Data Collection is an important aspect of any type of research study.

Inaccurate data
collection can impact the results of a study and ultimately lead to invalid results.

Data collection methods for impact evaluation vary along a continuum. At the one end
of this continuum are quantatative methods and at the other end of the continuum are
Qualitative methods for data collection .

(http://www.worldbank.org/poverty/impact/methods/datacoll.htm )

Quantitative and Qualitative Data collection methods

The Quantitative data collection methods, rely on random sampling and structured
data collection instruments that fit diverse experiences into predetermined response
categories. They produce results that are easy to summarize, compare, and generalize.

Quantitative research is concerned with testing hypotheses derived from theory and/or
being able to estimate the size of a phenomenon of interest. Depending on the
research question, participants may be randomly assigned to different treatments. If
this is not feasible, the researcher may collect data on participant and situational
characteristics in order to statistically control for their influence on the dependent, or
outcome, variable. If the intent is to generalize from the research participants to a
larger population, the researcher will employ probability sampling to select
participants.

Typical quantitative data gathering strategies include:

Experiments/clinical trials.
Observing and recording well-defined events (e.g., counting the number of
patients waiting in emergency at specified times of the day).
Obtaining relevant data from management information systems.
Administering surveys with closed-ended questions (e.g., face-to face and
telephone interviews, questionnaires etc).
(http://www.achrn.org/quantitative_methods.htm)

Interviews

In Quantitative research(survey research),interviews are more structured than in

Qualitative research.(http://www.stat.ncsu.edu/info/srms/survpamphlet.html
In a structured interview,the researcher asks a standard set of questions and nothing
more.(Leedy and Ormrod, 2001)

Face -to -face interviews have a distinct advantage of enabling the researcher to
establish rapport with potential partiocipants and therefor gain their cooperation.These
interviews yield highest response rates in survey research.They also allow the
researcher to clarify ambiguous answers and when appropriate, seek follow-up
information. Disadvantages include impractical when large samples are involved time
consuming and expensive.(Leedy and Ormrod, 2001)

Telephone interviews are less time consuming and less expensive and the researcher
has ready access to anyone on the planet who hasa telephone.Disadvantages are that
the response rate is not as high as the face-to- face interview but cosiderably higher
than the mailed questionnaire.The sample may be biased to the extent that people
without phones are part of the population about whom the researcher wants to draw
inferences.

Computer Assisted Personal Interviewing (CAPI): is a form of personal

interviewing, but instead of completing a questionnaire, the interviewer brings along a
laptop or hand-held computer to enter the information directly into the database. This
method saves time involved in processing the data, as well as saving the interviewer
from carrying around hundreds of questionnaires. However, this type of data
collection method can be expensive to set up and requires that interviewers have
computer and typing skills.

Questionnaires

Paper-pencil-questionnaires can be sent to a large number of people and saves the

researcher time and money.People are more truthful while responding to the
questionnaires regarding controversial issues in particular due to the fact that their
responses are anonymous. But they also have drawbacks.Majority of the people who
receive questionnaires don't return them and those who do might not be representative
of the originally selected sample.(Leedy and Ormrod, 2001)

Web based questionnaires : A new and inevitably growing methodology is the use of
Internet based research. This would mean receiving an e-mail on which you would
click on an address that would take you to a secure web-site to fill in a questionnaire.
This type of research is often quicker and less detailed.Some disadvantages of this
method include the exclusion of people who do not have a computer or are unable to
access a computer.Also the validity of such surveys are in question as people might be
in a hurry to complete it and so might not give accurate responses.
(http://www.statcan.ca/english/edu/power/ch2/methods/methods.htm)
Questionnaires often make use of Checklist and rating scales.These devices help
simplify and quantify people's behaviors and attitudes.A checklistis a list of
behaviors,characteristics,or other entities that te researcher is looking for.Either the
researcher or survey participant simply checks whether each item on the list is
observed, present or true or vice versa.A rating scale is more useful when a behavior
needs to be evaluated on a continuum.They are also known as Likert scales. (Leedy
and Ormrod, 2001)

Qualitative data collection methods play an important role in impact evaluation by

providing information useful to understand the processes behind observed results and
assess changes in peoples perceptions of their well-being.Furthermore qualitative
methods can beused to improve the quality of survey-based quantitative evaluations
by helping generate evaluation hypothesis; strengthening the design of survey
questionnaires and expanding or clarifying quantitative evaluation findings. These
methods are characterized by the following attributes:

they tend to be open-ended and have less structured protocols (i.e., researchers
may change the data collection strategy by adding, refining, or dropping
techniques or informants)
they rely more heavily on iteractive interviews; respondents may be
interviewed several times to follow up on a particular issue, clarify concepts or
check the reliability of data
they use triangulation to increase the credibility of their findings (i.e.,
researchers rely on multiple data collection methods to check the authenticity
of their results)
generally their findings are not generalizable to any specific population, rather
each case study produces a single piece of evidence that can be used to seek
general patterns among different studies of the same issue

Regardless of the kinds of data involved,data collection in a qualitative study takes a

great deal of time.The researcher needs to record any potentially useful data
thououghly,accurately, and systematically,using field
notes,sketches,audiotapes,photographs and other suitable means.The data collection
methods must observe the ethical principles of research.

