BLG1502 -Q & A- EXAM PREP ACCORDING TO LECTURERS GUIDELINES:

PART 1
EXAMINATION GUIDELINES:BLG 1502 May/June 2012
My e-mail address is makhotl@unisa.ac.za & my office telephone line is (011) 471 2811. Please consider the
## It is very important that you revise all the work youve done this semester- assignments & exam papers

The lay-out of the examination paper will be as follows: Chapters to study:

1. Q 1: MCQs(covers the entire syllabus) (20 marks) 1. Ch 26: Phylogeny & Tree of Life
5 mks.
2. Q 2 : requires u2 provide terms to specific explanations/ definitions(covers
entire syllabus)-(10 marks) 2. Ch 28: Prostits-20 marks.

3. Ch 29:Plant Diversity 1: How

3. Q 3:You will be required to list, Ch 28-8 marks
plants colonized land-5 marks
4. Q 4: requires u2 giv brief summary/description /report, 4. Ch 31: Fungi-10 marks
Ch 31: Fungi, &Ch26: Phylogeny & Tree of Life (Ch 26 only 5 marks) (15 marks). 5. Ch34: Chordates-4 marks

5. Q 5: require u2 explain &describe process using diagram, 6. Ch 38: Angiosperms-4 marks

Ch 28: Prostits-(12 marks) 7. Ch 40: Basic Principles of Animal

Form & Function:-8 marks.
6. Q 6: Requires u2 name certain characteristics of organisms (might b plants
or animals). 8. Ch 45: Hormones & the
Endocrine system-14 marks.
-Q based on Ch 34: Chordates-4 mks & remaining 5 mks frm

Ch 29:Plant Diversity 1: How plants colonized land- (total 9marks)

7. Q 7: requires u2 describe & compare processes,

Ch40: Basic Principles of Animal Form & Function:-( 8 marks. )

8. Q 8: Requires you to briefly describe and/ define a process,

Ch 38: Angiosperms-(4 marks)

9. Q 9: Name de required terms/concepts /words,

Ch 45: Hormones &de Endocrine system-(14 marks)

Breakdown Total=100 marks

MCQs-20 marks
Terms to specific explanations/ definitions (covers the entire syllabus) -10 marks
Long questions-70 marks
{the ff. Mcqs cover Semester 1 & 2 & Campbell & Reece }
10. Q 1: MCQs(covers the entire syllabus -(20mks)-
1.1 The Gram stain is a procedure that microbiologists used to: infer the structure of bacterial cell wall & bacterial
response to antibiotics.
1.4 Which of these is the most common compound in the cell walls of gram-positive bacteria? Peptidoglycan
BpDTGp+Gn2A: Bacteria is unicellular; microscopic Prokaryote, with cell walls consisting of peptidoglycan, a material not found in
Eukaryotic cell walls. Different bacteria differ in cell wall structure & the amount of peptidoglycan present in it. Gram-stain
Technique is used by microbiologists to infer cell wall structure differences, to distinguish betwn different bacteria, & facilitate
treatment of infection & disease caused by bacteria, & to infer response of bacteria to antibiotics. Gram-positive bacteria
stains blue, & has a thick wall with larger layer of peptidoglycan. Gram-negative stains pink with a cell wall that has a thin
layer of peptidoglycan. Gram-negative bacteria are the more harmful bacteria inflicting disease that can cause death.
Antibiotics prevent formation of cross-links in peptidoglycan thus rendering the cell wall non-functional.
1.10 Eukaryotes have plasma membrane whilst prokaryotes have a cell wall
1.11 Archaea differ from bacteria in that they... can form methanogen.
1.1 The primary function of fruit is to disperse seeds.
1.2 The main way that pine trees disperse their offspring is by using windblown seeds.
1.9 A seed develops from a fertilised ovule.
1.2 The flower part that develops into a fleshy fruit is the Ovary
1.8 Which of these is found in seed plants?
1.9 In monocotyledons ---------------------- in dicotyledons
1 Roots, stems, & leaves
SOLFFP:Stem vascular bundles scattered ---stem vascular bundles in a ring
2 Complex vascular tissue
one cotyledon --- Two cotyledons -
leaf veins parallel --- Leaves net veined - 3 Pollen grains that are not flagellated
flower parts in three --- Flower parts in fours of fives 4 Retention of megasporophyte within the
fibrous root system_______________---Taproot system ovule
pollen grain with 1opening________---Pollen grain with 3 openings
1.5 AhZsSex:In Chlamydomonas,1 adult is haploid...2 the zygospore survives times of stress...3 sexual & asexual reproduction occurs
1.6 Which feature(s) do ferns share with all other land plants? Sporophyte & gametophyte life cycle stages
MeDS bpg YoG MaGAAF ZyNsMs fess
LIFECYCLE: After 1.MEIOSIS takes place in sporangium, it 2. disperses 3. Spores which develop into a bisexual photosynthetic
gametophytes]. 4.Young gametophyte develops into 5.Mature gametophyte which develops an antheridium -(a sperm producing
organ) & an archegonium (egg producing organ) at different times. 6.Antheridium disposes sperm & 7.Archegonium disposes an egg.
[archegonia secretes an attractant to direct sperm to egg. Sperm use flagella to swim to egg.] 8.FERTILISATION takes place. 9.Zygote
[develops into a new sporophyte- the young plant grows from an archegonium]. 10,New sporophyte has roots & a new
gametophyte. 11.Mature sporophyte grows leaves. [On underside of leaves are reproductive spots called sori each sorus is a cluster
of sporangia. Meiosis takes place in sporangia & disperses spores to repeat cycle.
1.12 Name a characteristic all angiosperms possess? Carpels that contain microsporangia
1.10 Angiosperm double fertilisation is so-called because it features the formation of 1 embryo involving 1sperm cell &
of endosperm involving a 2nd sperm cell. MafMeAMs pogMget GaP2 OMsFemG2 DTAZyse osteW
LIFECYCLE: 1.Mature flower on diploid sporophyte plant has STIGMA; STYLE; OVARY; & ANTHER. 2. MEIOSIS occurs within the sporangia
of the Anther, when microsporocytes divide to form microspores & within the sporangia of the ovary, when megasporocytes divide
to produce 4 megaspores.
3. ANTHER consists of microsporangium containing diploid 7. OVARY rests within the style @bottom, consisting of ovules
microsporocytes that divide by MEIOSIS producing microspores. with diploid megasporangium in each. 8. Megasporocyte within
4. Microspore develops into pollen grain which is carried to sticky each megasporangium divide by MEIOSIS producing four
stigma where it germinates into male gametophyte consisting of a megaspores of which 1 survives to form female gametophyte.
Generative cell & Tube Cell. 5. Generative cell divides into 2 sperm, 9. FEMALE GAMETOPHYTE Consists of embryo sac with ANTIPODAL
& Tube cell grows pollen tube, which enters the stigma & grows Cells; CENTRAL Cell (with 2 nuclei); &SYNERGIDS with haploid
down the style to ovary for POLLINATION to take place. 6. After EGG. 10. 2 SPERMS within the pollen tube enter through STIGMA,
POLLINATION 2 sperm cells are discharged into each ovule. travel down STYLE to the ovule within the ovary to fertilize egg
& cell
11. DOUBLE FERTILIZATION occurs when 1 sperm fertilizes EGG to form zygote & other sperm fuses with 2 polar nuclei in the central cell
(of ovule) forming a cell with triploid (3n) nucleus; 12. The tissues developed from this 3n cell are called endosperm. 13. After double
fertilization, ZYGOTE develops into a sporophyte embryo; ovule matures into a seed, & the triploid 3n cell develops tissues called an
endosperm as food supply for embryo. 14. When seed germinates embryo develops into a mature diploid sporophyte plant with flower
entailing stigma, style, ovary & anther where the process takes place again.
1.12 In moss lifecycle, sporophyteconsists of foot, capsule(seta) & stalk MeDsSP BudMAlFAafer ZySemySyGa SpomatMe
LIFECYCLE: After 1. MEIOSIS takes place in sporangium to produce spores, peristome bursts open to 2. Disperse Spores. 3. Spores
develop into threadlike 4. protonemata]. [Haploid protonemata produce 5.Buds that divide mitotically to develop haploid
gametophores]. 6.Male & Female Gametophytes develop. 7. Antheridia in a male gametophyte disperses sperm that swim through
moisture to fertilize egg within the archegonium in the female gametophyte. 8. FERTILIZATION takes place within archegonium
wherein Diploid 9. ZYGOTE is formed, &develops into 10.sporophyte EMBRYO. Young diploid 11. Young sporophyte grows a long
seta(stalk) that emerges from archegonium. 12 Young gametophyte.Attached by the foot the sporophyte is totally dependent on
gametophyte for nourishment. 13. Sporophytes mature to develop a capsule containing sporangium at the tip of the seta. 14.MEIOSIS
occurs & Haploid spores develop in the capsule. When capsule is mature lid pops off from peristome to release spores.
1.13

