Section - A 2 Marks Questions (Questions 1 To 20) (Page 1 To 3)
Section - A 2 Marks Questions (Questions 1 To 20) (Page 1 To 3)
BEHAVIOUR (MBA/PGDBM-1)
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Section – A 2 Marks Questions
[QUESTIONS 1 TO 20] [PAGE 1 TO 3]
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involves motives, cues, response and reinforcement. The learning process and its
outcomes are motivating factors in an organisation.
Q9. What is Attitude?
Ans. Attitude is the bent of one’s mind towards an object or subject. It involves liking or
disliking people, work and objects. Desire is an attitude, which directs people to
adopt a certain behavior. It is developed through learning, although the family,
society and nation exert a great influence in attitude formation of people. Attitude is
an unexpressed evaluative statement. It is an expression of inner feelings towards
an object or subject.
Q10. What is Personality?
Ans. Personality is the unique but stable set of characteristics hat sets each individual
apart from others. It offers to the lasting ways in which a given person is different
from others. Personality may be defined as,
“ The study of basic traits of an individual, relationship between these traits, and the
way in which a person adjusts to other people and situations.”
Biological factors, family and social factors, situational factors, temperament, interest,
character, schema and motives influence personality. Personality of a person
influences his or her perception process.
Q11. What is Self-concept?
Ans. Self is the core of one’s conscious existence. Awareness of self is referred to as self-
concept. It can be defined as, “ The concept the individual has of himself as a
physical, social, and spiritual or moral being.”
A self-concept would be impossible without capacity to think. Importantly, ideas of
self and self-concept vary from one historical era to another, from one socio-
economic class to another, and from one culture to another.
Q12. What is Reinforcement?
Ans. Reinforcement is the repeated use of the translated stimuli to induce new behaviour.
It increases the strength of response and induces repetition of response, which is the
outcome of translated and evaluated stimuli. When reward is attached to behaviour, it
becomes a habit. Reinforcement increases the possibility of specific response
occurring in future as a result of evaluated stimuli. It is crucial factor in learning and
the only difference in perception and learning.
Q13. What are emotions?
Ans. Emotions mean the feelings, sentiments of an individual. A leader or manager should
be emotionally stable. He should be free from Bias, is consistent in action and
refrains from anger. These are very important personality determinants because
these affect personal and social adjustments. It is not a trait, rather it is a reaction to
something or someone or some situation.
Q14. What is O B Mod?
Ans. Concept of O B Mod means behaviour modification. In O B Mod here refers to as
modification. This concept is based an operant conditioning approach to learning
which advocates that desirable behaviour should be reinforced O B Mod is a
programme where managers. Identify the performance – related employee
behaviour implement an intervention strategy to strengthen desirable behaviour.
Q15. What is Cognitive Dissonance?
Ans. Cognitive refers to individual’s ideas, thoughts, knowledge, interpretations and
understanding, about himself and his environment. Cognitive theory is based on the
assumption that organism learns the meaning of various objects and events,
depending upon the meaning assigned to them.
Q16. What are values?
Ans. Milton Rokeach, a noted psychologist, has defined valued as global beliefs that guide
actions and judgment across a variety of situation. He further said, " Values
represents basic convictions that a specific mode of conduct (or end-state of
existence) is personally or socially preferable to an opposite mode of conduct) or
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end-state of existence). They contain a judgmental element, i.e., they carry an
individual's idea as to what is right, good, or desirable. Vales have both content and
intensity attributes. The content attribute emphasizes that a mode of conduct or end-
state of existence is important.
Q17. In which directions attitude can vary?
Ans. Attitude constitutes an important psychological attribute of individual, which shape
their behaviour. It is predisposition to respond in a positive or negative way to
someone or something in one's environment.
Attitude may be regarded as varying in several ways:
a) Direction - for or against something.
b) Degree- favorableness. To be neutral in attitude is to be indifferent to the object.
c) Intensity- Degree of confidence
Attitude may also vary in the degree in which the object of the attitude is common to
a number of people or unique to a particular individual.
At attitude may be unconsciously held. Most of our attitude may be about which we
are not clearly aware. Prejudice furnishes a good example. A person can
simultaneously hold inconsistent attitude towards the same object or at least towards
aspects which are not clearly discriminated from one another.
Q18. What are the components of attitude?
Ans. There are these basic components of an attitude described below:
i) Cognitive or Informational components. It consists of beliefs and values, ideas
and other informal a person has bout the attitude object. For instance, a person
seeking a job may learn form newspapers and other people that a particular
company is a good paymaster.
ii) Affective or Emotional Component. In involves the person's feelings of likes
and dislikes towards the attitude object.
iii) Behavioral Component. The tendency of a person to behave in a particular
manner towards the attitude object is the behavioral component of an attitude.
These components show that an attitude can be considered as a way of
thinking, feeling, and behaving.
Q19. Define perception?
Ans. Perception may be defined as a process by which individual organize and interpret
their sensory impression in order to give meaning to their environment. Perception
basically refers to the manner in which a person experiences the world. It is process
by which people organize, interpret and experience ideas and use stimulus material
in the environment so that they can satisfy their needs. Perception is described as a
person's view of reality.
Q20. What are the influences on emotions?
Ans. There are basically two types of influences on emotions: -
a) Organizational influences: - Every organization defines boundaries that
identify what emotions are acceptable and degree to which they can b e
expressed. These are not recognized. It is generally felt that well managed
organizations are expected to be emotion free.
b) Cultural Influence: - Cultural factors decide what is or isn’t considered as
emotionally appropriate, as, what is acceptable in one culture may be totally
unacceptable or dysfunctional in another culture.
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Section – A 5 Marks Questions
[QUESTIONS 1 TO 20] [PAGE 4 TO 17]
Q1. “Attitude Of Employees Has A Great Effect On Their Job Satisfaction”.
Explain.
Ans. Attitude
An attitude is a predisposition to respond in a positive or negative manner to someone
or something in one’s environment. An individual’s behaviour is also a function of
attitudes.
Job satisfaction
Job satisfaction is the individual employees general attitude towards the job. The
employee’s feeling about job is considered under job satisfaction.
A job provides monetary benefits as well as satisfaction. Employees feel satisfied and
happy while working on the job or after completing the jobs. They some develop
general attitude while interacting with each other, general public, managers,
customer’s, administration, and also with members of their societies. Employees feel
satisfied, moderately satisfied or highly satisfied. Similarly, they may also develop
negative attitudes on the satisfaction scale. Task varieties, significance and other
characteristics are the important factors for providing satisfaction to employees. Many
employees are satisfied with competitive jobs while others are satisfied with simple
jobs. Money is important to employees having unfulfilled basic and safety needs but
their attitude towards rewards change once their basic needs are satisfied, ie; they
want more rewards and recognition. So, in last we can say that personal attitudes
and perception are the employees’ angles of satisfaction, which should be taken into
consideration while motivating people to arrive at job satisfaction. Job satisfaction
leads to positive impact on productivity, presence and performance.
Q2. Describe Various Characteristics Of Learning.
Ans. Learning
Learning has become an important tool of individual behaviour in an organization. The
learning process and its outcomes are motivating factors. It may be described as the
process of acquiring ability to respond adequately to a situation, which may or may
not have been previously encountered, the favorable modifications in response
tendencies consequent upon previous experience.
Various characteristics of learning are as follow:
1. Learning involves a change’ though not necessarily improvement, in
behaviour. Learning may be good or bad from organisation’s point of view. For
example, an individual may learn bad habits, prejudice, stereotypes and work
restrictions.
2.
Change in behaviour must be relatively permanent. A temporary change in behaviour
is not learning because it is purely reflexive. If it is purely theoretical or attitudinal, it is
not learning. Therefore learning is permanent change in behaviour as a result of
cognitive process.
3. The permanent change in behaviour that occurs is result of experience,
practice, and training or as a result of social process. The change in behaviour is not
evident until a situation arises in which a new behaviour can occur.
4. L
earning is a process. Learning is a process of observation, action, reaction, and
response to stimuli. Learning is a process by which activity originates or is changed
by reacting to an encountered situation, provided that characteristics of change
cannot be explained on the basis of native response tendencies, maturation or
temporary states of organism. It reveals that learning is an inferred process, which
influence behaviour.
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5. Reinforcement is crucial character of learning. No stimuli can take the shape
of behaviour unless reinforcement or repetition process takes place during the
learning process.
6. Learning is reflected in behaviour. A change in an individual’s thought process
or attitude, not accompanied by behaviour, is not learning.
7. I
t involves cognition. Behaviour is learned through cognitive process. The learning can
take place only when employee reacts to stimuli for changing his behaviour.
Q3. Define Attitude? How Attitudes Are Formed? What Are Managerial Implications
Of Understanding Attitude Of Employees?
Ans. Attitude
Attitude is a cognitive process, which motivates individuals to react towards things,
peers, and other related persons. Attitude is an unexpressed evaluative statement.
Attitude is an expression of inner feelings towards an object or subject. Favourable
attitude refers to liking and an unfavourable attitude indicates disliking an
organization. Attitudes are generally hidden in the minds and hearts of people and
can be expressed or inferred in some situations. Behavior is the real outcome of
behavior.
Formation of attitudes
Attitude formation is related to attitude learning and behaviour development.
Attitude is formed through following three methods of learning:
1) Classical attitude formation. Some stimuli are accompanied by natural stimuli
to form a habit. Unconditioned and conditioned stimuli are simultaneously
demonstrated to arrive at a conditioned response. After sometime, the conditioned
stimuli are withdrawn to establish a stimuli-response connection. Repetition of
conditioned stimuli and response provides opportunity to form a favourable attitude.
Conditioned stimuli through repetition and reinforcements results in a favourable
attitude. This is known as stimulus generation and attitude formation.
2) Instrument or operant attitude formation. The attitude is developed to
achieve a certain reward or response. Rewards are must to make conditioned attitude
a habit. Positive and negative reinforcements help attitude formation. The way in
which stimuli is administered creates a positive or negative attitude. Therefore an
organisation has to be very careful in administering the stimuli and response or
reward in such a way as to create a positive attitude. Once a negative attitude is
developed it is very difficult to be changed.
