Chapter 4

Searches

Outline
Legal Searches and the Fourth Amendment
Basic Limitation on Searches
The Exclusionary Rule
Justification for Reasonable Searches
The Crime Scene Search
Search Patterns
Other Types of Investigatory Searches
Use of Dogs in a Search
Warrant Checklist
A Reminder

Chapter Outline
1-3 I. Legal Searches and the Fourth Amendment
A. Investigators need an understanding of the Fourth Amendment to the U.S.
Constitution
B. The Fourth Amendment forbids unreasonable searches and seizures
C. The Fourth Amendment strikes a balance between individual liberties and
the rights of society
D. The courts are bound by rules and can admit evidence only if it is obtained
constitutionally. Thus, the legality of a search must always be kept in mind
during an investigation
E. To conduct an effective search, know the legal requirements for searching,
the items being searched for and the elements of the crime being
investigated; be organized, systematic and thorough
4 II. Basic Limitations on Searches
A. The most important limitation on any search is that the scope must be
narrow
B. General searches are unconstitutional
C. It is critical, however, that officers responsible for criminal investigations
know these laws and operate within them
D. No evidence obtained during an illegal search will be allowed at a trial, as
established by the exclusionary rule
5 III. The Exclusionary Rule
A. The exclusionary rule established that courts may not accept evidence
obtained by unreasonable search and seizure, regardless of its relevance to
a case
 B. Weeks v. United States (1914) made the rule applicable at the federal level
C. Mapp v. Ohio (1961) made it applicable to all courts
D. The fruit-of-the-poisonous-tree doctrine established that evidence
obtained as a result of an earlier illegality must be excluded from trial
E. The inevitable-discovery doctrine
1. Derived from Nix v. Williams (1984)
2. This doctrine states that if illegally obtained evidence would in all
likelihood eventually have been discovered legally, it may be used
6 F. The good-faith doctrine
1. Derived from United States v. Leon (1984)
2. This doctrine established that illegally obtained evidence may be
admissible if the police were truly not aware they were violating a
suspects Fourth Amendment rights
7 IV. Justification for Reasonable Searches
A. A search can be justified and therefore considered legal if any one of the
following conditions are met:
1. A search warrant has been issued
2. Consent is given
3. The officer stops a suspicious person and believes the person may be
armed
4. The search is incidental to a lawful arrest
5. An emergency exists
B. Search with a warrant
1. To obtain a valid search warrant, officers must appear before a
judge, establish that there is probable cause to believe that the
location contains evidence of a crime and specifically describe the
evidence
2. Probable cause is more than reasonable suspicion. Here are
explanations of probable cause:
a. Probable cause is a commonsense, non-technical conception that
deals with the factual and practical considerations of everyday life
on which reasonable and prudent men, not legal technicians, act
(Scarry, 2007b, p.59)
b. Jetmore (2007b, p.28) explains probable cause as less than proof,
but more than suspicion that a crime is being, has been or will be
committed. Thus, probable cause requires a higher standard than
reasonable suspicion, but less than the proof beyond a reasonable
doubt required for a conviction in court.
c. A list of guilt-laden or other facts to build probable cause
includes: flight, furtive movements, hiding, an attempt to destroy
evidence, resistance to officers, evasive answers, unreasonable
explanations, contraband or weapons in plain view, a criminal
record, police training and experience, unusual or suspicious
 behavior and information from citizens
3. Using informants
a. The Supreme Court has established requirements for using
informants in establishing probable cause
b. Two separate tests were established in Aguilar v. Texas (1964):
(1) Is the informant reliable/credible?
(2) Is the information believable?
c. This two-pronged approach was upheld in Spinelli v. United
States (1969)
d. However, the Supreme Court most recently changed the two-
pronged test to a totality-of-the-circumstances test, Illinois v.
