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Chapter 4
Analytical Methods for Quantification of

Drug Metabolites in Biological Samples
Robert Rokar and Tina Trdan Luin
Additional information is available at the end of the chapter
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/51676
1. Introduction
The study of the metabolic fate of drugs is an essential and important part of the drug
development process, research of drug metabolism pathways, drug-drug interactions, drug-
herb interactions, influence of genetic polymorphisms and other factors that influence the
phase I and/or II metabolism of a drug. Different in vitro methods, from subcelullar to organ
range, and in vivo studies are applied for the clarification of drug metabolism. The analysis
of metabolites in complex biological matrices is a challenging task therefore several
analytical methods for qualification and quantification of drug metabolites are used. Liquid
chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry (LC-MS) has become the most powerful
analytical tool for screening and identification of drug metabolites in biological matrices.
However, adequate sample preparation is a key prerequisite aspect of successful
quantitative and qualitative bioanalysis. Different approaches for metabolite quantification
in biological samples from direct quantification, indirect quantification through parent drug
after metabolite hydrolysis to quantification supported by using response factors between
drug and their metabolites are often used. The most frequently used method for
quantification is liquid chromatography coupled to different detectors such as mass
spectrometer or UV detector. The LC-MS/MS methods are considered as most appropriate
for determination of drugs and their metabolites and are also best suited for high
throughput analysis. However, in LC-MS/MS assays, matrix effect and selection of suitable
internal standards should be adequately addressed.
2. Background of drug metabolism

The study of the metabolic fate of drugs is an essential and important part of the drug
development process. During drug evaluation the research of drug metabolism is of high
importance especially when metabolites are pharmacologically active or toxic or when a
2012 Rokar and Trdan Luin, licensee InTech. This is an open access chapter distributed under the terms
of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits
unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
80 Chromatography The Most Versatile Method of Chemical Analysis
drug is extensively metabolized [1]. Interindividual differences in drug metabolism also

lead to the research of factors that affect drug metabolism [2, 3]. Moreover, a metabolism of
toxic substances is also frequently investigated [4].
In early discovery, drug metabolism input provides a basis for choosing chemical structures
and lead compounds with desirable drug metabolism and pharmacokinetic (DMPK) or
safety profiles [5, 6]. It is the fact that the shift of the rate of drug attrition from 40% in 1990
to 10% in 2000 was due to increased efforts in applying DMPK principles for drug
development. Beside traditional drug metabolism research that focuses on absorption,
distribution, metabolism and excretion in vitro and in vivo studies, the knowledge about
pharmacogenetics, pharmacogenomics and transporters brought many advances in drug
metabolism research [5]. For the feasibility to successfully monitor the drug metabolism,
suitable bioanalytical methods have to be developed and validated. Studies of metabolic fate
of drugs in living systems may be divided into three areas: 1) elucidation of
biotransformation pathways, 2) determination of pharmacokinetics of the parent drug
and/or its primary metabolites and 3) identification of chemically-reactive metabolites that
are important in drug-induced toxicity [7].
Metabolism is a process of biotransformation when drugs are transformed into a different

chemical form by enzymatic reactions. Mainly, metabolism increases drug hydrophilicity
and decreases the toxicity and activity of most drugs. On the other hand, the
biotransformation reactions could lead to bioactivation of drugs in which case the
metabolite is more toxic and/or more active than the parent drug (reactive metabolite
formation) [8]. The mechanism of bioactivation of drugs may be classified into following
categories: biotransformation to stable but toxic metabolites, biotransformation to
electrophiles, biotransformation to free radicals and formation of reactive oxygen
metabolites. Additionally, bioactivations are also the transformations of a prodrug,
promoiety or bioprecursor prodrug to a more effective metabolite [9]. Prodrug approach is
commonly used in order to overcome the poor bioavailability of the active form of the drug.
In case when prodrug consists of two pharmacologically active drugs that are coupled
together in a single molecule it is called promoiety. Another type of prodrug is a
bioprecursor drug which does not contain a carrier or promoiety, but results from a
molecular modification of the active agent itself [9].
There are several factors influencing drug metabolism such as genetic, physiologic,
pharmacodynamic and environmental factors. CYP2D6, CYP2C19, CYP2C9, CYP3A4,
CYP3A5 are enzymes that are responsible for metabolism of many marketed drugs and are
also highly polymorphic [10]. Many non-cytochrome P450 drug metabolizing enzymes also
play important role in the metabolism of a variety of drugs. Among them polymorphisms of
thiopurine methyltransferase (TPMT), butyrylcholinesterase, N-acetyltransferase (NAT) and
UDP-glucuronosyltransferase (UGT) influence the metabolism of drugs [11]. Different
physiological factors such as age, sex, disease state, pregnancy, exercise, circadian rhythm
and starvation lead to the impaired metabolism among subjects and should be taken into
consideration when evaluating the drug metabolism. Dose, frequency, route of
Analytical Methods for Quantification of Drug Metabolites in Biological Samples 81
administration, tissue distribution and protein binding of the drug affect its metabolism.
Moreover, environmental factors such as environmental chemicals, co-administered drugs,
tobacco, smoking, alcohol drinking and dietary constituents may change not only the
kinetics of enzyme reaction but also the whole pattern of metabolism, thereby altering the
bioavailability, pharmacokinetics, pharmacologic activity or the toxicity of the drug [10, 11].
3. Drug metabolic pathways

Drugs are metabolized by different reactions that are classified into two groups: phase I
and phase II. Phase I reactions include oxidation, reduction and hydrolysis. The function
of phase I reactions is to introduce a new functional group within a molecule, to modify
an existing functional group or to expose a functional group that is a substrate for phase II
reactions. Phase I reactions are responsible for enhancement of drugs hydrophilicity and
consequently facilitate the excretion. Phase II reactions represent conjugating reactions
and mainly further increase the hydrophilicity and facilitate the excretion of metabolites
from the body [10]. Enzymes that catalyze phase I reactions include microsomal
monooxygenases (cytochrome P450, flavin-dependent monooxygenase) and peroxidases,
cytosolic and mitochondrial oxidases, reductases and hydrolytic enzymes. Cytochrome
P450 enzymes may catalyze aliphatic hydroxylation, N-, O-, S-dealkylation, oxidative
dehalogenation, epoxidation [6]. The participation (%) of hepatic CYP450 isoforms in the
metabolism of clinically important drugs is as follows: 3A4/5 (36%), 1A1 (3%), 1A2 (8%),
2B6 (3%), 2C8/9 (17%), 2C18/19 (8%), 2D6 (21%), 2E1 (4%) [10]. Flavin-dependent
monooxygenase, a flavoprotein, is a microsomal monooxygenase that is not dependent on
cytochrome P450. It is capable of oxidizing nucleophilic nitrogen and sulfur atoms [6, 10].
Other typical phase I oxidation enzymes are monoamineoxidase (MAO), diamineoxidase
(DAO), cyclooxygenase (COX), alcohol dehydrogenase (ADH), aldehyde dehydrogenase
(ALDH), molybdenum hydroxylase (include aldehyde oxidase, xanthine oxidase and
xanthine dehydrogenase). In addition to promoting oxidative metabolism, cytochrome
P450 enzymes may also catalyze reductive biotransformation reactions for the reduction
of azo and nitro compounds to primary amines [10, 12]. Hydrolytic enzymes that consist
of non-specific esterases and amidases are also a member of phase I enzymes of
metabolism [6, 10].
Phase I reactions may be followed by phase II reactions; however preceding phase I

reactions are not a prerequisite. Phase II enzymes are highly capable of polarizing
lipophilic drugs through conjugation with a polar substrate that facilitates excretion
[13]. Contrary to phase I reactions, phase II reactions demand energy to drive the
reaction. Energy is usually consumed to generate a cofactor or an activated intermediate
then utilized as co-substrate [6]. Phase II reactions are catalysed by UDP-
glucuronosyltransferases (UGT), sulfotransferases (SULT), N-acetyltransferases (NAT),
glutathione-S-transferases (GST) and methyltranserases [6, 10, 13]. Of the conjugating
reactions glucuronidation, which catalyzes the transfer of glucuronic acid to aliphatic
and aromatic compounds, is the most important. UGTs are able to form O-, N- and S-
glucuronides and require uridine diphosphate glucuronic acid for glucuronide

formation [6, 10]. SULT is the enzyme responsible for the formation of sulfate esters in
the presence of co-substrate 3-phospohoadenosine-5-phosphosulfate (PAPS). Aromatic
amines, hydrazines, sulfonamides and certain aliphatic amines are biotransformed to
amides in a reaction catalyzed by N-acetyltransferase and utilize acetyl coencyme A as
cofactor [6]. Another important conjugating reaction is a conjugation with glutathione
which is present in many cells at high concentrations. Glutathione conjugation captures
reactive electrophiles and transforms them to stable, often non-toxic tioethers [6].
Methylation is a process that results in a formation of O-, N- and S-methylated products
by the transfer of methyl group from methionine [10].
4. Models for evaluation of drug metabolism

In this chapter different in vitro and in vivo models for the evaluation of drug metabolism are
presented. Advantages and disadvantages of subcellular fractions (microsomes,
recombinant enzymes, cytosolic liver fractions, liver S9 fraction), cellular fractions (isolated
hepatocytes, immortal cell lines, liver slices, perfused liver), in vivo animal and human
studies will be presented.
Biotransformation occurs in liver, intestine, kidney, lungs, brain, nasal epithelium and skin.
Since liver is the most important organ for drug metabolism [14, 15] the liver-based in vitro
technologies for evaluation of drug metabolism are presented below. In vitro models that
range from whole cell system to enzyme preparations are now increasingly applied for
quantitative and qualitative assessment in preclinical drug development, post-approval
routine checks, identification of metabolic determinant factors and prediction of drug-drug,
herb-drug and food-drug interactions [15].
4.1. Recombinant human CYP and UGT enzymes (supersomes, baculosomes)

Recombinant human CYP and UGT enzymes have proven to be a useful tool in in vitro
biotransformation studies. This in vitro model, referred to also as supersomes or
baculosomes, is produced by transfection of insect cells with cDNA for human CYP and
UGT by baculo virus, namely insect cells lack endogenous CYP and UGT activity. The
advantage of this system is that enzyme activity of one single CYP or UGT isoform is
expressed and therefore the assessment of individual metabolic enzyme and its contribution
to the metabolic pathway could be performed. Additionaly, this in vitro system could be
used also for the evaluation of drug-drug interactions. Moreover, due to availability of
supersomes with different CYP and UGT genotypes, the influence of different
polymorphisms on drug biotransformation could be estimated. Currently, all common
human CYPs and UGTs co-expressed with NADPH-cytochrome P450 reductase are
commercially available. The disadvantage of this in vitro model is the latency of
glucuronidation because the active site of UGT is shielded behind a hydrophobic barrier. To
resolve this problem a pore-forming agents such as alamethicin are used [14-18].
When performing the experiment with supersomes, the experiment with control
nontransfected supersomes should be conducted. A NADPH regenerating system (NRS),
which consists of -NADPH, glucose-6-phosphate and glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase,
or NADPH is required in the incubation for the evaluation of CYP activity and uridine
diphospoglucuronic acid (UDPGA) has to be added as a cofactor when evaluating UGT
enzyme activity [14-16].
4.2. Human liver microsomes (HLM)

HLM are vesicles of hepatocyte endoplasmic reticulum obtained by differential
centrifugation of liver preparations (homogenates) from fresh human liver, liver slices, liver
cell lines and primary hepatocytes. This subcellular fraction is a rich source of following
enzymes: cytochrome P450s, flavin-monooxigenase (FMO), carboxyl esterases, epoxyde
hydrolase and UGTs. Therefore, HLM are most frequently utilized in vitro model in drug
metabolic profiling and drug interaction studies. Moreover, the influence of specific
isoenzymes is studied using liver microsomes in the presence of specific inhibitors. There
are interindividual variations in the activity of human liver microsomes; therefore they can
be utilized also to study interindividual variability. In case of general estimation of drug
metabolism, pooled microsomes from a large bank of individual liver tissues can be used to
overcome the influence of interindividual variability. Microsomes from other human organs
(intestine, kidney, lung) [19] are also available and are utilized to evaluate extrahepatic
metabolism. Additionally, gender-specific microsomes are available for the estimation of
gender-based discrepancies in drug biotransformation. In drug discovery process HLM are
used for metabolite identification, evaluation of interspecies differences in drug metabolism,
prediction of in vivo clearance, reaction phenotyping and metabolic pathway identification
[14-18, 20].
NADPH or NRS is required in the incubation for the estimation of CYP activity. In order to
evaluate the UGT activity UDPGA and alamethicin (pore-forming reagent) are required [14-
16].
The advantages of HLM are ease of use, low costs, best-characterized in vitro model for
estimation of drug biotransformation, easy storage, appropriate for studying of
interindividual and population-based variation, long term storage, provide qualitative
estimations of in vitro drug metabolism, convenient tool for high throughput screening of
compounds, appropriate for lead compound optimization studies and drug interaction
studies. However, some disadvantages of HLM also exist. HLM are not appropriate for
quantitative estimation of drug biotransformation because of absence of enzymes like
NAT, GST and SULT and cofactors needed. This limits the expected metabolic
competition and formation of some in vivo present metabolites. Another drawback is a
very difficult assessment of the fraction of drug bound to plasma proteins versus to
microsomes which is an important factor in the estimation of in vivo biotransformation
[14-16, 18].
4.3. Cytosolic fraction

