𝑆+3) 𝑆(𝑆+1)(𝑆+3)
𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
= + + using Partial fraction expansion
𝑆 𝑆+1 𝑆+3
Calculating A at S=0
(𝑆 2 + 4𝑆 + 2) 2
=
𝑆(𝑆 + 1)(𝑆 + 3) 3
Calculating B at S= -1
(𝑆 2 + 4𝑆 + 2) −1 1
= =
𝑆(𝑆 + 1)(𝑆 + 3) −2 2
Calculating C at S= -3
(𝑆 2 + 4𝑆 + 2) −1
=
𝑆(𝑆 + 1)(𝑆 + 3) 6
2/3 1/2 −1/6
𝑌 𝑆 = + +
𝑆 𝑆+1 𝑆+3
Hence the response is
2 1 1 2
𝑦 𝑡 = + 𝑒 −𝑡 − 𝑒 −3𝑡 and the steady-state response is lim 𝑦 𝑡 =
3 2 6 𝑡→∞ 3
The response is shown in the figure below.
3. BLOCK DIAGRAM MODELS
The block diagram representation of the system relationships is prevalent in
control system engineering. A block diagram consists of unidirectional
operational blocks that represent the transfer function of the variables of
interest. A block diagram of the field controlled dc motor is shown below
To represent a system with several variables under control, an interconnection of

blocks is utilized. Consider the two-input variables, two output variables system, we
can write
𝑌1 𝑠 = 𝐺11 𝑠 𝑅1 𝑠 + 𝐺12 𝑠 𝑅2 𝑠
𝑌2 𝑠 = 𝐺21 𝑠 𝑅1 𝑠 + 𝐺22 (𝑠)𝑅2 (𝑠)
where
𝑌1 (𝑠)
𝐺11 𝑠 =
𝑅1 (𝑠) 𝑅2 𝑠 = 0
𝑌1 (𝑠)
𝐺12 𝑠 = 𝑌2 (𝑠)
𝑅2 (𝑠) 𝑅1 𝑠 = 0 𝐺21 𝑠 =
𝑅1 (𝑠) 𝑅2 𝑠 = 0
𝑌2 (𝑠)
𝐺22 𝑠 =
𝑅2 (𝑠) 𝑅1 𝑠 = 0
In matrix form
𝑌1 𝑠 𝐺11 𝑠 𝐺12 𝑠 𝑅1 (𝑠)
= ; ⇒ 𝑌 = 𝐺𝑅
𝑌2 𝑠 𝐺21 𝑠 𝐺22 𝑠 𝑅2 (𝑠)
BLOCK DIAGRAM ELEMENTS
(A) BLOCK: INDICATES A PROPORTIONAL RELATIONSHIP
BETWEEN TWO LAPLACE -TRANSFORMED SIGNALS
(B) SUMMING POINT: INDICATES ADDITION AND
SUBTRACTION OF SIGNALS
(C) PICKOFF POINT: INDICATES THAT THE SAME SIGNAL GO
TO SEVERAL PLACES
EXAMPLES OF EACH OF THESE ELEMENTS ARE SHOWN
Block Diagram Reduction
For a single-input, single output system, block diagram reduction means simplifying
the composite diagram to the point where it is a single block, displaying the transfer
function relating the output to the input. Block diagram transformation and reduction
is done by considering the algebra of the diagram variables. The following are some
useful simplifications:

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2.

MATHEMATICAL MODELS OF SYSTEMS

The transfer function of a linear system is defined as the ratio of the

between the input and the output f1

Then the transfer function

Wright down the relation between the input and

Applying Kirchhoff’s low:

Take Laplace transform and assume all

𝑆𝐿2 (𝑅2 +𝑆𝐿3 )

The inverse Laplace transform is written as

2 2 2+4𝑆+𝑆 2 𝑆 2 +4𝑆+2 (𝑆 2 +4𝑆+2)

To represent a system with several variables under control, an interconnection of

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