Gates (1983), which most states have adopted
e. Note that federal courts are still guided by the two-pronged
Aguilar-Spinelli test, and several states also adhere to this more
stringent requirement for establishing probable cause
4. Other requirements
a. In addition to establishing probable cause for a search, the warrant
must contain:
(1) The reasons for requesting it (probable cause)
(2) The names of the people presenting affidavits (officers)
(3) What specifically is being sought (evidence, weapons,
drugs)
(4) The signature of the judge issuing it
b. The warrant must be based on facts and sworn to by the officer
requesting the warrant (affidavit)
c. An address and description of the location must be givenfor
example, 100 S. Main Street, the ABC Liquor Store, or 1234
Forest Drive, a private home
d. Warrants can be issued to search for and seize the following:
(1) Stolen or embezzled property
(2) Property designed or intended for use in committing a
crime
(3) Property that indicates a crime has been committed or that a
particular person has committed a crime
e. In Groh v. Ramirez (2004), the Supreme Court sent a message to
law enforcement on the importance of paying attention to detail.
The Supreme Court ruled that It is incumbent upon the officer
executing a search warrant to ensure the search is lawfully
authorized and lawfully conducted
f. Once a warrant is obtained, it should be executed promptly
(1) In some states the warrant is good for a set number of days
and is to be executed during daytime hours
(2) A nightcapped warrant authorizes a search or arrest at any
 time, day or night
(3) Nightcapped warrants can be served when a suspect is in
any public area regardless of time
(4) If officers attempting to serve a search warrant are not
admitted by occupants following a knock-notice
announcement, forcible entry may be made, but
unnecessary damage to the structure may make the entry
unreasonable
5. The knock-and-announce rule: Officers are required to knock,
announce themselves and wait a reasonable length of time before
attempting entry
a. In Wilson v. Arkansas (1995), the Court made this centuries-old
rule a constitutional mandate
b. Officers may obtain a no-knock warrant if the evidence may be
easily destroyed, explosives are present or other dangers exist
c. Unnecessary damage to the structure may make the entry
unreasonable
d. This rule is intended to
(1) protect citizens right to privacy
(2) reduce the` risk of possible violence to police and residence
occupants
(3) prevent needless destruction of private property
e. Case law:
(1) In a unanimous ruling in United States v. Banks (2003), the
Supreme Court upheld the forced entry into a suspected
drug dealers apartment 15 to 20 seconds after police
knocked and announced themselves
(2) In 2006, the Supreme Court ruled in Hudson v. Michigan
that the Constitution does not require the government to
forfeit evidence gathered through illegal no-knock
searches while executing a search warrant. In the Hudson
case, the police only waited approximately 3 to 5 seconds
before making their entry. In effect, the court upheld the
evidence (gun and drugs) despite the officers error in not
waiting longer
(3) Officers must still balance the knock, announce and wait
requirements against both officer safety and evidence
destruction issues, and the entry must still be reasonable
f. Video recording of knock-notice announcement and entry
provides evidence of compliance with the rule as well as the
amount of time officers waited before entry
g. The particularity requirement
(1) Stanford v. Texas (1965) states that a search conducted with
a warrant must be limited to the specific area and specific
 items named in the warrant
(2) During a search conducted with a warrant, items not
specified in the warrant may be seized if they are similar to
the items described, if they are related to the particular
crime described or if they are contraband
6. Anticipatory search warrants
a. The Court approved use of an anticipatory search warrant
(United States v. Grubbs, 2006)
b. This is defined as one based upon an affidavit showing probable
cause that at some future time (but not presently) certain evidence
of crime will be located at a specified place
8 C. Search with consent
1. Searching without a warrant is allowed if consent is given by a person
with the authority to do so (United States v. Matlock, 1974)
2. Examples of relationships where third-party consent may be valid
include:
a. Parent/child
b. Employer/employee
c. Host/guest
d. Spouses
3. Examples of instances when individuals cannot give valid consent to
search include:
a. Landlord/tenant
b. Hotel employee/hotel guest
4. If the police believe the person giving consent has authority, they may
act on this belief, even though it later turns out the person did not