The qualitative methods most commonly used in evaluation can be classified in three
broad categories:

indepth interview
observation methods
 document review

The following link provides more information on the above three methods.

Different ways of collecting evaluation data are useful for different purposes, and each
has advantages and disadvantages. Various factors will influence your choice of a data
collection method: the questions you want to investigate, resources available to you,
your timeline, and more

Methods of data collection

1. 1. Methods of data ColleCtion

2. 2. INTRODUCTION Various methods of collecting data are employed by
social scientists. Here we will discuss the varied dimensions relevant to :
data generation and attempt to arrive at an abstract typology involving
stimuli, responses and setting for data collection. The task of data
collection begins after a research problem has been defined and research
design /plan chalked out.
3. 3. TYPES OF DATA1) PRIMARY DATA : Are those which are collected a fresh
and for the first time and thus happen to be original in character and
known as Primary data.2) SECONDARY DATA : Are those which have been
collected by someone else and which have already been passed through
the statistical process are known as Secondary data.
4. 4. COLLECTION OF PRIMARY DATA There are several methods of
collecting primary data, particularly in surveys and descriptive researches.
In descriptive research, we obtain primary data either through observation
or through direct communication with respondents in one form or another
or through personal interviews.
5. 5. COLLECTION OF SECONDARY DATA These are already available i.e.
they refer to the data which have already been collected and analyzed by
someone else. Secondary data may either be published or unpublished
data. Researcher must be very careful in using secondary data, because
the data available may be sometimes unsuitable.
6. 6. Methods of data Collection :Primary Data 1) OBSERVATION METHOD :
Observation method is a method under which data from the field is
collected with the help of observation by the observer or by personally
going to the field. In the words of P.V. Young, Observation may be defined
as systematic viewing, coupled with consideration of seen phenomenon.
7. 7. ADVANTAGES: Subjective bias eliminated (No bias info) Information
researcher gets is Current information Independent to respondents
variable (as in interview and may be bias ) DISADVANTAGES : It is
expensive method (time requires more) Limited information Unforeseen
factors may interfere with observational task Respondents opinion can
not be recorded on certain subject
8. 8. TYPES OF OBSERVATIONStructured and Unstructured Observation
When observation is done by characterizing style of recording the
observed information, standardized conditions of observation , definition of
the units to be observed , selection of pertinent data of observation then it
is structured observation When observation is done without any thought
before observation then it is unstructured observation
9. 9. Participant & Non Participant Observation When the Observer is
member of the group which he is observing then it is Participant
Observation In participant observation Researcher can record natural
behavior of group , Researcher can verify the truth of statements given by
informants in the context of questionnaire , Difficult to collect information
can obtain through this method but in this researcher may loose
objectivity of research due emotional feelings. Prob. of control in
observation isnt solved.
10. 10. Non Participant Observation When observer is observing people
without giving any information to them then it is non participant
observation
11. 11. Controlled & Uncontrolled Observation When the observation takes
place in natural condition i.e. uncontrolled observation. It is done to get
spontaneous picture of life and persons When observation takes place
according to definite pre arranged plans , with experimental procedure
then it is controlled observation generally done in laboratory under
controlled condition.
12. 12. INTERVIEW METHOD This method of collecting data involves
presentation or oral-verbal stimuli and reply in terms of oral-verbal
responses. Interview Method This is Oral Verbal communication . Where
interviewer asks questions( which are aimed to get information required
for study ) to respondentThere are different type of interviews as follows :
PERSONAL INTERVIEWS : The interviewer asks questions generally in a
face to face contact to the other person or persons.
13. 13. Types of Personal InterviewPersonal Interview Structured Interview
Flexibility in asking questions Predetermined questions Standardized
techniques of No Predetermined questions recording Interviewer follows
rigid No Standardized techniques of procedure laid down i.e. asking
recording questions in form & order prescribed Interviewer has freedom
to ask , Time required for such interview omit , add questions in any is
less than non structured manner interview Ask questions without
following sequence Not necessary of skill or specific knowledge Deep
knowledge & skill Analysis of data becomes easier required Bcoz
information is collected in Analysis of data is difficult prescribed manner
14. 14. Merits of Personal Interview Information at greater depth Flexibility
of restructuring the Questionnaire Interviewer by his skill can come over