1.11 The scientific discipline concerned with naming of organisms is calledtaxonomy.

1.4 The correct sequence, from the most to the least comprehensive, of the taxonomic levels listed here is
Domain, kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, species.
1.3 The characteristics of plants which is absent in their closest relatives, the charophytes is...Alternation of generations
AMMWA: 5 characteristics that define land plants: Alternation of generations; Multicellular Dependent Embryos, Multicellular
Gametangia; Walled spores produced in sporangia; & Apical Meristems.
1.5 An unknown organism was found in a park. It was one-celled, had no nuclear membrane around its DNA, & contained
no mitochondria & no chloroplasts. It belongs to the group bacteria or archaea.
1.6 What characteristic is NOT an evolutionary trend for plants? Becoming seedless
1.7 Land plants no longer required water as a medium for reproduction with the evolution of seeds & pollen.
1.21 Evolutionary adaptations that help diverse animals exchange matter with the environment include external
respiratory surface, small size, & two-layered body.
SECTION B
1.13 When air temperature exceeds their body temperature, jackrabbits living in hot, arid lands willconstrict the blood
vessels in their large ears.
1.14 An advantage of asexual reproduction is thatasexual reproduction enables species to rapidly colonize habiats
favourable to that species.
1.15 An example of connective tissue is the .blood.
1.16 Connective tissues have relatively few cells & a large amount of extracellular matrix.
1.24 Animals require certain amino acids in their diet. An amino acid that is referred to as nonessential would be best
described as one that can be made by the animals body from other substances.
1.17 The body is capable of catabolising many substances as sources of energy. Which of the ff. would be used as energy
source only after the depletion of other sources? Protein in muscles cells
1.23 An animal that migrates great distances would obtain the greatest benefit from storing its energy as fats.
1.18 Folic acid supplements have become especially important for pregnant women. Why? Folic acid deprivation is
associated with neural tube abnormalities in a foetus.
1.19 To leave the digestive tract, a substance must cross a cell membrane. During which stage of food processing does this
take place? Absorption
1.23 Regeneration, the growth of lost body parts, normally follows..fragmentation.
1.19 Septic shock, a systemic response including high fever & low blood pressure, can be life threatening.
What causes septic shock? Certain bacterial infections
1.20 A bacterium has elements on its surface that are resistant to lysozyme. If an individual is infected with this bacterium,
what is a probable consequence? Successful reproduction of the bacterium & continued disease
1.22 Which sequence of blood flow can be observed in either a reptile or a mammal? vena cava right atrium ventricle
pulmonary circuit
1.23 A cloaca is an anatomical structure found in many non-mammalian vertebrates, which functions as common exit for
the digestive, excretory, & reproductive systems.
1.24 Organisms in which a circulating body fluid is distinct from the fluid that directly surrounds the body's cells are likely
to have ... A closed circulatory system
1.25 Which of the following minerals is associated with its use in animals? im confused cos 2, & 3, are correct
ICMIS:
A) iron -regulation of metabolic rate is incorrect (iron is the oxygen transporter in red blood cells & red color in muscles
B) calcium construction & maintenance of bone (calcium is correctly associated with its use in animals)
C) magnesium cofactor in enzymes that split ATP (Magnesium is correctly associated with its use in animals)
D) Iodine important in nerve function (sodium is important in nerve functn & iodine has Major role in thyroid function)
E) Sulfur - ingredient of nucleic acids (phosphorus is an ingredient of nucleic acids & sulphur plays role in most body
functions& Component of DNA)

CAMPBELL MCQS :
10) Which of the ff. minerals is Incorrectly associated with its use in animals? A) calcium construction & maintenance of
bone B) magnesium cofactor in enzymes that split ATP C) iron regulation of metabolic rate D)
phosphorus ingredient of nucleic acids E) sodium important in nerve function
4) Some nutrients are considered "essential" in diets of certain animals because they cant b manufactured by organism.
5) What are the four classes of essential nutrients? amino acids; essential fatty acid; vitamins; minerals
9) Because they accumulate in the body, excess ingestion of fat-soluble vitamins can have toxic effects
8) vitamin A is a fat-soluble vitamin B) vitamin A incorporated into the visual pigment of the eye
:

