Sweet Nothings

Sweet
nothings
The human cost of a British sugar giant
avoiding taxes in southern Africa
Contents
Executive summary 1
Introduction 5
A global food giant: Associated British Foods, the Illovo group and Zambia Sugar Plc 8
Mazabuka: the sweetest town in Zambia? 11
Going, going, gone Four ways Zambia Sugar shrinks its tax bill 14
The bill 33
Conclusion 36
Glossary 39
References 41
February 2013
Written and researched by Mike Lewis.
With assistance and additional research from Richard Brooks,
Pamela Chisanga, Martin Hearson, Chris Jordan, Kryticous Nshindano,
Asha Tharoor and Paul Wu.
1 Sweet nothings: the human cost of a British sugar giant avoiding taxes in southern Africa
Executive summary
Taxes pay teachers. Taxes train nurses. Taxes sugar, Kingsmill bread, Ryvita and Pataks, and also owns such foreign payments themselves. Thanks to this financial
maintain roads, deliver medicine, provide clean clothing chain Primark. We look particularly at the activities engineering, we estimate that Zambia has lost tax revenues
water. This is as true in the developing world as of ABFs Zambian subsidiary, Zambia Sugar Plc. of some US$17.7 million (ZK78 billion) since 2007, when
it is in the developed world. Tax is the most ABF took over the Illovo sugar group.
The southern African country of Zambia demonstrates
important, sustainable and predictable source
clearly the paradox of continuing hunger amidst plenty. To put this figure in perspective:
of public finance for almost all countries.
Despite Zambia graduating last year from a low-income In a country where over a third of child deaths are
to a lower-middle-income country, poverty levels have related to undernutrition,5 we estimate that the tax-
If countries are to eradicate poverty and hunger, then they stagnated, with the proportion of rural Zambians living in haven transactions of just this one British
will need to do so by increasing their own public finances poverty increasing to nearly 90% since 2001.2 Zambia is an headquartered food multinational has deprived the
principally through tax revenues. This should be possible. exporter of foodstuffs, including sugar; yet 45% of Zambian Zambian public purse of a sum over 14 times larger
Growth in the global economy is now occurring children are undernourished to the point of being stunted.3 than the UK aid provided to Zambia to combat hunger
predominantly in developing countries. Yet incomes,
and food insecurity in the same period.6
education, child mortality and nutrition have failed to The argument of this report is simple: poverty and hunger
catch up in some of the fastest-booming economies.1 dd in the effect of special tax breaks received by
A
cannot be ended if developing countries cannot raise
Funding continues to fall short for the public health services Zambia Sugar which we estimate will in future years
revenues to provide for the needs of their own citizens.
and agricultural assistance that can help reduce the burden reduce the companys tax bill by at least US$3.6 million
of hunger; for the teachers, classrooms and schoolbooks a year and rising and the foregone tax revenues in a
A key part of this equation is stopping corporate tax
that can help give the next generation a future free from single year could likely cover the entire cost of the
avoidance and questionable corporate tax breaks, which
poverty. Why? interventions needed to tackle child malnourishment in
together deny critical revenues to some of the worlds
Zambia.7
poorest countries. The case of ABFs sugar operations in
This report explores one clear reason. In both developed Zambia exemplifies a problem stretching across Africa and e estimate that the amount of tax the Zambian
W
and developing countries, the tax revenues needed to cover beyond: how countries both rich and poor are struggling to government currently foregoes through the companys
the ongoing costs of decent public services are being tax globally mobile profits and capital, and as a result are tax haven transactions is enough to put an extra child
undermined by the ability of some of the wealthiest haemorrhaging tax revenues that might otherwise be in primary school every 12 minutes.8
taxpayers including many multinational companies to available for the fight against poverty.
effectively opt out of the corporate tax system through a While the main corporate tax rate in Zambia is 35%, since
combination of ingenious (and lawful) tax haven What we found 2007 ABFs Zambian subsidiary has, overall, paid less than
transactions, and huge tax concessions awarded by ActionAids investigation found that ABFs Zambian 0.5% of its US$123 million pre-tax profits in corporate
governments themselves. subsidiary uses an array of transactions that have seen over income tax averaging under ZK450 million (US$90,000)
a third of the companys pre-tax profits over US$13.8 a year. The company took the government to court to win
To see how, and with what consequences, this report million (Zambian Kwacha 62 billion) a year paid out of a special retrospective tax break in 2007 and received a
examines the tax practices of one of the worlds largest Zambia, into and via tax haven sister companies in Ireland, large refund of tax paid in earlier years. Between 2008 and
food multinationals, the Associated British Foods (ABF) Mauritius and the Netherlands.4 Some of these transactions 2010, Zambia Sugar made no corporate income tax
group, in one of the most impoverished places in which it reduce Zambia Sugars taxable profits, while the structure payments at all.
operates. ABF produces staple brands like Silver Spoon of others avoids the Zambian taxes ordinarily levied on
From 2008 to 2010, an agricultural labourer employed

by the company has paid more income tax in absolute
terms than the company whose US$200 million
revenues have benefitted from her labour.
Executive summary
Associated British Foods told us that this tiny tax bill is the treaty between Zambia and Ireland, which prevents the factory, under a special Zambian tax regime intended
result of capital allowances that companies in Zambia are Zambian government from charging any of the tax that to attract new foreign investment. The precise terms of
entitled to claim against their taxable profits: in the case of would normally be levied on the interest payments this tax break remain confidential, despite a Zambian
its Zambian subsidiary, resulting from spending on a recent made on these loans. law requiring the government to make information
expansion of its Zambian sugar mill, now the largest in rder a tax-free takeaway: Zambia Sugar is able to
O about investment incentives granted to big companies
Africa. Certainly generous capital allowances the subject send profits back to its parent company, Illovo Sugar to be publicly accessible. Despite the company already
of current Zambian government scrutiny may significantly Ltd, nearly tax-free by re-shuffling the ownership of the booking record profits since its expansion, Zambia
reduce the companys tax liability. But we have also company through a string of Irish, Mauritian and Dutch Sugar can use this second tax break to keep its tax bill
identified four strategies that have significantly reduced holding companies, taking advantage of tax treaty low for years to come.
Zambia Sugars taxable profits to begin with, and that have loopholes and tax haven regimes to cancel tax on its
avoided separate Zambian taxes on the companys dividend payments. Plain vanilla business practice
financing and dividends: We do not allege that any of the companies in this report
ystery management: Zambia Sugar has paid out
M As well as these ingenious tax haven transactions, since have done anything illegal. Indeed, sadly their tax practices
large purchasing and management fees to an Irish 2007 the company has been able to enjoy its own special are not even particularly unusual. A growing litany of
sister company a company that seems to have no low tax regime within Zambia itself, exploiting two examples from Europe and North America suggest that the
physical presence in Ireland.9 Every year since 2006, separate tax breaks originally intended respectively for arrangements we describe here are simply plain vanilla
this companys audited Irish accounts have also domestic Zambian farmers and big foreign investors. business practice for many multinationals, thanks to
repeatedly stated that the company has no employees, loopholes in prevailing international tax rules coupled with
irst, taking the Zambian Revenue Authority to court in
F
while providing Zambia Sugar with nearly US$2.6 tax competition in developing countries an international
2007, the company successfully won the right to
million worth of management services each year, race to the bottom to attract foreign investors with huge
reclassify all of its revenues as farming income
though ABF has subsequently claimed that the tax breaks.
despite three-quarters of its income and profits in fact
company employs some 20 individuals, the notes to deriving from industrial sugar manufacture, partly from
the companys accounts failed to reflect this.10 We also Tax avoidance is less widely documented in the developing
sugarcane purchased from independent cane-growers.
examine similar payments for export agency services world than in the developed, but the findings of this report
to a sister subsidiary company registered in Mauritius and ActionAids previous investigation of Africas biggest
This has allowed the company to reduce its tax rate
that has no employees permanently there, according to brewer, the UK-headquartered SABMiller, suggest that it is
from the 35% paid by most Zambian businesses to just
other Mauritius-based Illovo staff. no less prevalent.12 Indeed there is evidence that the
15%. As well as low taxes for the foreseeable future,
developing countries which can least afford it may be
Dublin dog-leg: Large loans from South African and
A Zambia Sugar also received a US$6.3 million (ZK24.6
haemorrhaging more of their corporate tax revenues than
US commercial banks, borrowed to finance the recent billion) rebate for previous years. In 2012 the Zambian
countries like the UK.13
expansion of the companys estate and sugar mill in government reduced this farming tax rate further to
southern Zambia, have been dog-legged through just 10%, a reduction that in future years will push
In many places, multinational companies and their advisers
Ireland despite being borrowed in Zambian currency Zambia Sugars tax rate below some of the rates its
are beginning to regard paying corporate taxes as optional.
and repaid via a bank account held by the Irish sister companies enjoy in tax havens.
When John Whiting, head of the UK Treasurys Office of Tax
company at a bank branch in downtown Lusaka. This econd, since 2011 the company has been granted an
S Simplification and policy director of the UKs Chartered
arrangement sometimes described as treaty additional tax break to offset the costs of an expanded Institute of Taxation the UK trade body of tax advisers
shopping takes advantage of a particularly unfair tax
Its not right if you have businesses [who] instead