resistance Non Response generally low Samples can controlled more
effectively Personal information can be obtained
15. 15. Interviewer can collect supplementary information about
respondents personal characteristics and environment which has value in
interpreting results
16. 16. Supervisors has to do complex work ofselecting ,training and
supervising the field staff. Systematic errors may be occurred Takes
more time when samples are more Some Executive people are not
approachableso data collected may be inadequate Respondent may give
bias information Expensive methodDe Merits Of Interview
17. 17. TELEPHONIC INTERVIEWS Contacting samples on telephone
Uncommon method may be used in developed regionsMERITS Flexible
compare to mailing method Faster than other methods Cheaper than
personal interview method Callbacks are simple and economical also
High response than mailing method. when it is not possible to contact the
respondent directly, then interview is conducted through Telephone.
18. 18. Replies can be recorded without embarrassment to respondents
Interviewer can explain requirements more easily No field staff is
required Wider distribution of sample is possible
19. 19. DEMERITS Little time is given to respondents Survey is restricted to
respondents who have telephones Not suitable for intensive survey
where comprehensive answers are required Bias information may be
more Very difficult to make questionnaire because it should short and to
the point
20.20. structured interviews : in this case, a set of pre- decided questions
are there. unstructured interviews : in this case, we dont follow a system
of pre-determined questions. focused interviews : attention is focused on
the given experience of the respondent and its possible effects. clinical
interviews : concerned with broad underlying feelings or motivations or
with the course of individuals life experience, rather than with the effects
of the specific experience, as in the case of focused interview.
21.21. group interviews : a group of 6 to 8 individuals is interviewed.
qualitative and quantitative interviews : divided on the basis of subject
matter i.e. whether qualitative or quantitative. individual interviews :
interviewer meets a single person and interviews him. selection
interviews : done for the selection of people for certain jobs. depth
interviews : it deliberately aims to elicit unconscious as well as other
types of material relating especially to personality dynamics and
motivations.
22.22. QUESTIONNAIRE METHOD This method of data collection is quite
popular, particularly in case of big enquiries. The questionnaire is mailed
to respondents who are expected to read and understand the questions
and write down the reply in the space meant for the purpose in the
questionnaire itself. The respondents have to answer the questions on
their own. Questionnaire Method Questionnaire is sent to persons with
request to answer the questions and return the questionnaire Questions
are printed in definite order , mailed to samples who are expected to read
 that questions understand the questions and write the answers in provided
space .
23.23. Merits of Questionnaire Merits of Questionnaire Low cost even the
geographical area is large to cover Answers are in respondents word so
free from bias Adequate time to think for answers Non approachable
respondents may be conveniently contacted Large samples can be used so
results are more reliable
24.24. Demerits of Questionnaire Demerits of Questionnaire Low rate of
return of duly filled questionnaire Can be used when respondent is
educated and co operative It is inflexible Omission of some questions
Difficult to know the expected respondent have filled the form or it is filled
by some one else Slowest method of data collection
25.25. Main Aspects of Questionnaire Main Aspects of Questionnaire
General Form Structured Questionnaire Alternatives or yes no type
questions are asked Easy to interpret the data but unuseful for the survey
which is aimed to probe for attitudes, and reasons for certain actions
Unstructured Questionnaire open ended questions
26.26. Respondents gives answers in his own words On the basis of the pre
test researcher can decide about which type of questionnaire should be
used Question Sequence Question sequence should be clear and smoothly
moving (relation of one question to another should readily apparent First
question important for creating interest in respondents mind
27. 27. Question which gives stress on memory or of a personal character
and wealth should be avoided as opening questions Easier question should
be at the start of the questionnaire General to specific questions should
be the sequence of questions Question Formulation and Wording Question
should easily understood Question should be simple and concrete.
28.28. Closed questions are easy to handle but this is like fixing the answers
in peoples mouth. So depending upon problem for which survey is going on
both close ended and open ended question may be asked in Questionnaire.
Words having ambiguous meaning should be avoided, catch words ,words
with emotional connotations , danger words should be avoided
29.29. Essentials of Good Questionnaire Essentials of Good Questionnaire
Should Short & simple Questions should arranged in logical sequence
(From Easy to difficult one) Technical terms should avoided Some control
questions which indicate reliability of the respondent ( To Know
consumption first expenditure and then weight or qty of that material)