A) vitamin C synthesis of connective tissue

C) vitamin Dcalcium absorption & bone formation
D) vitamin E protection of membrane phospholipids from oxidation
E) vitamin K production of red blood cells this is false
11) heterotroph is a term that could be applied to any organism with a digestive system
becos Autotrophs dont need a digestive system
16) Hydra are animals that have a gastrovascular cavity
20) Name a shape most like an animal with a gastrovascular cavity? a vase
12) During the process of digestion, fats are broken down when fatty acids are detached from glycerol.
In addition, proteins are digested to yield amino acids. What do these two processes have in common?
Both involve (hydrolysis)-the addition of a water molecule to break bonds .
13) Which of the following digestive processes requires enzymes? hydrolysis
28) Most enzymatic hydrolysis of the macromolecules in food occurs in the small intestine.
22) After ingestion, 1st type of macromolecule to be worked on by enzymes in human digestive system is carbohydrate.
23) What is the substrate of salivary amylase? starch
31) Bile salts emulsify fats in the duodenum.
32) Most nutrients absorbed into the lymph or bloodstream are in which form? monomers
33) Which of the following enzymes has the lowest pH optimum? pepsin
29) Most nutrients are absorbed across the epithelium of the small intestine.
25) What part(s) of the digestive system have secretions with a pH of 2? stomach
15) Intracellular digestion is usually immediately preceded by which process? endocytosis
18) What is the advantage of a complete digestive system over a gastrovascular cavity? Specialized regions ar possible.
21) What is peristalsis? smooth muscle contractions that move food through the alimentary canal
24) in the mammalian digestive system The epiglottis prevents food from entering the trachea.
26) Which of the following statements about pepsin is true? Pepsin begins the hydrolysis of proteins in the stomach.
27) Without functioning parietal cells, an individual would not be able to initiate protein digestion in the stomach.
30) A structure that does not manufacture any digestive substances is the gallbladder.

11. Q 2 :requires u2 provide terms to specific explanations/ definitions(Covers Entire Syllabus)-(10 marks)
Mixotroph

Hypodermis or exodermis

Bioremediation

Carpel

Charophytes

Sexual reproduction

Sperm

Budding

Fragmentation

Haemoglobin

Parthenogenesis or Apogamy

Hermaphrodite

Pheromone

Spermatheca

Cloaca

Prostate Gland
 Homo Sapien

Binomial Nomenclature

Gram Stain

absorption of ions, organic molecules, vitamins, & water, and secretion of acids & ammonia

Is to re-absorb only water & no solutes & ions from renal fluid

Is to re-absorb only solutes & ions & no water from renal fluid.

Involved in pH Regulation & tubular excretion; -controls pH by secreting protons & is regulated by
aldosterone in the reuptake of sodium & secretion of potassium. It also reabsorbs calcium ions.

Further re-absorption of water & ions takes place, then all material that has not been re-absorbed
from fluid is collected & transported it to the urethra where it exits as urine.

4. Q 4: requires u2 give brief summary/description /report,

Ch26: Phylogeny & Tree of Life [(Ch 26 5 marks) + (Ch 31 10 marks) = 15 marks].
CASBE:
- Carolus Linnaeus formulated this two-name classification system is known as a binomial nomenclature.
- Although formulated in 18C it is still the basic modern day classification system to classify the diversity of life.
- Similar organisms are grouped together & each organism is given a 2-word name consisting of genus & species.
- both names are Latin in origin, & both must be underlined or written in italics
- 1st name is the genus, the name written with first letter capital letter font followed by small caps.
- 2nd name called specific epithet is the species written in small font
Eg. In the cat class, Panthera leo is the classification name for a lion.

5.2 Describe the format of a scientific name & explain why biologists use scientific names. (4)

The binomial nomenclature system was sought to classify lifes diversity.

Carolus Linnaeus developed the two part or binomial format system of naming species; namely,
- 1st the genus, & then 2nd the specific epithet e.g. Homo sapiens for humans.
- 1st part with capital letter & 2nd part with lowercase letter & both underlined or in italics
He also adopted a nested classification system, grouping similar species into increasingly general categories. E.g. some
similar species are grouped in the same genus just as similar genera are grouped in the same family & so on.
Q 3: Ch 28 PROTISTS-8 marks - You will be required to list,
PROTISTS: are microscopic, unicellular, & Eukaryotic organisms
STRUCTURE: Essential functions carried out using sub-cellular organelles
- Organelles used by Protists include, nucleus, endoplasmic reticulum, golgi apparatus, lysosomes, &
contractile vacuoles in some to pump out excess water from protistan cell.
NUTRITION: Protists are more nutritionally diverse than other Eukaryote cells;
- some are PHOTOAUTOTROPHS & contain chloroplasts
- Some are HETEROTROPHS absorbing organic molecules or ingesting larger food particles.
- MIXOTROPHS combine photosynthesis and heterotrophic nutrition
REPRODUCTION: Some Protists reproduce ASEXUALLY whilst others can also reproduce SEXUALLY or employ MEIOSIS &
FERTILIZATION; & still another form called ALTERNATION OF GENERATIONS.
ORIGIN: ENDOSYMBIOSIS: Its believed that diversity of Protists has originated through primary endosymbiosiS, i.e. process
in which unicellular organisms engulf other cells, which become endosymbionts, & ultimately organelles in the host cell,
e.g. of primary endosymbios: Ancestral Heterotrophic Eukaryote engulfed an endosymbiont-i.e. photosynthetic gram-
negative cyanobacterium which evolved into plastids. this ancestral plastid then diversified to give rise to red & green
algae which underwent a secondary endosymbiosis.
Support for hypothesis of Protist endosymbiosis: resemblance of DNA of plastid genes; structure of plastids
-2 membranes consisting of homologous protein to cyanobacteria.
SECONDARY ENDOSYMBIOSIS refers to an organism thats a product of endosymbiosis & itself also ingested by another
heterotrophic Eukaryotes further down the lineage, becoming a endosymbiont itself, eg. Red algae underwent
secondary endosymbiosis to form Apicomplexans; Dinoflagellates & Stramenopiles - & green algae underwent
secondary endosymbiosis to form Euglenids, Chlorachniophytes.
PROTISTAN DIVERSITY: 5 super-groups of Eukaryotes of which:
Apicomplexans ; brown & golden algae fall into Chromalveolata group, whilst
green & red algae, land plants, chlorophytes & charophytes fall into Archaeplastida group.