of paying some taxes somewhere are paying no
taxes anywhere.
UK Prime Minister, David Cameron
Executive summary
was asked recently why many large multinationals were not

paying corporate tax, he replied: In many ways corporation
tax is a bit of a bonus.14
For ordinary taxpayers, of course, paying tax is far from

optional or a bonus. Ordinary people have no choice but
to pay the business taxes collected directly from their
shops and small businesses, the income tax deducted from
their payslips, and the VAT included in the price of the
goods they buy. This includes the workers who produce
and sell multinational companies products. While the ABF
groups African sugar operations have shrunk their own tax
bill through ingenious tax haven transactions, and have
been granted even further tax breaks, their workers in
Zambia have continued to pay their taxes on their wages.
From 2008 to 2010, an agricultural labourer employed by

the company has paid more income tax in absolute terms
than the company whose US$200 million revenues have
benefitted from her labour. And even when Zambia Sugar
has been paying some corporate income tax in Zambia, as
in 2011 and 2012, it has still paid 20 times less income tax,
relative to its income, than the tax paid by its own
agricultural workers; and 90 times less than the tax paid by
the small traders who sell Zambia Sugars products to
consumers.
This report traces the international money trail to find out

how this tax injustice has happened. We look at what
it means for those struggling with undernourished families,
overcrowded schools and underfunded health services on
the doorstep of Zambia Sugars vast Mazabuka estate.
Where else? Newly harvested sugar cane being

Beyond Zambia, the ABF group also has sugar mills and hauled on the Zambia Sugar estate.
plantations in Mozambique, Malawi, Tanzania, South Africa PHOTO: Jason Larkin/ActionAid
Executive summary
and Swaziland. So far ActionAid has only been able to international tax rules, and governments deliberate tax
access the accounts of the Malawian, Zambian and South policies. While the group of companies detailed in this ActionAids research
African companies, as these are publicly listed companies. report have taken (lawful) advantage of loopholes in
To understand the tax practices of ABFs sugar
international tax laws, they have also benefited from tax
operations, even focusing on just one company in
The other subsidiaries tax behaviour remains closed to breaks deliberately written into countries tax codes, Zambia, ActionAid has had to obtain corporate and
public scrutiny. Unless ABF publishes the accounts of the responsibility for which ultimately lies with governments. legal documentation from Jersey, Ireland, the
rest of the Illovo Group companies, including in Mauritius esponsible companies must make paying their fair
R Netherlands, Malawi, Mali, South Africa, the
and other tax havens, we cannot know whether other share of corporate tax a core part of their United Kingdom and Zambia; to analyse subsidiary
African countries are getting a fair tax deal from their sugar responsibilities to the countries where they make their companies accounts covering the past six years;
industries. profits. and to speak with Zambian tax officials and
investment authorities.
overnments must close loopholes in national tax
G
What can be done?
codes and tax treaties that allow the kinds of tax haven While Zambia Sugars management declined to
There is now emerging international consensus that
transactions outlined in this report. Donor and meet ActionAid, we have spoken to individuals
something must be done to stop corporate tax avoidance.
developed country governments have a particular with an inside knowledge of ABFs subsidiaries in
UK Prime Minister David Cameron has promised
responsibility to ensure that their own tax regimes and Ireland, Mauritius, the UK and Zambia, and put
international action, saying that, its not right if you have questions to the banks and company service
tax treaties do not make it easier for corporate profits
businesses [who] instead of paying some taxes somewhere providers involved in the tax-saving transactions
to be siphoned out of developing countries.
are paying no taxes anywhere.15 we discuss in this report.18
overnments must not give away vital revenues
G
He has pledged that when the UK hosts the G8 summit in through corporate tax breaks without evidence of real Finally, we have put detailed questions to
June 2013, this G8 will seek to maintain the momentum benefits to their citizens in terms of new jobs, economic Associated British Foods and Zambia Sugar about
generated by the G20 on information exchange and the opportunities and public revenues. the findings of this report. Where possible we have
strengthening of international tax standards. We will look to inally, international action is needed to end the
F included their responses in this report, and are
go further including, for example, on tax havens by secrecy and abusive tax regimes of tax havens around also publishing their full response, and the
the world. responses of other companies named in this
improving the quality and quantity of tax information
report, on ActionAids website.
exchange. And we will work with developing countries to
help them improve their ability to collect the tax that is due Responsible companies; stronger tax authorities; better tax
to them too.16 Likewise Zambian finance minister laws; and, critically, public action and scrutiny all have a
Alexander Chikwanda has promised to toughen Zambian part to play in protecting the revenues that Zambia and
laws to prevent companies shifting profits into tax havens, many other countries need to resource their own futures.
and a comprehensive review of Zambias proliferation of
inefficient tax incentives during 2013.17
This report shows how tackling the problem will require

both national and international action across three fronts:
companies ingenious financial engineering, weak
As Caroline and Isaac have duly paid

taxes on their incomes, Zambia Sugar has
in some years been able to make no
Introduction payments of corporate income tax at all.
Meet three very different taxpayers. unwell, the clinic did not have the necessary drugs and had
to give Caroline a prescription to buy the medicine at her
Caroline Muchanga works from 5.45am to 9pm, seven own cost for ZK10,000 nearly half her daily earnings.21
days a week, in Nakambala market in the town of Every day, Caroline pays her business taxes. Indeed, she
Mazabuka, southern Zambia. At her small kantemba has no choice but to do so: each evening a council official
(market stall) she sells drinks, toiletries and foodstuffs, comes to collect a market levy of ZK1,000 (20 US cents),
including bags of the White Spoon sugar that is produced whether Caroline has made any money that day or not.22
on Zambia Sugars vast plantation and factory less than a
kilometre away. On a good day Caroline makes ZK20,000 Isaac Banda23 is a seasonal cane-cutter for Zambia Sugar.
(about US$4). He starts work at 5.30am harvesting sugar cane on Zambia
Sugars 17,000 hectare (42,000 acre) estate just outside
At 7am Carolines two daughters leave for their volunteer- Mazabuka town, as he has done for 10 years.24 He provides
run community school, where Caroline says the teaching is for his wife, two sons and two daughters on a monthly
not always reliable. We take our children there out of salary of ZK2,213,000 (US$440).25 Isaac makes a better
living than many in Mazabuka. But in a town built on sugar, A tax collector gathers taxes
desperation, as we mostly want to avoid them to be at
in Nakambala market.
home, she says. Government schools in Zambia have he still sometimes struggles to feed his family: with rising
PHOTO: Jason Larkin/ActionAid
professional, paid teachers and usually better facilities, but prices in Zambia, basic food and provisions for a family of
despite her 15-hour workdays Caroline cannot consistently six now costs around ZK3,500,000 (US$700) a month, over
afford to pay the costs of the books and uniforms. The half as much again as Isaacs monthly income.26 And he too
Zambian government has pledged to make primary pays his taxes, deducted from his pay at 25% on all his
education free, but the government education budget can earnings over the Zambian personal tax threshold.27 last five years (2008-2010) both Caroline and Isaac have
still only provide around ZK32,000 (US$6.50) per child per paid more income tax in absolute terms than the
month,19 and so most schools still charge additional Finally, meet Zambia Sugar Plc, a subsidiary of UK food company whose US$200 million revenues have benefited
parent-teacher association (PTA) fees to cover the cost of giant Associated British Foods and part of its Illovo group from Carolines sales and Isaacs labour. In these years, as
books, teaching materials and school maintenance. of companies Africas largest sugar producer. Its factory Caroline and Isaac have duly paid taxes on their incomes,
Keeping up with these payments is simply beyond the just outside Mazabuka is the largest sugar mill in Africa. Zambia Sugar has been able to make no payments of
means of some parents. Only 53% of Zambian Zambia Sugar makes nine-tenths of all the sugar produced corporate income tax at all.30 In the last two years (2010/11
schoolchildren complete their primary education, a fifth in Zambia, both for Zambias growing consumer market and and 2011/12) the company has paid some income tax, but
fewer than a decade ago.20 for export to the UK and elsewhere in Europe.28 Over the even then at a rate of just 0.5% of its income: 90 times less
past five years the company has had record annual than Caroline, and 20 times less than Isaac, relative to their
When her children get sick, Caroline takes them to the revenues of over ZK1 trillion (US$200 million), and healthy respective incomes.
government-funded Nakambala Urban Health Centre, just profits of over ZK83 billion (US$18 million) a year.29
behind the market. We spend so much time in the queues
even three hours due to so many patients who are there... Who pays more tax: Zambia Sugar, Caroline Muchanga
when you go to the government hospitals, you find that who sells the companys product, or Isaac Banda who
there is no medicine. When her smallest child was recently helps produce it? The answer is surprising. In three of the
Introduction
Table 1: Paying a fair share? Income tax payments of different taxpayers within the Zambia Sugar supply chain
Caroline Muchanga Isaac Banda* Zambia Sugar Plc
Stallholder selling sugar in Nakambala market, Cane-cutter employed by Zambia Sugar Plc International sugar company
near the Zambia Sugar estate
Average monthly net income31 (Zambian Kwacha) Average monthly net income (Zambian Kwacha) Average monthly net income (Zambian Kwacha)
650,000 32
2,213,000 56,270,667,000
Average monthly income tax paid (Zambian Kwacha) Average monthly income tax paid (Zambian Kwacha) Average monthly income tax paid (Zambian Kwacha)
30,000 25,500 0 (2008-2010)