have authority (Illinois v. Rodriguez, 1990)
5. The consent must be voluntary and the search limited to the area for
which consent is granted
6. The consent must not be in response to an officers claim of lawful
authority and may not be in response to an officers command or
threat
7. Silence is not consent. A genuine affirmative reply must also be given
8. When possible, it is a good practice to ask for consent
9. Under the consent once removed exception to the search warrant
requirement, officers can make a warrantless entry to arrest a suspect
if consent to enter was given earlier to an undercover officer or
informant
10. Denial of consent by one resident
a. In Georgia v. Randolph (2006), the Supreme Court changed the
rules governing some consent searches of private premises
b. Result: If any party who is present and has authority to object to
the search does object to the search, the police may not conduct

9
 the search on the authority of that party who gave consent
D. Patdown or frisk during a stop
1. Two situations require police officers to stop and question individuals:
a. to investigate suspicious circumstances
b. to identify someone who looks like a suspect named in an arrest
warrant or whose description has been broadcast in an all-points
bulletin (APB)
2. The prime requisite for stopping, questioning and possibly frisking
someone is reasonable suspicion
3. A stop and a frisk are two separate actions, and each must be
separately justified
4. The Terry decision established that a patdown or frisk is a protective
search for weapons and as such must be confined to a scope
reasonably designed to discover guns, knives, clubs and other hidden
instruments for the assault of a police officer or others. This is called
a Terry stop
a. The Court warned that a patdown or frisk is a serious intrusion
upon the sanctity of the person which may inflict great indignity
and arouse strong resentment, and it is not to be undertaken
lightly
b. The search in a frisk is sometimes referred to as a safety search
c. Officers may ask the stopped individual for his or her name. In
Hiibel v. Sixth Judicial District Court of Nevada, Humboldt
County (2004), the Court ruled that state statutes requiring
individuals to identify themselves as part of an investigative stop
are constitutional and do not violate the Fourth or Fifth
Amendments
d. Officers do not need to advise individuals of their right not to
cooperate with police on a bus that has been stopped (United
States v. Drayton, 2002)
e. The Court has also ruled (Illinois v. McArthur, 2001) that
officers may detain residents outside their homes until a search
warrant can be obtained if necessary
10 E. Search incident to arrest
1. Every lawful arrest is accompanied by a search of the arrested person
to protect the arresting officers and others and to prevent destruction
of evidence
2. The Chimel decision established that a search incidental to a lawful
arrest must be made simultaneously with the arrest and must be
confined to the area within the suspects immediate control (Chimel v.
California, 1969)
3. The police can search within a persons immediate control, which
encompasses the area within the persons reach
4. Maryland v. Buie (1990) expanded the area of a premises search
 following a lawful arrest to ensure officers safety
5. The Supreme Court added authority for the police to search areas
immediately adjoining the place of arrest
a. Called a protective sweep or Buie sweep, this is justified
when reasonable suspicion exists that another person might be
present who poses a danger to the arresting officers
b. The search must be confined to areas where a person might be
hiding
6. New York v. Belton (1981) established that the vehicle of a person
who has been arrested can be searched without a warrant
11 F. Search in an emergency situation
1. In situations where police officers believe that there is probable cause
but have no time to secure a warrant (e.g., if shots are being fired or a
person is screaming), they may act on their own discretion
2. A warrantless search in the absence of a lawful arrest or consent is
justified only in emergencies or exigent circumstances where probable
cause exists and the search must be conducted immediately (New York
v. Quarles, 1984)
3. The circumstances must include the following three conditions:
a. There must be reason to believe a real emergency exists requiring
immediate action to protect or preserve life or to prevent serious
injury
b. Any entry or search must not be motivated primarily by a wish to
find evidence
c. There must be a connection between the emergency and the area
entered or searched
4. In Mincey v. Arizona (1978), the Supreme Court stated that the Fourth
Amendment does not require police officers to delay a search in the