3) Cognitive attitude formation. Cognitive attitude is based on observation and
self- realisation about an object, whether satisfactory or not. The more the information
available about the object, the stronger the attitude is developed. Society and past
experience provide an opportunity for cognition of knowledge or beliefs. The direct or
indirect experiences, family members and friends also stimulate attitude formation.
Managerial implications of understanding attitude of subordinates:
Attitude of employees is of great importance to management as it can make or mar
organization. Managers should understand the attitude of their subordinates, as
understanding of attitude of employees helps in avoidance of conflict, proper
placement (as job is provided according to attitude), job satisfaction of subordinates,
enhanced productivity due to more loyalty an commitment of subordinates.
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I) Biological Factors.
a) Heredity. It means the transmission of the qualities from ancestor to descendant
through a mechanism lying primarily in the chromosomes of the germ cells. Physical
stature, facial attractiveness, sex, temperament, muscle composition, reflexes, etc.
are inherited from one’s parents.
b) Brain. There is a general feeling that brain plays an important role in the
development of one’s personality. However, no conclusive proof is available so fare
about the nature of relationship between the brain and personality.
c) Physical features. An individual’s external appearance may have a tremendous
effect on his personality. Some people give relatively higher weightage to the
physical features of an individual while defining his personality.
II) Family and social Factors.
Family and other social groups also influence the development of an individual’s
personality. The infant acquires those behavior patterns that are customary and
acceptable to the standards of the family and the community where the family lives.
The status of the family in the society influences an individuals perception about self,
others work, money, etc.
III) Situational Factors.
An individual’s personality may change in different situations. The demands of
different situation may call for different aspects of one’s personality. Therefore, we
should not look at the personality factor in isolation.
Other Factors
a. Temperament. Temperament and other non-intellectual personality traits are
distributed according to the normal distribution. Temperament is the degree to
which one responds emotionally.
b. Interest. The individual normally has many interests in various areas. The top
executive in any organization do not have interests in common. The organization
should provide opportunities like job rotation and special training programs to
satisfy the interests of executives.
c. Personality. Character primarily means honesty. It is resistance to stealing and
cheating others. Character is a very important requirement for responsible jobs. It
is likely that an individual may not steal under normal circumstances.
d. Schema. It is an individuals belief frame of reference, perception and attitude
which the individual possess towards the management, the job, working
conditions, pay, fringe benefits, incentive system, and development towards
religion, government and the satisfaction derived from the environment and
cultural influences of his community.
e. Motives. Motives are the inner drives of the individual. They represent goal
directed behavior of individual. Individuals differ in variable, which determine the
inner drives. The behavior of an individual to accomplish the goal varies because
of his inner drives.
Personality Traits and Types
A personality trait may be defined as an enduring attribute of a person that appears
constantly in a Varity of situations.
Sixteen Primary Traits
Reserved VS Outgoing
Less intelligent VS More intelligent
Submissive VS Emotionally stable
Serious VS Happy-go-lucky
Expedient VS Conscientious
Timid VS Venturesome
Relaxed VS Tense
Tough-minded VS Sensitive
Trusting VS Suspicious
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Practical VS Imaginative
Forthright VS Shrewd
Self-assured VS Apprehensive
Conservative VS Experimenting
Group-dependent VS Self sufficient
Uncontrolled VS Controlled
Q5. Define Ob & Explain The Disciplines Contributing To Subject Of OB.
Ans. Organizational Behavior
Organizational Behavior (OB) is the study of human behavior in organizational
setting, the interface between human behavior the organization, and the
organizational itself.
Sociology, too, has had a major impact on the field of organizational behavior.
Sociologists study social systems such as a family, an occupational class, a mob, or
an organization. Because a major concern of organizational behavior is the study of
organizational structures, the field clearly overlaps with areas of sociology that focus
on the organization as a social system.
Most recently, medicine has come into play in connection with the study of human
behavior at work, specifically in the study of stress. Increasingly, research is showing
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that controlling the causes and consequences of stress in and out of organizational
settings is important for the well being of the individuals as well as the organizations.
1) Classical conditioning: -
It deals with stimulus – response the association of one even with another
desired event, which results in a desired expected – behaviour. It is a type of
conditioning where an individual responds to some stimulus that would invariably
produce such a response.
2) Operant Conditioning: -
Operant is defined as behavior that produces effect. Response – Stimulus this is
defined as behaviour that produces affect i.e. behaviour is due to some reason.
Operant conditioning is a learned or voluntary behavior and is determined,
maintained and controlled by its consequence. It is a powerful tool for managing
people in organisations.
3) Cognitive Conditioning: -
It is learning achieved by thinking about the perceived relationship between
events, individual goals and expectations. Cognition here refers to individual’s
own ideas, thought, knowledge, interpretation, understanding about himself and
his environment. The cognitive theory recognises the role of an organisation in
receiving, memorizing retrieving and interpreting the stimulus and reacting to it.
4) Social Learning: -
Social learning is achieved through the reciprocal interaction between people,
behaviour and environment. It recognizes the importance of consequences as
determinants of behaviour. This theory integrates the cognitive and operant
approaches to learning. It recognises the importance of consequences as
determinants of behavior
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Ans. A manager should have knowledge of OB for following reasons:
In an organization as in a play or a movie, a role is the part of person plays in a given
situation. Much of our knowledge about managerial roles comes from the work of
Henry Mintzberg. For performing following roles in an organisation a manager
should have good knowledge of OB:
Interpersonal roles are primarily social in nature; that is they are soles in which the
manager’s main task is to relate to other people in certain ways. The manager may
sometimes serve as a figurehead for the organization. Taking visitors to dinner and
attending ribbon-cutting ceremonies are part of the figurehead role. In the role of
leader the manager works to hire, train and motivate employees. Finally, he liaison
role consists of relating to other out side the group or organization. For example, a
manager at Intel might be responsible for handling all price negotiation with a key
supplier of electronic circuit boards. Obviously, each of these interpersonal roles
involves behavioural processes.
Q9. What Are The Challenges And Opportunities For Organizational Behaviour?
Ans. OB is not a fully developed field of management and due to globalisation of industry;
it faces various challenges and opportunities. These are:
Globalization of the economy challenges virtually all employees to become more
internationally aware and adept. Those adventurous enough to accept a foreign
assignment will experience the cross- cultural arena first hand. Even employees who
stay behind will find it hard to escape today’s global economy. Many will be thrust
into international relations by working for foreign-owned companies or by dealing with
foreign suppliers, customers and co-workers.
A case in point is the Japanese-owned Honda factory in Marysville, Ohio, that turns
out Accord automobiles for sale in the United State and for export of 20 other
countries. To increase co-ordination between Honda’s factory in sayama, Japan and
the Ohio plant, Honda took the following unusual steps:
The North American Task Group- a core of about 50 Ohio workers and their families
lived in Japan for two to three years, working cheek-by-jowl with accord designers.
Before engineers usually went to Japan for a few weeks, not enough time to build
trust and improve communication with the Japanese.
‘A lot can be lost in phone call and faxes. But not if you’re right three with the
designers.’ Paint engineer Terry Hegenderfer says.
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Having the Ohio them in Japan also gave the stateside engineers familiar, English-
speaking contracts when they had concern. Less was lost in translation.
And having a Marysville crew in Japan helped make sure the new car could be built
as easily in Ohio as a Sayama, Japan.
Most member of the North American Task Group Probable never imagined they and
their families would live in Japan for two to three years when Honda hired them. By
taking full advantage of an unexpected international opportunity, these Honda
employees helped their company remain a respected global competitor.
Culture The global economy is a rich mix of culture, and the time to prepare to work
in it is now. Accordingly, the purpose of this chapter is to help us take a step in that
direction by exploring the impact of culture in today’s increasingly internalization
organization. We begin with a model that shows how societal culture and
organizational cultural combine to influence work behaviour, followed by a
fundamental cultural distinction. Next, we examine key dimensions of international
OB with the goal of enhancing cross-cultural awareness. Practical lessons from
cross-culture management research are then reviewed. The chapter concludes by
exploring the challenge of accepting a foreign assignment.
Employees bring their societal culture to work with them in the form of customs and
language. Organizational culture, a by-product of societal culture in turn affects the
individual’s values/ ethics, attitudes, assumptions and expectations. The term
societal culture is used her3e instead of national culture because the boundaries of
many modern nation-states were not drawn along cultural lines.
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connection between satisfaction and performance tends to be weak. In such a
situation, management should do two things.
i) Modify the job so that it becomes capable of yielding intrinsic rewards for
performance.
ii) Correct the reward system so that it acts as an incentive for higher
performance, i.e. higher performance receives proportionally higher extrinsic
rewards.
In practice, there may not be direct cause and effect relationship between job
satisfaction and productivity at lower levels because productivity is determined by
outside factors like speed of machine, quality of material, type of supervision. , etc.
2.External Factors: -
The perception process is influenced by external factors, which may be objects and
situations. The external points related to objects and situation has great influence on
the perception process. The external factors may be the size, interest, contrast,
repetition, motion, familiarity, novelty and others.
3.Internal Factors: -
Internal factors are within the personal control of the perceivers. They use those
factors when they so desire. They are based on the individual’s psychological setup,
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economic and social background, learning, personality and motivation stimuli based
on external factors receives varied degree of attention and recognition. Internal
factors i.e. factors related to employees and managers, have different degrees of
impact on the attention and recognition process while being translated into
behaviour, which results in performance.
4.Organisational Structure: -
The perceptual process is influenced by the organisational structure of process. The
perceptual structure (if the structure centralization/decentralisation) to viewed
positively by the employees, they willingly contribute to the development of the
organization perceptual grouping, perceptual constancy, perceptual content,
perceptual defence, perceptual work place perceptual process are important factors
influencing perceptual process of management and employees.
5.Social factors: -
Social conditions have much influence on the perception process perceivers and the
perceived objects have complex characteristics. They are perceived differently in
different situations. The attributes and objects are important considerations
influencing the selectivity process of perception. Social factors consider how one
person behaves towards the other persons and how other people behave towards
him. The interaction between the manager and his subordinates is considered under
the social factors, which include the stereotyping effect, the halo effect, contrast
effect and projection.