Cytosolic fraction is an in vitro model that has not been used very often so far. Like HLM,
cytosol is produced by differential centrifugation of liver homogenate. Soluble enzymes of
phase II such as NAT, GST, SULT, carboxylesterase, soluble epoxide hydrolase, diamine
oxidase, xanthine oxidase and alcohol dehydrogenase are expressed in cytosolic fraction,
but only first three are expressed at higher concentration. This in vitro model requires
cofactors like acetyl coA, dithiothreitol and acetyl coA-regenerating system for NAT, PAPS
for SULT, glutathione for GST activity [14-16, 18].
The main advantage is the presence of only aforementioned enzymes at higher

concentrations than in liver S9 fraction. The biotransformation by NAT, GST or SULT can be
studied separately or in combination depending on the cofactors added. The main
disadvantage is the absence of UGT and therefore glucuronidation cannot be studied by this
model [14-16, 18].
4.4. S9 fractions
S9 fraction contains both microsomal and cytosolic fractions and consequently expresses a
wide range of metabolic enzymes CYP, FMO, carboxylesterases, epoxide hydrolases, UGT,
SULT, methyl transferases, acethyltransferases, GST and others. This in vitro model could be
employed for metabolic, toxicity and mutagenicity studies. Similar to upper mentioned in
vitro models the addition of cofactors is needed; NADPH or NRS for CYP, UDPGA for UGT,
acetyl coA, dithiothreitol and acetyl coA-regenerating system for NAT, PAPS for SULT and
glutathione for GST [14-16, 18, 20].
The main advantage over microsomes and cytosolic fraction is a more complete
representation of the metabolic profile due to the presence of phase I and phase II enzymes.
However, a disadvantage is the overall lower enzyme activity in the S9 fraction compared to
microsomes and cytosol, which may leave some metabolites unnoticed [14-16, 18].
4.5. Cell lines

This in vitro model is less popular than other described models due to dedifferentiated
cellular characteristics and lack of complete expression of all families of metabolic enzymes.
The sources of cell lines are primary tumors of liver parenchyma. Currently available cell
lines are Hep G2, Hep 3B, SNU-398, SNU-449, SNU-182, SNU-475, BC2, PLC/PRE/5, C3A,
SK-Hep-1 and among them Hep G2 cell line is most frequently used for biotransformation
studies. The metabolic activity of liver cell lines is generally low compared to freshly
isolated human hepatocytes. Metabolic activity of some metabolic enzymes is even not
detected. The problem of low activity could be partly overcome by the pretreatment of cell
lines by inducers of various metabolic enzymes. But still the induced activity is below the
enzymatic activity in freshly isolated human hepatocytes. Liver cell lines require
appropriate culture medium, whose composition significantly influences the metabolic
activity. The described in vitro model is easy to culture and have stable enzyme
concentration. On the other hand, the absence or low expression of most important phase I
and phase II drug metabolizing enzymes limits the application of this in vitro model.
Moreover, metabolites are not easily detected and it is difficult to investigate individual
enzymes due to their low expression level [14-16].
4.6. Transgenic cell lines

Transgenic cell line is a cell line that recombinantly expresses human phase I and/or phase II
enzymes. All important human CYPs and UGTs have been expressed in this way to
overcome the limitations of liver cell lines. Cell lines may be transfected at high efficiency
using protoplast fusion. The main advantages are the ease of culturing, high expression of
CYP and UGT isoenzymes, possibility to study single enzyme reactions and the influence of
one isoenzyme or a combination of a number of isoenzymes. This in vitro model can also be
used in the study of metabolite structures, pharmacological elucidation and to assess drug-
drug interactions. The main drawback is that only one or a few of isoenzymes are expressed,
therefore the complete in vivo situation cannot be reflected. Moreover, transgenic cell lines
are more expensive than other enzyme-based technologies [14-16, 18].
4.7. Hepatocytes
Hepatocytes are well-established, well-characterized and frequently used in vitro model in
drug biotransformation research. This in vitro model could be employed for the evaluation
of metabolic stability, metabolite profiling and identification, drug efficacy, hepatic
proliferation, hepatotoxicity and drug-drug interactions. Phase I and phase II drug
metabolism pathways can be studied by the use of primary hepatocytes and cultured
hepatocytes. Like with microsomes interindividual variation can be observed with
hepatocytes. This can be overcome by using mixture of hepatocytes from different donors.
Cryopreservation of hepatocytes offers many advances in the experimentation, namely
activity of most phase I and phase II enzymes is retained.
Primary hepatocytes are obtained by collagenase perfusion of whole liver or a part of liver.
This in vitro system has strong resemblance of in vivo situation due to heterogeneity of
enzyme expression in human liver and preservation of drug metabolizing enzymes at in vivo
levels. Another advantage of primary hepatocytes is the ease of use and high throughput.
The important disadvantage is the drop of hepatocytes viability during incubation period
(viable 2-4 hrs). Moreover, lack of liver non-hepatocyte cells which may be necessary for
cofactor supply, lack of cell polarity, cell-cell and cell-matrix contacts limits the in vivo
resemblance [14-18, 20].
After isolation, hepatocytes can be cultured in a monolayer in order to prolong the viability
to 4 weeks. This characteristic in combination with the prolonged regulatory pathways
allows the use of this in vitro model in studies of up-regulation or down-regulation of
metabolic enzymes. However, cultured hepatocytes gradually lose viability and liver
specific function. Many factors influence the morphology and functions of hepatocytes in
culture: medium formulation, extracellular matrix, initial cell suspension and density, drug
concentrations. Hepatocytes could also be cultured in a sandwich configuration where
hepatocytes are placed between two layers of gelled extracellular matrix. This type of
culture retains liver hepatocyte specific functions for a longer period [18, 20].
4.8. Liver slices

Liver slices and hepatocytes are the most physiologically relevant in vitro techniques used
for quantitative and qualitative measurement of hepatic phase I and phase II metabolism of
drugs due to full complement of enzymes and cofactors. High-precision tissue slicers (e.g.
Krumideck slicer, Brenden-Vitron slicer) are used for the production of liver slices of
uniform thickness (less than 250 m). The advantage of liver slices over hepatocytes lies in
the intact structure of liver tissue containing hepatic and non-hepatic cells, normal spatial
arrangement and possibility of morphological studies. The described in vitro model allows
higher throughput compared to isolated perfused liver. Another advantage is the non-
requirement for digestive enzymes and consequently the preservation of intact tissue
structure. Moreover, no addition of cofactors is needed for enzyme activity. However, some
disadvantages of this model are known: decrease of CYP activity in short time due to
impaired diffusion of nutrients and oxygen in the liver slice, damaged cells on the outer
sides of the slice, inadequate tissue penetration of the test medium, short viability period (5
days), lack of optimal cryopreservation procedures and a need for expensive equipment [14-
16, 18, 20].
4.9. Isolated perfused liver

Isolated perfused liver gives an excellent representation of the in vivo situation but it is not
used frequently due to practical inconveniences. Normally animal liver tissue on a small
scale is used, but never human liver tissue. The additional advantages of this in vitro model
are also three-dimensional architecture, presence of hepatic and non-hepatic cell types,
possibility to collect bile. The important disadvantages of this model are: poor
reproducibility, functional integrity limited to 3 hours, difficult handling, poor perfusion of
cells by nutrients and oxygen, low throughput and no availability of human liver. This
model is useful only in case when bile secretion is the subject of research [14-16].
4.10. Animal and human in vivo studies

The identity of metabolites present in any matrix of animal or human provides essential
information about the biotransformation pathways involved in the clearance of a drug.
When the metabolite profiling of a parent drug is similar qualitatively and quantitatively
between animal and human, we can assume that potential clinical risks of parent drug and
metabolite have been adequately investigated during nonclinical studies. When a difference
arises between in vitro and in vivo findings, the in vivo results should always take precedence
over in vitro studies [21]. The FDA guidance encourages the identification of differences in
drug metabolism between animals and humans as early as possible during the drug
development process in order to find unique human metabolites and major metabolites [1,
21]. FDA defines that metabolites will need to undergo additional safety evaluation when
steady-state systemic exposure to metabolite in humans exceeds 10% of parent drug
exposure (disproportionate metabolite) [1].
The results of aforementioned in vitro studies can be correlated to in vivo situation and vice
versa. This multidisciplinary approach of translational medicine yields an insight into
complex mechanisms of drug disposition. The principle of translational medicine is
presented on raloxifene, a selective estrogen receptor modulator, which exhibits quite large
and unexplained interindividual variability in pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics [2,
3, 19, 22]. The gained knowledge about drug pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics
insures a safer and more effective treatment strategy in the clinical setting.
5. Qualitative evaluation of metabolites

The known identity of metabolites is the prerequisite for a suitable metabolic assessment of
drugs. Liquid chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry has become the most
powerful analytical tool for screening and identification of drug metabolites in biological
matrices. A short overview of analytical strategies for identification of metabolites will be
provided. More information regarding metabolite identification can be found in following
review articles [7, 23-27]. The selection of suitable LC-MS instrumentation is needed for
qualitative evaluation of metabolites. Moreover, this issue is also important for quantitative
evaluation of metabolites as discussed in section 8. Additionally, some examples for
metabolite identification using LC-MS/MS will be provided in this section.
5.1. LC-MS instrumentation

5.1.1. Ionization techniques
A LC-MS ion source has the double role of eliminating the solvent from the LC eluent and
producing gas-phase ions from the analyte. The application of atmospheric pressure
ionization (API) methods has provided a breakthrough for the LC-MS systems and has
brought it to the forefront of analytical techniques. Some ion sources such as API operate at
atmospheric pressure where others like electron impact (EI) or chemical ionization (CI)
operate in vacuum. While soft API interfaces, in particular electrospray, produce molecular
ions with minimal fragmentation, high energy sources like EI mostly generate fragment
ions. API techniques are most widely used for metabolite detection, identification and
quantification [7, 28] due to the ability to operate at atmospheric pressure, good
compatibility with reversed phase chromatography and generation of intact molecule ions
at very high sensitivity. All three API techniques: electrospay ionization (ESI), atmospheric
pressure chemical ionization (APCI) and atmospheric pressure photoionization (APPI) are
complementary.
Electrospay ionization is by far the preferred method for metabolite identification

and quantification. It is the most universal technique for introducing the molecules
into the gas phase and it is most gentle and therefore likely to yield an intact
molecular ions. ESI is ideally suited for polar, ionic and thermally labile compounds
such as drug metabolites; in particular glucuronides and others phase II metabolites.
This technique requires ionization of analytes within solution prior to introduction
into ion source and thus works best for fairy basic or acidic compounds. Depending
on the voltage polarity, nebulised droplets trapping the ionized analyte will be
positively or negatively charged. The reduction in size caused by solvent evaporation
accounts for the increase in charge density in the droplet leading to its explosion
when repulsive forces between charges exceed the cohesive forces of the droplet. This
process occurs repeatedly until gas phase ions are produced [29]. Ions in solution are
emitted into gas phase without application of heat making ESI suitable for analysis of
thermo labile compounds. Many parameters, such as analyte and solution
characteristics: pKa, analyte concentration, other electrolytes in solution, dielectric
constant of the solvent, affect the ion formation process [7]. The effects of several
mobile phase additives on the ionization efficiency have been reviewed [30] and will
be discussed later (section 8). Depending on the chemical structure of an analyte,
multiple-charged molecular ions can be formed, which is optimal for the analysis of
biological macromolecules (e.g. proteins). Despite the numerous benefits of ESI, it
suffers from a shortcoming in that it is susceptible to ion suppression effects from
high concentrations of buffer, salts and other endogenous compounds in matrix
solutions [23].
Atmospheric pressure chemical ionization is more suited for less polar compounds.
Certain classes of compound such as heavily halogenated analoges and highly
aromatic compounds will run readily on APCI while giving no or a weak response
on ESI [7]. APCI like ESI produces ions based on the API strategy, but thought a
completely different process. Here, the liquid eluent is sprayed into heated chamber
[450-550C) where the high temperature of a nebulizer gas flow causes the
immediate evaporation of the solvent and the analyte. In addition to volatility at the
applied temperature, thermal stability of the analyte is also a prerequisite for the
successful application of APCI (e.g. glucuronides may break down and appear in the
form of protonated aglycone [31]. Ionization of analytes takes place in gas phase
where due to high flux of electrons from corona discharge needle, solvent molecules
initially react with electrons and form ions that produce protonated solvent ions
through secondary reactions. These protonated solvent ions then transfer a proton to
form protonated analytes. For efficient ionization, the employed mobile phase
should be volatile and also amenable to gas phase acid-base reactions. APCI
technique is less prone to ion suppression and provides a wider dynamic detection
range than ESI due to ionization that occurs mainly in gas phase. Also, typically
higher flow rate is used with APCI [1-2 mL/min) then that in conventional ESI (0.1-
0.5 mL/min) [23].
Atmospheric pressure photoionization is relatively new ionization method. This

technique can be used for ionization of analytes that are not easily ionizable by ESI and
APCI. APPI has similar application range as APCI but slightly extended toward
nonpolar compounds [32]. The APPI ion source is very similar to APCI source, except
the APCI corona discharge needle is replaced by photoionzation lamp. Depending on
the analyte proton affinity relative to the composition of the mobile phase, either a
radical molecular ion (typically for nonpolar compounds) or a protonated molecular ion
(typically for polar compound) is obtained. APPI has a potencial in the analysis of drug
metabolites but more research is needed to fully understand the important parameters
and factors that affect the ionization efficiency [33].
5.1.2. Mass analyzers