QUESTION 6 : Describe what an apicomplexan is & using an annotated drawing, Explain the two-host life cycle
history of Plasmodium, which cause malaria. [15] PaShShiS AASpApAPh ClASex2H Eg DiDHidicCSurP
- Apicomplexan are parasites of animals which can cause serious human diseases.
- The parasite is spread via a host-cell as tiny infectious cells called sporozoites.
- They have been named as Apicomplexan because on one end (the Apex) of the sporozoite cell, it contains
organelles specialised for penetrating host cells & tissues.
- Apicomplexans retain a modified plastid Apicoplast as recent data shows but they arent photosynthetic,
- Majority of Apicomplexans have complex lifecycles with both asexual & sexual stages of reproduction; -
-life cycles often require two or more host species for completion,
E.g. the Apicomplexan plasmodium is the parasite causing malaria, & lives in both mosquitoes & humans.
- Plasmodium is difficult to distinguish & locate as it lives hidden from hosts immune system, mainly inside
cells, & it continually changes its surface protein.
Q 5: require u2 explain &describe process using diagram, Ch 28: Protists -(12 marks)
2HOST LIFECYCLE OF the Apicomplexan PLASMODIUM which causes Malaria AnoPSAL SlimuD MEroacred Merodared
48/72 breakMerG Anobi PerplG Ggame MGgame FerdigZy MeiOOcyst SpormisalG
- The ANOPHELES mosquito infected with plasmodium, bites a person & injects sporozoites & its saliva
- SPOROZOITES enter persons liver cells; & after several days undergo multiple divisions to become MEROZOITES which
use their apical complex to penetrate red blood cells.
- MEROZOITES divide rapidly asexually inside red blood cells @ intervals of 48/72 hrs, & break open to infect other red
blood cells causing periodic fever & chills.
- Some MEROZOITES form gametocytes
- Another ANOPHELES mosquito bites the infected person & picks up plasmodium gametocytes along with blood.
- GAMETOCYTES form gametes, & each male Gametocyte produces several slender male gametes
- FERTILIZATION takes place in mosquitos digestive tract & diploid ZYGOTE is formed.
- MEIOSIS occurs & an OOCYST develops in the mosquitos gut , & releases thousands of SPOROZITES which migrate to
mosquitos salivary gland.
PART 2 - BLG1502 -Q & A- EXAM PREP ACCORDING TO LECTURERS GUIDELINES:
6. Q 6: Requires u2 name certain characteristics of organisms (might b plants or animals)
-Q based on Ch 29:Plant Diversity1:How Plants Colonized Land-[(Ch34-4mks)+(Ch29-5mks)=9marks].
- Land plants are said to have evolved from the charophyte green algae, marked as the closest relative of land plants
- Similarities btwn Land plants & Algae:
- Both are multicellular, eukaryotic, photosynthetic autotrophs
- Both have cell walls are made of cellulose
- Chloroplasts & chlorophyll present in both.
- 4 distinctive traits Charophyte Possess as the closest plant relative:
- Rings of cellulose synthesizing protein in plasma membrane of cells: in contrast non-charophyte algae have linear sets of
proteins that synthesize cellulose.
- Peroxisome enzyme presence: that minimize the loss of organic products resulting from photorespiration
- Structure of flagellated sperm resemblance:
- Formation of a phragmoplast: certain details of cell division only occur in plant cells, e.g. a group of microtubules known as
the phragmoplast forms between the daughter nuclei of a dividing cell. A cell plate then develops in the middle of the
phragmoplast across the midline of the dividing cell. A cell plate then gives rise to a new cross wall that separates the
daughter cell.
Adaptation that enabled plants to move to land:
- Charophyte species inhabit shallow waters around ponds, lakes where they subject to occasional drying.
- Natural selection(choosing traits best suited to survive environment), thus would favour algae that can survive when not
submerged in water
- Charophytes possess a durable layer of sporopollenin which prevents exposed zygotes from drying out.
- A similar chemical adaptation is found in the cell walls of plant spores.

Derived traits of plants not found in charophytes: AMMWA

2.2 Name the five characteristics that define land plants. (5)
Alternation of generations: lifecycles of all land plants alternate btwn 2 generations of multicellular organisms-
sporophytes & gametophytes; i.e. each generation gives rise to the other
Multicellular dependent embryos: multicellular plant embryos develop from zygotes that are retained within the
female gametophyte, providing nutrients to developing embryo. Embryo has specialized placental transfer cells
which enhance transfer of nutrients from mother to embryo, thus plants are also known as embryphytes.
Multicellular gametangia: production of gametes within multicellular organs called gametangia, i.e. female
gametangia organ =archegonia retains a single egg within the organ; & male gametangia organ= antheridia produce
sperm & release them into environment. In many groups flagellate sperms swim to egg through water droplets or
film of water. Each egg is fertilized within archegonium where zygote develops into an embryo.
Walled Spores produced in sporangia: Sporophyte has multicellular organ called sporangia that produce spores.
Diploid sporocytes in sporangia undergo meiosis to produce haploid spores which are protected by other tissues of
the sporangia until fully developed & released.
Apical Meristems: photosynthetic organisms in terrestrial habitats draw essential nutrients from 2 different places:-
sunlight & CO2 above ground; and water & minerals from underground soil. Although plants dont move, their roots
& shoots elongate to increase exposure to environmental resources underground. The growth in length is sustained
by activity of apical meristems.