% of net income paid in income tax % of net income paid in income tax % of net income paid in income tax
4.6% 1.2% 0 (2008-2010)

* Not his real name
PHOTOS: Jason Larkin/ActionAid

Zambia Sugar should be paying more tax than us.

Caroline Muchanga, stallholder
Introduction
The real bottom line

The rest of this report explores how this extraordinary tax Riches unrewarded
outcome has been achieved. Much of this analysis is
based on dry financial statements and reports: black-and- Relative to the size of their economies, African hugely increased revenues in Zambias mining and
countries tax receipts are on average around half other export sectors. These revenues finance
white documents designed to show investors and
those of developed countries like the UK.33 Zambias three-quarters of the Zambian budget.34
regulators the performance and profitability of the
economic paradox, like many other resource-rich
company the bottom line. Many multinational countries, is that its tax take has steadily declined Average class sizes in Zambias schools have
companies regard tax as a drain on the bottom line, an relative to its growing economy. Zambias GDP has increased from 37 to 57 over the past two decades.35
inconvenient cost of doing business which they will go to grown by nearly 6% a year in the last decade, a boom There is only one doctor for every 10,000 Zambians
convoluted lengths to avoid. which has recently seen the country reclassified (compared to one for every 370 people in the UK).36
from low-income to lower-middle-income. And despite Zambias flourishing economy, the
But for those living in places where multinational number of Zambians living in absolute poverty
companies make and sell their products, and from where In the first decade after independence the Zambian increased from six million in 1991 to nearly eight
the companies derive their profits, there is another bottom government gathered taxes of around 25-30% of million in 2010.37
line. The ability of families to feed themselves, send their GDP, but today it gathers as little as 10-12%, despite
children to school, and keep them healthy. This, for most
people, is the real bottom line. In developing countries
right now, next door to some of the worlds most
Figure 1: Zambian government revenues, 2012-13
profitable multinationals, these basic needs and rights are
too often denied in overcrowded schools, communities Overseas loans
without running water, clinics without enough staff or Overseas aid
medicines. Companies that rely upon decent Domestic loans
infrastructure and an educated, healthy workforce Non-tax domestic revenues
ultimately suffer too.
12% 73%
14% Customs & excise duties
Carolines bottom line is clear. Zambia Sugar should be
paying more tax than us. 5%
16% Individual income
Tax revenues
6%
4% 19% VAT
6% Mineral royalties
3% Withholding taxes
15% Corporate income tax

A global food giant

Associated British Foods, the Illovo group a controlling interest in Zambia Sugar (privatised in 1995),
and Zambia Sugar Plc now Africas largest sugar operation. Illovos African sugar
Associated British Foods (ABF) is a hidden giant in the estates now cover an area twice the size of London.41
global food industry. You may not know its name, but its
products are probably on your kitchen shelves, including This Illovo group of sugar companies has long been an
well-known UK brands like Kingsmill, Ryvita and Ovaltine. African-headed operation. The Illovo group is owned by
ABF is Britains second-largest food and drink ABF through a central parent company in South Africa,
manufacturer, and also owns the clothing retail chain Illovo Sugar Ltd, described as the corporate centre of the
Primark.38 Beyond Europe, the companys operations range group,42 from where Illovos African operations have in
from yeast factories in Brazil to spice production in India. practice been coordinated since they were established in
A FTSE 100 company, ABF has operations in 46 countries the 1990s.43 Yet our investigations have found that the
and an 11 billion (ZK90 trillion) turnover almost as large ownership, management, procurement, finances and profits
as Zambias entire GDP, and nearly three times the Zambian of their onshore African sugar operations are routed through
national budget.39 a network of companies registered in the tax havens of
Mauritius, Jersey, the Netherlands and Ireland.
ABF is also the biggest sugar producer in the UK, as well as
in Africa. Its subsidiary, British Sugar, sells one in every two This report shows the impact this maze of tax haven
spoonfuls of sugar consumed in the UK, from the companies has on ABFs Zambian tax bill.
ubiquitous UK-produced Silver Spoon to Fairtrade-
certified sugar processed by the groups sugar mills in
Malawi and Zambia and sold in the UK under its
Billingtons speciality sugar brand.40 Its White Spoon
sugar is consumed by most Zambian households.
ABFs move into African sugar began in 2006 when it

bought a majority stake in the Illovo Sugar group, the
continents largest sugar producer. A long-standing South
African sugar producer, Illovo had by the mid-2000s
expanded rapidly throughout southern and eastern Africa,
primarily through buying up previously state-owned sugar
companies. In 1996 Illovo bought up sugar milling
operations in Mozambique (Maragra Aucar), followed in
1998 by sugar estates in Malawi (the previously state-
owned SUCOMA), Tanzania (the Kilombero Sugar Estate)
and Swaziland (Ubombo Sugar). In April 2001 it bought
A global food giant
Figure 2: Illovo Sugars operations and payments between companies
Note: This diagram shows the beneficial ownership

Associated British Foods structure of the Illovo group as declared in group
Plc and subsidiary accounts: the legal shareholding of
UK companies (UK) Illovo Project Services Ltd (Jersey) is in fact held by
two nominee shareholding companies operated
African companies by Barclays Bank.
Illovo Sugar informed ActionAid that Socit
Sucrire de Markala S.A. (Mali) and Illovo Project
Tax haven companies Services Ltd (Jersey) are inactive companies.
ABF Investments Plc
(UK) In addition, payments declared in Zambia Sugars

Current payments between 2012 accounts from The Silver Spoon Company
companies (2012/13) Ltd (an ABF subsidiary declared as inactive in the
UK) were, according to Illovo Sugar, actually from a
separate ABF subsidiary, British Sugar Plc.
Previous payments between
companies (2007-12)
ABF Overseas Ltd British Sugar Plc
Equity ownership of companies (UK) (UK)
Sources: Corporate structure provided by

Associated British Foods to ActionAid, 30 January 55.1%
2013. Annual returns and accounts of Illovo Sugar
Ltd (South Africa), Illovo Sugar (Malawi) Ltd, Zambia
Sugar Ltd, Illovo Sugar Ireland Ltd, Illovo Project Illovo Sugar Ltd
Services Ltd (Jersey), Mauritius company registry. (South Africa)
Illovo Sugar (South East African Supply Illovo Group Holdings Illovo Project Services
Africa) Ltd (Pty) Ltd Ltd Ltd
(South Africa) (South Africa) (Mauritius) (Jersey)
25% 60% 90% 73.3%

Socit Sucrire de Ubombo Sugar Ltd Maragra Acucar Sarl Sucoma Holdings Ltd Kilombero Holdings Ltd Illovo Sugar Cooperatief Illovo Group Marketing
Markala S.A. (Swaziland) (Mozambique) (Mauritius) (Mauritius) U.A. Services Ltd
(Mali) (Netherlands) (Mauritius)
76% 75% 81.55% 99%
Illovo Sugar (Malawi) Ltd Kilombero Sugar Zambia Sugar Plc Illovo Sugar Ireland
(Malawi) Company Ltd (Zambia) (Ireland)
(Tanzania)
The sweetest town in Zambia

a sign on the road to Mazabuka
in southern Zambia, where
Zambia Sugar is located.
Our sugar factories employ loads of

people. The areas around them become
Mazabuka: the sweetest islands of relative prosperity.