course of an investigation if to do so would gravely endanger their
lives or the lives of others
5. In Brigham City, Utah v. Stuart (2006), the Supreme Court ruled that
law enforcement officers could enter a house without a warrant to
render emergency assistance to an injured occupant or to protect an
occupant from imminent injury
6. In Michigan v. Fisher (2009), the Court further clarified when officers
may enter a home under the exigent circumstances exception to the
warrant requirement by specifically identifying the emergency aid
requirement:
a. The emergency aid exception does not depend on the officers
subjective intent of the seriousness of the crime they are
investigating

b. What matters is whether officers had an objectively reasonable

basis for believing that someone needs medical assistance or is in

12
 danger
G. Warrantless searches of vehicles
1. The Carroll decision (Carroll v. United States, 1925) established that
automobiles may be searched without a warrant if
a. there is probable cause for the search
b. the vehicle would be gone before a search warrant could be
obtained
2. If probable cause does not exist, the officer may be able to obtain
voluntary consent. The driver must be competent to give such
consent, and silence is not consent. If at any time the driver rescinds
consent, the search must cease
3. Officers also must know their states laws regarding full searches of
vehicles pursuant to issuing a traffic citation
a. Pretext stops
(1) The so-called pretext stop is overridden by an officers
probable cause to believe the motorist is, or is about to be,
engaged in criminal activity
(2) Probable cause trumps pretext
b. Searches of passengers in a stopped vehicle
(1) Passengers rights during vehicle stops often differ from
those of drivers (Rutledge, 2007f, p. 70)
(2) All passengers in private vehicles are detained at a stop
(3) Passengers may be ordered out and kept from leaving
(4) Passengers may be arrested for joint possession of
contraband
(5) Passengers property and the vehicle may be searched
incident to their arrest

(6) Passenger property exception ruling, Wyoming v. Houghton

(1999):
(a) An officer may search an automobile passengers
belongings simply because the officer suspects the
driver has done something wrong
(b) However, in Brendlin v. California (2007), the Supreme
Court reaffirmed what officers already knewthat they
must have at least a reasonable suspicion of criminal
activity to stop a vehicle
c. Searches of vehicles incident to and contemporaneous with lawful
arrests
(1) New York v. Belton (1981) established that the vehicle of a
person who has been arrested can be searched without a warrant
(2) Belton has since been limited by Arizona v. Gant (2009), in
which the Supreme Court reduced law enforcements authority to
 search the passenger compartment of a vehicle incident to arrest
(3) The bright-line rule allowing automatic searches of vehicles
incident to the arrest of an occupant has been narrowed to allow
such a search only if the officer has a reasonable belief that the
arrestee can gain access to the vehicle or that evidence of the
crime of arrest will be found in the vehicle (Judge, 2009, p.12)
(4) Although Gant restricts searches incident to arrest, it has no
impact on the other warrant exceptions, such as consent, exigent
circumstances and the motor vehicle exception (Myers, 2011)
(5) In Thornton v. United States (2004), the Supreme Court
ruled that police can search the passenger compartment of a
vehicle incident to arrest when the arrestee was approached after
recently occupying that vehicle
d. Vehicle searches at roadblocks and checkpoints
(1) In United States v. Martinez-Fuerte (1976), the Supreme Court
ruled that (immigration) checkpoints at the countrys borders
were constitutional because they served a national interest and
that this interest outweighed the checkpoints minimal intrusion
on driver privacy
(2) The functional equivalent doctrine establishes that routine border
searches are constitutional at places other than actual borders
where travelers frequently enter or leave the country, including
international airports
(3) In Brown v. Texas (1979), the Supreme Court created a
balancing test (an evaluation of interests and factors) to
determine the constitutionality of roadblocks, using three factors:
(a) The gravity of the public concerns served by establishing
the roadblock
(b) The degree to which the roadblock is likely to succeed in
serving the public interest
(c) The severity with which the roadblock interferes with
individual liberty
(4) Michigan v. Sitz (1990) established that sobriety checkpoints to
combat drunken driving were reasonable under the Brown
balancing test if they met certain guidelines
(5) However, the Court ruled in City of Indianapolis v. Edmond