The function of mass analyzer is the separation of ions formed in ionization source
according to their different mass-to-charge (m/z) ratios. The quality of mass separation is
characterized by the degree to which close m/z values can be separated in the mass
analyzer. Mass analyzers are classified regarding resolution into low and high resolution
instruments. The later ones are associated with another important parameter, mass
accuracy, which allows determination of elemental formula of particular analyte. The
selection of suitable analyzer is driven by the purpose of the analysis and the instrument
performance but also depends on the instrument availability and cost effectiveness.
Triple quadrupole instruments (QQQ) are the most common mass spectrometers in
analytical laboratories, having most often been acquired for their evident strengths in
high sensitivity quantitative analysis of known analytes. These instruments have been
often applied also for metabolite identification due to wide availability and excellent
tandem mass (MS/MS) properties. In QQQ, the first quadrupole filters ions of interest,
the second quadrupole also called collision cell fragments these ions and further the
fragment ions are filtered by third quadrupole before reaching the mass detector. Such
QQQ configuration allows performing different scans such as full scan, product ion
scan, precursor ion scan (PI), constant neutral loss scan (CNL), single ion monitoring
(SIM) and selected reaction monitoring (SRM) or multiple reaction monitoring (MRM).
PI and CNL are particularly useful in metabolite identification since both scanning
modes do not require previous knowledge about the molecular weight of metabolites.
High sensitivity for quantitative purposes is retained only when working in MRM
mode, however, the detection sensitivity decreases dramatically when wide mass range
is analyzed in a scanning mode. This is one of the major disadvantages of using QQQ
for the screening of drug metabolites.
Ion trap instruments (IT) are like QQQ relatively inexpensive and compatible with
wide range of ionization interfaces. These analyzers utilize ion trap chamber where ions
are trapped and then selectively ejected from the chamber. Additionally, the resonance
excitation applied in the trap provides efficient dissociation of the precursor ions to
product ions. IT provides more sensitivity for structural elucidation than QQQ due to
its better sensitivity in full scan mode and efficient dissociation of the precursor ions
which allows multiple stages mass spectrometry (MSn). Recently, to address classical
ion traps (called also 3D IT) shortcomings of insufficient ion storage efficiency, capacity
and deterioration of the mass spectrum and dynamic response range, linear IT has been
developed [25]. The detection sensitivity in linear IT is at least two orders of magnitude
higher than that in 3D IT. Because of these advantages, linear IT will probably in near
future totally replace old 3D IT [23].
Triple quadrupole-linear ion traps (QTrap) combine sensitive QQQ technology with
high capacity of linear IT incorporating high trapping efficiencies. In this instrument,
the last quadrupole of QQQ is replaced with a linear ion trap, which operates as a mass
resolving quadrupole or a linear ion trap. This provides clearly increased metabolite
screening capabilities compared to traditional IT or QQQ. QTrap enables high
sensitivity, wide range mass scanning and MSn together with QQQ capabilities, such as
PI, CNL and very high sensitive MRM data acquisition.
Time of flight (TOF) analyzers are the most suitable high resolution mass
spectrometers for fast and cost-efficient metabolite identification. TOF are relatively
simple and capable of recording all formed ions on a microsecond time scale offering
high sensitivity detection. Ions are accelerated from the ion interface to a fixed kinetic
energy and then pass through a field-free tube to the detector. The time needed for ion
to reach the detector is proportional to its m/z ratio. TOF strength lies in its very high
detection sensitivity when acquiring wide range data, enabling the simultaneous
detection of data for all metabolites of interest in one run. High mass resolution and
mass accuracy (< 3-5ppm) enable reliable and accurate identification of metabolites by
determination of elemental formula of a metabolite. Additionally, the very high
acquisition speed makes them ideal for fast chromatography [24].
Triple quadrupole-time of flight (Q-TOF) instruments combine first mass filter and
collision cell of QQQ with TOF as the second mass analyzer. These instruments can
operate as true tandem MS while providing accurate mass of the product ions. Most
modern Q-TOFs have good linear response and are therefore also suitable for
quantitative purposes. However, TOF instruments have not the ability to perform
positive/negative switching in one run [24].
Orbitrap is another high resolution analyzer which is a hybrid composed of a linear IT
and Fourier transform mass spectrometer. It is an effective alternative to the TOF
instruments used for metabolite profiling. Orbitrap is capable of high sensitivity
screening over wide mass range, MSn and tandem mass spectrometry with accurate
mass data for both parent and fragment ion. However, it is not suitable for fast
chromatography because it suffers from a slow data acquisition [24].
Fourier transform-ion cyclotron resonance (FT-ICR) is the third high resolution mass
analyzer. The high sensitivity, accurate mass measurements, high mass resolution and
MS/MS capabilities of FT-ICR make it attractive for structural determination of ions.
However, the combined requirement of ultra-high vacuum system, superconducting
magnets as well as sophisticated data system place the cost of these instruments beyond
the means of most laboratories involved in drug metabolism studies [7].
5.2. Strategies for metabolite identification

MS methodology is the most suitable approach for metabolite identification as commonly
low concentrations of drug metabolites are present in complex biological matrices.
Appropriate LC-MS instrumentation is clearly critical to both, detection and structural
elucidation, although alternative non-MS approaches may also be important in cases when
MS data alone are not sufficient. Tandem mass spectrometry instruments are beside their
key role for metabolite quantification also well suited for qualitative purposes. Tandem
mass spectrometry experiments, which allow different scan mode possibilities, are by far
most informational techniques for structural characterization of metabolites [23]. But these
experiments require a set of injections to perform full scan and other scan analyses to
identify metabolites of interest. The drive to more versatile and powerful instruments which
can perform intelligent data dependent experiments has led to newer mass analyzers, such
as high resolution Q-TOF instruments, which now dominate the metabolite identification
field.
5.2.1. Full scan

The non-selective nature of full mass scan acquisition enables detection of practically all
ionizable metabolites and giving most complete information in terms of metabolite
molecular mass. However, two major disadvantages arise by this approach. Firstly,
detection sensitivity using QQQ decreases dramatically when wide mass range is scanned.
This obstacle can be overcome by using IT analyzers as its full scan is much more sensitive
or even better by using TOF instruments which additionally enable accurate mass
determination [23]. In case when only QQQ is available, a practical approach may be
applied to improve sensitivity; the whole mass range should be divided to narrow scanning
ranges by performing multiple analyses of the same sample. Secondly, other non-metabolite
matrix compound may interfere with obtained MS data. A common procedure for
metabolite detection involves analysis of test and control samples what then allows
subtraction of control sample data. This approach is less successful when complex biological
samples, such as plasma and urine, are examined. Expected metabolites in studied samples
may be predicted based on biotransformation pathways of parent drugs what enables
focused search of these compounds. The most common changes in mass caused by
biotransformation are shown in Table 1.
5.2.2. Precursor ion and constant neutral loss scan

PI and CNL are more specific approaches for identification of unknown metabolites. This
scan mode is only possible for tandem mass spectrometers and therefore suffers at
sensitivity like other QQQ scanning acquisitions. In PI scan mode, the second quadrupole
mass filter is set to pass only the selected product ions, while the first quadrupole mass filter
scans a range of m/z values. In CNL scan mode, both quadrupoles are scanning m/z values
while the m/z difference between the quadrupoles is kept constant. Several phase II
metabolites at fragmentation lose a distinct neutral group that can be used for specific
identification of these conjugates. Glucuronides, sulfates and glutathione conjugates are

often detected by CNL of m/z 176, 80 and 129, respectively. Typical PI for some drug
conjugates in negative ionization mode like aliphatic sulfates, sulfonates and phosphates are
m/z 97, 81 and 79, respectively [28]. Although PI and CNL provide high selectivity for
identification of metabolites, the methods are based on predicted fragmentation behavior of
metabolites what depends to some extent also on abilities of the analyst. Therefore,
metabolites with unexpected fragmentation can be missed. Nevertheless, in combination
with full scan data, PI and CNL is a powerful tool for metabolite identification.
Biotransformation Change in molecular formula Change in mass (Da)

Dehydration - H2O -18
Demethylation - CH2 -14
Dehydrogenation - H2 -2
Hydrogenation + H2 +2
Methylation + CH2 +14
Hydroxylation +O +16
Epoxidation +O +16
S/N-oxidation +O +16
Hydration + H 2O +18
Dihydroxylation + O2 +32
Acetylation +C2H2O +42
Sulfation +SO3 +80
Glucuronidation +C6H8O6 +176
Glutathione conjugation +C10H15O6N3S +305
Table 1. The nominal mass changes in biotransformation of drugs by common metabolic reactions [28, 34]
5.2.3. Product ion scan

Product ion scan is used for structural characterization of the detected metabolites. In product
ion mode, a precursor ion (metabolite) is selected in first quadrupole, fragmented in collision
cell and the product ions are then scanned in second quadrupole. Structural information is
obtained by interpretation of the fragmentation patterns for both metabolite and parent drug.
Complete structural characterization of metabolites may be hindered by the absence of useful
product ions in tandem mass spectrometry. To obtain more specific structural data, the use of
multistage (MSn) scan by using ion trap instruments can be provided. The selected product ion
can be selectively isolated and further fragmented, narrowing the potential sites of
modification and providing a more complete assessment of the metabolite structure.
5.2.4. Multiple reaction monitoring

Although the use of PI and CNL data acquisition improves the selectivity of metabolite
detection when comparing with full scan acquisition, all three approaches have reduced
sensitivity. For this reason, specific MRM screening may serve as alternative approach for
metabolite detection. MRM is the most appropriate acquisition method for quantification of
analytes. In this mode, the first quadrupole is set to pass only the selected precursor ion that
is fragmented in collision cell and usually the most abundant fragment (product ion) is then
filtered in a second quadrupole. Monitoring of specific transition for each analyte yields a
superior signal-to-noise ratio with significantly higher selectivity. Utilizing metabolism
prediction and knowledge of the tandem mass fragmentation of the parent drug, the
approach gives a significant increase in sensitivity and enables a wide range of potential
MRM transitions to be targeted. Although the possibility to overlook metabolites remains
the targeting MRM is a powerful alternative for metabolite detection when sensitivity is an
issue. Single ion monitoring is is another option to overcome low sensitivity of QQQ
screening techniques. SIM is less specific and sensitive acquisition compared to MRM but
may provide advantages when the potential metabolite fragmentation pattern cannot be
predicted correctly. In this case a multiple SIM transitions of the predicted metabolites are
performed, which are set accordingly to the expected nominal mass changes regarding to
parent drug (Table 1).
5.2.5. High resolution mass spectrometry