These the factors influencing perception process of individuals and in relation to
others. The factors help in drawing conclusions about perceptual process.
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action is reinforcement. It may be positive, negative, punishment and
extinction.
6. Behaviour: Learning changes behaviour through reinforcement of perceived
knowledge. It makes permanent changes in behaviour.
7. Reward: If the translated behaviour provides a reward, it is accepted
otherwise it is not accepted. The reward reinforcement makes employees
learn more than positive reinforcement behaviour.
8. Habits: A permanent change in behaviour becomes a habit, which helps
continuous improvement in behaviour and performance.
9. Motives: - Motives depends upon level of satisfaction. Employees getting
more satisfaction through learning develop high motives. Learning is
complete only when motives are fully realized and translated into efforts.
10. Efforts Habits help achieve good efforts and performance. This is a
continuous process. Efforts are the automatic outcomes of good habits, which are acquired
through the learning process. Self-development is possible through self-effort.
Q14. What do you mean by value and value system? What are the sources values?
Ans. Values
Values are a combination of different attitudes and attributes of individuals. These
refer to basic convictions, which leads to formation of conduct or social preferences.
Values help employees to decide about what is wrong or right, good, favorable,
desirable so on. It can be defined as an enduring belief that a specific mode of
conduct or end. State of existence is personally or socially preferable to an opposite
or converse mode of conducts or end state of existence. Values influence objectives
because these shape attitude and behaviour at employees. Value system an
individuals value system is enduring organization of beliefs concerning preferable
modes at conduct or end state of existence along a continuous of relative
importance. Value systems go a long way towards explaining the individual
difference in behaviour. Value system is an intensive attribute having relative
importance.
Sources of Values: -
People develop values from following sources.
1. Parents: Parents are the initiators of values. They always tell us what is right
or what is wrong. They ask their children to do right things and avoid wrong
thing.
2. Family – every family has certain values, which are indicated in the children.
Its guidance paves the value systems on which children develop their attitude
and behaviour.
3. Friends: Friends influence each other to resort to particular behaviour. Good
company helps develop good values.
4. Teachers: - Teachers teach several good valves to be adopted by students.
Teachers are real instructor of value to learners.
5. Society: has a great impact on shaping the inter behaviour of people, which
provides value formation of club members encourage different valves
depending upon their respective characters.
6. Religious factors: - values are learnt and developed through religious factors.
God, universe, fortune and sufferings are attached to value application in
behaviour, e.g. righteous behaviour please god and vice versa Indian society
believes that good values are related to godly pleasure which give satisfaction
to people.
7. Workplace people spent more than half of their time at work place. So, the
workplace is great influencer of valves. Workplace teaches honesty,
responsibility, diligence, endurance and so on.
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8. National characters: National characters have great impact on the values
exercised by people. Warring nations have been developing warring and
fighting valves as real factors for satisfaction. Peace loving nations develop
peace values in people. Based on different sources of value formation, values
and different. Learning strengthens good values and avoids values through,
positive and negative reinforcements. Respectively.
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behavirouralist analyse. Why and how an individual behaves in a particular
way in a given situation by integrating these factors.
2. Interpersonal Behaviour: - Interpersonal behaviour in the organization is
understood by behavioral sciences. By studying behavioural sciences, the
managers can understand themselves and others better. This helps in
improving interpersonal behaviour.
3. Group Behaviour: - Hawthorne studies have proven that an individual
behaves differently as an individual and as a member of the group. Group
behaviour has synergic impact on performance. Management can use group
dynamics for better communication, effective leadership and building high
morale.
4. Intergroup Behaviour: - Organizational behavior helps the managers in
achieving cooperative group relationships through interaction, rotation of
members among groups, avoidance of win lose-situation and focus on total
group objectives.
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Individuals think before they act in their own manner and method they follow simple
process of decision-making. Neatness, promptness, enthusiasm, attitudes,
preferences and educational have a great influence on the individual decision making
process.
c. Ethical decision – making model: -
The decision making process involves ethical considerations, which are utilitarian,
greatest good for the greatest number of people, consistent and just consistency with
existing rules and regulations are important for making ethical decisions. Right
decisions are preferred, as they do not antagonize any person. Ethical decisions
have a moral support and long lasting features.
1. Satisfying model/bounded rationality model: -
Satisfying model/bounded rationality model satisfying model is used to arrive at
suitable decisions. A simple and satisfying model in constructed within the limits of
rationality. All the problems are analyzed, their complexities are understand and
solutions are put forward for conspicuous choices. Only these alternatives are
evaluated which are satisfactory and sufficient.
2. Implicit Favourite model: -
Implicit favourite model solves complex problems by simplifying the process. An
alternative will be considered and evaluated only when it is identified as a favourite,
which is implicitly known to the decision maker. In this case, the decision maker is
neither rational nor objective. He implicitly selects a preferred alternative there after,
implicit favourite alternatives are developed to find the required solutions, Evaluation
criteria to judge each and every alternative as the favourite are developed. Using the
criteria, the alternatives are reduced to lower number, viz. one or two if these
alternatives do not fulfill the requirements of the decisions, new implicit favourite
alternatives are developed, evaluated and selected as discussed already.
3. Intuitive Model: -
The implicit favourite model gives birth to the initiative model gives birth to the
intuitive model, which believes in ones, own decision as favorable. It requires even
evaluation of the alternatives. Intuition is considered the best criterion to select an
alternative as the best alternative solution to the problems. Intuition is one’s own in
feeling and depends on one’s own experience and knowledge. Many decisions taken
at the unconscious level of mind are very useful. Intuitive and rational decisions are
not opposite to each other, but are complementary to each other. Intuitive other, but
are complementary to each other. Intuitive decisions result from quick - decision –
making processes, although is not always dependable.
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b) Physical Abilities: - Physical ability is the capacity to do tasks demanding stamina,
dexterity, strength and similar characteristics. Individuals differ in the extent to which they
have each of these abilities.
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Ans Fritz Heider initiated the attribution theory. Attribution is the process by which
people interpret and assign causes for their own behaviour and the behaviour of
others. It is based on the relationship between personal perception and
interpersonal behaviour. This theory tries to reply “why”, to explain a certain type
of behaviour. Since people have different perceptions, they assign or attribute
different causes of “why”. The motivation process cannot work effectively unless
their perceptions or cognitive processes are brought to a common level. It
assumes that people are rational and are motivated to understand the
environment and accept appealing factors for development. The drawback of
attribution theory is biasness.
Q6. What is Locus of control?
Ans. Locus of control may be external or internal. Internal control behaviour is related
to people’s own feelings. People believing in external forces attribute the outcome
to factors beyond control. Internal forces attribute the locus of control within the
purview of abilities and willingness of employees. External forces attribute
outcomes to factors beyond the control of employees. Motivation is more effective
when locus of control is an internal force as internally controlled employees are
more satisfied with their jobs.
Q7. Explain leadership styles.
Ans. Leadership styles are the patterns of behaviour, which a leader adopts in
influencing the behaviour of his followers. These patterns emerge in the leader as
he begins to respond in the same fashion under similar conditions. Various
researchers have proposed different leadership styles, these are:
Based on behavioral approach
• Power Orientation
• Leadership as continuum
• Employee- Production Orientation
• Likert’s management system
• Managerial Grid
• Tri-dimensional grid
Based on situational approach
• Fiedler’s contingency model
• Path goal model
• Hursey model
Q8. What is Social Facilitation Effect?
Ans. Like-minded people to get the goal attained within specified time form groups.
People encourage and coach each other and provide automatic performance.
Individuals get satisfaction in a social group. It increases motivation for high task
performance. The expectations of a positive or a negative outcome by individuals
generates social facilitation. People feel self confident while working together.
Q9. What are the hygiene factors / dissatisfiers?
Ans. Hygiene factors are necessary to maintain at a reasonable level of satisfaction in
employees. Their presence produce no growth in worker’s output, but their
absence demotivates employees. These are company policy and administration,
technical supervision, interpersonal relationship with supervisor, interpersonal
relationship with peers, interpersonal relationship with subordinates, salary job
security, and personal life, status.
Q10. What are Group norms?
Ans. Group norms are acceptable standards of behaviour in a group. Members of a
group are allowed to act, interact and perform their functions as per established
rules and standards of behaviour. These are incorporated by group structure.
Group norms develop through explicit statements, critical events, and primary and
carry over behaviour. These are of following types:
• Formalised norms
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• Preference related norms
• Appearance norms
• Allocation norms
Q11. What are Ego states?
Ans. Ego states refer to psychological analysis of interaction. Ego is the reality in
between the morality of ID and the more practical superego and keeps control on
them. Transactional analysis uses this theory for identifying three important ego
states:
a) Child State. This is the state in which a person acts like an impulsive child. The
child state is submissive, confronting, insubordinate, emotional, joyful or
rebellious.
b) Adult State This state exists when people are rational, calculative, factual and
mature. People in this state gather relevant information, carefully analyse it,
interpret it, develop alternatives and select the best choices.
c) Parent State It involves practical control, critical, instinctive and controlled
nurturing. It involves superimposing rather than following real problems.
Q12. What is Reinforcement?
Ans. Reinforcement is the repeated use of the translated stimuli to induce new
behaviour. It increases the strength of response and induces repetition of
response, which is the outcome of translated and evaluated stimuli. When reward
is attached to behaviour, it becomes a habit. Reinforcement increases the
possibility of specific response occurring in future as a result of evaluated stimuli.
It is crucial factor in learning and the only difference in perception and learning.
Q13. What is Johari Window?
Ans. Johari Window is a self-perception model designed to analyze the possible
Conurbations of what you know about yourself and what others know about you. It is
simple to understand as we analyze each quadrant:
Quadrant I is the open area where behavior is a function of self perception as well as
those others have of you.
Quadrant II is the blind area, which others see in an individual, but he is oblivious of
it.
Quadrant III represents the hidden area where an individual holds certain perceptions
about himself that he hides from others.
Quadrant IV is the area of unknown activity which neither the individual is aware
neither others.
Q14. What is Group Dynamics?