ABF Chairman, George Weston
town in Zambia?
How tax-funded services struggle in relative. A closer look at this island of relative prosperity
Mazabuka shows how jobs, philanthropy and company-sponsored
In a speech to Londons Royal African Society in social projects do not remove the need for sustainable,
2010, ABFs chairman George Weston said our well-funded clinics, schools, roads and water supplies
sugar factories employ loads of people. The areas available to everyone, not just to employees or selected
around them become islands of relative communities. Even amidst Mazabukas lush green cane
prosperity.44 ABFs Corporate Responsibility fields, the availability of overstretched public services is
reports also describe its social investment sometimes literally a matter of life and death. Such public
programme in Zambia and elsewhere in southern services rely, of course, on everyone paying their due taxes.
Africa: providing employees with schooling and
medical services on its estates; building a new Indeed, we found that many of Zambia Sugars employees
classroom block during 2011 at the Mazabuka themselves rely on government-funded clinics and schools,
Girls High School; donating sugar to school since free access to the company-run schools and clinics
feeding projects.45 cited in ABFs corporate social responsibility reports is not
granted to the families of seasonal workers, who constitute
ABF told ActionAid that the payment of tax is only one way the majority of Zambia Sugars employees, and who are
in which [our] Illovo [group] supports the Government and also generally the lowest paid.48 It is many of these workers
local community in the countries in which it invests. In many who have to pay their families school fees and medicine
countries, Illovos most important contribution is the direct charges to bridge the gap of inadequate public funding for
provision of services to the local community and its education and healthcare. And although Zambia Sugar has
workers, for example, providing healthcare and educational told us that it bears approximately 95% of the cost of
facilities, feeding schemes and improvements to public running the [companys] medical facilities, charges are also
facilities.46 taken out of workers wages for their own treatment at the
companys clinics.49
These are welcome interventions in a country where,
despite enormous natural wealth, 45% of children under
five are malnourished to the point of stunting, average class
sizes (at nearly 60) are amongst the highest in Africa, and
two-thirds of people live below the poverty line.47 And there
is no doubt that the employment Zambia Sugar creates
around its Mazabuka estate is critical to local livelihoods.
Many parts of Zambia are certainly poorer than Mazabuka
and its surrounding communities. But the comparison is
We do manage to eat, but not always.

It happens, but not every [meal] time.
Mutinta Mulenga
Hunger amidst plenty: Nakambala

Health Centre, Mazabuka
Mazabukas local economy may be based on calorie-
rich sugar, but it has a chronic problem with
undernourished children. Zambia as a whole has
one of the highest rates of child malnutrition in
southern and eastern Africa. The results are clear
to see at the government-run Nakambala Urban
Health Centre clinic.
Dailess Mwiinga, or Mrs Sholoka as she is known to

everyone, is a nutritional demonstrator attached to the
public clinic. She works to help mothers improve the
nutrition that their babies and children receive. We
receive up to 15 [undernourished] children per week,
and if added to those other children who have been here
longer the number goes up to about 30 every Friday.
Just about two children die every month.50
One of the mothers with whom Mrs Sholoka has started Nutrition demonstrator Dailess
working is Mutinta Mulenga, aged 19. Mutintas Mwiinga conducts a nutrition
class for mothers at Nakambala
husband works as a miller, grinding maize. Yet they clinic, Mazabuka.
struggle to feed their own family. We do manage to eat, PHOTO: Jason Larkin/ActionAid
but not always. It happens, but not every [meal] time,
says Mutinta. After deducting loan repayments and
rent from her husbands monthly salary of ZK300,000 unwell. Since his birth hes been suffering from always have the land, capital, time or skills to grow food
(US$60), they are left with just ZK190,000 (US$38) to diarrhoea, Mutinta says. It makes me worried Two for their own families; because of the prevalence of
buy food each month. They can often only afford to eat days they are well, and two days they get sick. I fear a children born with HIV; and because of other illnesses
cheap but filling nshima (maize porridge) rather than lot when my child gets sick because of hunger.52 caused by and compounding undernourishment itself.
vegetables and other more nutritious but expensive
foodstuffs. The children cry a lot if they dont get food, Mrs Sholoka explains that children are under- Much can be done, however, by educating families
and they get sick eventually.51 nourished in Mazabuka not because there isnt enough long-term on the importance of basic nutrition. But the
food for everyone, but because low incomes force people clinic has no money to pay for nutritional demonstrators
Mutintas youngest child, Paul, is just over a year-and-a- to buy cheaper, less nutritious food; because parents Mrs Sholoka works as a volunteer, and is already
half old. He is seriously underweight, and chronically have poor nutritional knowledge; because they dont overstretched. Nor is there enough money to pay for the
If that tax was being paid, maybe that money would be used...to
access the hard to reach places where we are not able to reach
frequently.
Sister Florence Mweemba, Nakambala
cooking oil, beans and vegetables previously given catchment area the drugs are going to be enough.
out by the clinic to mothers, paid for by charitable But since we are catering even for people from
organisations whose programmes in Mazabuka are outside, thats why we run short of drugs. For
no longer operating.53 What I think is that if they example, when ActionAid visited in the middle of
[the company] did not stop paying those taxes, it the month, Sister Florence explained that the clinic
would have been helping those who do not work was already running short of the antibiotic used to
Tax is important because the government gives it treat endemic dysentery a key cause of
back to us at the end of the day.54 undernutrition among children. The nurses can
sometimes substitute other drugs, but in some
Most of the patients at Nakambala Urban Health cases substitution is not possible, and the patients
Centre have to wait several hours to see the medical have to buy their own medicine from private
staff, who treat around 200-250 patients a day pharmacists in town. We give prescription whilst
considerably more than the clinics intended waiting for [a new monthly delivery] For those
capacity. Sister Florence Mweemba, in charge of the who can afford, we give prescription to go and buy
clinic, explains that patients from communities If people cant afford to pay for their prescription
living on the Zambia Sugar estate and other areas they just go, theres nothing we can do and theres
outside the Nakambala catchment area come to use nothing they can do.56
the clinic, since many of the workers families are
not able to access free treatment at the companys Sister Florence also says additional public funding
own clinics: The temporal [temporary] workers could help provide enough medicines, food
come here to access health services because theyre assistance and nutritional demonstrators in areas
regarded [at Zambia Sugars clinics] as private, and they cannot currently reach.
being a private patient they are being charged a lot
of money Weve tried maybe to talk to them We feel bad because if that tax was being paid,
[Zambia Sugars clinics]. They say these are not maybe that money would be used to access the
permanent workers, theyre just seasonal, they hard to reach places where we are not able to reach
come and go. The same applies with dependants [of frequently... We may even have money for fuel for us
seasonal workers] they are not the immediate to be going there to the people at their doorsteps.
family members, so even they are regarded as But since funding is not enough, we are not able to
private. If they are to access medical services at reach the people at their doorsteps, only the
Zambia Sugar they [have] to pay something.55 neighbouring or surrounding areas which we are
able to walk [to].
Mutinta Mulenga and her son Paul
Sister Florence explains that despite this extra attend a nutrition demonstration
burden, the government can only provide enough at Nakambala Urban Health
monthly medical supplies for Nakambala clinics Centre, Mazabuka.
immediate catchment area. If it was only for our PHOTO: Jason Larkin/ActionAid
Going, going, gone

