Iliad

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This article is about the epic poem. For other uses, see Iliad (disambiguation).

Trojan War

Achilles tending the wounded Patroclus

(Attic red-figure kylix, c. 500 BC)

The war

Setting: Troy (modern Hisarlik, Turkey)

Period: Bronze Age

Traditional dating: c. 11941184 BC

Modern dating: c. 12601180 BC

Outcome: Greek victory, destruction of Troy

See also: Historicity of the Iliad

Literary sources

Iliad

Epic Cycle

Aeneid, Book 2

Iphigenia in Aulis

Philoctetes

Ajax

The Trojan Women

Posthomerica

See also: Trojan War in popular culture

Episodes
 Judgement of Paris

Seduction of Helen

Trojan Horse

Sack of Troy

The Returns

Wanderings of Odysseus

Aeneas and the Founding of Rome

Greeks and allies

Agamemnon

Achilles

Helen

Menelaus

Nestor

Odysseus

Ajax

Diomedes

Patroclus

Thersites

Achaeans

Myrmidons

See also: Catalogue of Ships

Trojans and allies

Priam

Hecuba

Hector

Paris

Cassandra

Andromache

Aeneas

Memnon

Troilus

Penthesilea and the Amazons

Sarpedon

See also: Trojan Battle Order

Participant gods

Caused the war:

Eris

Zeus
 On the Greek side:

Athena

Hera

Hephaestus

Hermes

Poseidon

Thetis

On the Trojan side:

Aphrodite

Apollo

Ares

Artemis

Leto

Scamander

Related topics

Homeric question

Archaeology of Troy

Mycenae

Mycenaean warfare

The Iliad (/lid/; Ancient Greek: Ilias, pronounced [i.li.s] in Classical Attic; sometimes
[1]

referred to as the Song of Ilion or Song of Ilium) is an ancient Greek epic

poem in dactylic hexameter, traditionally attributed to Homer. Set during the Trojan War,
the ten-year siege of the city of Troy (Ilium) by a coalition of Greek states, it tells of the
battles and events during the weeks of a quarrel between King Agamemnon and the
warrior Achilles.
Although the story covers only a few weeks in the final year of the war, the Iliad mentions or
alludes to many of the Greek legends about the siege; the earlier events, such as the
gathering of warriors for the siege, the cause of the war, and related concerns tend to
appear near the beginning. Then the epic narrative takes up events prophesied for the
future, such as Achilles' imminent death and the fall of Troy, although the narrative ends
before these events take place. However, as these events are prefigured and alluded to
more and more vividly, when it reaches an end the poem has told a more or less complete
tale of the Trojan War.
The Iliad is paired with something of a sequel, the Odyssey, also attributed to Homer. Along
with the Odyssey, the Iliad is among the oldest extant works of Western literature, and its
written version is usually dated to around the 8th century BC. Recent statistical modelling
[2]

based on language evolution gives a date of 760710 BC. In the modern vulgate (the
[3]

standard accepted version), the Iliad contains 15,693 lines; it is written in Homeric Greek, a
literary amalgam of Ionic Greek and other dialects.

Contents
 [hide]

1Synopsis
2Major characters
o 2.1Achaeans
2.1.1Achilles and Patroclus
o 2.2Trojans
o 2.3Gods
2.3.1Divine Intervention
3Themes
o 3.1Nostos
o 3.2Kleos
o 3.3Tim
o 3.4Wrath
o 3.5Fate
4Date and textual history
o 4.1The Iliad as oral tradition
5Warfare in the Iliad
o 5.1Depiction of infantry combat
o 5.2Influence on classical Greek warfare
6Influence on the arts and literature
o 6.120th century
o 6.2Contemporary popular culture
7English translations
8Manuscripts
9See also
10References
11Bibliography
12Further reading
13External links

Synopsis[edit]