Ans. Social needs are among the most powerful and compelling on-the-job motivating
forces. In order to fulfill their social needs, workers form small groups on the job
itself. The social process by which people interact face-to-face in small groups is
called group dynamics. Group dynamics is concerned with the interaction of
individuals in a fact-to-face relationship. It focuses on teamwork wherein small
groups are constantly in contact with each other and share common ideas to
accomplish the given tasks. The group develops its goals clearly and furnishes
suggestions to its members for the accomplishment of goals. Every group chooses
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its leader (who may be called informal leader as he is not recognized in the formal
organizational structure) who may effectively coordinate the group efforts towards the
accomplishment of its objectives.
Q15. Explain Group Development Process?
Ans. Once a group is formed, it goes through certain phases to become a functioning
group. When people are thrown into a group to perform a task, the group is not
expected to function like a well-oiled machine right away. It will take time for them to
get acquainted, resolve any differences, and then develop productive relationships.
1.Forming: The first stage is called forming. During this period, group members
discover those interpersonal behaviors that are both acceptable and unacceptable to
others in the group.
2. Storming: During the storming phase, there is often some degree of intra-group
conflict as members attempt to develop a special place for themselves in the group
and influence the development of its norms and roles. At this time, members also try
to develop some form(s) of interpersonal relationships with others in the group.
3.Norming: During Norming stage, the in fighting is basically over and group
cohesion starts to develop. Most group members have now come to accept their
fellow members. A unity of purpose has developed and this serves to unite
them.
4. Performing: The fourth stage of group development is called performing. Here,
group members agree on the basic roles each is to play.
Q16. What is Team Development?
Ans. Team building is a catch-all term for a whole host of techniques aimed at improving
the internal functioning of work groups. Whether conducted by company trainers or
outside consultants, team-building workshops strive for greater cooperation, better
communications, and less dysfunctional conflict. Experiential learning techniques
such as interpersonal trust exercises, conflict-handling role-play sessions, and
interactive games are common.
Q17. Explain the Mc Celland’s three need model.
Ans. David Mc celland has given model of motivation, which is based on three types of
needs.
1) Need for achievement: - a drive to excel, advance and grow.
2) Need for power: - a drive to influence others and exercise the authority over
others.
3) Need for affiliation: - a drive for proudly and close interpersonal relations.
Q18. Give the equation of Vroom’s theory.
Ans. Vroom’s Motivational theory is
motivation = Valence X Expectancy X Instrumentality.
(M = V x E x I)
Valence = Perceived outcome rewards or
Expectancy = Evaluation of necessary work to achieve results
Instrumentality = Performance or work result
Q19. Explain the theory X Theory Y of motivation.
Ans. McGregor has given the theory of motivation called theory X Theory Y
Theory X: - states that people are lazy, avoids responsibility, dislike work and will
avoid work and shirk responsibility. They should be forced to perform work.
Management must punish them if they avoid work, and give reward if anyone
performs work upto standards.
Theory Y: - States that people take work as play, they like work, people are
optimistic, self-directed. Therefore people if are satisfied, then they will perform
better. They can be motivated by delegation of authority, job enlargement, and
workers participation.
Q20. What is Group Cohesiveness?
Ans. It is the degree of attachment of members to their group. Cohesiveness means
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association attachment similar interests. Cohesiveness will make a group more
strong and powerful. Their member’s share the group goals and have common
interests. The members will conform strictly to the group standards and group norms.
Q21. Theory X.
Ans. Mc Celland propounded Theory X, it states,
(1) People generally dislike work and they will avoid work till they can.
(2) People are lazy, and avoid responsibility.
(3) People are not concern for organisaitional goals.
(4) People need direction by managers.
Q22. Explain the salient features of transaction analysis.
Ans. The salient features of transaction analysis are:
a) TA is based on the concepts of psychotherapy.
b) It’s concepts and formulations are expressed in layman’s language.
c) Provide ground for better relationship between manager\ leader and his
subordinates.
d) Analyse how people react to each other while communicating and behaving in
society.
e) TA involves study of ego states and life positions.
Q23. What is team management?
Ans. Team is a group of people is the organization. Which are assigned same task. Team
Management will work an principle of Espirit de corps, i.e. unity is power, and will
work in coordination in order to achieve the given task or in order to accomplish the
assignment.
Q24. Define motivation.
Ans. The word motivation has been derived from the word 'motive' which means any
idea, need or emotion that prompts a man into action.
Dublin has defined motivation as "the complex of forces starting and keeping a
person at work in an origination. Motivation is something that moves the person to
action, and continues him in the course of action already initiated. Motivation refers to
the way a person in enthused at work to organizational objectives.
Q25. What are informal groups?
Ans. Informal Groups: Informal groups arise spontaneously in the organisation because
of social interaction between the people. They are created by individuals rather than
by management. They are natural groupings of people at work in response to the
need for social interaction. They are based on common interest, language, taste,
caste, religion, background, etc. Thus, informal groups are alliances that are not
officially planned. These groups are natural entities in the work environment. In every
organization, a large number of informal groups are formed and they are collectively
referred to as the informal organization.
The informal organisation represents unofficial groups, which have focus on person
rather than position.
Q26. How money used in motivation?
Ans. Money as a motivator – The money that employees receive in exchange for
organizational membership is in reality a package made up of pay and various fringe
benefits that have rupee value, such as insurance plans, sick leave, and vacation
time.
Organizations have to choose pay plans that support their strategic needs
(a) Profit sharing – The return of some company profit to employees in the form of a
cash bonus or a retirement supplement.
(b) Gain sharing – A group pay incentive plan based on productivity or performance
improvements over which the workforce has some controls.
(c) Skill based pay – A system in which people are paid according to the number of
job skills they have acquired.
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1. Stroking Transaction analysis includes stroke, which simply means that right form
of infancy and continuing throughout their lives, people need cuddling, affection,
recognition and praise. Stroke is required for healthy behaviour It may be physical,
verbal, or through eye contact. The parent to child stroke is more effective for
motivation. If people do not get positive stroke, i.e. self-recognition and praise, they
seek negative stroke. E.g. a manager shows his gratitude towards employees on
achieving success.
3. Conflict resolution The parent ego state leads to follow up of rules and
regulations. The child state avoids conflicts. The employees participating win-win
outcome use the “I am OK- “You are OK” state. Conflicts are avoided through parent
to child state and also with adult-to-adult ego state. The cross ego state creates
conflicts, which should be smoothed out through parent and child approach.
5. Game Play TA discusses how people utilize their time. People learn withdrawal
and time intimacy development. The games that people play in their lives shape the
atmosphere. People working with the spirit of a game; achieve success in their life.
They are ready to accept win-lose position. They use aggression, withdrawal,
compromise and fixation in interpersonal behaviour.
Q2. Explain Group decision making Advantage & disadvantages of Group decision
making.
Ans. Group Decision-making
Groups such as committees, task forces, or review panels often play a key role in the
decision making process.
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Including groups in the decision-making process has both pros and cons. The
following two guidelines may then be applied to help decide whether groups should
be included in the decision-making process.
Advantages Disadvantages
Greater pool of knowledge: A group can Social pressure: Unwillingness to “rock” the
bring much more information and boat” and pressure to conform may combine
experience to bear on a decision or to stifle the creativity of individual
problem than can an individual acting contributors.
alone.
Different perspectives: Individuals with Minority domination: Sometimes the quality
varied experience and interests help the of group action is reduced when the group
group see decisions, situations, and gives in to those who talk the loudest and
problems from different angles. longest.
Greater comprehensive: Those who Logrolling: Political wheeling and dealing
personally experience the give and take can displace sound thinking when an
of group discussion about alternative individual’s pet project or vested interest is
courses of action tend to understand the at stake.
rationale behind the final decision.
Increase acceptance: Those who play on Goal displacement: Sometimes secondary
active role in group decision-making and considerations such as winning as
problem-solving tend to views the argument, making a point, or getting back at
outcome as “ours” rather than “theirs”. a rival displace the primary task of making a
sound decision or solving a problem.
Training ground: Less experienced “Groupthink:” Sometimes, cohesive “in
participants in-group action learn how to groups” let the desire for unanimity override
cope with group dynamics by actually sound judgment when generating and
being involved. evaluating alternative courses of action.
Q3. What is the techniques of group decision-making? Explain the Brain Storming
Technique.
Ans. Group Decision Making Techniques
Using groups to make decisions generally requires that they reach consensus.
According to a decision-making expert, a consensus “is reached when all members
can say they either agree with the decision or have had their day in court and were
unable to convince the others of their viewpoint. In the final analysis, everyone
agrees to support the outcome.”
Decision-making experts have developed three group problem-solving techniques to
reduce the above roadblocks
a) Brainstorming
b) Nominal group technique
c) Delphi technique
Knowledge of these techniques can help present and future managers to more
effectively use group-aided decision-making. Further the advent of computer –aided
decision-making enables managers to use these techniques to solve complex
problems with large groups of people.
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Brainstorming
AF Osborn, an advertising executive, to increase creativity, developed brainstorming.
Brainstorming is used to help to help groups generate multiple ideas and alternatives
for solving problems. This techniques is effective because it helps to reduce interface
caused by critical and judgment reactions to one’s ideas from other group members.
In brainstorming a group is convened and the problem at hand is reviewed. Individual
members are then asked to silently generate ideas/alternatives for solving the
problem. Next, these ideas/alternatives are solicited and written on a board or a flip
chart. A second session is used to critique and evaluate the alternatives. Managers
are advised to follow for rules when brainstorming.
1. Freewheeling is encouraged. Group members are advised to offer any and all
ideas they have: the wilder, the better.
2. Criticism is discourages. Don’t criticize during the initial stage of idea
generation. Phrases such as “we’ve never done it that way”, “it won’t work”, “it
is too expensive”, and “the boss will never agree” should not be used.
3. Quantity of ideas is encouraged. Mangers should try to generate and write
down as many ideas as possible.
4. Combination and improvement of ideas is pursued: Group members are
advised to piggyback” on to ideas of others.
Brainstorming is an effective technique for generating new ideas/alternatives. It is not
appropriate for evaluating alternatives or selecting solutions.