Four ways Zambia Sugar shrinks its tax bill some of the discrepancy between the usual Zambian rate We do not allege that Zambia Sugar or its parent company
of corporate income tax and the far lower tax rate applied have done anything unlawful or even particularly unusual.
Unlike many of the families attending Nakambala in practice to the companys (continually growing) pre-tax
Urban Health Clinic, Zambia Sugar appears to be profits. Zambia grants large capital allowances a tax
in fine financial shape. It produces the vast incentive permitting investors to deduct much of the value
majority of the sugar consumed in Zambia; it has of new plant, buildings and equipment from their taxable
tripled its sugar exports since 2010, its revenues profits to major investors. Indeed, the government has
have risen 250% in the past five years, and its recently sought to limit its revenue losses by reducing
operating profits have increased fourfold in the some especially generous capital allowances, particularly
same period.57 in the mining sector the first wave in a wider Zambian
review of tax breaks and incentives granted to big
Although the company has had to use some of these
operating profits to pay off loans taken out in 2007 to
companies across all sectors.61 Figure 3: An increasingly profitable company,
finance a major expansion of its Nakambala sugar estate with a tiny corporate tax bill
But we have also identified four more intricate, company-
and mill, the cost of interest and loan repayments have
specific ways in which the Associated British Foods groups
already been offset by record revenues since the expansion
Zambian operations appear to have minimised their Operating profit (ZK, millions) Income tax paid/refunded (ZK, millions)
was completed. In 2012 its profits even after the cost of
Zambian tax liabilities in recent years.
these interest and loan repayments were already back at
2009 levels.58 irst, large payments are being made to sister
F 300,000
companies in tax havens (Step 1), which can be
281,855
Despite this embarrassment of riches, the corporate income deducted as expenses in Zambia, shrinking the
250,000
tax that the company has paid to the Zambian Revenue companys taxable profits in the country (against which
Authority (its cash tax) has, since 2007, averaged less capital allowances can then be deducted) while
booking profits outside of Zambia. 200,000
than 0.5% of its pre-tax profits an average of less than
ZK450 million (US$90,000) a year, and considerably less econd, Zambias share of the taxes levied on profits
S
than the 35% rate that Zambia normally applies to sent back to Zambia Sugars foreign parent, and on 150,000
155,911
companies profits. Between 2008 and 2010 Zambia Sugar interest paid to foreign banks financing the companys
147,998
Plc made no corporate income tax payments at all, expansion, is being avoided by routing those overseas 100,000
although it continued to book tax liabilities.59 payments through a maze of tax haven sister
companies (Steps 2 and 3).
78,048
50,000
69,629
Asked about this extraordinarily low tax bill, Zambia Sugars inally (Step 4), Zambia Sugar has negotiated to qualify
F
-21,977
parent company told us that [a]s a direct result of our
-2,664
for two special tax breaks one whose terms remain
776
737
investment in Zambia since 2008 [i.e. the expansion of the secret which has led to a massive tax refund, and for 0
0
sugar factory], the availability of substantial capital years to come will actually bring the Zambian tax rate
allowances has led to virtually no corporate tax being applied to this highly profitable company below the tax -50,000
payable.60 This is undoubtedly a plausible explanation for rate even in some tax havens. 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012
Going, going, gone
The four steps described in this report: Mazabuka, Zambia.One of the main
sugar processing factories on the
Zambia Sugar plantation.
Take advantage [steps 1 & 2]
of international tax rules that make
PHOTOS: Jason Larkin/Panos Pictures/ActionAid
it easy for companies to shift profits

out of poor countries and into tax
havens, where those profits are
recorded on paper, but where companies
may have no sales, no production,
and even no staff.
Use tax haven jurisdictions

[steps 1-3] whose fiscal regimes and
secrecy laws have in many cases been
specifically designed to attract offshore
businesses who do not locate their
physical operations there.62
Exploit [step 4] an opaque

investment incentive regime which
has become the norm for government
tax policy in many developing
countries, under pressure from
international institutions and
investors.
Going, going, gone
A sculpture dedicated to famine, outside

the the International Financial Services
Centre in Dublin, where Illovo Sugar
Ireland is registered.
Step 1: Mystery management PHOTO: Mike Lewis/ActionAid
in Ireland (and Mauritius)
ABFs chief executive has candidly described its sugar

plantations and factories as largely white South African
managed.63 Many of the Illovo groups specialised
personnel are located in South Africa, home to the groups
African headquarters, to which Zambia Sugar and its sister
sugar companies elsewhere in Africa pay annual fees for
management services and procurement.64
Yet since Illovo took over Zambia Sugar in 2001, the

Zambian company has also paid separate, hefty annual
fees for purchases and management services to a fellow
subsidiary, Illovo Sugar Ireland, registered 8,000 kilometres
away in an office block in Dublin.65 Since 2007, Zambia
Sugar has paid this Irish sister company over US$47.6
million (ZK209 billion), including nearly US$2.6 million a
year for management services;66 and, since at least 2009,
an additional US$6.5 million (ZK32.5 billion) received by the
Irish company as secondment fees.67
In common with many other countries, fees paid overseas Irish company, however, this withholding tax is entirely substantial further deductions for expenses, compared to
for management, consultancy and similar high-value avoided, taking advantage of an old treaty between Zambia Zambia Sugars 15-35% rate up to 2012. Ironically, as
services can ordinarily be taxed in Zambia in the form of a and Ireland (discussed in Step 2) which, uniquely, cancels Zambia Sugars own special Zambian corporation tax rate
15% withholding tax.68 This would be the case for all such withholding taxes. (Step 4) has headed down towards tax haven levels, this
management fees paid to South African companies or saving on profit taxes may be reduced, though only since
individuals. And in the 2013 Zambian budget, Finance These large intra-group payments, counted as an operating 2012. However as withholding taxes are applied
Minister Alexander Chikwanda actually raised the expense, will also have reduced Zambia Sugars operating irrespective of the companys corporation tax rate, avoiding
withholding tax on management fees to 20% to help fund profit by some 20%, while booking profits in fellow Illovo them generates a lasting tax benefit for the ABF group,
development programmes the government is subsidiaries in low-tax jurisdictions including Ireland. A while denying Zambia tax revenues supposed to be
undertaking.69 By paying management fees to or via an portion of these fees is taxed in Ireland at only 12.5% after dedicated specifically for development.
Figure 4: Mystery management Zambia Sugar tax haven payments for intra
group services 2007-12
21% Fees to tax

haven companies
US$54m (ZK 240bn)
Illovo Sugar Ireland

2 Operating Profits
US$187m (ZK 867bn)
Profits made on management
fees: 26%*
3 Illovo Project Services Ltd
(Jersey)
Money paid on from Illovo

Sugar Ireland
US$8m a year
Including
US$2.1m secondment fees
US$2.5m management fees
US$3.4m unspecified
US$3m
Zambia a year
Tax haven jurisdictions As export agency
commission
Payments made out of Zambia payments
into tax havens
Payments made between Zambia Sugar
1
tax havens
Pays fees to sister
4 Illovo Group Marketing
Services Ltd (Mauritius)
Profit margin here refers to the companies in Ireland
operating profit declared by and Mauritius
Illovo Sugar Ireland on the Staff in Mauritius: 0
management fees it receives (according to Illovo
from Zambia Sugar. representative)
When ActionAid visited Illovo Sugar

Irelands registered address, the
receptionist had never heard of the
Going, going, gone company.
ABF told us that this offshore Irish company is used to Zambia Sugar including the provision of senior would be some staff that Illovo Sugar Ireland have seconded
contract experts for Zambia Sugar because third party management, engineers and agronomists These are real to the plant in Zambia, and referred us to the financial
service providers would not have been willing to contract people, doing real jobs, adding real value to Zambia Sugar director of the South African parent company in Durban.78
directly with Zambia Sugar due to possible financial or and that the notes to the [Irish] companys accounts failed
political risk and, if they had contracted directly, the cost to to reflect this.73 Yet Illovo Sugar Irelands audited accounts, As we will see in Step 4, since 2007 Zambia Sugar has
Zambia Sugar would have been substantially higher.70 filed in Ireland, have every year since 2006 stated explicitly been granted a special corporate tax rate which in 2012 fell
They insisted that these transactions via Ireland are not tax that the company has no employees.74 This includes the to 10% less than that of some tax havens, including
motivated since [t]ax rules require profits declared in Irish companys most recent accounts, filed with the Irish Ireland. Illovo has insisted that as a result there is no tax
Ireland to be included in the Illovo South Africa tax return company registry on 28 January 2013, 10 days after advantage to Illovo moving profits from Zambia to other
where they are subject to tax at 28%.71 Associated British Foods letter to ActionAid explaining the group companies where income is taxed at higher rates.79
companys 20 employees and their activities. But this explanation ignores Zambian tax losses for the
Yet accounts of the South African parent company show payments made to the Irish company over the last decade,
that it too is liable for extremely little tax, booking tax It appears from their statements to us, therefore, that for when Zambia Sugar had a Zambian headline rate of
liabilities in South Africa of just 0.6% of its profits in the last seven years in a row Illovos Irish subsidiary, and its between 15% and 35%; and also ignores the fact that
financial year.72 Indeed, its entire tax liabilities in 2011/12 auditors, have prepared and given a clean bill of health to routing such payments through Ireland avoids a 15%
were only US$308,000, just 4% of the US$7 million fees accounts that are in error on a fairly fundamental aspect of withholding tax that would otherwise be due irrespective of
paid by Zambia Sugar alone in that year to just two the companys operations (the existence of any employees). the tax rate on Zambia Sugars profits.
subsidiaries (in Ireland and Mauritius) whose profits Illovo
claims are rolled up in their South African tax bill at 28%. It It is also not clear that Illovo Sugar Ireland has any actual In the absence of detailed tax reporting in all jurisdictions
seems clear, therefore, that very little tax is being paid by activities or presence in Ireland itself despite around a where Illovo has subsidiaries, it is difficult to determine how
the Illovo group either in Zambia or in South Africa on these third of the payments made by Zambia Sugar to the much tax is paid on these payments elsewhere in the world.
large streams of cross-border income. At most it appears it company being declared in Ireland as (taxable) income.75 Just 2% of these payments have been paid in Irish tax
can only be a tiny proportion of the fees much smaller When ActionAid telephoned Illovo Sugar Irelands registered since 2007, since only a third of the fees appear to be
than 28% of these payments, and much smaller than the address an office block in Dublins International Financial booked in Ireland as income (taxable at 12.5%).80 Illovo
15-20% that these Irish-routed fees have shaved off their Services Centre the telephone operator had never heard Sugar told us that the rest of the money paid by Zambia
Zambian tax bill since 2007. of the company.76 Nor had the receptionist when ActionAid Sugar to the Irish company is for directly attributable costs
visited the building in person.77 Instead, the office block that Illovo Sugar Ireland incurred on Zambia Sugars behalf
To determine whether such high-value services are being houses an entirely separate company services provider, (for example, expatriate salary costs and third party
provided from Ireland itself, or simply routed through this which services many different companies. services).81 However, money also appears to be paid on
tax-convenient jurisdiction, ActionAid sought to establish from Ireland to other group subsidiaries, including Illovos
the nature and scale of the services for which fees are One of their staff members, responsible for filing documents South African headquarters, Illovo Sugar Ltd; and to a
being paid. We found it difficult to do so. relating to Illovo Sugar Ireland, told us unequivocally that the Jersey-registered company, Illovo Project Services Ltd,
management side of it would be based in South Africa. where any profits booked there presumably enjoy Jerseys
Associated British Foods told us that Illovo Sugar Ireland When asked to answer some due diligence questions famous 0% corporate tax rate.82 In addition, ABF has not
provides real servicesThe company employs some 20 relating to the company, she confirmed that Illovo Sugar disclosed whether its Jersey company is also taxed in
individuals [it] facilitates various services required by Ireland had no staff physically based in Ireland, that there Illovos South African tax bill.
When our auditors turn up, they