Questions affecting the sentiments of the respondents should avoided
Adequate space for answers should be provided in questionnaire Provision
for uncertainty (do not know, No preference) Directions regarding the
filling of questionnaire should be given Physical Appearance - - Quality of
paper, color
30.30. HOW TO CONSTRUCT A QUESTIONNAIRE Researcher should note the
following with regard to these three main aspects of a questionnaire:
General form Question Sequence Determine the type the Questions :
A) Direct Question B) Indirect Question C) Open Form Questionnaire D)
 Closed Form Questionnaire E) Dichotomous Questions F) Multiple
Choice Questions (MCQ)
31.31. SCHEDULE METHOD It is one of the important methods for the study
of social problems. Schedules Like Questionnaires but it filled by
enumerator . Enumerators are specially appointed for filling questionnaire
Enumerators explain the aim and objective to respondent and fill the
answers in provided space . In the words of Thomas Carson Macormic,
The schedule is nothing more than a list of questions which it seems
necessary to test the hypothesis .
32.32. Questionnaire V/S ScheduleQuestionnaire Schedule Q generally sent
Schedule is filled by the through mail and no enumerator or research
further assistance from worker sender Costly requires field Q is cheaper
method workers Non Response is high Non response is low
33.33. Questionnaire Schedule In questionnaire it is not In Schedule
identity of confirmed that expected person is known respondent have filled
Information is collected the answers well in time Very slow method
Direct personal contact No Personal contact Info can collected from Q
can be used only illiterates also when respondent is educated and co
operative
34.34. Wider distribution of Difficulty for wider area sample is possible
Relatively more correct Incomplete and wrong and complete information
is more Depends on Honesty Depends on quality of and competence of
questionnaire enumerator Physical appearance of Not necessary in
questionnaire should Schedule method attractive It is possible to use
Observation method can observation at the time not use of filling schedule
by enumerator
35.35. Other Methods Of Data Collection Warranty Cards Post card size
cards sent to customers and feedback collected through asking questions
on that card Distributor or Store Audits Audits are done by distributor or
manufacturers salesperson. Observation or copying information about
inventory in retail shops. Useful method for knowing market share ,market
size , effect of in store promotion.
36.36. Pantry Audits From the observation of pantry of customer to know
purchase habit of the people (which product , of what brand etc.)
Questions may be asked at the time of audit Consumer Panels When
pantry audit is done at regular basis, Daily record of consumption of
certain customers. Or repeatedly interviewed at the specific periods to
know their consumption. Transitory consumer panels for limited time
Continuing Consumer panel For indefinite period
37. 37. Use of Mechanical Device Eye Cameras to record eyes focus on
certain sketch Psycho galvanometer to measure body excitement to
visual stimulus Motion Picture camera to record movement of body at the
time of purchase Audiometer concerned to TV . Useful to know Channel,
program preference of people
38.38. Depth Interview To discover the underlying motives or desires of
samples . To explore needs , feelings of respondents. Skill is required ,
 indirect question or projective techniques are used to know behavior of
the respondent. Content Analysis analyzing contents of documentary
material as news paper , books , magazines about certain characteristics
to identify and count
39.39. CASE STUDY METHOD It is essentially an intensive investigation of
the particular unit under consideration. Its important characteristics are
as follows : a) the researcher can take one single social unit or more of
such units for his study purpose. b) the selected unit is studied intensively
i.e. it is studied in minute details.
40.40. SURVEY METHOD One of the common methods of diagnosing and
solving of social problems is that of undertaking surveys. Festinger and
Kat of the opinion that, Many research problems require systematic
collection of data from population through the use of personal interviews
or other data gathering devices.
41.41. PANEL METHODIn this method, data is collected from the same sample
respondents at the some interval either by mail or by personal interview.
This is used for studies on : 1) Expenditure Pattern 2) Consumer
Behaviour 3) Effectiveness of Advertising 4) Voting Behaviour and so on
42.42. Secondary DataSources of data Publications of Central, state , local
government Technical and trade journals Books, Magazines, Newspaper
Reports & publications of industry ,bank, stock exchange Reports by
research scholars, Universities, economist Public Records
43.43. Factors to be considered before using secondary data Reliability of
data Who, when , which methods, at what time etc. Suitability of data
Object ,scope, and nature of original inquiry should be studied, as if the
study was with different objective then that data is not suitable for current
study Adequacy of data Level of accuracy, Area differences then data
is not adequate for study
44.44. Selection of proper Method for collection of Data Nature ,Scope and
object of inquiry Availability of Funds Time Factor Precision Required