The most widespread analyzer providing high mass accuracy (TOF, Orbitrap, FT-ICR) used
in metabolite identification is TOF instrument. The specificity in the detection of metabolites
with high resolution is significantly higher than that with unit resolution QQQ or IT
instruments where the ion chromatograms can be recorded using a 0.1 mass unit window.
The high selectivity provides also better sensitivity for the detection of metabolites. It was
reported that detection limits for several drugs were 5-25 times better with accurate mass
TOF, than with nominal mass TOF (same unit level than at QQQ) [28]. Accurate mass
measurements enable to determine the elemental formula of metabolites. Moreover, exact
mass shift enables the establishment of the change in molecular formula of the parent drug.
For example, metabolites formed by hydroxylation and dehydrogenation (at same time) are,
in this way separated from those formed via methylation, in spite that both reaction increase
the molecular weight by 14 (Table 1) [24]. The benefit of reliable accurate mass
measurements for structural elucidation of unknown metabolites is therefore extremely
high. However, metabolites with the same exact mass cannot be distinguished by analyzers.
In this case other approaches are needed. Ion mobility time-of-flight mass spectrometry (IM-
MS), which separates ions on the basis of their m/z ratios as well as their interactions with a
buffer gas, is very convenient. The main advantage of IM-MS is the potential for separation
of metabolite isomers without chromatographic separation which makes it a powerful
analytical tool for investigation of complex samples [35].
Q-TOFs are the key high resolution instruments for drug metabolism research. Q-TOF
instruments provide sufficient mass resolution (up to 40,000) and accurate mass
measurements (below 1 ppm). In addition, they can operate at relatively high scanning
rates, which are considered as the main drawback of most of the Orbitrap based
instruments. On the other hand, Orbitrap analyzers provide a resolving power of up to
100,000 with mass accuracy below 1 ppm. FT-ICR analyzers provide ultrahigh mass
resolving power greater than 200,000 but high purchasing and maintenance cost are beyond
financial capabilities of most routine laboratories [27].
5.2.6. Other approaches

Other approaches can be applied to provide specific structural information in cases when
MS data are not sufficient to determine metabolite structure. Hydrogen/deuterium exchange
LC-MS allows studying mechanisms of MS fragment ion formation and metabolic pathways
of drugs, as well as differentiate the structures of isomeric metabolites [7]. Metabolites can
be isolated and purified from the incubations, followed by structural analysis by NMR.
Alternatively, LC-NMR analysis can be performed on biological samples with minimal
sample processing but certain limitations occur with this technique, such as lower sensitivity
compared with LC-MS and the requirements of relatively expensive deuterated buffers in
mobile phase. More recently, LC-NMR has been coupled with MS which enables
simultaneous metabolite structure elucidation [25]. Tentatively identified structure of
metabolites may also be synthesized and LC-MS data for these compounds are compared
with data from the actual metabolites.
5.3. Examples of metabolite identification

Tandem mass spectrometry is well suited for identification of phase II metabolites [36]. As
example for this approach, the elucidation of three raloxifene glucuronides in urine as well as
their identity confirmation after bioproduction by using QQQ is provided [37].
Chromatograms of each bioproduced glucuronide standard obtained in ESI positive full scan
mode gave only one chromatographic peak where MS spectra of each peak showed strong
molecular ions at m/z 650, 650 and 826 for two raloxifene monoglucuronides and
diglucuronide, respectively. Nominal mass shift of 176, 176 and 2 x 176 Da compared to parent
drug (m/z 474) is characteristic for the structure of monoglucuronide and diglucuronide
metabolites (Table 1). Product ion scan showed the same mass spectra for both predicted
monoglucuronides: fragmentation of the parent ion m/z 650 to 474 and 112. Product ion spectra
confirmed also diglucuronide structure by two subsequent m/z 176 neutral losses from the
parent molecular ion (m/z 826), giving fragments of monoglucuronide (m/z 650) and of parent
raloxifene (m/z 474) as well as additional m/z 112 fragment of raloxifene (N-ethyl-piperidine).
Additionally, constant neutral loss scan (m/z 176) and precursor ion scans (m/z 112 and 474) in
urine sample have been performed. The analysis in all three cases gave three distinct peaks in
chromatograms at retention times for the diglucuronide, and both monoglucuronides (data not
shown, but same retention times as in Figure 1) confirming again the structure of metabolites.
Another important point had to be considered, good chromatography was needed in order to
separate both monoglucuronides since they cannot be distinguished based on MS.
Representative LC-MS/MS chromatogram, using MRM acquisitions for quantitative purposes
of raloxifene and its three metabolites in urine sample is shown in Figure 1.
Identification of bisphenol A glucuronide and deuterated bisphenol A glucuronide in

microsomal incubations [4] is another example. Twin peaks of metabolites with known mass
difference [14] (Da in this case) are helpful for studying fragmentation paths. Product ion
scan in ESI negative ionization mode for bisphenol A glucuronide (m/z 403) showed
fragments m/z 227 (bisphenol A), 212 (bisphenol A fragment - loss of CH3) and 113. The
molecular ion of deuterated bisphenol A glucuronide fragments from m/z 417 to m/z 241
(deuterated bisphenol A), 223 (fragment - additional loss of CD3) and 113. Fragment m/z
113, which is present in both cases represent a glucuronic acid fragment in negative
ionization with subsequent loss of H2O and CO2.
In case of reactive metabolite studies there are typical approaches to identify glutathione
conjugates: increased mass shift 305 Da according to the parent, constant neutral loss of
pyroglutamic acid (m/z 129) in the positive ionization mode and/or precursor ion of m/z 272
in the negative ionization mode [34, 38]. Recently, an in vitro bioactivation study using these
identification approaches has confirmed that bazedoxifene does not show the formation of
glutathione conjugates compared to raloxifene what offers an improved safety profile of this
third generation drug relative to other available SERMs [39].
The glucuronide metabolites may be also simply verified by using -glucuronidase which
provides the conversion of the glucuronide to its aglycone (see next section). If the
conversion is complete, this approach is valid for determination of the metabolite stock
solution concentrations when small amounts of glucuronide standards are obtained or
available [37].
However, for more demanding application QQQ is usually not satisfactory. Identification of
phase I and phase II metabolites of two antineoplastic agents was demonstrated by use of Q-
TOF [40]. In this study, 32 metabolites for dimefluron and 28 metabolites for benfluron were
detected in the rat urine within 25 min chromatographic run. The identification of
individual biotransformation was performed using high mass accuracy measurements for
both full scan and tandem mass spectra by extracted ion chromatograms for expected
masses of metabolites together with the information about characteristic neutral loss.
Another study compared QQQ, linear IT (QTrap), TOF and Orbitrap instruments for
identification of microsomal metabolites of verapamil and amitriptyline [41]. Only TOF
found all 28 amitriptyline and 69 verapamil metabolites; both expected and unexpected. The
TOF offered sensitivity and high mass resolution and also lowest overall time consumption
together with the Orbitrap. Orbitrap also showed good mass resolution but was less
sensitive, resulting in some metabolites not being observed. Approaches with QQQ and Q-
Trap provided the highest amount of fragment ion data for structural elucidation, but being
unable to produce very high important accurate mass data, they suffered from many false
negatives and especially with the QQQ from very high overall time consumption.
6. Approaches for metabolite quantification

The demand for analyses of low-level drugs in complex biological samples has increased
significantly in last years. New pharmaceuticals have typically high potency, so small
doses are given and therefore the detection limits of these drugs and their metabolites are
of great importance. Selective and sensitive analytical methods for the quantitative
evaluation of these analytes are critical for the successful conduction of pharmacological
studies. Metabolite quantification is always required when the metabolite is toxic or
pharmacologically active or when the concentration of metabolite reaches or exceeds the
parent drug concentration in plasma. Different approaches for metabolite determination
in biological samples have been used which can be generally divided to direct
quantification, indirect quantification through parent drug after metabolite hydrolysis or
quantification supported by using response factors between drug and their metabolites.
The key role in the selection of the particular approach is driven by the availability of
suitable authentic standards. Hence some examples of metabolites production will be also
shown here.
6.1. Direct quantification

Direct quantification is the most appropriate approach for metabolite determination in
biological matrices but two major points need to be considered. Firstly, in general
metabolites are much more hydrophilic than parent drug, especially glucuronides [34].
That fact has represented a hindrance for direct metabolite determination because
chromatographic separation between these polar analytes and interfering matrix
components could not be achieved in many cases. However, this problem has been
overcome by advent of powerful liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry
instruments which allow direct quantification of these metabolites [42]. LC-MS/MS
nowadays play predominant role in bioassays for pharmacokinetic and metabolism
studies due to its inherent specificity, sensitivity and speed. Secondly, appropriate
authentic standards are needed for reliable and accurate quantification in biological
samples. Proper validation of analytical methods includes preparation of calibration and
control samples in given biological matrices using suitable reference standards. Authentic
metabolite standards are often not commercially available, particularly in the case of new
drugs or drugs of abuse. Moreover, available metabolites may be very expensive and
therefore not accessible for every research group, especially not in academic sphere.
Furthermore, stable isotope labeled standards of metabolites, which are most convenient
internal standards for LC-MS/MS analyses, are even less available and/or more expensive
than unlabeled metabolites.
In such situation question may arise why not quantitate metabolites concentration based on
parent drug calibration curve as this standard are freely accessible. Modified structure of
metabolites may change the response to quite diverse extent among various liquid
chromatography detection systems. Mass spectrometry using atmospheric pressure
ionization sources is very prone to this issue as the intensity of the MS signal strongly
depends on the analyte even at small structural changes. It has been reported that the
response in ESI-MS differed by factor 25 for two oxidative isomeric metabolites with same
chemical formula [43] or that no signal in contrary to parent drug has been observed for
metabolite in positive ionization ESI. Detection of metabolite was in this case possible only
in negative ionization mode [26]. However, with the commonly and easily used UV
detection, the metabolites have often the same chromophore as the parent drug (but not
always [40], hence giving similar response. But the main limitation of this technique in
pharmacokinetic studies lies in not sufficient sensitivity and also in lower selectivity as some
compounds does not have UV absorption at a wavelength to distinct it from the
background. In contrast to UV, fluorescence and electrochemical detection can be very
selective and sensitive. For electrochemical detection the response may also be very
dependent on structure, especially for phase I metabolites which usually possess changed
oxido-reductive properties compared to parent drug [34]. Beside that both detector systems
are very specific what makes them of limited applicability.
Direct quantification can also be performed without suitable standards. For that purpose
detectors need to give an equimolar response for all compounds of interest. Additionally,
such detectors should be highly sensitive with wide dynamic range, robust and easy to use,
compatible with reverse-phase gradient elution and not prone to matrix interferences,
namely give a response independent of compound [44]. Although there are sophisticated
detectors available, few are used routinely for metabolite quantification. Beside radioactivity
detector (RAD) which also require suitable standards (radiolabeled compounds) other
compound response independent detectors has been recently discussed elsewhere [25, 44-
46]. Such approach has become even more important for metabolite evaluation in the light
of recently introduced FDA guidelines on metabolites in safety testing, which recommends
that all metabolites greater than 10 percent of parent drug should be examined [1]. Some
further examples of metabolite quantification using accelerator MS [47], inductively coupled
plasma MS [43], chemiluminescene nitrogen detector [48], quantitative NMR [49] and
evaporative light-scattering detector [50] are given.
6.2. Quantification using response factor

Prerequisite to make this approach successful is the chromatographic separation of drug
and all metabolites. Quantification is based on using LC-MS/MS in combination with
detector that gives an equimolar response independent of the compound, usually with RAD.
Response ratio of the metabolite to parent drug on RAD is then correlated to response ratio
on LC-MS/MS. Low amounts of metabolites and parent drug in samples are measured by
sufficiently sensitive LC-MS/MS, where the analysis of higher amounts allows detection on
RAD and due to response factor enables calculating of metabolite concentration. The best
way to perform analyses is to combine RAD with MS after liquid chromatography with
splitting flow in order to obtain peaks of the metabolites and parent at the same retention
times on both detectors [51]. RAD is convenient for such analyses because of the large
dynamic range but its use is limited by the availability of radiolabeled standards. However,
the most straightforward detection technique generally found with LC-MS/MS is UV

detection. Metabolites can be (semi)quantified using UV response ratio in cases when the
parent drug chromophore offers sufficient selectivity, is not altered by metabolism and the
metabolites are well separated from other drug related entities and endogenous compounds
[46].
This approach may be also reasonable to quantify metabolites in case of limited amounts of
authentic standards. After determination of the response factors, metabolites could be then
quantified based on calibration curve of parent drug [19]. A constant response factor is
absolutely essential and therefore in such cases response factors should be periodically
verified. Using the same instrument and without major instrument breakdowns, the
response factor seems to be very stable over long periods [52].
6.3. Indirect quantification

Refer to evaluation of glucuronides and other phase II metabolites. These metabolites are
determined by cleavage of conjugates to yield the parent drug, which is subsequently
detected. This indirect approach has several limitations, including the risk of incomplete
hydrolysis, moderate repeatability and time consuming sample preparation [42]. Another
drawback is non-selectivity of this procedure toward study of particular metabolite of
interest when distinct drug metabolite conjugates are present in sample, like in case of
morphine which is transformed to two isomeric metabolites. Morphine-3-glucuronide is an
inactive metabolite but morphine-6-glucuronide possesses even greater pharmacological
activity than the parent drug [53]. In such cases this approach is not suitable in
pharmacokinetic studies as the overall drug concentration including more metabolites is
determined in examined biological fluid. However, in the field of toxicology, doping control
or drugs of abuse this information may be even more valuable [54, 55]. Nevertheless, direct
quantification of metabolites and their indirect quantification via parent drug after
metabolite hydrolysis may give comparable results like in case of buprenorphine
metabolites [56].
Cleavage of conjugates can be performed by fast chemical hydrolysis or by gentle but time
consuming enzyme hydrolysis. Deconjugation by -glucuronidase is the predominantly
used approach. Different types of enzymes are commercially available but the most
frequently used are -glucuronidases from E. coli or Helix pomatia, sometimes combined with
arylsulfatase. -glucuronidase from Helix pomatia provides the advantage of the cleavage of
glucuronide and sulfatate conjugates at same time what is important in the field of
toxicology [6]. However, the glucuronidase activity is not as high as at E. coli. In order to
achieve a successful enzyme hydrolysis it is crucial to pay attention on several factors, such
as temperature, pH, enzyme origin, enzyme concentration and incubation time [57].
However, cleavage with -glucuronidase is not always preferential as for acyl glucuronides
(ester conjugates) where alkaline hydrolysis is more suitable [55]. Acid hydrolysis may also
be sometimes the better possibility for other glucuronide types [58]. N-glucuronides
(primary, secondary and N-hydroxylated amines) are hydrolyzed under mild acidic
conditions but quartenary ammonium glucuronides under basic conditions [25].