dont have any information.
Zambian tax authority adviser
Going, going, gone
Tax haven secrecy prevents us from finding out what the ABF told us that this company provides trade contacts with instructions go from Mauritius but then the physical part of
Jersey company does, or how much profit it makes, as its customers in the European sugar market, transportation of it can go direct to the countries concerned.90
accounts are not publicly available. Associated British sugar to Europe, foreign currency management and the
Foods told us that Illovo Project Services is no longer availability of cost effective credit terms It contracts with Illovo and ABF have again insisted that these transactions
operational and UK banking group Barclays, which Illovo in South Africa for the provision of specialist are not tax motivated since any profit recognised in
operates nominee shareholders in Jersey for this expertise. They told us these services are provided from a Mauritius is taxed in South Africa at 28%, removing tax
subsidiary likewise told us that this company ceased to be Mauritian company because [f[inancial, political and supply advantage for the group as a whole. As before, in the
active some time ago and is in the process of being chain risk make direct sales of sugar from African producers absence of a detailed breakdown of tax paid in Mauritius
dissolved; although Illovo Sugar Irelands accounts to European customers commercially difficult, if not and South Africa, we cannot tell whether the fees received
suggest that the Jersey company received payments from impossible. Exchange control issues prevent these services from Zambia Sugar income for real operational activities,
Illovo Sugar Ireland in each of the latest three financial being provided directly from South Africa.86 according to its parent company are in fact included in the
years (2010-12).83 South African tax charge of the parent company, but we do
It remains unclear why contracts for Zambia Sugars know that the entire tax liability of this parent company has
While this complex and contradictory network of exports cannot be arranged from Zambia itself, which has in recent years been much less than 28% of these fees
transactions makes it difficult to determine the substance no foreign exchange controls. Nonetheless if the group alone. And as with the payments to Ireland, whether or not
and ultimate destination of Zambia Sugars payments to does indeed have an international sales agency in tax is paid in other countries on taxable profits shifted out
Ireland, we can nonetheless assess the straightforward Mauritius then its staff must be busy. ABF did not respond of Zambia into offshore sister companies does not remove
losses to Zambia from offshoring these expensive to our question about how many staff this Mauritian Zambias own tax loss. In this case, however, there is
management functions: we estimate that payments to company had, and where they were located.87 ActionAid additional protection that shows the critical importance of
Zambia Sugars Irish sister company, deducted from its own called the director of Illovos Mauritius holding company, preserving Zambias share of tax on cross-border income.
taxable profits and avoiding 15-20% Zambian withholding Illovo Group Holdings Ltd, seeking to undertake a survey Zambian law, like that of many other countries, imposes a
tax, have reduced the companys Zambian tax bill by of Illovo staff in the country. He told us that Illovo Group 15% withholding tax on such commission fees before they
around US$1.2 million (ZK6 billion) a year: US$7.4 million Marketing Services Ltd had no personnel in Mauritius, and leave the country. Since 2007, Zambia Sugar has paid just
(ZK32.6 billion) since 2007.84 that we should ask for the companys staff in South Africa. 15% tax on its profits anyway (see Step 4, page 25). At the
He said, here its only a small office, you would want to moment tax-deductible commission fees from Zambia to
An Indian Ocean shopping trip, and a future tax contact the head office in Durban. When asked how many Mauritius seem unlikely to generate a major tax advantage,
advantage? staff the whole Illovo group had in Mauritius, he told us, or a Zambian tax loss.
Dublin isnt the only far-flung location from where Zambia one its me.88
Sugar appears to get services from sister companies. This protection of Zambias taxing rights is fragile, however.
Since 2011 Zambia Sugar has begun to pay even bigger In addition to apparently being the only Illovo staff member In 2011, just as Zambia Sugars payments to Mauritius
fees US$3 million (ZK15.2 billion) annually as an in Mauritius, he also finds time to be the director of four began, Mauritius and Zambia signed a new tax treaty.91 The
export agency commission to Illovo Group Marketing other separate companies, including Mauritius largest treaty has received little public attention, and we cannot see
Services Ltd, a sister company registered in 2000 in the insurance company.89 He explained helpfully that, the its terms until after it is ratified by Zambias cabinet and
Indian Ocean island of Mauritius, where companies are [Illovo] companies are incorporated in offshore sector in parliament. But the tax treaties that Mauritius has previously
taxed at just 3%.85 Mauritius, while confirming that management, procurement signed with other African countries deny those countries
and other functions take place in South Africa. The the right to tax income such as commission fees paid from
Going, going, gone
Zambia to Mauritius.92 Before it ratifies this treaty, Zambias Business park at Cybercity, Ebene,
MPs and ministers must ensure that it does not similarly Mauritius, where Illovo Group Marketing
deny taxing rights to Zambia. Otherwise profit shifted from Services Ltd is registered.
Zambian companies to Mauritius subsidiaries could PHOTO: Evan Bench/Flickr/Creative Commons
significantly impact Zambias future tax take.
In Zambia Sugars case, if Zambian taxing rights are denied

under the new treaty and the companys payments to
Mauritius continue on the same scale, we estimate that
these payments could reduce the companys future
Zambian tax bill by as much as US$300,000 (ZK1.5 billion)
a year.93
Going, going, gone
Transfer pricing: from footnote to fury