The first verses of the Iliad

Note: Book numbers are in parentheses and come before the synopsis of the book.
(1) After an invocation to the Muses, the story launches in medias res towards the end
of the Trojan War between the Trojans and the besieging Greeks. Chryses, a Trojan
priest of Apollo, offers the Greeks wealth for the return of his daughter Chryseis, held
captive of Agamemnon, the Greek leader. Although most of the Greek army is in favour
of the offer, Agamemnon refuses. Chryses prays for Apollo's help, and Apollo causes a
plague to afflict the Greek army.
After nine days of plague, Achilles, the leader of the Myrmidon contingent, calls an
assembly to deal with the problem. Under pressure, Agamemnon agrees to return
Chryseis to her father, but decides to take Achilles' captive, Briseis, as compensation.
Angered, Achilles declares that he and his men will no longer fight for Agamemnon but
will go home. Odysseus takes a ship and returns Chryseis to her father, whereupon
Apollo ends the plague.
In the meantime, Agamemnon's messengers take Briseis away. Achilles becomes very
upset, sits by the seashore, and prays to his mother, Thetis. Achilles asks his mother
[4]

to ask Zeus to bring the Greeks to the breaking point by the Trojans, so Agamemnon
will realize how much the Greeks need Achilles. Thetis does so, and Zeus agrees.
(2) Zeus sends a dream to Agamemnon, urging him to attack Troy. Agamemnon heeds
the dream but decides to first test the Greek army's morale, by telling them to go home.
The plan backfires, and only the intervention of Odysseus, inspired by Athena, stops a
rout.
Odysseus confronts and beats Thersites, a common soldier who voices discontent
about fighting Agamemnon's war. After a meal, the Greeks deploy in companies upon
the Trojan plain. The poet takes the opportunity to describe the provenance of each
Greek contingent.
When news of the Greek deployment reaches King Priam, the Trojans too sortie upon
the plain. In a list similar to that for the Greeks, the poet describes the Trojans and their
allies.
(3) The armies approach each other, but before they meet, Paris offers to end the war
by fighting a duel with Menelaus, urged by his brother and head of the Trojan
army, Hector. While Helen tells Priam about the Greek commanders from the walls of
Troy, both sides swear a truce and promise to abide by the outcome of the duel. Paris
is beaten, but Aphrodite rescues him and leads him to bed with Helen before Menelaus
can kill him.
(4) Pressured by Hera's hatred of Troy, Zeus arranges for the Trojan Pandaros to
break the truce by wounding Menelaus with an arrow. Agamemnon rouses the Greeks,
and battle is joined.
(5) In the fighting, Diomedes kills many Trojans, including Pandaros, and
defeats Aeneas, whom Aphrodite rescues, but Diomedes attacks and wounds the
goddess. Apollo faces Diomedes and warns him against warring with gods. Many
heroes and commanders join in, including Hector, and the gods supporting each side
try to influence the battle. Emboldened by Athena, Diomedes wounds Ares and puts
him out of action.
(6) Hector rallies the Trojans and prevents a rout; the Greek Diomedes and the
Trojan Glaukos find common ground and exchange unequal gifts. Hector enters the
city, urges prayers and sacrifices, incites Paris to battle, bids his wife Andromache and
son Astyanax farewell on the city walls, and rejoins the battle.
(7) Hector duels with Ajax, but nightfall interrupts the fight, and both sides retire. The
Greeks agree to burn their dead, and build a wall to protect their ships and camp, while
the Trojans quarrel about returning Helen. Paris offers to return the treasure he took
and give further wealth as compensation, but not Helen, and the offer is refused. A
day's truce is agreed for burning the dead, during which the Greeks also build their wall
and a trench.
(8) The next morning, Zeus prohibits the gods from interfering, and fighting begins
anew. The Trojans prevail and force the Greeks back to their wall, while Hera and
Athena are forbidden to help. Night falls before the Trojans can assail the Greek wall.
They camp in the field to attack at first light, and their watchfires light the plain like
stars.
 Iliad, Book VIII, lines 24553, Greek manuscript, late 5th, early 6th centuries AD.