Additionally, enzymatic hydrolysis of acyl glucuronides may be hindered due to acyl
migration what leads to -glucuronidase resistant derivates [59]. Nevertheless, if the -
glucuronidase treatment is successful for the metabolite of interest, this procedure should be
the method of choice.
Another aspect for quantification using this approach has been shown recently [60].
Different benzodiazepines were determined via their metabolites by using acid hydrolysis
of urine samples. The parent drug and all metabolites, conjugated as well as non-conjugated
(I phase metabolites), were converted to corresponding benzophenone under studied
conditions. Such approach reduces the specificity but at same time the overall sensitivity of
the method increases, which makes such method suitable for drug abuse monitoring.
6.4. Metabolite production

Alternative approach for direct quantification is to obtain authentic metabolite standards.
The chemical synthesis is mainly suitable for achieving phase I metabolites, like O-
demetylation, N-demetylation, N-oxidation, carbonyl reduction and other. However,
synthesis of the phase II metabolites can be cumbersome and stereochemically demanding
and hence go beyond possibilities of most laboratories [34]. Versatile alternative to chemical
synthesis is enzyme-assisted in vitro production of these metabolites using liver
homogenates, liver microscale cultures, cell culture lines or microbial systems where each of
these methods has its specific drawbacks [61, 62]. Raloxifene, which is metabolized to two
distinct monoglucuronides and one diglucuronide, is an illustrative example for in-house
production of authentic standards. Glucuronide yield by chemical synthesis was very low
and not sufficient enough to characterize those metabolites. On contrary, the biosynthesis
with recombinant human UGT enzymes turned out to be successful in converting parent
drug to both monoglucuronides [63]. In last attempt the bioproduction of all three
metabolites could be accomplished by using the microorganism Streptomyces sp [37]. For
more detail about raloxifene in vitro metabolism refer to [19]. Availability of both metabolite
standards unlabeled and stable isotope-labeled internal standards is even more important
for reliable quantification using LC-MS/MS. Stable isotope labeled metabolites can be
obtained by microsomal incubation of labeled drug, of course if it is available and not too
expensive [4]. The alternative approach is to use a labeled UDP-glucuronic acid as cofactor
in bioproduction of metabolites [62].
Moreover, metabolites can be isolated from urine after oral administration and after
purification and characterization they can be used as standards. Bisphenol A glucuronide
and its deuterated glucuronide were isolated from rat urine [64]. Recently published work
dealing with microsomal bioproduction of the same metabolites [4] revealed some
drawbacks of the isolation approach. Beside ethical considerations, the yield of both
standards was much lower from animal samples (microgram scale) than microsomal
incubates (milligram scale). Additionally, urine as matrix requires also more extensive
purification procedure in order to obtain highly pure standards. However, in cases where
metabolites cannot be produced by proposed in vitro models the in vivo biological samples
are then the only media for isolation of those metabolites.
7. Sample preparation
Adequate sample preparation is a key aspect of quantitative bioanalysis and it is usually the
most time consuming part of analyses. Interfering matrix compounds, such as proteins,
lipids, salts, other endogenous and background compounds, should be removed in sample
pretreatment, not only to avoid column clogging and instrument soiling, but also to improve
the sensitivity, selectivity and reliability of analyses. Selection of an appropriate preparation
procedure depends upon metabolite characteristics, their expected concentrations, the
sample size and matrix, and the availability of analytical techniques for analyte
quantification. Insufficiently treated samples may cause interfering peaks when using
spectroscopic detection techniques such as UV-absorbance or fluorescence. However,
analyses by LC-MS/MS are less prone to sample matrix and therefore usually require less
pretentious sample clean up. Commonly and widely applied sample preparation techniques
include protein precipitation (PP), liquid-liquid extraction (LLE) and solid-phase extraction
(SPE). Manual operations associated with sample treatment may be very labor intensive and
time consuming and that could be avoided with automation in 96-well plate format or direct
sample injection followed by on-line extraction methods.
7.1. Protein precipitation

Protein precipitation (PP) is simple and straightforward method widely used in bioanalysis
of plasma samples. It is accomplished by using organic solvent (typically acetonitrile or
methanol) or an acid (typically perchloric or trichloroacetic acid). It is followed by
centrifugation to separate proteins from liquid supernatant and additionally, supernatant is
sometimes diluted with chromatographically compatible solvent (e.g. mobile phase eluent).
Supernatant can be directly injected or pre-concentrated after evaporation and
reconstitution. Although only proteins are removed, other endogenous compounds remain
which can still cause interferences such as matrix effect in mass spectrometry analyses. PP
offers a generic and fast sample preparation technique that can be easily automated. The
method has been also extended to quantification of drugs and metabolites from whole blood
[65]. The same sample preparation technique in not suitable only for plasma but can be
transferred to other biological samples such as urine. Moreover, the absence of proteins in
these matrices allows direct injection without sample pretreatment. Nevertheless, it is
advisable to dilute and filter or centrifuge the samples to reduce matrix effect and to remove
eventually present particles [42]. Many examples for metabolite determination using PP,
mainly in serum and urine, can be found in recently published review articles [66-68]. PP is
also the most convenient method for less complex biological matrices in pharmacokinetic
studies, such as hepatocytes [69] or microsomes [4]. In this case protein precipitation by ice-
cold methanol (triple volume) at the same time terminates the incubation reaction and
introduces internal standard to the final sample.
7.2. Liquid-liquid extraction

To obtain a sensitive analysis for a complex biological media (plasma, urine) liquid-liquid
extraction (LLE) or solid phase extraction (SPE) are often required instead of PP. LLE
sometimes gives better sample clean up showing less matrix effect in comparison with
SPE [70]. Additionally, LLE is in general simpler and may be applicable to almost all
laboratories using large variety of available solvents. LLE is also less expensive and
flexible as several samples may be prepared in parallels. On the other hand emulsion
formation, mutual solubility of analytes in both phases or large volumes of flammable
and/or toxic solvents should be considered. In recently published comprehensive
overview of methods for measurement of antidepressants and their metabolites in
biofluids, many examples of extraction including LLE conditions can be found [67].
Offline methodologies are often very tedious and time consuming, and the risk of sample
loss and/or contamination is high. Lack of automation possibilities is therefore another
important LLE drawback. However, several research groups have developed different
approaches to solve mixing and phase separation problems typically seen in a 96-well
plate LLE method [71]. A semi automated LLE procedure using 96-well plates was
reported [72].
7.3. Solid-phase extraction

SPE has become very popular and is nowadays considered as a basic technique in many
laboratories for sample preparation of drugs and their metabolites from biological
matrices. SPE offers several advantages over LLE, including higher recoveries, no
problems with emulsions, less solvent consumption and a smaller sample volume
requirement. Moreover, automation of sample treatment with high speed and feasibility
for treatment of numerous samples at one time is possible. However, a drawback often
associated with SPE is their high dead volume, which can lead to loss of sample and may
cause dilution of applied samples. SPE column lot production variability or column
blockage due to sample viscosity or precipitation may also occur. Columns can be
supplied as individual units for manual use and also in 96-well plate format for use with
robotic sample processors. The column dead volume has been overcome with a novel 96-
well SPE plate that was designed to minimize elution volume (< 25L). The evaporation
and reconstitution step that is usually required in SPE is avoided due the concentration
ability of the sorbent [71].
SPE is based on chromatographic separation such as liquid chromatography. Wide

variety of cartridge types and solvents make SPE procedure suitable for many polar or
nonpolar analytes. The extraction procedure can be a generic protocol or can be
optimized if better sample clean up is desired. Beside classical reverse phase (e.g. C8 or
C18) also polymer reverse phase (e.g. divinylbenzene, N-vinylbenzene), polymer ion-
exchange (e.g. weak or strong anion/cation-exchange) or mixed mode ion-exchange
sorbents are available. Polymeric reverse phase materials possess both hydrophilic and
lipophilic properties and are capable of capturing polar analytes such as drug
metabolites [66]. Another advantage regarding silica based phase is ease of use, since
there is no need to keep those phases moistened to maintain interaction. Mix mode ion-
exchange and ion-exchange sorbents are even more convenient since strongly retained
ionic metabolites allow rigorous washing of cartridge (e.g. 100% methanol) achieving
cleaner sample with less matrix interferences [73].
There are now commercially available protein precipitation devices in plate format that
allow PP within the plate whilst also removing phospholipids (HybridSPETM and Waters
OstroTM). This novel semi automated sample clean up procedure includes combination of PP
and SPE. Proteins in sample are firstly precipitated with organic solvent, then transferred to
SPE and directly injected into the analytical instrument. Method is simple, fast and almost
free from phospholipids [74]. This sample preparation approach has been successfully
applied in metabolism studies of various drugs [75].
7.4. On-line SPE

The on-line SPE offers speed, high sensitivity by the pre-concentrating factor, and low
extraction cost per sample, but typically require the use of program switch valves and
column re-configurations [71]. Biological samples can be directly injected into liquid
chromatographic system without any sample preparations except for aliquoting samples,
adding the internal standard and sometimes sample diluting and/or centrifugation. On-line
SPE is considered as another dilute and injection approach like protein precipitation,
however, it provides cleaner extract with reduced chance for matrix effect. Commonly used
columns for on-line SPE are packed with large particles (typically > 20m) of stationary
material, such as polymeric and silica based, which work based on reversed phase, ion-
exchange or mixed mode of separation. The combination of large particle size in these
narrow bore columns (typically 50x1 mm) and fast flow (typically 3-5 mL/min), called also
as turbulent flow chromatography, promotes the rapid removal of proteins with
simultaneous retention of the small-molecular analytes of interest. After flushing all the
proteins to waste, the direction of the flow is switched; the analytes are back-flushed onto
the analytical column for chromatographic separation and detection. Fully integrated home-
built or commercial systems enable eluting analytes from the extraction column onto
analytical column in narrow bands. That allows multiple injections onto analytical column
prior to elution into the instrument detector resulting in better sensitivity [76]. Most on-line
SPE approaches use column-switching to couple with the analytical column as well as
additional HPLC pump. Various instrument setups and column dimensions can be
configured for the fast analysis of drugs and their metabolites in biological matrix at the
ng/mL levels or lower [71].
Typically, on-line SPE columns can withstand few hundred injections of diluted plasma or
urine samples what depends on the injection volume and sample matrix [77]. Beside
mentioned SPE sorbents for turbulent flow chromatography, restricted access materials
(RAM), monolithic materials and disposable SPE cartridges are available. The working
principle of RAM phases is to isolate macromolecules from the target small molecules in
biological samples based upon their particle sizes and also due the chromatographic
interaction. The proteins, that are unable to penetrate into the hydrophobic pores and the
hydrophilic outer layer of particles, are first eluted to waste, the smaller molecules
penetrate into pores and are additionally retained through the hydrophobic forces [78].
RAM columns may be used either in single column mode, being extraction (SPE) and
analytical column at same time, or extraction column in combination with second
analytical column. Single column mode approach shows simplicity but is limited due to
chromatographic separation power [79]. Monolith phases as extraction sorbents for
sample treatment looks promising and has been reviewed recently [77]. Monolith columns
may be very convenient as single column mode for high throughput method in LC-
MS/MS analysis [80].
8. Analytical methods for metabolite quantification