Plant Diversification:
NON- VASCULAR VASCULAR PLANTS- [ root system that transports water/nutrients throughout plant]
(Bryophytes)- SEEDLESS Vascular Plants: lycophytes e.g. mosses; Pterophytes; e.g.ferns
[no vascular tissue to - homosporous- produces 1 kind of spore gives rise to bisexual
transport water & SEED PLANTS:-heterosporous produces 2 kinds of spores- megasporangia produce megaspores-
nutrients throughout the give rise to female gametophyte; & microsporangia produce microspores give rise to male
plant] gametophyte
e.g. Mosses, Hornwort; Gymnosperm (Non-flowering Plants) Angiosperms ( all flowering plants)
Liverwort e.g. ginkgo, cycads, conifers, Gnetophytes e.g. lilies, bluebells, daffodils etc.
Ecological & Economic Importance of Bryophytes: Mosses
-
Dispersal of lightweight spores distribute them far & wide across the world
 -
Are particularly common in moist forests & diverse wetlands.
-
Where Mosses have colonized bare sandy soil, researchers have found that they help retain nitrogen in it
-
Moss that harbours nitrogen-fixing cyanobacteria increase availability of nitrogen in the ecosystem
-
Mosses can inhabit extreme environments, and some mange very cold & very dry habitats, because they can survive the
loss of most of their body water, & rehydrate when moisture is available. Few vascular plants can survive this degree of
dessication.
-
Boggy Sphagnum peat moss dont decay easily, with ability to survive low T 0, pH, & O2 conditions thus wetlands with
abundance of it has managed to preserve corpses for thousands of years.
-
Peat is harvested as a fuel, & is also a useful as a soil conditioner for packing plant roots during shipment because it has
large dead cells that can absorb 20x the mosses weight in water.
-
Peat covers 3% of earth land surface but contains 30% of the worlds carbon thus helping to stabilize atmospheric CO 2

1.14 LIFECYCLE OF MOSS (14) MeDsSP BudMAlFAafer ZySemySyGa SpomatMe

- 1. MEIOSIS takes place in the sporangium capsule to produce spores, &
- when capsule matures, peristome pops lid to 2. Disperse Spores
3. Spores develop into threadlike 4. protonemata]
- 5.Buds [Haploid protonemata produce buds that divide mitotically to develop haploid gametophores]
- 6.Male & Female Gametophytes develop.
- 7. Antheridia in a male gametophyte disperses sperm that swim through moisture to fertilize egg within the
Archegonium in the female gametophyte
- 8. FERTILIZATION takes place within archegonium wherein Diploid 9. ZYGOTE is formed
- Zygote develops into 10.sporophyte EMBRYO
- 11.Young diploid sporophyte grows a long seta(stalk) that emerges from archegonium
- 12.Young gametophyte :attached by the foot the sporophyte is totally dependent on gametophyte for nourishment.
- 13.Sporophytes mature into gametophytes with developed capsules containing sporangia at the tip of the seta
- 14.MEIOSIS occurs in sporangia & Haploid spores develop in the capsule.
- When capsule is mature lid pops off from peristome to release spores
LIFE CYCLE Of THE MOSS

1.1 By means of a labelled diagram describe the life cycle of a fern, clearly distinguishing between the gametophyte & the
sporophyte generations. (10) [question appeared in Oct/Nov2010 exam paper as well!]
LIFE CYCLE OF FERN (11)
 - MEIOSIS occurs in the sporangium & Spores are dispersed
- Spores [sporangia disperse spores to develop into a bisexual photosynthetic gametophyte]
- Young gametophyte
- Mature gametophyte [gametophyte develops into
an antheridium (a sperm producing organ)
& an archegonium (egg producing organ at different times.
- Antheridium disposes sperm
- Archegonium disposes an egg
[ archegonia secretes an attractant to direct sperm to egg. Sperm use flagella to swim to egg.]
- FERTILISATION takes place
- Zygote [develops into a new sporophyte- the young plant grows from an archegonium]
- New sporophyte has roots & a new gametophyte
- Mature sporophyte grows leaves [on underside of leaves are reproductive spots called sori each sorus is a cluster of
sporangia wher meiosis takes place to disperse spores]
1.7 Sporophyte & gametophyte life cycle stages
MeDS bpg YoG MaGAAF ZyNsMs fess
LIFECYCLE: After 1.MEIOSIS takes place in sporangium, it 2. disperses 3. Spores which develop into a bisexual photosynthetic
gametophytes]. 4.Young gametophyte develops into 5.Mature gametophyte which develops an antheridium -(a sperm producing
organ) & an archegonium (egg producing organ) at different times. 6.Antheridium disposes sperm & 7.Archegonium disposes an egg.
[archegonia secretes an attractant to direct sperm to egg. Sperm use flagella to swim to egg.] 8.FERTILISATION takes place. 9.Zygote
[develops into a new sporophyte- the young plant grows from an archegonium]. 10,New sporophyte has roots & a new
gametophyte. 11.Mature sporophyte grows leaves. [On underside of leaves are reproductive spots called sori each sorus is a cluster
of sporangia. Meiosis takes place in sporangia & disperses spores to repeat cycle.

4. Q 4: requires u2 give brief summary/description /report,

Ch 31: Fungi[(Ch31 10 mks) +(Ch 26 5 marks)= 15 marks].
FUNGI: Mostly multicellular complex bodies, although some are single celled.
- Found in most types of terrestrial & aquatic habitats, & are Essential for well-being of most ecosystems
- They break down organic material & re-cycle nutrients, allowing other organisms to absorb essential chemical elements
- Used as food, eg. mushrooms; applications for agriculture/forestry, & manufacturing products from bread to antibiotics.
- Some fungi do cause disease in food, plants & animals
NUTRITION are heterotrophs that feed by absorption of nutrients from the environment
- They secrete powerful hydrolytic enzymes into their surroundings which break down complex molecules into smaller
organic compounds that fungi can absorb into their bodies & use.
- Different enzymes in different species can ingest compounds from a wide range of sources- living or dead, thus their
importance to ecological communities as decomposers, parasites & mutualists.
Decomposers: feed off dead organic material like fallen logs, animals, & wastes of living organisms
Parasitic: are pathogenic so they absorb nutrients from cells of living hosts; whilst causing diseases in them.
Mutualistic fungi also live off host cells but reciprocate with some benefit to its host, eg. They improve delivery of
phosphate ions & other minerals to plants through its vast mycelia networks & plants provide organic nutrients like
carbohydrates for fungi to feed on.
- Pine seedlings with mycorrhirzae fungal associations when planted in soil survived better since the fungus plays a serious
role in absorbing nutrients and protect the seedling against pathogens as well.