(2000) that checkpoints for drugs are unconstitutional
(6) In Illinois v. Lidster (2004), the Court upheld the
constitutionality of informational checkpoints
(7) In United States v. Flores-Montano (2004), the Court ruled that
privacy interests do not apply to vehicles crossing the border
e. Inventory searches
(1) Chambers v. Maroney (1970) established that a vehicle may be
taken to headquarters to be searched
 (2) Officers have the right to inventory vehicles if it is necessary to
(a) protect the owners property
(b) protect the police from disputes and claims that property
was stolen or damaged
(c) protect the police and public from danger
(d) determine the owners identity
13 V. The Crime Scene Search
A. A successful crime scene search locates, identifies and preserves all
evidence present
B. The goals of a search include
1. Establishing that a crime was committed and what the specific crime
was
2. Establishing when the crime was committed
3. Identifying who committed the crime
4. Explaining how the crime was committed
5. Suggesting why the crime was committed
C. It is important that officers recognize the following:
1. A meticulous, properly conducted search usually results in the
discovery of evidence
2. The security measures taken by the first officer at the scene determine
whether evidence is discovered intact or after it has been altered or
destroyed
3. During a search, do not change or contaminate physical evidence in
any way, or it will be declared inadmissible
4. It is paramount to maintain the chain of custody of evidence from the
initial discovery to the time of the trial
14
D. Organizing the crime scene search includes:
1. dividing duties, selecting a search pattern, assigning personnel and
equipment, and giving instructions
2. determining the number of personnel needed, the type of search best
suited for the area and the items most likely to be found
3. determining whether the scene was immediately secured and whether
the scene is considered to be a true, or uncontaminated, scene
15 E. Physical evidence
1. Physical evidence ranges in size from very large objects to minute
substance traces
2. Knowing what to search for is indispensable to an effective crime
scene search
3. Physical evidence is anything material and relevant to the crime being
investigated
4. The elephant-in-a-matchbox doctrine requires that searchers
consider the probable size and shape of evidence they seek
because, for example, large objects cannot be concealed in tiny areas
16
 VI. Search Patterns
A. All search patterns have a common denominator: They are designed to
systematically locate any evidence at a crime scene or at any other area
where evidence might be found
B. Exterior searches
1. Lane-search patternpartitions the area into lanes, using stakes and
string
2. Strip-search patternif only one officer is available for the search,
the pattern can be divided into lanes
3. Grid-search patternuses a modified grid
4. Circle searchbegins at the center of an area to be searched and
spreads out in ever-widening concentric circles
5. Zone or sector-search patternan area is divided into equal squares
on a map of the same area
17 C. Interior searches
1. Most searches are interior searches
2. Interior searches go from the general to the specific
3. Process:
a. Start at an entry point
b. Search the floor first
c. Then search the walls
d. Then search the ceiling
18 D. General guidelines
1. In general, the precise pattern used is immaterial as long as the search
is systematic
2. Finding evidence is no reason to stop a search. Continue searching
until the entire area is covered
E. Plain-sense evidence
1. The most common type of plain-sense evidence is that seen by an
officer
2. Plain-view evidence
a. Anywhere officers have a right to be, they have a right to see
through the use of their unaided senses
b. Unconcealed evidence seen by an officer engaged in a lawful
activity is admissible in court
c. An officer cannot use the plain-view doctrine to justify the seizure
of an object that the warrant in use does not mention
d. An officer also may seize evidence indicated by a sense
other than sight
e. Officers may seize any contraband they discover during a legal
search
f. Containers can be opened where their outward appearance reveals
criminal contents (e.g., a kit of burglar tools or a gun case)
 (1) By their nature, they do not support a reasonable
expectation of privacy because their contents can be
inferred from their appearance
3. Plain feel/touch evidence
a. The plain feel/touch exception is an extension of the plain-view
exception.
b. If a police officer lawfully pats down a suspects outer clothing
and feels an object that he or she immediately identifies as
contraband, a warrantless seizure is justified (Minnesota v.