LC-MS/MS has become the predominant bioanalysis method for pharmacokinetic and
metabolism studies due to its inherent specificity, sensitivity and speed. A literature
survey of analytical methods for metabolite determination in biological samples
undoubtedly confirms that fact. However, HPLC coupled with other detector systems or
other separation techniques is often used. As an example, analytical methods for
determination of antidepressants and their metabolites [67] are shown. HPLC coupled to
different detectors (73%), among them the most popular being mass spectrometry (35%)
and UV detection (24%), is the most frequently used analytical method. Applications of
electrophoretic and gas chromatography methods for analysis of antidepressants and
their metabolites in biofluids have seldom been published in literature (13 and 9%,
respectively). Since the data were collected in time frame 2000-2010 [67], the frequency of
LC-MS/MS methods is believed to be growing and is nowadays significantly higher
because mass spectrometers are lately more accessible. In this section the most frequently
used separation techniques as well as detectors will be overviewed with emphasis on LC-
MS/MS.
8.1. Liquid chromatography

Good chromatographic separation is prerequisite for reliable and accurate quantification of
metabolites in the biological samples. Baseline resolution must be achieved when liquid
chromatography is coupled to non-MS detector. Although extensive chromatographic
separation using LC-MS/MS is often not necessary, for certain cases, adequate resolution
between drugs and various metabolites is required to avoid mass spectrometric
interferences. Different metabolites may share the same MRM transition, such as
hydroxylate metabolites [81] or glucuronides [37]. An example is shown in Figure 1.
Additionally, unstable metabolites, such as N-oxides or glucuronides may be converted to
parent drug by in-source dissociation or thermal degradation [79] or in collision cell (ion
channel cross-talk). Interferences with endogenous compounds should also be avoided as
matrix effect may appear (see 9.1.).
Figure 1. LC-MS/MS chromatogram of urine sample from a patient receiving raloxifene. MRM
transitions represent (A) raloxifene diglucuronide, (B) two raloxifene monoglucuronides (C) parent
raloxifene, (D) haloperidol as internal standard. For analysis conditions refer to [37].
8.1.1. Reversed phase chromatography

Reversed phase chromatography is most widely used technique in analysis of drugs and
their metabolites due to its extensive application to most small molecules which are
separated by their degree of hydrophobic interaction with the stationary phase. In most
cases, metabolic changes lead to an increased polarity of the metabolite (strong shift for
glucuronides and other phase II metabolites as also demonstrated in Figure 1) and therefore
decreased retention on this stationary phase in relation to the parent drug [34]. The use of
gradient elution is usually required to perform analysis of parent drug and polar
metabolites. Common HPLC methods typically use a combination of water and either
methanol or acetonitrile containing nonvolatile buffers, such as phosphate buffer and other
inorganic additives as mobile phase. However, these nonvolatile additives cannot be
recommended for LC-MS/MS because of possible MS contamination and also strong ion
suppression effect. Volatile additives are used instead, such as formic or acetic acid (0.1% or
lower) or ammonium acetate/formiate (2-10 mM) as salts. In order to maintain consistent
chromatographic conditions, the pH of the mobile phase should be two units above or
below pKa. C18 column is most commonly used. In some cases for polar metabolites short-
chain bonded phases, such as C8, phenyl or cyano are more appropriate. Another effective
way to resolve the retention issue is to add ion-paring reagent into mobile phase. The
formed neutral ion pars increase retention and also improve peak shape. Among different
ion-paring reagents trifluoroacetic acid and other perfluorated acids for basic analytes and
for instance nucleoside phosphates for acidic analytes are appropriate for LC-MS/MS
analyses [79]. These additives, especially trifluoroacetic acid, should be used at low
concentrations because they cause ion suppression.
8.1.2. Hydrophilic interaction chromatography (HILIC)

HILIC using low aqueous/high organic mobile phase is emerging as a valuable supplement
to the reversed phase chromatography for the retention of polar analytes [82]. An
appropriate amount of water (usually 5-15%) in the mobile phase is suggested for
maintaining a stagnant enriched water layer on the surface of the polar stationary phase
where the analytes partite. HILIC separates compounds by eluting with strong organic
mobile phase against a hydrophilic stationary phase where elution is driven by increasing
the water content in the mobile phase [83]. Although some column companies are marketing
columns specific for HILIC, most columns used with normal phases, such as pure silica or
cyano columns, can operate in HILIC conditions. The highly volatile organic mobile phases,
such as methanol and acetonitrile provide low column backpressure and also increased
ionization efficiency for MS detection. It has been reported that the ionization responses for
basic and acidic polar compounds were enhanced by 5-8 fold in the positive ionization
mode and up to 20-fold in the negative ionization mode by the HILIC LC-MS/MS methods
as compared to the reversed phase LC-MS/MS method [84]. Low back-pressure allows
higher flow rates and may be used for shortening run times, up to several times [85].
Another advantage of HILIC is the possibility to inject higher volumes of organic solvent
onto the column without impairing peak shapes. Therefore, evaporation and reconstitution
step of organic extracts after extraction procedure could be omitted making improvement in
sample preparation automation and throughput [86].
8.1.3. Chromatographic approaches for polar metabolites

Metabolites, in particular glucuronides, have typically higher polarity than their parent
drugs (Figures 1 and 2). This is the reason that classical reversed phase chromatography
(e.g. C18) is sometimes not sufficient enough to maintain appropriate chromatographic
retention of these analytes. In such cases already mentioned approaches like short-chain
bonded reversed phases and ion-paring reagents (8.1.1.) or HILIC (8.1.2.) may be used.
Additionally, mixed-mode columns with an embedded ion-paring group in the reversed
phase stationary phase provide the capability for both ion-exchange and hydrophobic
interactions in the mobile phase to retain ionizable polar analytes. The mixed-mode
column allows retaining hydrophobic analytes by the reversed phase mechanism and
hydrophilic analytes by the ion exchange mechanism at higher organic content in the
mobile phase [87]. Normal phase chromatography may also be used for retention of
polar analytes but due to limited amount of water allowed in the mobile phase, normal
phase chromatography interfaced with MS requires complex pretreatment steps for
biological samples and therefore has much fewer applications than reversed phase LC-
MS/MS [88].
The use of special packing material known as porous graphic carbon (PGC) is another
alternative to achieve retention and separation of polar analytes. PGC chromatography
commonly employs water, acetonitrile and methanol as the mobile phase but provides
markedly greater retention and selectivity for polar analytes than reversed phase columns.
For analyte elution PGC normally requires larger organic content in the mobile phase than
reversed phase chromatography what consequently results in favorable sensitivity with MS
detection [79, 83, 89].
Derivatization of polar analytes results in the reduction of polarity and is therefore another
possibility to enhance the chromatographic retention. But this approach is disadvantaged as
it is not going toward high throughput, especially in case when the primary purpose of the
derivatization is not the detection or stability improvement of the analyte.
8.2. Strategies for high-throughput improvement in liquid chromatography

Current trend in pharmaceutical analysis is the reduction of the analysis time and the
increase in sample throughput without sacrificing the separation selectivity. High-
throughput bioanalytical assays are typically based on LC-MS/MS but may also be
successfully extended to classical HPLC analyses. Approaches to achieve faster analyses
include sample preparation (on-line automation or offline semi automation, section 7) and
fast liquid chromatography. The later may be in general improved by three approaches:
smaller particle size, shorter columns and higher mobile phase flow rates.
8.2.1. Ultra-high performance liquid chromatography (UHPLC)

Reducing the particle diameter from 5.0 m to 1.7 m will, in principle, result in a 3-fold
increase of efficiency, 1.7-fold increase in resolution, a 1.7-fold in sensitivity, and 3-fold
increase in speed [79]. For fast analyses using sub-2m particle column dimensions are
typically 50x2 mm. An additional benefit of UHPLC is the low consumption of mobile
phase, where it saves at least 80% compared to HPLC [90]. The high back-pressure resulting
in decreased particle size need appropriately designed chromatographic system that would
withstand such high pressure (instruments nowadays up to 1200 bars) and also provide at
least possible extra column effects. To prevent clogging, manufacturers of UHPLC
recommend filtration of both samples and solvents through 0.2 m filter. Advantages as
enhanced separation efficiency, short analysis time and high detection sensitivity make
UHPLC coupled with MS/MS an even more powerful analytical support in pharmacokinetic
studies [4].
8.2.2. Core-shell column

An emerging alternative to porous particles are porous layer beads, known as core-shell or
fused-core particles. The high separation efficiency of core-shell particles is a result of a
faster analyte mass transfer from the mobile phase to outer porous layer of the particle. The
improved dynamics of analyte movement through these columns result in higher effective
peak capacities and separation efficiencies comparable to those fully porous sub-2m but
with advantage of lower back-pressure [91]. This technology is comparable to UHPLC in
terms of chromatographic performance but demands neither expensive UHPLC
instrumentation nor new laboratory protocols [88]. Commonly available columns, such as
Ascentis, Poroshell and Kinetex, use different stationary phases and particle sizes (e.g.
Kinetex 1.7 and 2.6 m) and are widely used with classical HPLC instruments, also in our
laboratories. Core-shell columns in combination with UHPLC-MS/MS exhibit excellent
performance, as demonstrated in quantification of raloxifene and its three glucuronides [37].
8.2.3. Monolithic chromatography

The use of single rod monolith column is an alternative approach to the chromatographic
columns packed with fine particles. The high permeability allows the use of higher flow
rates and therefore shorter chromatographic runs, as demonstrated for the separation of
bupropion metabolites in 23 seconds or for methylphenidate and its metabolite in 15
seconds [71].
High flow rates may require flow splitting before entering MS. An attractive approach using
monolith separation is to combine it with high flow on-line extraction, which allows fast
extraction and separation of samples [77]. Current limitations in the application of these
columns are the small pH range [2-8], poor temperature resistance, limited column
dimensions and stationary phases (C8 and C18) as well as higher costs due to higher mobile
phase consumption.
8.3. Other separation techniques

Gas chromatography with mass spectrometry (GC-MS) is most useful for the analysis of
trace amounts of organically extractable, non-polar, volatile compounds and highly volatile
compounds that may undergo headspace analysis. The GC-MS analysis of polar
compounds, such as metabolites, from biological matrices requires analyte extraction into a
volatile organic solvent either directly or after chemical derivatization, which typically
enhances the volatility of previously non-volatile organic compounds [25]. Most analytes
need extensive time-consuming sample preparation including derivatization to become
stable, volatile and amenable to the ionization technique. This drawback in throughput
necessitated the direction of GC-MS to LC-MS. LC-MS has an advantage over GC-MS
method in drug metabolism studies, particularly for low dosed and large drugs, and of
course for the analysis of phase II metabolites. However, GC-MS may also have advantages,
especially in clinical and forensic toxicology or doping control [54]. GC-MS has been
frequently applied for quantification of glucuronides in biological samples but only after
treatment with -glucuronidase in order to obtain parent drug before analysis [92]. The GC-
MS technique is receiving wider acceptance in various classes of antidepressant agents,
representing 6% of overall analytical methods for determination of antidepressants and their
metabolites [67].
Capillary electrophoresis (CE) is another separation method for quantification of

metabolites. This method offers very high resolution capability, high efficiency and short
time of analysis. Moreover, CE in many instances can have distinct advantages over HPLC
in terms of simplicity, rapid method development, solvent saving and minimal sample
requirement [10-30 nL injected) making this technique very interesting for rapid and
practical analyses in the biomedical field. However, the main disadvantage is low
sensitivity. For this reason, application of CE for analysis of antidepressants and their
metabolites is not so widely reported [67]. Applicability of CE using UV-absorbance or mass
spectrometry detection was reported for determination of tamoxifene and its phase I
metabolites [68].
8.4. Mass spectrometry