OTHER INFO ON FUNGI:

STRUCTURE: body is structured to increase efficiency of nutrient absorption
- 2 types of body structures are multicellular filaments (most common )& single cells e.g. yeasts
- Yeasts inhabit moist environments where soluble nutrients eg. amino acids & sugars are available e.g. in plant sap or
animal tissues
- Morphology of multicellular fungi enhances ability to grow into & absorb nutrients from their surroundings.
- Body forms network of tiny filaments called hyphae which consist of tubular cell walls strengthened by chitin, surrounding
plasma membrane & cytoplasm of cell.
- Hyphae are divided into cells by cross-walls called septa which have large enough pores to allow even ribosmes,
mitochondria, & even nuclei to pass from cell to cell.
- Hyphae form an interwoven mass called a mycelium that infiltrates the material on which the fungus feeds.
- Mycelium structure maximizes surface to volume ratio making feeding very efficient.
- Mycelium grows rapidly as proteins & synthesized materials are sent through cytoplasmic streaming to tips of hyphae.
- Fungus energy & resources are focused on increasing hyphal length & overall absorptive surface area, as
Hyphae allows for accessing new feeding territory as it grows.
Mutualistic fungi called mycorrhizae have specialized hyphae that extract or exchange nutrients with plant hosts.
REPRODUCTION: spore dispersal is a key component of how fungi reproduce to spread to new areas
-Vast numbers of spores are produced sexually or asexually
Sexual Reproduction: hyphae from 2 mycelia release sexual signalling molecules called Pheromones.
- If mycelia are from different mating types pheromones from each partner bind to the receptors on the other , & hyphae
extend towards the source of the pheromones fusing when they meet .
Plasmogamy Phase occurs- union of the cytoplasms of 2 parent mycelia
- If mycelium is heterokaryotic [i.e. Parts of fused mycelium contain coexisting genetically different nuclei,] Haploid
nuclei contributed by each parent do not fuse right away; & In some species the different nuclei may exchange
chromosomes & genes.
- If mycelium is dikaryotic [i.e. mycelium that has only 2 nuclei],
haploid nuclei pair off 2 to a cell- 1 from each parent, & divide in tandem without fusing.
Karyogamy Phase: hours days or even centuries can pass btwn plasmogamy & karyogamy phases.
- haploid nuclei from 2 parents fuse producing diploid cells, forming zygote & other transient structures.
- Meiosis then restores the haploid condition forming spores which are dispersed.

2.2 Describe asexual reproduction of fungi. (7) : Memo Answer

 Asexual reproduction: is a generation of offspring from a single parent that occurs without fusion of gametes (e.g. by
budding, or division of a single-cell or the entire organism - into two or more parts).
- In most cases the off-springs are genetically identical to the parent.
Many fungi reproduce asexually by growing as filamentous fungi that produce haploid spores by mitosis.
- E.g. moulds are a known species that form visible mycelia.
Other fungi reproduce asexually by growing single-celled yeasts by cell division, or by pinching of small bud cells off
parent cells.

6. Q 6: Requires u2 name certain characteristics of organisms (might b plants or animals).

-Q based on Ch 34: Chordates- [(Ch 34 4 marks) + (Ch 29 5 marks) = 9 marks].
LINEAGE: Vertebrates belong to phylum Chordata or Chordates
- Chordates have a notochord & a dorsal, hollow nerve cord
- Chordates ar Bilaterally symmetrical animals belonging to the clade Deuterostomia, - e.g.
vertebrates, & echinoderms like sea urchins & sea-stars are deuterostomes
- Cephalochordates e.g. lancelets & urochordates e.g. tunicates, are 2 groups of deutronomes more closely related
to vertebrates than other invertebrates.
- Lancelets are the most basal (Earliest diverging ) group of living chordates
- Next major transition is seen in Craniates- chordates with a head consisting of a brain, eyes and other sensory
organs and a skull
4 DERIVED CHARACTERISTICS of CHORDATES: - all chordates have a set of derived characteristics:
1. NOTOCORD:- skeletal structure present in all embryos as well as some adult chordates
- Longitudinal, flexible rod situated btwn digestive & nerve cord
- Composed of large fluid-filled cells encased in stiff fibrous tissue
- Notochord provides skeletal support throughout most of its length
- Provides firm & flexible structure against which muscles can work during swimming
[in most vertebrates a more complex jointed skeleton develop around the ancestral notochord, and adults retains only
remnants of embryonic notochord; In humans notochord is reduced to the gelatinous discs sandwiched btwn vertebrae.
2. DORSAL HOLLOW NERVE CORD: is unique to Chordates
- Nerve cord of an embryo develops from a plate of ectoderm that rolls into a tube located dorsal to the notochord.
- The nerve cord develops into the Chordates CNS, brain & spinal cord
[other phyla have solid nerve cords & they are ventrally located ]
3. PHARYNGEAL SLITS OR CLEFTS: digestive tube of chordates extends from mouth to anus.
- Region posterior to mouth is the pharynx
- In all embryos series of pouches separated by grooves called pharyngeal clefts forms along sides of the pharynx.
- In most chordates The grooves develop into slits called pharyngeal slits that open to the outside of the body allowing
water that enters the mouth to exit without passing through digestive tract.
[In invertebrate chordates, Slits function as suspension feeding devices In vertebrates these structures & supports have
been modified for gaseous exchange]
4. MUSCULAR POST ANAL TAIL:
- Chordates have a tail that extends posterior to the anus. & in many species tail is reduced during embryonic phase.
- Functions for propelling & mobility as it consists of muscle and skeletal elements
[in contrast most non-chordates have a digestive tract that runs the whole length of the body]

CRANIATE CHORDATES: - are chordates with a head:

 head consists of a brain at the anterior end of the dorsal nerve cord; eyes and other sensory organs and a skull which
enabled chordates to co-ordinate more complex movement & feeding behaviours.
Myxini, the hagfishes are the most basal (Earliest diverging ) group of living craniates
6 DERIVED CHARACTERISTICS of CRANIATES:
1. GENE DUPLICATION: Craniates possess 2 sets of Hox genes(lancelets & tunicates only have 1)
- Other genes that produce signalling molecules & transcription factors are also duplicated leading to
additional genetic complexity & developing more complex morphologies
2. NEURAL CREST:- collection of cells that appear near dorsal margins of closing neural tube in embryos
- These cells spread throughout the body where they give rise to variety of structures including teeth, bones 7
cartilage of the skull, inner layer of facial region skin, several types of neurons, & sensory capsules in which
eyes & other sensory organs develop
3. PHARYNGEAL SLITS: slits in Craniates are associated with muscles & nerves that allow water to be pumped through it
- Pumping assists in sucking in food, & to facilitate gaseous exchange.
4. HIGHER METABOLIC RATE: Craniates are more active than lancelets / tunicates & hence have a higher metabolic rate.
5. EXTENDED MUSCULAR SYSTEM: More activity means having a more extended muscular system
- Muscles lining their digestive tract aid digestion by moving food through the tract
6. HEART & KIDNEY: craniates have a heart with at least 2 chambers , red blood cells, with haemoglobin,
& kidneys that remove waste products from the blood