(9) Meanwhile, the Greeks are desperate. Agamemnon admits his error, and sends an
embassy composed of Odysseus, Ajax, Phoenix, and two heralds to offer Briseis and
extensive gifts to Achilles, who has been camped next to his ships throughout, if only
he will return to the fighting. Achilles and his companion Patroclus receive the embassy
well, but Achilles angrily refuses Agamemnon's offer and declares that he would only
return to battle if the Trojans reached his ships and threatened them with fire. The
embassy returns empty-handed.
(10) Later that night, Odysseus and Diomedes venture out to the Trojan lines, kill the
Trojan Dolon, and wreak havoc in the camps of some Thracian allies of Troy's.
(11) In the morning, the fighting is fierce, and Agamemnon, Diomedes, and Odysseus
are all wounded. Achilles sends Patroclus from his camp to inquire about the Greek
casualties, and while there Patroclus is moved to pity by a speech of Nestor's.
(12) The Trojans attack the Greek wall on foot. Hector, ignoring an omen, leads the
terrible fighting. The Greeks are overwhelmed and routed, the wall's gate is broken,
and Hector charges in.
(13) Many fall on both sides. The Trojan seer Polydamas urges Hector to fall back and
warns him about Achilles, but is ignored.
(14) Hera seduces Zeus and lures him to sleep, allowing Poseidon to help the Greeks,
and the Trojans are driven back onto the plain.
(15) Zeus awakes and is enraged by Poseidon's intervention. Against the mounting
discontent of the Greek-supporting gods, Zeus sends Apollo to aid the Trojans, who
once again breach the wall, and the battle reaches the ships.
(16) Patroclus cannot stand to watch any longer and begs Achilles to be allowed to
defend the ships. Achilles relents and lends Patroclus his armor, but sends him off with
a stern admonition not to pursue the Trojans, lest he take Achilles' glory. Patroclus
leads the Myrmidons into battle and arrives as the Trojans set fire to the first ships. The
Trojans are routed by the sudden onslaught, and Patroclus begins his assault by killing
the Trojan hero Sarpedon. Patroclus, ignoring Achilles' command, pursues and
reaches the gates of Troy, where Apollo himself stops him. Patroclus is set upon by
Apollo and Euphorbos, and is finally killed by Hector.
(17) Hector takes Achilles' armor from the fallen Patroclus, but fighting develops around
Patroclus' body.
(18) Achilles is mad with grief when he hears of Patroclus' death and vows to take
vengeance on Hector; his mother Thetis grieves, too, knowing that Achilles is fated to
die young if he kills Hector. Achilles is urged to help retrieve Patroclus' body but has no
armour. Made brilliant by Athena, Achilles stands next to the Greek wall and
[clarification needed]

roars in rage. The Trojans are dismayed by his appearance, and the Greeks manage to
bear Patroclus' body away. Polydamas urges Hector again to withdraw into the city;
again Hector refuses, and the Trojans camp on the plain at nightfall. Patroclus is
mourned. Meanwhile, at Thetis' request, Hephaestus fashions a new set of armor for
Achilles, including a magnificently wrought shield.
(19) In the morning, Agamemnon gives Achilles all the promised gifts, including Briseis,
but Achilles is indifferent to them. Achilles fasts while the Greeks take their meal, straps
on his new armor, and heaves his great spear. His horse Xanthos prophesies
[clarification needed]

to Achilles his death. Achilles drives his chariot into battle.

(20) Zeus lifts the ban on the gods' interference, and the gods freely help both sides.
Achilles, burning with rage and grief, slays many.
(21) Driving the Trojans before him, Achilles cuts off half their number in the
river Skamandros and proceeds to slaughter them, filling the river with the dead. The
river, angry at the killing, confronts Achilles but is beaten back by Hephaestus'
firestorm. The gods fight among themselves. The great gates of the city are opened to
receive the fleeing Trojans, and Apollo leads Achilles away from the city by pretending
to be a Trojan.
(22) When Apollo reveals himself to Achilles, the Trojans have retreated into the city,
all except for Hector, who, having twice ignored the counsels of Polydamas, feels the
shame of the rout and resolves to face Achilles, despite the pleas of his parents, Priam
and Hecuba. When Achilles approaches, Hector's will fails him, and he is chased
around the city by Achilles. Finally, Athena tricks him into stopping, and he turns to face
his opponent. After a brief duel, Achilles stabs Hector through the neck. Before dying,
Hector reminds Achilles that he, too, is fated to die in the war. Achilles takes Hector's
body and dishonours it.
(23) The ghost of Patroclus comes to Achilles in a dream and urges the burial of
Hector's body. The Greeks hold a day of funeral games, and Achilles gives out the
prizes.
(24) Dismayed by Achilles' continued abuse of Hector's body, Zeus decides that it must
be returned to Priam. Led by Hermes, Priam takes a wagon out of Troy, across the
plains, and into the Greek camp unnoticed. He clasps Achilles by the knees and begs
for his son's body. Achilles is moved to tears, and the two lament their losses in the
war. After a meal, Priam carries Hector's body back into Troy. Hector is buried, and the
city mourns.