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customer’s future preferences, or the impact of locating a plant in a certain region of
the country. Next participants are identified and questionnaire is developed. The
questionnaire is sent to the participants and returned to the manager. The manager
then summarizes the responses and sends feedback to the participants. At this
stage, participants are asked to (1) review the feedback, (2) prioritize the issues
being considered, and (3) return the survey within a specified time period. This cycle
is repeated until the manger obtains the necessary information.
The Delphi technique is useful when face-to-face discussions are impractical, when
disagreements and conflicts are likely to impair communication, when certain
individuals might severely dominate group discussion, and when group think a
probable outcome of the group process.
Q6. Explain Erg Model.
Ans. Alderfer’s Existence-Relatedness-Growth (ERG) Theory-
The most popular extension and refinement of Maslow’s theory of needs is the one
proposed by Alderfer’s (1972. While Maslow’s model was not developed specifically
for work organizations, Alderfer’s theory attempted to establish a conceptualization of
human needs that are relevant to organizational settings. In extending Maslow’s
theory, Alserfer argued that the need categories could be grouped into three more
general classes:
1. Existence: These are needs related to human existence and are
comparable to Maslow’s physiological needs and certain of his safety needs.
2. Relatedness: These are needs that involve interpersonal relationships
in the work place. Relatedness needs are similar e to Maslow’s
belongingness needs and certain of his safety and esteem/ego needs.
3. Growth – These are needs associated with the development of the
human potential. Included in this category are needs corresponding to
Maslow’s self-esteem and self-actualization needs.
Alderfer’s model agrees with Maslow’s in positing that individuals tend to
move from existence through relatedness, to growth needs as needs in each
category are satisfied.
However, ERG theory differs from the needs hierarchy model in two important
respects. First frustration-regression sequence also exists. For example, the ERG
model predicts that if an individual is continually frustrated in his or her attempts to
satisfy growth needs, then relatedness needs will be reactivated and become the
primary drivers of behavior. Second and especially important, in contrast to the
needs hierarchy theory, the ERG model does not hold that one level of needs must
be satisfied before needs in the next level can emerge to motivate behavior. Instead,
the ERG model proposed that more than one need might be operative in a given
individual at any point in time. The ERG model appears to be less rigid than the
needs hierarchy theory, allowing for more flexibility in describing human behavior.
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Second, the person may not have a good understanding of the task to be performed
(that is, there may be alack of role clarity). High motivation will not result in job
performance, if the employee does not have a clear grasp of the ways in which effort
may be appropriately directed.
Furthermore, the Porter-Lawler model indicates that the nature of the task has
implications for the satisfaction performance linkage. That is, performance on a task
may provide the employer with intrinsic rewards, extrinsic rewards or both.
In addition the model holds that employees self-ratings of performance have a major
impact on this belief about what is levels of rewards are equitable.
Finally, Porter and Lawler suggest what may happen after employees perform. Thus,
this model suggests that performance leads to satisfaction rather than the opposite.
This was a significant departure from the traditional thinking.
Perceived 8
Value of 1 Abilities 4 Equitable
reward And traits Intrinsic 7A rewards
rewards
3 9
Satisfaction
Effort Performance 6
(accomplishment)
Extrinsic 7B
rewards
Perceived 2 Role 5
Effort – reward Perceptions
probability
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A) Formal Groups:
These are established by the organizations to accomplish specific tasks. They
are deliberately created under formal authority. A hierarchy of authority structure
is created to govern their behavior and roles. Rules, regulations, incentives and
sanctions guide the actions of members. Formal groups (such as board of
directors, executive committee, etc.) may be classified into two categories:
Command group and Task group.
Command Group: A command group consists of subordinates who report to a
common superior. A university vice chancellor and respective college principals, a
head nurse and respective floor nurses, a first-line supervisor and respective
assembly-line workers are all command groups.
Task Group: A task group consists of employees who work together to complete a
particular task or project, (which is non-routine in nature) but who do not necessarily
report to the same supervisor. For example, in many organizations there is a safety
and accident committee.
(a). Project Group: A project group consists of individuals from many
different areas or backgrounds. The group's purpose is to attain its objective within
predetermined time, cost, and quality limits, after which the group is disbanded and
everyone goes back to his or her regular department.
(b) Committees: A committee is a group of people working together to solve a
certain problem. It investigates, analyses, and debates that problem and, then makes
a recommendation. Committees usually have only advisory authority.
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develop some form(s) of interpersonal relationships with others in the group. In the
process, each person tries to make off certain domains of authority or power. This
stage is often a period of jockeying for position.
(3) Norming: -
During norming stage the in fighting is basically over and group cohesion starts to
develop. Most group members have now come to accept their fellow members. A
unity of purpose has developed and this serves to unite them. At this point the
group’s development has basically matured and the members understand how they
are to interact with each other. People joining the group at this stage, often, find
themselves having to go back through stages one and two (forming and storming) in
an effort to integrate themselves comfortably into the group’s environment.
(4) Performing: -
The forth stage of group development is called performing. Here group member
agree on the basic roles each is to play. This concerns not only job behaviour but
also the ways in which each will interact with others in getting things done. During
this stage, task specialization and personal needs desires are brought together. The
formal needs of the organization are integrated with the informal need of the
member. The result is that group members are able to make their jobs more
interesting and enjoyable.
As group pass through these four phases, there communication patterns change.
The defensiveness and hostility that often characterizes the early phases gives way
to feeling of friendship, trust, confidence and openness thereafter.
Open means information known to self and known to others also:- (name, address,
Personality).
1) Blind means information unknown to self but known to others. (like dressing
sense)
2) Hidden:- Information known to self and not known to others:- (like some
personal secrets of life)
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3) Unknown:- This is sub conscious state, which is neither known to oneself nor
it is known to others.
Structural Analysis (Ego states)
Another aspect of self is the ego states of a person. Ego states are the person way of
thinking, feeling behaving at any time. Present state of mind is called as ego state of
a person.
The Ego states are:-
Parent ego:- It refers to behaviour of person when he acts as a parent. Like
overprotective, disciplined, mannerly advices others, rule making,
judgmental.
Adult ego:- It refers to behaviour of person, in which he behaves rationally, fact,
seeking, problem solving, reality based, based on reasoning.
Child ego:- Child ego means when an individual in his creativity state, child state,
depression, anxiety, joy, frustration, impulsiveness.
Q12. Define the term group Dynamics? Explain theory of group formation.
Ans. Group Dynamics:- is the social process by which people interact face to face in
small groups. Group Dynamics is concerned with interaction of individual in a face-to-
face relationship. It is the membership of group by which individuals shape their work
behaviour and attitude. It focus on the team work where in small groups constantly
contact each other and share common ideas to accomplisher the given tasks.
Theories of Group formation
1) Propinquity theory:- Quite often; individuals affiliate with one another
because of geographical proximity. Proximity of people at work place means
their association because of their common section, department, and same
area of work. This is formation due to their close location at work.
2) Human’s theory:- The more activities person share, the more numerous will
be their interactions and stronger will be their shared activities and sentiments
and more sentiments persons have for one another more activity and
interaction he will do.
Activities Interaction
Sentiments
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Mr. T Mr. N
Common things
Theories of leadership
1) Trait approach to leadership: - Trait theory represents that there are certain
personal qualities which highlight the personality of leadership like: -
a) Intelligence b) Inner motivation drive
c) Physical features d) Maturity
e) Vision and foresight f) Acceptance of responsibility
g) Self confidence h) Open mind
i) Technical skills j) Empathy (Putting yourself into
Shoes of others
2) Behaviour approach: - This approach is based on relationship between
leader and subordinates. Good relationship between boss and subordinates
will raise the morale of individuals, develop up confidence, and spirit among
the teams members, and will help a leader to maintain good relations with his
peers.
3) The situational approach to leadership: - leadership is greatly affected by a
situation and it is the situation, which will guide behaviour of a leader.
Leadership pattern is a product of a situation at a particular time. A good
leader is one who moulds him according to the needs of situation. A good
leader will act wisely at need of the hour.
4) Follower theory: - The shortcomings of trait theory and situational theory
lead to another theory of i.e. follower theory. All to this theory, the essence of
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leadership is fellowship and it is the willingness of people to follow that makes
a person a leader. The members of the group tend to follow only those whom
they recognize as ‘best person’. A leader will be considered as leader if he
has good number of followers under him.
Self
Actualization
Self esteem
Social Needs
Safety needs
Physiological needs
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Maintenance or Motivational Factors
Hygienic factors
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A) Motivation B) Team Development C) Team Mgt.
Ans. A) Motivation. The word motivation has been derived from the word 'motive' which
means any idea, need or emotion that prompts a man into action.
Dublin has defined motivation as "the complex of forces starting and keeping a
person at work in an organisation. Motivation is something that moves the person to
action, and continues him in the course of action already initiated. Motivation refers to
the way a person in enthused at work to organizational objectives. Motivation refers
to the way in which urges, drives, desires, aspirations, strivings or need direct,
control or explain the behaviour of human being.
March and Simon have define motivation as the process or the reaction which takes
place in the memory of the individual with following effects:
i) Lower the individual satisfaction, greater the search for better ways of doing
the job.
ii) More the search for alternatives, greater the expected rewards.
iii) Greater the expected rewards, the higher the satisfaction and level of
aspiration.
iv) Higher the level of aspiration, lower the satisfaction.
If he is successful in achieving his goals, certain other needs will emerge
which will lead to setting a new goal. But if the goal is not achieved, the
individual will engage himself in either constructive or destructive behavior.
(b) Team management: Team is a group of people in the organization, which are
assigned same task.
Team Management will work an principle of Espirit de corps, i.e. unity is power, and
will work in coordination in order to achieve the given task or in order to accomplish
the assignment.
(c) Team Development Team development is a catch-all term for a whole host of
techniques aimed at improving the internal functioning of work groups. Whether
conducted by company trainers or outside consultants, team development workshops
strive for greater cooperation, better communications, and less dysfunctional conflict.
Experiential learning techniques such as interpersonal trust exercises, conflict-
handling role-play sessions, and interactive games are common.
Q19. What are the leadership styles? Explain the autocratic style of leadership.
Ans. Leadership styles
Leadership styles refer to a leader's behaviour. Behavioral pattern, which the
leadership in his role as a leader is often described as the style of leadership.