Currently, the QQQ using single or multiple reaction monitoring is most often used for
quantitative analysis of small molecules in the pharmaceutical industry. QQQ or single
stage MS, operating in SIM, is not anymore recommended for reliable bioanalytical
quantification, because it suffers from insufficient selectivity in comparison with MRM. SIM
can provide the selected ion at certain m/z value, but the matrix or impurity interferences
may occur at the same m/z value. Beside lower selectivity, SIM shows also much lower
sensitivity in comparison to MRM due to much higher background noise. However, in some
specific cases of good chromatographic resolution and the absence of matrix interferences,
SIM may be considered as an alternative quantification method. Occasionally, due to the
nature of dissociation pathways, resulting in low molecular weight product ions, radial
ejection preceding dissociation and/or charge stripping, reliable precursor product ion
transitions cannot be established. Alternatively, a precursor precursor scan for reducing

noise can be employed [70].
Also other analyzers, such as ion traps and TOF, have been widely and increasly used for
metabolite quantification. Especially hybrid instruments which combine a QQQ (Q1 and
colission cell) and ion trap or TOF (Qtrap, Q-TOF). These instruments can operate as true
tandem mass spectrometry and are usually applied for this purposes. Q-TOF can also
operate as TOF and thus provide accurate mass measurments. Additonaly, high resolution
of TOF instruments allows the resolution of chromatographic peak from background
interferences achieveing better sensitivity. However, it does apear that QQQ using MRM
remain about three to five times more sensitive than TOF [93].
The selection of an appropriate ionization technique depends on the analyte characteristics,

such as the structure, polarity or molecular weight. In LC-MS/MS analysis three atmospheric
pressure ionization techniques cover the whole range of compound polarities and molecular
weight: ESI, APCI and APPI. Moreover, the polarity mode can be chosen according to the
acidic, neutral or basic properties of the analytes. If the right choice of ionization technique
and the polarity mode is not so obvious, all available possibilities should be considered in
order to obtain the best response for tested analytes. The softest ionization technique, ESI, is
the method of choice for polar and ionic compounds. The advantage of soft ionization is in
providing reliable information about molecular weight of the phase II metabolites in
comparison to other ionization techniques [42]. For parent drug and phase I metabolites
with a lower polarity, APCI and APPI may provide better ionization efficiency and
sensitivity [34]. APPI has a similar application range as APCI, but slightly extended toward
nonpolar compounds [32]. ESI is generally more susceptible to matrix ionization
suppression than APCI [94]. In case of neutral steroids or other poorly ionizable analytes,
derivatization can be employed in order to increase detection sensitivity, but additionally
the chromatographic retention enhancement of such derivatizated analytes may therefore
provide less matrix effect. On the other hand, the disadvantage of derivatization lies in an
additional time consuming step for sample preparation [30]. The adjustment of the mobile
phase for improving analyte response is much easier compared to derivatization. The effect
of mobile phase on ESI efficiency is not well understood and hence the behavior of an
analyte in different mobile phase conditions cannot be routinely predicted. Various factors
can affect the ionization of analytes in ESI, such as pH, mobile phase additives, flow rate,
solvent composition and concentration of electrolytes. It is recommended to evaluate the use
of additives (e.g. formic acid, ammonium acetate) and organic modifiers in mobile phase to
maximize the ionization efficiency of the analyte, which is highly dependent on its chemical
structure. Acidic conditions often promote positive mode ionization of basic compounds
and conditions, which are slightly below neutral, neutral or basic, promote negative
ionization of acidic compounds.
A dramatic difference in the ESI response can be found even when acetonitrile is replaced
by methanol in mobile phase. It was reported that an analyte gave only weak ESI response
in the positive ionization mode in mobile phase containing acetonitrile with formic acid
and/or ammonium acetate. But replacement of acetonitrile with methanol in mobile phase
gave approximately 25-fold higher response. On the other hand, for the same analyte,
mobile phases containing acetonitrile or methanol gave about the same response in negative
ionization [79]. Another interesting example is analysis of bisphenol A and its metabolite in
biological samples. In order to gain the highest possible sensitivity for bisphenol A and
bisphenol A glucuronide, LC-MS/MS conditions were optimized. ESI ionization source
operating in negative ionization mode was selected for further optimization of mobile
phase. It was found that substitution of acetonitrile/water with methanol/water as mobile
phase increased response of parent by approximately two-fold but at the same time
decreased response of its metabolite by approximately three-fold. Acetonitrile was selected
as organic modifier because metabolite quantification is the main concern of metabolism
studies. Additionally, sufficiently high sensitivity is needed for metabolite determination as
low concentrations are expected in such studies [4].
8.5. Other detection techniques

UV, fluorescence or electrochemical detectors are usually coupled with liquid
chromatograph for determination of drugs and their metabolites. Total analysis time of
these methods is often long because baseline chromatographic separation is required for
quantification purposes. In terms of reproducibility and robustness, UV and fluorescence
detection have an advantage over mass spectrometry. However, methods are less sensitive
and specific what requires extensive and time-consuming sample preparation compared to
mass spectrometry.
Before the advent of mass spectrometry, UV was the primary detection technique used in
pharmacokinetics for quantification of drugs and their metabolites in biological matrices.
Although robust, reliable, simple and easy to use, UV detection provides relatively poor
sensitivity, especially when the compound of interest has no significant chromophore [44].
However, HPLC coupled with UV detection is still widely applicable for determination of
drugs and their metabolites in biological samples [95-97].
In contrast to UV, fluorescence or electrochemical detection can be a very selective and

sensitive detection technique. These detectors can extend the sensitivity by 1-3 orders of
magnitude if the analyte exhibits, or can be readily derivatized to exhibit, fluorescence or
electroactivity [7]. Some drugs such as morphine have good fluorophores which allows its
detection without derivatization. For direct determination of morphine and its two
glucuronides assays based on liquid chromatography with different detector systems (UV,
fluorescence, electrochemical, MS) has been reported. Limits of quantifications for both
metabolites were comparable for MS and fluorescence detection but were as expected higher
for UV detection [98]. Oxidation vulnerability and native fluorescence properties of most
biogenic amines may explain the long history of their quantification by these conventional
HPLC detection methods. However, LC-MS/MS methods are rapidly emerging due to its
specificity, sensitivity and high throughput [99]. Electrochemical detection is also very
suitable for determination of antioxidants, such as ascorbic acid or glutathione, in biological
samples [100].
When analytes do not exhibit fluorescence, electroactivity or have poor UV detection,

derivatization can be performed to enhance their detection. In addition, chromatographic
retention is enhanced by derivatization what is a very convenient in analysis of polar
drug metabolites. Derivatization is an additional step in sample preparation where
consideration regarding the stability of derivatizated analyte to solvolysis and thermal
degradation need to be addressed. Nevertheless, fluorescence detection is still widely
used [67, 68, 101].
9. Aspects of analytical quality

LC-MS/MS is currently considered as the method of choice for quantitative analysis of drugs
and their metabolites. The advantages of using this technique in MRM mode due to high
sensitivity, selectivity and speed allow developing high throughput methods with little or
no sample preparation and minimal chromatographic retention. However, matrix effect may
have a significant impact on such LC-MS/MS analyses [94, 102, 103]. Therefore, the
evaluation of matrix effect as well as strategies for its elimination or minimization needs to
be adequately addressed. Another important parameter for analytical quality is the selection
of an appropriate internal standard for the compensation of possible loss of analytes during
sample clean up and variations in instrument performance. Other LC-MS/MS issues, such as
ion channel cross-talk and carry-over should also not be overlooked. Moreover, metabolite
instability may have an influence on the analytical performance and will be additionally
addressed here.
9.1. Matrix effect

Matrix effect (ME) is a term that describes any changes in the MS response of analyte that
can lead to either a reduced response (ion suppression) or an increased response (ion
enhancement) of the LC-MS system. ME is caused by molecules originating from the sample
matrix or mobile phase that co-elute with the analyte of interest and therefore interfere with
the ionization process in the MS ion source. Several approaches have been proposed to
evaluate ME. Among them the post column infusion technique is widely used. Use of this
qualitative evaluation technique allows the determination of the matrix effect of endogenous
components in blank matrix. During analysis of blank matrix, analyte response is monitored
to provide information where in the chromatographic run interferences between the analyte
and matrix compounds occur. ME is illustrated as response deviation in the otherwise flat
response time trace of the continuously post-column infused analyte [104]. This approach is
very useful during method development because it provides information on the retention
times where ME has to be expected, which can later be avoided for analyte of interest by
optimizing chromatographic conditions.
For quantitative estimation of ME another well recognised approach is more suitable.

Matuszewski et al. reported practical approach for the assessment of the absolute and
relative ME as a part of validation of bioanalytical LC-MS/MS methods [94]. The difference
in response between neat solution sample and post-extraction spiked sample is called the
absolute ME, while difference between various lots of post-spiked samples is called the
relative ME. As such will an absolute ME primary affect the accuracy and relative ME will
affect the precision of the method. The determination of a relative ME is much more
important than the determination of absolute ME in the evaluation and validation of
bioanalytical method in biofluids [94]. The relative ME caused by interindividual variability
in the sample matrix is assessed based on at least 5 lots of different matrices. Relative ME
can be expressed as a coefficient of variation at particular concentration level or calculated
based on slope lines. For the method to be considered reliable and free from the relative ME,
the calculated coefficient of variation of determined slopes in different sources of matrices
should not exceed 3-4% [105].
ME is known to be both component and matrix dependent. It was demonstrated that

matrix induced ion suppression is especially important for early eluting compounds,
such as polar metabolites. Typically, ME more strongly influences lower than higher
analyte concentrations [71]. The main source of the commonly observed ME of plasma
samples is believed to be endogenous phospholipids and proteins. The
lysophospholipids which normally elute earlier in reversed phase chromatography are
more likely to cause matrix effects compared to the later eluting phospholipids in spite of
the larger concentrations of the latter in plasma [106]. Phospholipids cause ion
suppression in both, positive and negative ESI modes and must be removed or resolved
chromatographically.
To remove or reduce ME, modification to the sample extraction methodology (SPE or LLE
instead of PP) and improved chromatographic separation must be performed. The majority
of ME occur in the solvent front of a chromatographic run and if the analytes can be retained
to some degree, matrix effects can be minimized. Suitable sample preparation and
chromatographic conditions are linked together and form the basis of developing a
successful and robust quantitative LC-MS/MS method [102, 103]. Another consideration
when dealing with ME is selection of ionization interface. APCI is generally considered to be
less prone to ion suppression compared with ESI [94, 105]. However, assay sensitivity and
thermal stability of the analyte should be evaluated for eventual APCI application. Reducing
the flow rate [20 l/min or below) directed to ESI source by post column splitting may also
reduce or completely remove the ion suppression [107]. Additionally to other approaches
UHPLC technology in combination with polymeric mixed-mode SPE and appropriate
mobile phase pH may provide significant advantages for reducing ME [73]. Mobile phase
additives such as triethylamine and trifluoroacetic acid can also lead to ion suppression. The
use of other reagents such as formic or acetic acid, trifluoroacetic acid in conjunction with 10
mM ammonium acetate or addition of 1% propionic acid to the mobile phase may overcome
the ME of trifluoroacetic acid. Triethylamine may be replaced with other ion paring reagent
such as hexylamine [70].
However, the most efficient way to eliminate the influence of ME on the accuracy and
precision of a quantitative analytical method is the use of stable isotope labeled analogs as
internal standards [105].
9.2. Selection of internal standard

The selection of a suitable internal standard (IS) is one of the key parameters for establishing
a successful LC-MS/MS method. Usually, stable isotope, such as 2H (D, deuterium), 13C, 15N
or 17O, labeled standards are most appropriate for compensation of possible loss of analytes
during sample clean up and variations in instrument performance (typically caused by
matrix effect) since their physicochemical characteristics are practically identical to that of
unlabeled analyte. In general, a stable isotope labeled IS is considered to be ideal, since it
shows almost same behavior to the analyte of interest in sample preparation,
chromatography as well as in ionization process [102]. However, issues like isotopic purity
of IS, cross-contamination and cross-talk between MS ion channels, as well as IS stability
and isotopic integrity of the label in biological fluid and during sample preparation should
be carefully addressed [94].
Mass difference between analyte and IS should be at least 3 Da to avoid signal

contribution of the natural isotopes to the signal of IS. Although deuterated IS are most
frequently used, several disadvantages need to be considered in some cases, such as
different extraction recoveries and retention times between such IS and analyte or
exchange of deuterium atoms by hydrogen atoms [108]. For example, differences in
retention times for deuterium labeled (d16) and unlabeled bisphenol A compounds is
shown in Figure 2, where both, labeled metabolite and parent compound eluted slightly
before their unlabeled analogs. Interestingly to mention, deuterium labeled bisphenol A
(d16) has all 16 hydrogen atoms substituted by deuterium atoms but is actually d14 labeled
(mass shift 14 Da in MRM transition, Figure 2) because two deuterium atoms from the
functional group (OD) are easily exchangeable by hydrogen atoms. The observable
chromatographic retention time shifts for deuterated analogs depend on the number of
deuterated atoms in structure. Deuterated analogs have no retention time shifts up to
approximately six deuterium atoms [34] but when more deuterium atoms are included in
structure, such as ten, the retention time shift may be significant (up to 1.2 min) [108].
Therefore, other stable isotope labeled IS, such as 13C, are considered as more appropriate
[108].
The concentration of IS used for sample preparation is also important and should be
approximately at the middle of calibration curve. Optimization of IS concentration is
critical to avoid ion suppression by co-eluting analyte leading to standard curve non-
linearity [70]. Even if stable labeled isotope IS is used, ME should still be investigated.
Namely if ion suppression significantly reduces the signal of both, analyte and IS, the
signal to noise ratio may decrease to a point where accuracy and precision may be
negatively affected [102].
Problems may occur when more than one compound is determined in the same analytical
method. A number of labeled IS identical to number of analyzed compounds would in this
case be required [102]. This is not always practically feasible, especially not for stable isotope
labeled drug metabolites as their availability is very limited. In such cases, to assure the
suitability of the quantification method for determination of drugs and their metabolites,
ME evaluation should be carefully addressed [37]. On the other hand, example for
simultaneous determination of parent compound and its metabolite using both labeled IS [4]
is shown in Figure 2. It is preferred that the labeled IS product ion used for the MRM
transition retains the stable isotope moiety as for m/z 403 227 (bisphenol A-glucuronide)
versus 417 241 (deuterated bisphenol A-glucuronide) in Figure 2.
However, labeled ISs are not always available or can be very expensive. As an alternative,
structural analogues can be used, with consideration of the structural similarities between
the IS and the analyte. To be suitable, the ionization of the analogue must be compared with
analyte and should preferably co-elute with the analyte (Figure 1). The selected analog IS
should not correspond to any metabolic product of analyte, such as hydroxylated or N-
dealkylated metabolites [108]. Nevertheless, in many cases analog ISs or structurally
unrelated ISs are not able to compensate the ME [94, 105]. In such situation, other more
rigorous approaches to reduce or eliminate ME should be applied (see 9.1.).
9.3. LC-MS pitfalls