VERTEBRATES: - are craniates with a backbone, a more complex nervous system, and more elaborate skeleton, assisting
efficiency in capturing food & avoiding being eaten
- Lampreys, are the most basal (Earliest diverging ) group of living vertebrates
DERIVED CHARACTERISTICS of VERTEBRATES:
FURTHER GENE DUPLICATION: Vertebrates underwent further duplication of called the DLX family
- led to further genetic complexity related to the nervous system & skeleton, including a more extensive skull and
a backbone consisting of vertebrae.
- In some invertebrates vertebrae are little more than small prongs of cartilage arrayed dorsally along nortochord
- In majority of vertebrates vertebrae enclose spinal cord, & have taken over mechanical roles of nortochord.
- Aquatic vertebrates with acquired dorsal, ventral, and anal fins are stiffened by bony structures called fin rays
which provide thrust & steering control when swimming after prey or away from predators.
- More efficient gaseous exchange system in gills also leant to faster swimming

GNATHOSTOMES: vertebrates with jaws, e.g sharks, ray-finned & lobe-finned fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds & mammals.
- Jaws enable firm grip of food items, & slicing them
SHARKS, rays, & relatives belong to the clade chondrichthyans (cartilage fish)
- Sharks are either :oviparous they lay eggs that hatch outside the mothers body
:ovoviviporous - they retain fertilized eggs in the oviduct
:viviparous young develop within uterus & receiv nourishment prior to birth via mothers blood.
RAY-FINNED & LOBE-FIN FISHES: belong to a clade called osteichthyans
- Most fishes breathe by drawing water over 4 or 5 pairs of gills located in chambers covered by a protective
flap called the operculum
- Most fishes control their buoyancy with an air sac known as the swim bladder.
DERIVED CHARACTERISTICS of GNATHOSTOMES:
GENE DUPLICATION: duplication of Hox genes to 4(lancelets & tunicates only have 1)
- Forebrain enlarged compared to other craniates relating to enhanced senses of smell and vision
- Presence of Lateral line system where organs form row along each side of body & are sensitive to vibrations in
surrounding water
TETRAPODS: Gnasthostomes with limbs, e.g. amphibians like frogs, salamanders
DERIVED CHARACTERISTICS of TETRAPODS: in place of pectoral & pelvic fins tetrapods have limbs with digits.
- Limbs support tetrapods weight on land while feet with digits transmit muscle-generated forces to the ground
when it walks
- Separation of head & body with a neck with 1 vertebra and a second one which facilitated movement up, down &
side to side.bones of pelvic girdle fused to backbone, allowing force generated by back limbs to be carried out
throughout the body.
- Most tetrapods dont have gills, - pharyngeal clefts gave rise to parts of ears, certain glands & other structures
- In birds the pectoral limbs are replaced by wings, & whales bodies converged into fishlike shape.

AMNIOTES: terapods that have a terrestrially adapted egg, e.g. reptiles, birds, mammals
REPTILES: reptiles are ectothermic they absorb natural heat as their main source of body heat.
BIRDS: are endothermic capable of maintaining body temperature through metabolic activity
DERIVED CHARACTERISTICS of AMNIOTES:
AMNIOTIC EGG: contains 4 specialized membranes that develop tissue layers that grow out from the embryo: - amnion,
chorion, yolk sac, and allanthois called the extraembryonic membranes because they not part of the body of the
embryo itself
- AMNION=encloses compartment of fluid that acts as a hydraulic shock absorber
- CHORION= function in gas exchange
- YOLK SAC= transfer of stored nutrients to the embryo
- ALLANTHOIS= waste storage
- Shell of an egg whether hard or flexible , slows dehydration of the egg in air
RIBCAGE: used to ventilate lungs to increase breathing efficiency .

MAMMALS: are amniotes that have hair & produce milk e.g.marsupials,primates
DERIVED CHARACTERISTICS of MAMMALS:
MAMMARY GLANDS: produce milk for offspring which is nourishment for offspring-a balanced diet of all nutrients
HAIR: & fat layer under the skin help body retain heat.
ENDOTHERMIC: have high metabolic rate
RESPIRATORY & CIRCULATORY SYSTEMS: include a heart, & are efficient in maintaining mammals metabolism.
DIAPHRAGM: A Sheet of muscle that helps ventilate the lung.
BRAIN: larger than other vertebrates of similar size many species are capable learners
LONG PARENTAL CARE: extends time to learn important survival skills by observing parents
TEETH: differentiated teeth facilitate, chewing, gripping, grinding, crushing

HUMANS: are mammals that have a large brain & bi-pedal locomotion, a species named Homo Sapiens.
DERIVED CHARACTERISTICS of MAMMALS:
BI-PEDAL: walk upright & walk on 2 legs
BRAIN: larger than primates & capable of language, symbolic thought, artistic expression, manufacture & use of complex
tools
GENOMES: much more complex on a molecular level
GENOMIC DIFFERENCES: whatever derived phenotypic traits encoded in genomes of humans which primates dont have
are what separates humans from apes

8. Q 8: Requires you to briefly describe and/ define a process,

Ch38: Angiosperms-(4mks)

CHARACTERISTICS OF ANGIOSPERM:
- the flower in an angiosperm structure is specialized for sexual reproduction.
- In many angiosperm species insects/animals transfer pollen from one flower to the sexual organs of another flower
which makes pollination more directed than pollination in most gymnosperm s
- The double fertilization in which 1 fertilization occurs when the 1sperm penetrates the egg to form a zygote, & the
other sperm penetrates the central cell to form a triploid cell - is unique to angiosperms.