Dickerson, 1993)
4. Plain smell
a. Evidence may also be seized if an officer relies on a sense other
than sight or touch
b. If an odor reveals the presence of a seizable object, the object may
be seized
5. Plain hearing
a. Officers or undercover agents can position themselves in
accessible locations where they can overhear criminal
conversation without any extraordinary listening devices (such as
wiretaps or parabolic microphones)
b. Anything overheard can be used as evidence
19 VII. Other Types of Investigatory Searches
A. In addition to crime scene searches, officers may search buildings, trash or
garbage cans, vehicles, suspects and dead bodies as they investigate
criminal offenses
B. Building searches
1. Building search and the entry into non-secured areas is one of the
most intricate skills that are not routinely taught to police officers
(Oldham, 2006, p. 73)
2. Clear the fatal funnel (zone outside and inside the doorway) quickly
3. When executing a warrant to search a building, officers should first
familiarize themselves with the location and the past record of the
person living there
4. Do not treat the execution of a search warrant as routine. Plan for the
worst-case scenario
5. Have a plan before entering the building
6. Keep light and weapons away from your body
7. Officers may, for their own safety, detain occupants of the premises
while a proper search is conducted
8. Officers also may require residents to remain outside of their homes
9. Officers should be aware of the ruling in Kyllo v. United States
(2001), which held that thermal scanning of a private residence from
outside the residence is a search
20 C. Trash or garbage can searches
1. In California v. Greenwood (1988), the Supreme Court ruled that
containers left on public property are open to search by police without
a warrant
2. The most important factor in determining the legality of a warrantless
trash inspection is the physical location of the retrieved trash. Police
cannot trespass to gain access to the trash location
3. Officers need to know if the trash is within the curtilage of the
persons property, which is that part of the property that is not open to
the public and that is reserved for the property owner
21 D. Vehicle searches
1. Remove occupants from the car or other vehicle
2. Search the area around the vehicle
3. Search the interior
4. Take precautions to prevent contamination of evidence
22 E. Suspect searches
1. If the suspect has not been arrested, confine your search to a patdown
or frisk for weapons
2. If the suspect has been arrested, make a complete body search for
weapons and evidence
3. Under the Fourth Amendment, officers are permitted to handcuff,
detain and question occupants when executing high-risk search
warrants
a. Before conducting any search, ask the suspect if he or she has
anything that could get the officer into trouble, asking specifically
about needles and blades
b. When possible, search a suspect while a cover officer observes. If
arresting the suspect, first handcuff and then search
c. Every search should be done wearing protective gloves
4. Thorough search
a. If you arrest a suspect, conduct a complete body search for both
weapons and evidence
b. Strip searches may be conducted only after an arrest and when the
prisoner is in a secure facility
(1) Such searches should be conducted by individuals of
the same gender as the suspect and in private and should
follow written guidelines
(2) Cavity searches go beyond the normal strip search and
must follow very strict departmental guidelines. Such
searches should be conducted by medical personnel
5. Inhibitors to a thorough search:
a. The presence of bodily fluids is one factor that may interfere with
a complete search
 b. Officers also must be alert to suspects who may spit on or bite
them
c. Another inhibitor to thorough searches is a fear of needles
d. Weather can also compromise the thoroughness of a search
23 F. Dead body searches
1. Searching a dead body should be done only after the coroner or
medical examiner has arrived or given permission
2. Do not turn the body over to search for identification or other wounds
or evidence. This causes major problems in documenting the bodys
original position
3. Search the dead body systematically and completely, including the
immediate area around and under the body
24 G. Underwater searches
1. Conditions beyond the control of the investigator may dictate what
type of search is conducted
2. Metal detectors are a necessity in underwater searches
25 VIII. Use of Dogs in a Search
A. A dog can be an invaluable resource to a patrol officer
B. Dogs can be trained to locate suspects, narcotics, explosives, cadavers and
more.
C. Dogs are good for bomb, chemical and drug detection; tracking both
suspects and lost persons; and finding real and counterfeit money, land
mines, people hiding, weapons, buried bodies or fire igniters/
accelerants in arson cases. (Falk, 2006, p.48)
D. Canines are a great force multiplier and a psychological advantage
26 IX. Warrant Checklist
A. No search warrant required
1. No search (plain sense, open fields, abandoned property, private-party
delivery, controlled delivery, exposed characteristics)
2. Independent justification (consent, probation or parole, incident to
arrest, officer safety, booking search, inventory)
3. Exigent circumstances (rescue, protection of property, imminent
destruction of evidence, fresh pursuit, escape prevention, public
safety)
4. Fleeing target (car, van, truck, RV, bus, boat, aircraft, etc.) with PC
and lawful access
B. The courts also have identified several special needs exceptions 1. 1.
These exceptions do not fit into other categories.
2. Examples include school searches, searches of highly regulated
businesses (e.g., firearms dealers, pawn shops and junkyards),
employment and educational drug screening, and the immediate
search for evanescent evidence (such as blood-alcohol content)
27 X. A Reminder
 A. Jetmore (2007b, p.26) stresses, Ability to skillfully document in writing
facts and circumstances that lead to logical inferences and reasonable
conclusions remains a professional requirement in criminal investigation.