Leadership style is the result of leader's philosophy, personality, experience and
value system. It also depends upon the types of followers and organizational
atmosphere prevailing in the enterprise. Different types of leadership styles are:
i) Autocratic leadership
ii) Participative leadership
iii) Free rein leadership
In practice, a leader may use different styles over a period of time, but one style
tends to predominate as his normal way of using power. For example, factory
supervisor who is normally autocratic may be participative in determining vacation
schedules and free rein in selecting a departmental representative for safety
committee. In practice, a leader adopts a combination of styles because there are
thousands of in between styles of power, which each manager applies in his own
way. Power use exists along a continuum ranging from total power to no power use
at al; and effective managers usually show some flexibility along this continuum.
Autocratic or Authoritarian Leader
The autocratic leader gives order, which must be obeyed by the subordinate. He
determines policies for the group without consulting them, and does not give detailed
information about future plans, but simply tells the group what immediate steps they
must take. He give personal praise or criticism to each member on his own initiative
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and remains all of from the group for the major part of the time. Thus under this style,
all decision-making power is centralized in the leader as shown. a) Leader adopting
this style stresses his prerogative to decide and order and subordinates ' obligation to
do what they are told to carry out. He does not give subordinates the freedom to
influence his behaviour.
Autocratic leadership may be negative because followers are uniformed, insecure
and afraid of leader's authority. Such a leader may be called strict autocrat who relies
on negative influence and give orders, which the subordinates must accept.
Leadership can be positive also because the leader may use his power to disperse
rewards to his group. When his motivational style is positive, he is often called
benevolent autocrat. The benevolent autocrat is effective in getting high productivity
in many situations and he can develop effective human relationship. There is another
type of autocratic leader, known as manipulative autocrat, who makes the
subordinates feel that they are participating in decision-making process even through
he has already taken the decision.
Thus Autocratic leader make his subordinates act as he directs and does not permit
his subordinates to influence his decision. He assumes that people basically work for
money and want security. Because of such assumptions about human beings, he
exercises tight control and supervision over his subordinates. But these assumptions
do not hold good in all the situations. If the motivated style is negative, people will
dislike it. Frustration, low morale and conflict develop easily in autocratic situations.
The autocratic management has been successful because it provides strong
motivation to the manager. It permits quick decision-making as only one person
decides for the whole group. It has also been successful in such situation where
subordinates are reluctant to take initiative. In industry, this style is quite common
and has often succeeded. In future, it is less likely to be effective because:
i) The coming generation is less amenable to rigid direction and control.
ii) The standard of living of people is rising.
iii) There is now social awareness among the people ; they look for social and
egoistic satisfaction from their jobs.
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own problems. Group members work themselves and provide their own motivation.
The leader exists as a contact person with outsiders to bring for his group the
information and resources it needs to accomplish its job.
Free rein leadership ignores the manager's contribution approximately in the same
way as the autocratic leadership ignores that of the group. It fails to give the group
the advantages of leader's inspired motivation. Most of the work entrusted to him to
the group, which he is supposed to lead, limiting his authority to maintain the contact
of the group with persons outside the group. This is also known as permissive style
of leadership, where there is least intervention by the leader, abdication of authority
and letting the group to operate entirely on its own. This mode of direction can
produce good and quick results if the subordinates are highly educated and brilliant
people who have a sincere desire to go ahead and perform their responsibilities.
There is one more style of leadership popularly known as Paternalistic Leadership.
Under this, the leadership assumes that his function is paternal or fatherly. His
attitude is that of treating the relationship between the leader and his group as that of
family with the leader as the head of family. He works to help, guide protects and
keeps his followers happily working together as members of a family. He provides
them with good working condition, fringe benefits and employee services. This style
has been successful particularly in Japan because of its cultural background. It is
said that employees under such leadership will work harder out of gratitude.
However, in the modern complex industrial relations system, this attitude may not
result in maximum motivation. Instead of gratitude, it might generate resentment
among the subordinates.
p P P S P
S
A A A R A
R
C C C C
Supervisor Worker
P P
A A
S
R
C C
Non-Complementary Transactions:
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Non-complementary transactions, or crossed transactions, occur when the stimulus
and response lines are not parallel. For instance, the supervisor tries to ideal with the
employee on an adult-to-adult basis, but the employee responds on a child-to-parent
basis or the supervisor speaks to the worker on parent-to-child basis and the worker
responds on a parent-to-child basis.
Ulterior Transactions:
The transactions between employees and managers are influenced by factors other
than ego state, although ego state is realized in the transaction. A misunderstanding
is observed.
Supervisor Worker
P P
A A
C C
For example: the manager says that the employees are free to reach him at any time,
but the employees feel that the manager is unwilling to solve their problems. The
manager is behaving in a parental way, although the employees realize it in an adult
ego state.
Q22. Explain The Theory X Theory Y Of Motivation.
Ans. McGregor has given the theory of motivation called theory X Theory Y. These are
based on two distinct view points of human beings. Theory X deals with one extreme,
based on one set of assumptions and Theory Y, deals with other extreme based on
other set of assumptions These theories are not based on any research, but
according to McGregor, these are intuitive deductions.
Theory X
Theory X emphasis on management by direction and control. It states that people are
lazy, avoids responsibility, dislike work and will avoid work and shirk responsibility.
They should be forced to perform work. Management must punish them if they avoid
work, and give reward if anyone performs work upto standards. Assumptions of
Theory X are:
1. The average human beings inherently dislike work and will try to avoid it, wherever
possible.
2. Employees must be controlled, coerced, threatened with punishment to achieve
goals, to which they are indifferent.
3. Employees have little ambitions so try to avoid responsibility and seek formal
directions.
4. Most workers place security above all other factors associated with worker.
Theory Y
Theory Y emphasis on cooperation between management and employees. It States
that people take work as play, they like work, people are optimistic, self-directed.
Therefore people if are satisfied, then they will perform better. They can be motivated
by delegation of authority, job enlargement, and workers participation. Assumptions
of Theory Y are:
1. Human beings do not inherently dislike work. He can view work as natural and
enjoyable.
2. Employees are committed to objectives and exercise self-control and self-direction
for their attainment.
3. They can learn and can even seek responsibility, if provided with proper working
conditions.
4. Commitment to objectives is a function of rewards associated with achievement.
5. All people are capable of making creative and innovative decisions.
Q23. Explain the difference between Manager and Leader.
Ans. Differences between management and leadership:
• The manager administers, the leader innovates
• The manager is a copy, the leader is an original
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• The manager maintains, the leader develops
• The manager focuses on systems and structure, the leader focuses on
people
• The manager relies on control, the leader inspires trust
• The manager has a short-range view, the leader has a long-term perspective
• The manager asks how and when, the leader asks what and why
• The manager has his eye always on the bottom line, the leader has his eye
on the horizon
• The manager imitates, the leader originates
• The manager accepts the status quo, the leader challenges it
• The manager is the classic good soldier, the leader is his own person
• The manager does things right, the leader does the right thing.
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Section – C 2 Marks Questions
[QUESTIONS 1 TO 21] [PAGE 38 TO 41]
Q1. What is organizational change?
Ans. Change results from the pressure of forces, which are both outside and inside the
Organization. Organisation change is any alteration which occurs in the overall work
environment of an organization. Change is due to external forces or internal forces.
External forces: - marketing conditions social change, political changes,
Internal forcers: - change in org structure, change in operative personnel.
Q2. What is Conflict Management?
Ans. Conflict means difference in opinion between two or more reasons or groups. Conflict
occurs individual are not able to choose among the available alternative course of
action. Conflict is natural occurrence in all groups and organizations, conflict is not
only a positive force in a group, but it also necessary for a group to perform
effectively Conflict provides opportunity to group for releasing tension helps to find
out weaknesses of each other.
Q3. What is Stress management?
Ans. Stress is state of anxiety, tension, frustration; dissatisfaction stress causes illness and
physical inability. It can be visible through increased heart rate, muscle tone, and
blood content. Stress can be seen is Organisation the law productivity, increased
absenteeism, due to interpersonal conflict, isolation, change in eating habits
(drinking). Stress is due to unreasonable target, misbehavior of dear, denied
promotion threat of transfer, unethical practices.
Stress Management is a technique, which can be applied in order to overcome stress
like physical exercise, meditation, can release stress, besides, this, reading habits
and to intake healthy food. Besides this organizational roles should be defined clearly
and redesigning of job, to keep communication channel open with employee and to
provide him counseling when required.
Q4. What do you mean by Quality circle?
Ans. A quality circle is a small group of employees doing similar or related work. They
meet regularly to identify, analyses and solve. Product-quality problems. Their main
aim is to identify the problems related to quality process and overcome these
problems. They work to improve the quality standards of organization.
Q5. What is Politics?
Ans. Politics in an organization is a factual reality. Employees have a certain role to play in
every organization. When this role is exercised to influence others, it becomes
politics. The political system is decided based on how managers use their power in
organization. In simple words it is the use of power to influence the decision making
process in org. Power acquisition is the main thrust of politics because resources,
decisions, goals, technology and change are deeply influenced by political
manoeuvring.
Q6. What is Innovation?
Ans. The essence of innovation is development of something new, something that never
existed before. It can be as simple as developing a new flavor of the month for an ice
cream store, or as complex as developing a pocket-size microcomputer. There are
three broad types of innovation:
a) Create something new
b) Combine or synthesize things
c) Improve or change things
Q7. What is Crisis management?
Ans. Crises, by their very nature, crop up unexpectedly, and are apparently unsolvable
due to their sheer complexity and magnitude, bluffing the best brains. Crisis
management means that technique of management, which helps to overcome some
difficult situation, calamity, and difficult problems. Successful management of crises
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is product of vision, foresight, ability to focus sharply on the problems, and to come
up with unusually creative solutions, adequate resources, convince others about the
need of funds, backed by leadership, and lots of pain.
Q8. What is Organisation culture?
Ans. Organisation culture is the accumulated tradition of organisational functioning. It is
based on certain values, norms and positive attitude of an organisation.
Organisational environment becomes a culture if it is used for motivating people for
avoiding any friction and adopt valuable tradition if the organisation. Organisation
culture is intangible and functions like invisible hands, which guides the employees of
an organisation for better performance and more satisfaction. It influences everybody
and is influenced by everybody’s thinking and action.