FLOWER STRUCTURE & FUNCTION:

- Angiosperm flower is a specialized shoot that can have up to four rings of modified leaves called floral organs:
i.e. sepal, petal, stamens, & carpels all attached to the part of the stem called the receptacle.
- Sepals at the base of the flower are usually green & enclose the flower before it opens(like a bud)
- Interior to sepals are petals brightly coloured to attract pollinators(wind pollinated plants lack bright colour)
- Within the petals are stamens & carpels i.e. 2 whorls of organs that produce spores,
- 1. - Stamens consist of a stalk called a filament & a terminal sac called the anther
- Stamens produce microspores that develop into pollen grains containing male gametophyte whilst
& carpels produce megaspores that develop into pollen grains containing female gametophytes
- 2. -Carpels -(some flowers have a single carpel whilst others have multiple carpels which are eithr separate or fused
resulting in an ovary with two or more chambers each containing 1 or more ovules)
- The term Pistil refers to a single carpel or 2 or more fused carpels
- CARPELS -consist of a sticky stigma that receives the pollen
- a style that leads from the stigma to the ovary at the base of the carpel
- an ovary that contains one or more ovules
- A fruit consists of a mature ovary but can include other flower parts.
- As seeds develop from ovules after fertilization the ovary wall thickens
- Fruits protect dormant seeds & aid in their dispersal
- Mature fruits can be fleshy or dry fleshy fruits soften as they ripen & most dry fruits split open when they ripen
- Cereal grains of wheat, maize, rice etc. are actually fruit enclosed in a seedcoat that adheres to the seed within

ADAPTATIONS OF FRUIT & SEED

- help in seed dispersal, e.g. seeds of maples are contained in fruit that function like propellers or parachutes which
enhance wind dispersal.
- Coconuts are adapted to dispersal by water.
- Seeds that depend on dispersal by animals have fruits modified as burrs that cling to mobile organisms/ animals.
- Other angiosperms provide edible fruits which are nutritious, sweet-tasting & vividly coloured advertising ripeness.
When animal eats fruit, it digestd the fruits fleshy part but the tough seeds move unharmed through the digestive
tract & deposited as faeces.
Complete Flowers: have all 4 basic floral organs
Incomplete Flowers: some species lack stamens, petals, sepals or carpels, e.g. grass
- Some incomplete flowers are sterile lacking functional stamens & carpels.
- Some are unisexual lacking either/or stamen, carpel
Inflourescences: - Flowers vary in size, shape, colour, odour, organ arrangement & time of opening.
- Some flowers are borne singly whilst others are born in showy clusters called inflourescences.

ANGIOSPERM LIFECYCLE:
- Mature flower on diploid sporophyte plant has STIGMA; STYLE; OVARY; & ANTHER
- Cross-Pollination occurs when microspores from anther of one plant fertilise egg within ovary situated within the style of
another plant.
- Pollen grain absorbs water & germinates after landing on the sticky stigma of a plant.
- MEIOSIS: takes place in the ANTHER when the microsporocytes in the microsporangium divide to form microspores.
- Microspore develops into pollen grain developing into male gametophyte consisting of a Generative cell & Tube Cell
- Generative cell divides into 2 sperm which enter through sticky stigma; &
Tube Cell produces the tube that facilitates sperms to travel down the style into ovary for POLLINATION to take place.
Pollen tube pierces the micropyle of the ovule to discharge
2 sperm cells are discharged into each ovule After POLLINATION

ENDOSPERM DEVELOPMENT
- Endospermm develops before the embryo does
- After double fertilization triploid nucleus of ovules cell divides, forming a multi-nuclete super-cell that is a liquid
mass with milky consistency.
- Endosperm mass becomes multicellular when cytokinesis divides cytoplasm forming membranes btwn the nuclei.
- The membranes form cell walls making the endosperm solid.
- Endosperm stores nutrients for the developing embryo, & seedling after germination.
________________________________________________________________________________

- OVARY rests within the style @bottom of carpel, consisting of ovules with diploid megasporangium in each 1.
- MEIOSIS: occurs when Megasporocyte within each megasporangium divides to produce 4 megaspores of which 1 survives to
form female gametophyte
- FEMALE GAMETOPHYTE Consists of embryo sac with # ANTIPODAL Cells + CENTRAL Cell (with 2 nuclei) + SYNERGIDS with haploid + EGG
- 2 SPERMS enter through the sticky STIGMA, & travel down POLLEN TUBE down the STYLE to fertilize egg & Central Cell
______________________________________________________________________________________

- DOUBLE FERTILIZATION occurs when 1 sperm fertilizes EGG to form zygote & other sperm fuses with 2 polar nuclei in the
central cell (of ovule) forming an endosperm from the tissues of the triploid (3n) cell;
- After double fertilization, ZYGOTE develops into an embryo thats packaged with food into a seed
& fruit tissues surround the seed
- Triploid cell of female gametophyte develops into endosperm
i.e. ovary develops into a fruit; ovule (embryo) develops into seed; & endosperm of the seed serves as food supply for
developing embryo within it.
Zygote further develops into a sporophyte embryo with rudimentary root & 1 or 2 cotyledons when the seed germinates
and finally develops into a mature diploid sporophyte

EMBRYO DEVELOPMENT
- 1st mitotic division of the zygote splits the fertilized egg into a basal cell & terminal cell.
- Terminal cell divides to eventually give rise to most of the embryo
- Basal cell continues to divide producing thread of cells called the suspensor which anchors embryo to parent plant
- Suspensor helps to transfer nutrients from parent to embryo & in some species from endosperm as well
- Sensor elongates to push embryo deeper into nutritive & protective tissue
- Meanwhile terminal cell divides several times to form spherical pro-embryo attached to suspensor.
- Cotyledons begin to form bumps on embryo, & when they appear the embryo elongates
- Cradled btwn 2 cotyledons is the embryonic shoot apex
- Embryonic root apex forms at opposite end of embryos axis where suspensor attaches,
- After seed germinates, & throughout plants life apical meristem at the apices of root & shoot sustain primary growth.

STRUCTURE OF MATURE SEED:

 - During last stages of maturation, seed dehydrates until water is a meagre % of its weight;
& embryo enters DORMANCY: i.e. it stops growing & metabolism almost ceases.
- Embryo & its food supply are enclosed by a hardened protective seed coat formed from integuments of the ovule.
- Embryo consists of an EMBRYONIC AXIS an elongate structure attached to fleshy cotyledons.
- Below where cotyledons are attached embryo axis is called a HYPOCOTYL
- Hypocotyls ends at the RADICAL or embryonic root
- Portion of embryonic axis -above where cotyledons are attached, & below 1 st pair of tiny leaves-is called the EPICOTYL
- Epicotyl, little leaves, shoot apical meristem form the PLUMULE
- All endosperms provide food for the developing embryo
- Grasses, wheat, maize have a specialized cotyledon called a scutella, a small shield with a large surface area which
presses against the endosperm to absorb nutrients from it during germination
- Embryo of grass seed is enclosed within 2 protective sheathes which aid in soil penetration after germination: called
COLEOPTILES which covers the young shoot and COLEORHIZAE which covers the young root.

7. Q 7: requires u2 describe and compare processes,

Ch40: Basic Principles of Animal Form and Function:-( 8 marks. )

9. Q 9: Name de required terms/concepts /words,

Ch 45: Hormones &de Endocrine system-(14 marks)