Excellent investigative work is negated and the guilty may walk free if the
legal framework on which it was based cant be adequately explained
B. The Fourth Amendment requires that officers actions be reasonable:
clearly outline every detail known to you at the time in your report so that
the reasonability of your actions will be clear
28 XI. Summary

Key Terms
anticipatory warrant nightcapped warrant
Buie sweep no-knock warrant
Carroll decision particularity requirement
Chimel decision patdown
circle search plain feel/touch evidence
curtilage plain-view evidence
elephant-in-a-matchbox doctrine probable cause
exclusionary rule protective sweep
exigent circumstances strip-search pattern
frisk Terry stop
fruit-of-the-poisonous-tree doctrine totality-of-the-circumstances test
good-faith doctrine true scene
immediate control uncontaminated scene
inevitable-discovery doctrine zone
lane-search pattern

Summary
The Fourth Amendment to the Constitution forbids unreasonable searches and seizures.
Therefore, investigators must know what constitutes a reasonable, legal search. To search
effectively, know the legal requirements for searching, the items you are searching for
and the elements of the crime. Be organized, systematic and thorough.
The most important limitation on any search is that the scope must be narrow;
general searches are unconstitutional. If a search is not conducted legally, the evidence
obtained is worthless. The exclusionary rule established that courts may not accept
evidence obtained by unreasonable search and seizure, regardless of its relevance to a
case. Weeks v. United States (1914) made the rule applicable at the federal level; Mapp v.
Ohio (1961) made it applicable to all courts.
A search can be justified and therefore considered legal if any of the following
conditions are met: (1) a search warrant has been issued, (2) consent is given, (3) an
officer stops a suspicious person and believes the person may be armed, (4) the search is
incidental to a lawful arrest or (5) an emergency exists. Each of these situations has
limitations. A search conducted with a warrant must be limited to the area and items
specified in the warrant, in accordance with the particularity requirement. A search
conducted with consent requires that the consent be voluntary and that the search be
limited to the area for which the consent was given. The search in a stop-andfrisk
situation must be limited to a patdown for weapons. The Terry decision established that a
patdown or frisk is a protective search for weapons and as such must be confined to a
scope reasonably designed to discover guns, knives, clubs, and other hidden instruments
for the assault of a police officer or others. The Chimel decision established that a search
incidental to a lawful arrest must be made simultaneously with the arrest and must be
confined to the area within the suspects immediate control. A warrantless search in the
absence of a lawful arrest or consent is justified only in emergencies or exigent
circumstances where probable cause exists and the search must be conducted
immediately.
Vehicles may be searched without a warrant if there is probable cause and if the
vehicle would be gone before a search warrant could be obtained (Carroll).
A successful crime scene search locates, identifies and preserves all evidence
present. Organizing a search includes dividing the duties, selecting a search pattern,
assigning personnel and equipment and giving instructions. Knowing what to search for
is indispensable to an effective search. Physical evidence is anything material and
relevant to the crime being investigated.
Search patterns have been developed that help ensure a thorough search. Exterior
search patterns divide an area into lanes, strips, concentric circles or zones. Interior
searches go from the general to the specific, usually in a circular pattern, covering all
surfaces of a search area.
The floor should be searched first. Plain-view evidence unconcealed evidence
seen by an officer engaged in a lawful activityis admissible in court.
In addition to crime scenes, investigators frequently search vehicles, suspects and
dead bodies. When searching a vehicle, remove the occupants from the car. First, search
the area around the vehicle, then the vehicles exterior. Finally, search the interior along
one side from front to back and then return along the other side to the front. Chambers v.
Maroney (1970) established that a vehicle may be taken to headquarters to be searched in
certain circumstances.
When searching a suspect who has not been arrested, confine the search to a
patdown for weapons (Terry). If the suspect has been arrested, conduct a complete body
search for weapons and evidence. Always be on your guard. Search a dead body
systematically and completely; include the immediate area around and under the body.
Dogs can be trained to locate suspects, narcotics, explosives, cadavers and more.