Q9. What is Organisation Development?
Ans. Organisation development is a planned, systematic, organized and collaborative
effort where behavioural science and organisation theory principles and practices are
continuously applied in order to increase the quality of life which is reflected in
increased organisational health and vitality, enhanced individual and group members’
competence and self –worth, and general overall well being of employees. It is a
means to create, change or reinforce the organisation culture. OD efforts are useful
wherever problems and tensions exist or are sensed to arise.
Q10. What do you mean by Learning Organisation?
Ans. Learning organizations adapt changes and strive to anticipate and learn from
change. A learning organisation has both the drive and capabilities to improve its
performance continuously based on experience. It tries to add value to customers
and then developing innovative ways to satisfy those needs. In learning organisations
conflicts are resolved through the use of collaborative learning and the integration of
diverse viewpoints of personnel through the organisations.
Q11. What is Burnout?
Ans. Burnout is a stress-induced problem common among members of helping
professions such as teaching, social work, employee relations, nursing and low
enforcement. It is a condition that occurs over time and is caused by emotional
exhaustion and a combination of negative attitudes.
Q12. What is Organizational Mirroring?
Ans. Organizational mirroring is an intervention technique to both assess and improve an
organization's effectiveness by obtaining feedback from several other groups. When
an organization experiences difficulties in working with other external organizations,
such as suppliers, government agencies, and the like, it can seek help from these
units to understand and rectify whatever is going wrong with the relationships. For
this purpose, key representatives from the various relevant outside organizations are
invited to participate to mirror, or reflect back, to the host organization on how it is
perceived, What it can do to improve its effectiveness, and to draw up a plan of
action to rectify problematic issues.
Q13. What is the difference between power and authority?
Ans. Authority is the right to command; power is the ability to exert influence over others.
Power reinforces authority and authority is one of the major sources of power.
Authority increases as one goes up the organizational hierarchy. Authority is a
downward flowing concept whereas power flows in all directions.
Q14. What is Managerial Grid?
Ans. Managerial grid is four-dimensional rating scale, which shows the style of leadership.
Leadership style can be of two types.
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DIAGRAM
A (1,1) = (Impoverished)
B (1,9) = (Country club)
C (9,9) = (Team)
D (9,1) = (Task)
E (5,5) = (Middle Road)
A Manager is least concern about production and people.
B Manager is concerned about people but not concerned for production.
C Manager is concerned for both (Production and people).
D Manager is concerned for production, no concern for people.
E Manager is balanced he is bothered about production as well as people.
Q15. Explain the characteristics of a learning organisation.
Ans. Brian Dumaine summarized the five characteristics of learning organisations. These
are:
1) People set aside their old ways of doing thinking,
2) Learn to open with others,
3) Understand how their company really works,
4) For a plan everyone can agree on,
5) For a plan everyone can agree on.
Q16. What are the characteristics of organizational change?
Ans. The 'term' refers to any alteration which occurs in the overall work environment of an
organization. It implies alterations of structural relationship and role of people in an
organisation. It has the following characteristics:
i) Change results from the pressure of forces, which are both outside and inside
the organisation. It disturbs the existing equilibrium in the organisation.
ii) The whole organisation tends to be affected by a change in any part of it.
iii) Change take place in all parts of the organisation, but at varying rates of sped
and degree of significance.
iv) Change may affect people, structure, technology and other elements of the
organisation.
v) Change may be reactive or proactive. When change in bought about due to
the pressure of external forces, it is called reactive change. But the
management on its own to increase organizational effectiveness initiates
proactive change.
Q17. What do you mean by organization effectiveness?
Ans. Organizational effectiveness is the extent to which an organization achieves its goals
with the given resources and means. An organization is said to be effective if it is
able to achieve its goals. The level of output an organization achieves with its limited
resources determines.
Q18. What are the main types of crisis.
Ans. In business there are main three main types of crisis:
(i) Financial crisis. Financial crisis involve short term liquidity or cash flow
problems and long term bankruptcy problems.
(ii) Public Relation Crisis. Public relation crisis involve negative publicity that
could adversely affect the success of company.
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(iii)Strategic crisis. It is caused by the change in business environment that call
the validity of the company into question.
Q19. What are the organisational conditions for effective coping?
Ans. For effective copies there are four organisational conditions:-
1. The organization must have a proper communication system through which
reliable and valid information may be passed.
2. Enough internal flexibility should be there.
3. Integration and commitment to organizational goals.
4. Supportive internal climate.
Q20. What are the levels of political action in organizations?
Ans. There are three levels of political actions in organization:
1. Network Level:- Cooperative pursuit of general self-interest.
2. Coalitition Level:- cooperative pursuit of group interests in specific issues.
3. Individual level:- Individual pursuit of general self interests.
Q21. What is Model Training?
Ans. Model training is individual intervention wherein the employee’s attitude,
values and life styles are changed to make organizational changes more
effective. It is expected that employees learn skills, which are applied and
reinforced on the job. Vide tapes of actual performance are screened for
performance evaluation. Role modeling role playing social reinforcement and
transfer of learning are major its major factors.
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4. Identity: The degree to which members identify with the organization as a
whole rather than with their particular work group or field or professional
expertise.
5. Performance-reward: The degree to which reward system in the organization
(i.e. salary increases, promotions) is based on employee performance criteria.
6. Conflict tolerance: The degree of conflict present in relationships between
peers and work groups as well as the willingness to be honest and open
about differences.
7. Risk tolerance: The degree to which employees are encouraged to be
innovative and risk taking.
Q3. How The Organization Development Can Be Managed? What Are The
Problems Faced In Process of Od ?
Ans. Organization Development
The management of change in organization is one of the most difficult tasks of the
modern manager. In this chapter we emphasize that change is inevitable and that, for
the well being of the organization, it must be planned for and managed. Yet most
organizational change and development efforts – including those that are well
planned encounter problems, some significant enough to threaten the entire change
program. Typically, change efforts take longer than expected and incur higher costs
that expected, and then may be only partially successful.
Given the difficulty of realizing organizational change, it is useful to discuss some
criteria by which to judge the effectiveness of change efforts. A change effort can be
considered effectively managed if:
1. The organization is moved from the current state to the planned future state.
2. The functioning of the organization in the future state meets expectations.
3. The transition is accomplished without undue cost to the organization and its
individual.
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organizational culture, which is usually the result of many years of getting things
done in certain way.
Power
Power can become an important issue in the transition from the current state to
the future state especially when the change has a substantial impact on
organizational structure and the people or groups that have the most power.
Control
While the old system is being dismantled and the new one shaped, change and
the associated uncertainties can make the existing means processing information
and maintaining control-such as the communication system, performance
appraisal system, reward structures, and other organizational process –
irrelevant, inappropriate and ineffective. Thus, it may be difficult to monitor and
reward performance, and take corrective action during the transition. The result is
a loss of control.
Task Redefinition
Because all parts of the system interact, individual jobs are affected by any
change, even one intended to affect another pat of the organization (for example,
the performance appraisal system.)
Keys Impacts
1) Take a holistic view of the 1) Anticipates effects on the social
organization system and culture.
2) Secure top management support 2) Get dominant coalition on the side of
change; safe guard structural change;
head off problems of power and control.
3) Minimise transition problem of control,
3) Encourage participation by those, who resistance and task redefinition.
are affected by the change 4) Minimise transition problems of
resistance and information and control
4) Faster open communication system.
5) Minimise transition problems of
resistance and control systems.
5) Reward those who contribute to
change.
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3. Stress is not something to be avoided.
4. The complete absence of stress is death.
These points make it clear that stress is inevitable. Efforts need to be directed
at managing stress, not as somehow escaping it altogether.
Stressors Outcomes
Group Level
Managerial behavior
Lack of cohesiveness
Intragroup conflict
Status incongruence Stress
Cognitive
Poor decision making
Lack of concentration
Organizational Level Forgetfulness
Climate
Technology
Management Styles
Organizational design
Extra-organizational
Family
Economy Physiological
Lack of mobility Increased blood pressure
Quality of life High cholesterol
Heart disease
Individual Differences
Heredity, age, sex, diet,
social support, coping,
personality traits
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I) Individual strategies:
Under individual strategies employees take personal responsibilities for reducing
their respective stress. They may request for job transfer, find alternative
employment, request for an early retirement, take tours and resort to physical
exercise. Individual strategies are:
Time management is an effective technique of managing stress. It is a preventive
as well as curative device. Time management helps to reduce tension because
individuals easily achieve their objectives within specified time. The time
management principle involves making daily list of activities, priority activities,
scheduling activities according to priority list, knowing daily cycle and daily job
nature.
Physical exercises Routine and relaxed exercises reduce stress of employees.
Competitive exercises increase tension and non-competitive exercises relax people.
Non-competitive physical exercises include aerobatics, jogging, walking, swimming
and ridding a bicycle.
Behavioral stress control Learning and self development help manage stress..
Proper behaviour prevents stress. Behavior has direct impact on performance, which
causes satisfaction and stress. Self-introspection makes people behave properly.
Relaxation training Relaxation techniques such as biofeedback, yoga and
meditation are adopted to get relaxation from stress. Transcendental meditation is
practiced to reduce stressful situations.
Cognitive therapy helps the self-control of employees. Psychological and emotional
responses are recognised for increasing work efficiency. Hormones produced by
adrenal glands have a positive impact on mental satisfaction.
Social supports People are benefited by social support. Good listeners and
confidence builders are essential for managing stress. The expansion of social
support network is a means of reducing stress
. II) Organisational strategies
Organisational strategies include the ways and means attached with organisational
structure, goal setting, designing and redesigning of jobs and improved
communication, employee involvement and other organisational strategies for
reducing stress. Organisational strategies are:
Goal setting and job designing Individuals perform better when they have specific
and challenging goals. Consequently, stress is minimized as the frustration and
ambiguity are clarified by specifying goals. Job designed as per set goals reduces all
sorts of problems. Employees are aware of their respective variety of skills, task
identity and task significance, autonomy and feedback. Redesigning of job is
essential in the light of different characteristics of employees.