The practice of multinational companies lowering their simpler or more discretionary rules for determining the have any information, according to one ZRA
tax bills by making large internal payments to related price of intra-group fees and payments.98 adviser.102 As with an employee claiming business
companies in tax havens used to be an obscure expenses with no receipt, tax inspectors can only take
Others argue that a fundamentally new method needs
economic footnote. But austerity and scandal in recent the companys description of the transaction and its
to be found to divide up taxable profits between the
years have propelled the issue onto the political agenda price at face value. ZRA officials told us that
different countries in which a multinational operates,
and the front pages in both Zambia and the UK. introducing legislation requiring taxpayers to keep
perhaps using a formula that allocates profits according
contemporaneous documentation is a priority.103
In the UK, faced with a torrent of news stories alleging to the location of a companys real-life sales, staff and
that some of the highest profile companies in the assets, and simply ignoring intra-group trades and Secondly, a transfer pricing transaction always has
world, including Starbucks, Google and Amazon, are transactions. Such unitary taxation is currently being one end in another country. The ZRA often cannot get
using payments to subsidiaries in tax havens to considered by the European Union. Expanding unitary corroborating information from that other country to
virtually opt out of paying corporation tax, UK taxation internationally would probably require an check the reality of the transaction, particularly if that
Chancellor George Osborne has promised a crackdown international agreement, in which it is unclear whether country is a tax haven.104 Stronger international legal
on the way that some multinational businesses are developing countries interests would be protected.99 agreements are needed to compel information
able to shift the taxation of their profits away from the exchange across borders. The IMF, OECD,105 UN and
These are big-picture proposals for a large and global
jurisdictions where they are being generated.94 World Bank have also recommended that developed
problem. Policy makers within the ZRA, however, told
countries such as the UK should unilaterally help to
Zambias 2011 election likewise saw heated public us there was much they could do with their existing
identify abusive tax transactions undertaken abroad
debate about whether the large mining companies that legal tools and capacities, if they had access to adequate
by their own taxpayers or corporations, and help to
dominate the Zambian economy are paying their fair information. Existing tax law in Zambia, like many
recover any taxes due to those developing countries.106
share, amidst allegations that at least one London- other countries, already gives the tax authority some
listed mining company had avoided some US$120 powers to counteract transactions designed to avoid or Finally, aside from making it hard for tax authorities
million (ZK600 billion) of tax annually by under- evade tax: not only through the (difficult) process of to challenge the prices of such tax-reducing
pricing minerals sold to sister companies in tax comparing prices paid to tax haven sister companies transactions, the current international tax system
havens, and being over-charged for goods and services with an independent arms length price,100 but also provides an incentive for multinational companies to
from other sister companies.95 Zambian Revenue through broader powers allowing the tax authority to locate high-value functions, intellectual property and
Authority (ZRA) officials told us that revisions to disregard transactions for tax purposes if there are expertise in low-tax jurisdictions, outside developing
Zambias transfer pricing laws, intended to ensure reasonable grounds to believe that a transaction is countries.
that intra-company transactions are not used to avoid purely or mainly for tax avoidance.101
If multinationals are truly committed to developing
tax, is under active discussion.96 Separately, one
Armed with these legal powers, though, Zambian tax the economies of the developing countries where they
adviser to the ZRA was more candid about the
inspectors are unable to access critical evidence. invest and make their profits, they should be
challenges they face: On transfer pricing, [the ZRA]
Firstly, Zambian tax law does not require companies to committed to locating functions such as management,
are, pardon my language, getting f***ed.97 Debates
keep or produce documentation of their transfer pricing procurement, research and product development in
are now raging internationally about how to tackle
evidence of the transaction, its rationale, or the way those developing countries themselves, rather than
this global problem.
fees and payments to affiliated companies have been offshoring them elsewhere; and to building the
A growing number of countries, including emerging calculated. The documentation is prepared in the UK, necessary skills and expertise locally.
powers like Brazil and China, are seeking to stop Germany, wherever, and the companies dont have to
taxable profits being siphoned off by imposing either provide it here. When our auditors turn up, they dont
Why would a loan to expand a sugar factory in southern

Zambia actually be made to a company registered in a
Dublin office block over 8,000 kilometres away?
Going, going, gone
Figure 5: The Dublin dog-leg: following the money
Step 2: A Dublin dog-leg

In November 2007, Zambia Sugar borrowed US$70 million Ordinary loan The dog-leg
(ZK280.5 billion) from two commercial banks, using the
PHOTO: SIMON WICKS

money to expand its huge sugar estate in Zambias
Southern Province by 50%; and to double the size and No withholding tax
PHOTO: SIMON WICKS

capacity of its Nakambala sugar factory.107 The loan, at an
interest rate of over 17%, came from the US bank Citibank, st
and from South Africas Standard Bank. This loan has ere
Int loa
n
generated some US$29.4 million (ZK135 billion) in interest m Citibank & Standard Bank
0
$7 London branches
payments.108
Citibank & Standard Bank
London branches
The loan looks local: it is denominated in Zambian currency Illovo Sugar Ireland,
(kwacha), secured on Zambia Sugars estate and assets in International Financial
Mazabuka, and repaid via a bank account at the downtown Services Centre, Dublin
$70m loan
Lusaka branch of Citibank Zambia.109 But on paper the loan
Interest
Withholding
has been sent on an 8,000-kilometre dog-leg via Ireland, tax to Zambian
with the banks actually lending the money to the now- Government $7
(10%) 0m
familiar Illovo Sugar Ireland, which then makes an identical loa
Int n
matching loan to its sister company, Zambia Sugar. ere
st
Why would a loan to expand a sugar factory in southern

No withholding tax
Zambia actually be made to a company registered in a
Dublin office block over 8,000 kilometres away? ABF told
us straightforwardly that in the absence of this structure,
Zambia Sugar
[i]nterest on loans to Zambia Sugar from such banks would
have been subject to [Zambian] withholding tax. The banks Zambia Sugar
would therefore have increased their interest charge to
compensate for this.110 Zambia Sugar Plc and Citibank
stressed the benefits of jobs and local economic growth Illovo Sugar Ireland bank account
(No. 100164045) at Citibank Zambia,
generated by Zambia Sugars loan-financed expansion, and Cha Cha Cha road, Lusaka
likewise confirmed that no tax was liable on the interest

payable on the intercompany loan from Illovo Sugar Ireland
We estimate that dog-legging the loan via

Ireland may have deprived the Zambian
exchequer of up to US$3 million.
Going, going, gone
to Zambia Sugar, increasing the affordability of the overall

financing and therefore the amount of investment Zambia
Sugar was able to make in the country.111
In short: while the multinational company enjoys a cheaper

loan, financial engineering ensures that Zambia is denied
any of its share of tax on the hefty income that the loan has
generated for the overseas banks financing the companys
expansion.
Zambias share of this tax ordinarily levied at 15% on

cross-border interest payments, in common with many
other countries is in this case cancelled thanks to the
peculiar terms of the Ireland-Zambia tax treaty (see box,
page 24). If the US and South African banks had made
the loan directly to Zambia Sugar in the normal way
from the US and South Africa then this 15% withholding
tax would be fully payable.112 Even making the loan directly
from these banks UK branches the origin of the loans in
Loan repayments are made through Illovo
this case would only lower this withholding tax to 10% Sugar Irelands bank account at this Citibank
under the terms of the Zambia-UK tax treaty.113 But if, at branch on Cha Cha Cha Road in Lusaka,
8,000km from Ireland.
least on paper, interest is repaid to an Irish company, then
the Zambia-Ireland tax treaty denies Zambia any right to tax
interest payments, or most other international payments
from Zambia to Ireland. Routing the loan via Ireland thus stacked against Zambia though they are, were only ever identical interest payments to the commercial banks.114
cancels Zambian withholding tax on these payments. intended to apply to transactions between Zambia and Ireland usually levies a 20% withholding tax on overseas
Ireland. But through the dog-leg, the Illovo group and its interest payments, but these are generally waived for
Routing international payments and transactions through creditor banks have engineered their affairs so that the payments to companies resident in other European Union
a conduit entity in a third jurisdiction, in order to take uniquely skewed Zambia-Ireland treaty effectively applies to countries,115 as in this case where the US and South African
advantage of the unbalanced terms of a tax treaty with transactions between Zambia and its US and South African banks have made the expansion loan from Citibanks
that third jurisdiction, is a process sometimes called treaty creditors: something the treaty was never intended to do. London branch and Standard Banks London subsidiary.116
shopping. Treaty shopping allows an unfair tax treaty with
just one country to be exploited by companies undertaking Once out of Zambia, these interest payments are also likely We estimate that this strategy of dog-legging the loan via
transactions with any country. to get a smooth tax ride back to the banks. No significant Ireland may have deprived the Zambian exchequer
corporation tax is paid on the interest income in Ireland, of up to US$3 million (ZK13.5 billion) in withholding
In this case, the tax benefits of the Zambia-Ireland treaty, since that income is immediately paid on to cover near- taxes.117
Going, going, gone
Tax treaties: a fair slice of the pie?