Metabolite may produce a molecular ion that is identical to parent ion through in source
conversion. Typical metabolites for such conversion are glucuronides, sulfates or N-oxides
[79]. N-oxide conversion may also serve for identification purposes as this transformation
takes place in APCI source and represent another potential way to differentiate N-oxide
from hydroxylated metabolites (both with exact mass) since the later usually do not undergo
thermal deoxygenation [23]. Therefore, an inadequate chromatographic separation between
parent drug and such metabolites will result in over estimation of parent drug concentration
in the presence of these isomeric compounds. The same situation may happen also by ion
channel cross-talk in MRM mode, which means that fragment issued from the other scanned
transition is still present in collision cell. Metabolites, such as diverse glucuronides, that give
the same product ion as parent drug, have to be therefore chromatographically separated.
However, for co-eluting compounds, such as analytes and their IS, the absence of cross-talk
has to be demonstrated [37].
Carry-over, which is the appearance of an analyte signal in a blank injection subsequently to

analysis of high concentration samples, is also a common problem in LC-MS/MS methods.
This problem occurs due to retention of analytes by adsorption on active surfaces of the
autosamples, solvent lines, extraction columns (e.g. online SPE) or the analytical column.
Most carry-over problems can be minimized by an appropriate choice of injector wash
solutions and methods, by proper choice of mobile phase and tubings, and by choice of
suitable stationary phase and proper variation in the solvent strength [70]. Carry-over
becomes prominent after injection of analyte at high concentration and should be assessed
during the validation of the method. Carry-over is usually expressed as percentage of

detected analyte in blank sample regarding to its limit of quantification [4] and may
significantly lower the sensitivity of the method [109].
Figure 2. LC-MS/MS chromatogram in MRM mode for metabolite (BPAG) and parent bisphenol A
(BPA) of a typical microsomal incubation. (A) mass transition for BPAGd16 (internal standard for BPAG),
(B) mass transition for BPAG, (C) mass transition for BPAd16 (internal standard for BPA), (D) mass
transition for BPA. For analysis conditions refer to [4].
9.4. Metabolite stability

For drugs and metabolites that are unstable, with one converting to other, conditions used
during sample preparation and analysis must be optimized in order to minimize such
conversion and to achieve accurate quantification of the drug and metabolite. Common
factors that affect drug and drug metabolite stability in biological matrices include
temperature, light, pH, oxidation and enzymatic degradation [110]. Acyl glucuronides (O-
ester conjugates) are probably the most commonly encountered problematic metabolites
in bioanalysis. Acyl glucuronides are unstable and hydrolyze to release aglycone under
neutral and alkaline conditions. Different acyl glucuronides have been shown to have
different rates of hydrolysis. However, mildly acidic conditions (pH 3-5) should be the
most desirable pH for minimizing the reaction in biological samples [59, 111]. Acyl
glucuronides (1-O-acyl glucuronides) are also susceptible to internal migration under
both, physiological and alkaline conditions. The rate of migration resulting in 2-, 3- and 4-
O-acyl glucuronides increases with increasing pH and temperature. Such isomeric
glucuronides are not susceptible to hydrolysis by -glucuronidases and may compromise
the quantification of metabolites and total parent drug when indirect quantification
approach via conjugate cleavage is applied [111]. Similar to O-glucuronides, N-
glucuronides can be converted back to parent drug under acidic/basic/neutral pH
conditions or at elevated sample processing temperature, but this instability is largely
compound dependent. For example olanzapine glucuronide can be readily cleaved under
acidic conditions, clozapine and cyclizine glucuronides are unstable at range pH 1-3 and
doxepin glucuronide at pH 11 [112]. Lactone is another commonly unstable metabolite
function group which may be converted to its open ring hydroxy acid drug. Lactone
metabolites, such as atorvastatin metabolite, require optimization of the sample pH
(typically 3-5) in order to minimize the hydrolysis of lactone metabolite back to parent
drug [113].
N-oxides are also unstable in solutions and biological samples during sample preparation,
especially under strong acidic or basic conditions. Light exposure may further accelerate the
decomposition of these metabolites. Other compounds are also susceptible to
photodegradation such as, catechols, nisoldipine, rifampin and their metabolites and should
be protected from light during sample preparation and analysis [112].
10. Conclusion
Current drug discovery efforts have been focused on identification of drug metabolism
and pharmacokinetic issues at the earliest possible stage in order to reduce the attrition
rate of drug candidates during the developmental phase. Metabolic fate of drugs can be
responsible for problems associated with their bioavailability, interindividual variability,
drug-drug interactions, pharmacologic activity or the toxicity. Different in vitro methods,
from subcelullar to organ range, and in vivo studies are applied for the clarification of
drug metabolism. Among them microsomes and hepatocytes are the most frequently
utilized in vitro models in drug metabolic profiling and drug interaction studies. For the
successful monitoring of the drug metabolism, suitable bioanalytical methods have to be

developed and validated. Liquid chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry has
become the most powerful analytical tool for identification and quantification of drug
metabolites.
The known identity of metabolites is the prerequisite for a suitable metabolic assessment of
drugs. Appropriate LC-MS instrumentation is clearly critical to both, detection and
structural elucidation. Tandem mass spectrometry instruments are beside their key role for
metabolite quantification also well suited for qualitative purposes as they enable different
scan possibilities (constant neutral loss, precursor ion, product ion) for structural
characterization of metabolites. However, the drive to more versatile and powerful
instruments which can perform intelligent data dependent experiments and accurate mass
measurements has led to newer high resolution mass analyzers, such as Q-TOF instruments,
which now dominate the metabolite identification field.
Direct quantification of metabolites in biological samples is the most appropriate approach,

but also others approaches such as indirect quantification through parent drug after
metabolite hydrolysis or quantification supported by using response factors may be used
which primary depends on the availability of suitable authentic standards. Analytical
methods for metabolite quantification are based on liquid chromatography or other
separation techniques coupled with various detector systems where LC-MS/MS plays
predominant role in bioassays for pharmacokinetic and metabolism studies due to its
inherent specificity, sensitivity and speed.
In order to support metabolism experiments in a timely manner, the use of high

throughput methods for the analysis of drugs and their metabolites in biological samples
has become an essential part, especially in the most time consuming sample preparation.
Trend is going toward semi automated off-line sample treatment in 96-well plate format
or on-line SPE after direct injection of samples. Additionally, other high throughput
approaches can be introduced. Ultra-high performance liquid chromatography with small
particles and monolithic chromatography offer improvements in speed, resolution and
sensitivity compared to conventional chromatographic techniques. Hydrophilic
interaction chromatography (HILIC) or other specialized columns suitable for polar
metabolites are emerging as a valuable supplement to classical reversed phase
chromatography.
The main advantage of LC-MS/MS allows development of high throughput methods with
little or no sample preparation and minimal chromatographic retention. However, matrix
effect may have a significant impact on such analyses. Matrix effect issue is frequently
underestimated and should be adequately addressed. Not without reason, matrix effect
have been called the Achilles heel of quantitative LC-ESI-MS/MS [103]. The use of stable
isotope labeled analog as internal standard is the most efficient way to reduce matrix
effect. But normally, additional approaches to reduce or eliminate matrix effect are
needed.
Abbreviations
DMPK, drug metabolism and pharmacokinetic; CYP, cytochrome P450; UGT, UDP-
glucuronosyltransferase; NAT, N-acetyltransferase; GST, glutathione-S-transferase; SULT,
sulfotransferase; UDPGA, uridine diphospoglucuronic acid; PAPS, phospohoadenosine
phosphosulfate; HLM, human liver microsomes; LC-MS, liquid chromatography-mass
spectrometry; LC-MS/MS, liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry; GC-MS, gas
chromatography-mass spectrometry; CE, capillary electrophoresis; LC-NMR, liquid
chromatography-nuclear magnetic resonance; HPLC, high performance liquid
chromatography; UHPLC, ultra-high performance liquid chromatography; HILIC,
hydrophilic interaction chromatography; PGC, porous graphic carbon; RAD, radioactivity
detector; MS, mass spectrometry; MS/MS, tandem mass spectrometry; API, atmospheric
pressure ionization; ESI, electrospay ionization; APCI, atmospheric pressure chemical
ionization; APPI, atmospheric pressure photoionization; QQQ, triple quadrupole; IT, ion
trap; QTrap, triple quadrupole-linear ion trap; TOF, time of flight; Q-TOF, triple
quadrupole-time of flight; FT-ICR, fourier transform-ion cyclotron resonance; IM-MS, ion
mobility mass spectrometry; MRM, multiple reaction monitoring; SRM, selected reaction
monitoring; SIM, single ion monitoring; CNL, constant neutral loss scan; PI, precursor ion
scan; PP, protein precipitation; LLE, liquid-liquid extraction; SPE, solid-phase extraction;
RAM, restricted access materials; ME, matrix effect; IS, internal standard.
Author details
Robert Rokar and Tina Trdan Luin
University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Pharmacy, Slovenia
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Analytical Methods for Quantification of

Robert Rokar and Tina Trdan Luin

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2. Background of drug metabolism

drug is extensively metabolized [1]. Interindividual differences in drug metabolism also

Metabolism is a process of biotransformation when drugs are transformed into a different

3. Drug metabolic pathways

Phase I reactions may be followed by phase II reactions; however preceding phase I

glucuronides and require uridine diphosphate glucuronic acid for glucuronide

4. Models for evaluation of drug metabolism

4.1. Recombinant human CYP and UGT enzymes (supersomes, baculosomes)

4.2. Human liver microsomes (HLM)

4.3. Cytosolic fraction

The main advantage is the presence of only aforementioned enzymes at higher

4.5. Cell lines

4.6. Transgenic cell lines

4.8. Liver slices

4.9. Isolated perfused liver

4.10. Animal and human in vivo studies

5. Qualitative evaluation of metabolites

5.1. LC-MS instrumentation

Electrospay ionization is by far the preferred method for metabolite identification

Atmospheric pressure photoionization is relatively new ionization method. This

5.1.2. Mass analyzers

5.2. Strategies for metabolite identification

5.2.1. Full scan

5.2.2. Precursor ion and constant neutral loss scan

identification of these conjugates. Glucuronides, sulfates and glutathione conjugates are

Biotransformation Change in molecular formula Change in mass (Da)

5.2.3. Product ion scan

5.2.4. Multiple reaction monitoring

5.2.5. High resolution mass spectrometry

5.2.6. Other approaches

5.3. Examples of metabolite identification

Identification of bisphenol A glucuronide and deuterated bisphenol A glucuronide in

6. Approaches for metabolite quantification

6.1. Direct quantification

6.2. Quantification using response factor

the most straightforward detection technique generally found with LC-MS/MS is UV

6.3. Indirect quantification

conditions but quartenary ammonium glucuronides under basic conditions [25].

6.4. Metabolite production

7.1. Protein precipitation

7.2. Liquid-liquid extraction

7.3. Solid-phase extraction

SPE is based on chromatographic separation such as liquid chromatography. Wide

7.4. On-line SPE

8. Analytical methods for metabolite quantification

8.1. Liquid chromatography

8.1.1. Reversed phase chromatography

8.1.2. Hydrophilic interaction chromatography (HILIC)

8.1.3. Chromatographic approaches for polar metabolites

8.2. Strategies for high-throughput improvement in liquid chromatography

8.2.1. Ultra-high performance liquid chromatography (UHPLC)

8.2.2. Core-shell column