Reducing conflicts Role ambiguity is main cause of conflict. An organization must
reduce functional as well as dysfunctional conflicts. The expectation- performance
relation, performance award relation and organisational attitudes are well-defined
techniques of reducing any sort of conflict, ambiguity and understanding.
Developing career plans The employees are old about their career plans and future
development. The employee’s development is an essential feature of stress
management. Educational and experimental programs and counseling are used for
developing the employees.
Creating healthy climate congenial atmosphere of work and relationships prevents
any sort of stress. Friendly talk and healthy communication help people reduce their
family tension. A health atmosphere in organization includes proper lateral, vertical
diagonal communication, congenial work environment and promotional avenues.
Organisational structure is developed accordingly.
Providing counseling Counselling is an exchange of ideas and feelings between
two persons and ideas. It helps employees to cope with problems and improve the
organisational performance. Permanent Counselling has been a permanent function
of many organizations.
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Q7. Define The Concept Of Organisational Development? What Are The
Techniques Of Organizational Development?
Ans. Organisational development
Organisational development refers to wide range of techniques and strategies for
organizational improvement. It is a technique for bringing organization change in the
entire aspect of organization.
Features of O.D.
1) It is an educational strategy for bringing planned change.
2) It is related to real problems of the organization.
3) Change agents are employed to apply O.D.
4) The change agents apply behavioural science knowledge to bring about the
deserved change.
O D Interventions techniques
Behavioural techniques Non-Behavioural Techniques
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Politics: -
Cause of political behaviour: -
1) Lust for power: - To grab power people play politics in organization.
2) To command over resources:- People play politics to command over
resources.
3) To protect the self-interests and privilege to enjoy.
4) To grab some position politics is being played.
5) To coordinate the activities of all departments, sense type of jealousy or
competition is infused in them, there also politics works.
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e) Outcomes:
The actions and reactions of conflicting parties involve consequences, which may be
dysfunctional, functional, and ultimately outcomes hindering group performance.
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Personality clashes become seriously disruptive if allowed to proceed unchecked if
steps are not are not taken to ensure the base of relationship.
Conflict with the job held also occurs. This occurs in the following forms:
1. Conflicts between job and job holder
2. Conflicts between job and organisation
3. Conflicts between jobholder and organisation.
4 Lack of clarity of reporting relationships causes conflict.
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Threat has some merit as a bargaining tactic if one party has power over the other
that corresponds to the nature of the threat, especially if no future negotiations are
expected or if the threat can be posed in a civilized and suitable way. Promises have
merit when one side lacks power and anticipates future negotiations with the other
side.
Firmness Vs. Concessions: - When one sticks to one’s target position, offers few
concessions and wait for the other party to give in research shows that such a tactic
is likely to be reciprocated by the other party, thus increasing the chances of a
deadlock.
Persuasion: - Verbal persuasion or debate is common in negotiations. Verbal
persuasion is an attempt to change the attitudes of the other party toward one’s
target positions. The obvious problem in distributive negotiation is bias- each party
knows the other is self-interested.
Integrative Negotiation tactics: - Integrative negotiations require a degree of
creativity.
Farming differences as opportunities: - Differences in the preference serve as a
basis for integrative agreements because they contain information that can indicate4
each party real interests.
Cutting Costs: - Integrative solutions are especially attractive when they reduce
costs for all parties in a dispute. For example, firms in the computer and acoustics
industries have joined together to support basis research on technology of interests
to all firms. This reduces costly competition to perfect a technology that all perhaps
need anyway.
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to different people e.g. 'Profit' may mean to management efficiency and growth,
whereas to employees it may suggest excess funds piled up through paying
inadequate wages and benefits.
4. Tendency to Evaluate: A major barrier to communication is the natural
tendency to judge the statement of the person of the other group. Every one tries
to evaluate if from his point of view or experience. Communication requires an
open mind and willingness to see things through the eyes of others.
5. Heightened Emotions: Barriers may also arise due to specific situations.
e.g. emotional reaction, physical conditions like noise or insufficient light, past
experience , etc. When emotions are strong, it is very difficult to know the frame
of mind of the other person or group.
6. Lack of ability to Communicate All persons do not have the skill to
communicate. Skill in communication may come naturally to some, but an
average man may need some sort of training and practice by way of interviewing,
public speaking, etc.
7. Inattention: The simple failure to read bulletins, notices, minutes and reports
is a common features. With regards to failure to listen to oral communications, it
has been seen that non-listeners are often turned off while thy are-pre-occupied
with other affairs or their family problems. In any case, the efforts to
communicate with someone not listening will fail.
8. Unclarified Assumption: This point can be clarified by an illustration. A
customer sends a message that he will visit a vendor's plant at a particular time
on some particular date. Then he may assume that the vender may assume that
the customer was arriving in the city to attend some personal work and would
make a routine call at the plant. This is an unclarified assumption with possible
loss of goodwill.
9. Closed Minds: Certain people, who think that they know everything about a
particular subject, also create obstacle in the way of effective communication.
Person suffering from the mirage of too much knowledge becomes rigid and
dogmatic in their attitude. They close their minds tightly to new ideas that are
brought to them.
10. Resistance to change: It is general tendency of human beings to maintain
status quo. When new ideas are being communicated, the listening apparatus
may act as a filter in rejecting new ideas. Thus, resistance to change is an
important obstacle to effective communication. Sometimes, organisation
announces changes, which seriously affect the employees, e.g. changes in
timings, place and order of work, installation of new plant, etc. Changes affect
people in different ways and it may take some time to think though the full
meaning on the message. Hence, It is important for management not to force
changes before people are in position to adjust to their implications.
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of transmission is often inseparable from the message. The channel is the link that
connects the sender and receiver.
Receive: The person who receives the message is called receiver. The
communication process is incomplete without the existence of receiver of message.
Decode: Decoding is the process by which the receiver draws meanings from the
symbols encoded by the sender.
Feedback: After receiving the message, the receiver will take necessary action and
send feedback information to the communicator. Feedback is a reversal of the
communication process in which a reaction to the sender 's message is expressed.
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3) Anxiety / Uncertainty management theory. Anxiety / Uncertainty
management theory aims to diminish anxiety and uncertainty across
interactual groups, while promoting a better understanding.
4) Innovation theory. The means by which information is disseminated
and its planning utility for communicating choice messages is
investigated through the diffusion of innovation theory.
Q19. What is adaptive coping cycle? What are its various stages?
Ans. Adaptive coping cycle:
The more effective organizations are those that successfully adapt structure,
technology and policies with changing environment to facilitate the goal attainment.
And maintenance of effectiveness can be made possible through the adoptive coping
cycle. It can be defined as
“The sequence of activities process which begins with some changes in some part of
the internal or external environment and end with more adoptive, dynamic equilibrium
or dealing with change.
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Stages of Adaptive coping cycle:-
Adaptive coping cycle is a continuous process. It has six stages.
1. Sensing of change:- The 1st basic stage in the cycle to the sensing at
change in some part of the internal and external environment. The
organizations should have effective management information system for
effectively coping with the environment.
2. Importing the relevant information. Import the relevant information about
change into those parts of the organizational that can act upon it. However it
is difficult to decide which inputs are to be taken from the environment and
the organisations often fail to perceive the relevant inputs, particularly the
information.
3. Changing conversion process:- Inputs are taken by the organization from
environment for further processing, this is known as conversion process. It
should be modified according to environmental requirements as indicated by
info.
4. Stabilizing internal changes:- the fourth stage is to stablise the internal
changes while taking care of the un desired changes in related systems.
Which have resulted from the desired changes. This is necessary because
each subsystem in the org. is dependent upon others and change in one may
affect others also but this effect may be positive or negative.
5. Exploring new Outputs:- Now organization is in position to export new
outputs which are in accordance with the environmental requirements. Some
different and additional attempts may be required for exporting the new
outputs. If the org. fails to adopt new methods, it may become ineffective.
6. Obtaining Feedback:- the last stage in cycle is obtaining feedback on the
outcome of as for further sensing of the state of the external environment and
the degree of integration of the internal environment.
Stages of Model:-
1. Unfreezing:- The focus of this stage is create motivation for change. Old
behaviours and attitudes are replaced with those desired by management.
Managers can begin the unfreezing process by disconfirming the usefulness
and appropriateness of employee’s present behaviours or attitudes.
Managers also need to device ways to reduce barriers to change during the
stage.
2. Changing:- this stage entails providing employees with new info, new
behavioural models, or new ways of looking at things. The purpose is to help
employees learn new concepts or points of view. Role models, mentors,
experts, benchmarking the company against world-class orgs, and training
and useful mechanism to facilitate change.
3. Refreezing:- Change is stabilized during refreezing by helping employees
integrate the changed behaviour or attitude into their normal way of doing
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things. This is accomplished by first giving employees the change to exhibit
the new behaviours or attitudes. Once exhibited, positive reinforcement is
used to reinforce the desired change. Additional coaching and modeling are
also used at this point to reinforce the stability of change.
1. Reward power:- A manager has reward power to the extent that he or she
obtains compliance by promising or granting rewards. On the job behaviour
modification if relies having on rewards.
2. Coercive power:- threats of punishment and actual punishment give an
individual coercive power. A sales manager, who threatens to fire any
salesperson that uses a company can for facilities in vacation, is relying on
coercive power. It is negative nature but desire positive results.
3. Legitimate powers:- this base of power is anchored to one’s formal position
or authority thus individual who obtains compliance primarily because of their
formal authority to make decisions have legitimate power. It may express it
self in either a positive or negative manner in managing people. Positive LP
focuses as constructively on job performance. Negative LP tends to be
threatening and demeaning to those being influenced. Its main purpose is to
build the power holders go.
4. Expert Power:- Valued knowledge or info gives an individual expert power
over those who need such knowledge or information. This power of
supervisor is enhanced because they know about work schedules and
assignments their subordinates do.
5. Referent power:- Referent power is called charisma a power. It comes into
play when one’s personality becomes reason for compliance. Role models
have referent power over those who identify closely with them.
Sources Of Resistance:-
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- Fear of economic loss
- Fear of uncertainties
- Inconvenience
- Security
- Information inadequacy
- Structure
- Focus of change
- Group norms
- Threat to expertise
- Resource allocations
- Threat to power
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