It may seem strange that Zambia cant always decide direction, since developing countries like Zambia are
how much tax it levies on income generated in Zambia. mainly importers of investment and services. This
Welcome to the world of Double Taxation Conventions means that taxable cross-border income generally flows
(DTCs) or tax treaties agreements between countries outwards from Zambia to investors and companies
on how to divide up taxing rights over cross-border based in wealthy countries or tax havens. Thus when a
income. developed country or tax haven negotiates a tax treaty
with a developing country like Zambia, it has a clear
When an Irish company earns income from Zambia interest in trying to limit or even cancel the taxing
for example by providing a service, or lending money rights of the source country, which will generally
to a Zambian company both Zambia and Ireland will reserve more taxing rights to itself. And as a potential
want, legitimately, to tax that income. To prevent source of investment for the developing country, the
income being unfairly taxed twice, and to attract developed country will often have the economic and
international investment, pairs of countries sign political muscle to get its way.
bilateral treaties which set limits for how much a
given piece of income can be taxed by the source The Ireland-Zambia tax treaty, signed over 40 years Pupils at Nakambala Basic School, next to the Zambia Sugar estate,
country of the income, and by the residence country ago, is an unusually serious example of such imbalance. in their unfinished classroom.
of the incomes recipient. These limits over-rule any It is one of only two tax treaties that Zambia has signed PHOTO: Jason Larkin/ActionAid
tax rate that a country may otherwise decide to apply that deny the right to tax any of the outflows of cross-
to cross-border income. For example, Zambia border income normally subject to withholding taxes.119
generally levies a 15% withholding tax on interest colonial-era signature in 1955 has continued to restrict
payments made to non-residents. In its 2012/13 Not only does this tend to nakedly boost Irish revenues source country taxing quite heavily, is currently
budget the Zambian government announced that this at the expense of Zambia ironically for a country under consideration by the Zambian cabinet.121
would rise to 20% from 2013. But the Netherlands- which is one of Irelands nine long-term development
Zambia tax treaty, for instance, limits source country partners but it also allows multinational companies to But rebalancing these treaties takes political will on
tax on interest payments to just 10%. So regardless of treaty shop, as we have seen, using Ireland as a both sides, and can be difficult even for much more
what the Zambian parliament decides, Zambia is not tax-free conduit for transactions between Zambia and powerful countries than Zambia. India, for example,
permitted to levy any more than 10% tax on interest other countries. While Ireland gives aid to the Zambian haemorrhages an estimated US$600 million in
payments from Zambian to Dutch companies; nor can government with one hand, Zambian government revenue each year through loopholes in the crippling
the Netherlands tax interest payments from Dutch to revenues flow out again thanks to its Irish tax treaty. India-Mauritius tax treaty, and has been trying
Zambian companies at more than 10%.118 without success since 2006 to persuade Mauritius to
ZRA officials told us that they hope to renegotiate renegotiate.122 Yet despite Indias predominant
This seems fair at first sight. But the problem is that several outdated tax treaties to make source and economic power in the region, Indias finance ministry
between developed and developing countries, cross- residence more balanced.120 For example, a continues to report unwillingness on the part of
border income generally flows predominantly in one renegotiated UK-Zambia tax treaty, which since its Mauritius to cooperate in addressing this problem.123
Going, going, gone
Figure 6: A nest of tax haven intermediaries

Note: Structure as of 2007. For subsequent
Illovo Sugar Ltd
Step 3: Tax-free takeaway
changes to this structure, see Figure 7. This
(South Africa) diagram shows the legal shareholding
structure Ilovo Sugar has confirmed to
ActionAid that they are the ultimate beneficial
owner of Illovo Project Services Ltd.
Illovo Group Holdings
From the perspective of a tax-planning accountant or Ltd Barclays Wealth Barclays Wealth
lawyer, the final inconvenience comes when a company (Mauritius) Nominees (Jersey) Ltd Corporate Services
(Jersey) Ltd
distributes its profits back to its parent companies and
Illovo Group Marketing
other shareholders. Most countries levy a withholding tax Ltd Illovo Project
(Mauritius) Services Ltd
on these dividends, particularly when they are paid to (Jersey)
overseas shareholders and thereby take the companys
Illovo Sugar Ireland
profits out of the country for good. But by arranging the (Ireland)
Illovo groups structure with a few twists and turns around Tax haven companies
some tax havens and advantageous tax treaties, it appears Zambia Sugar Plc
that the group can take Zambian profits home to Illovo (Zambia) African companies
Sugar Ltd perfectly legally without much fear of the
Zambian taxman.
Zambia Sugar is actually owned by Illovo Sugar Ltd the back to the Illovo group parent company. Figure 7 explains since Illovo Sugar Ireland in practice bought its own
central parent company of all ABFs African sugar operations how.125 Zambian subsidiary: giving the new Dutch company a
via a complicated nest of intermediate companies in 203m interest-free loan, which the Dutch company then
Mauritius, Ireland, the Netherlands and Jersey. This structure The only likely bump in this otherwise smooth ride of profits used to buy Zambia Sugar from the same Irish company
provides a short master-class in international tax planning.124 out of Zambia to its parent company, Illovo Sugar Ltd in that had just loaned it the money.128
South Africa, is the possible irritation of Irelands withholding
Until 2007, Zambia Sugars immediate holding company tax, normally levied at 20% on dividends paid to foreign Confused? The upshot of all this internal reshuffling
the company that owns the majority of its shares was companies.126 But in June 2007, shortly after ABF acquired transferring the ownership of Zambia Sugar from one Illovo
Illovo Sugar Ireland. Having an Irish holding company should the Illovo group, a way round this seems to have been found holding company in Ireland to another in the Netherlands
allow Zambia Sugar to take advantage once again of the too, by transferring the immediate ownership of Zambia may be an even smoother tax ride for Zambia Sugars
Zambia-Ireland tax treaty, which denies Zambia the right to Sugar from an Irish to a Dutch subsidiary. The Irish dividends. The cooperatief, a peculiar legal entity previously
tax any dividends distributed by Zambian companies to Irish subsidiary sold Zambia Sugar to a new holding company used mainly by Dutch farmers cooperatives and some
companies. Congenial tax laws in Ireland and Mauritius also registered in the Netherlands, Illovo Sugar Cooperatief U.A. charitable organisations, was discovered by tax-planning
mean that corporate income tax, even at low Irish and This sale appears to have been tax-free in Ireland, likely accountants and lawyers around 2007, when they began to
Mauritian tax rates, is unlikely to be paid on the dividends as because Irish tax law provides that capital gains of Irish market a raft of tax schemes using Dutch co-ops as a
they pass through. This structure may therefore establish a companies from selling shares in other companies are not conduit to avoid taxes on dividends.129
nearly tax-free conduit to repatriate profits from Zambia taxed.127 And the move didnt cost the Illovo group anything,
Going, going, gone
They work like this: the owners of a Dutch cooperatief are

classed as its members rather than its shareholders. So the Figure 7: An easy ride?
income they receive from the company is not classified as Taxes on dividends paid by Zambia Sugar to its holding company
being paid to them as dividends, as with normal
shareholders. Instead, profits shifted into the cooperatief
automatically become owned by its members (in this case Zambia Sugar Plc (Zambia)
not real human beings, but Illovo companies in Mauritius Dividends paid out to shareholders Before 2007: 0% withholding tax
and parent companies. Lowered from usual 15% by Ireland-
and Jersey). Using this loophole in Dutch tax law, profits Zambia tax treaty
received by a cooperatief may leave the Netherlands
After 2007: 5% withholding tax
tax-free.130
Illovo Sugar Ireland (Ireland) Illovo Sugar Cooperatief U.A. Lowered from usual 15% by
[Swapped in 2007] (Netherlands) Netherlands-Zambia tax treaty
Under this new structure, Zambia may be able to levy at
0% income tax: probably because Foreign dividends are exempt from Dutch
least some withholding tax on Zambia Sugars dividends Irish tax law deems the dividends to corporate income tax when received from
at the start of their low-tax journey out of the country. But have been taxed once already as a subsidiary in a jurisdiction with a similar
profits in Zambia which cancels any tax rate (the participation exemption). Before 2007: possible 20%
the terms of yet another out-of-date tax treaty this time further tax due in Ireland. withholding tax
signed in 1977 between Zambia and the Netherlands still
deny Zambia the right to apply any more than 5% tax to After 2007: likely 0% withholding
tax due to cooperatief structure
dividends paid out to qualifying Dutch companies, rather Illovo Group Marketing Services Ltd Illovo Group Holdings Ltd (Mauritius)
(Mauritius)
than the normal 15%.131 3% income tax
[Swapped in 2007]
3% income tax
In short, by shuffling the ownership of Zambia Sugar 0% withholding tax
between different European tax havens with a few strokes of Mauritius levies no withholding
a pen, the likely tax liability on its dividends may be reduced Illovo Sugar Ltd (South Africa) taxes on dividends
from 20% to 5%. 0% tax: foreign dividends from related

companies exempt from further tax.
Zambia Sugars profits can now be taken out of Zambia

and back home at an extremely low tax rate. While the
opacity of the holding companies in Mauritius and Jersey
prevent us from seeing how much tax has been paid
worldwide on this stream of dividends, we can estimate taxed further in the UK, since dividends received by UK demonstrating that this structure was not created to avoid
the likely Zambian tax loss due to these two ingenious companies from their foreign subsidiaries have been exempt tax.134 But dividends paid directly from Zambia to South
holding structures. We estimate these structures may have from UK tax since July 2009.133 Africa are taxed in Zambia at 15%, a withholding tax which
avoided as much as US$7.4 million (ZK32 billion) of we are arguing this structure avoids. Likewise we are not
Zambian withholding tax since 2007.132 The profits received ABF told us that dividends paid from the Netherlands to arguing that this structure was entirely created to avoid tax,
by Illovo Sugars South African headquarters will be taxed Mauritius are taxed at 3%. Had they been paid directly to but that it has this effect.
there; but once paid on to ABF, they are unlikely to be be South Africa there would have been no tax to pay, further
Information on the tax breaks granted to

big companies is also by law supposed to
be available to the public, but in practice
Going, going, gone we found that it remains secret.
information provided.135 ZDA officials told us that more Zambia Sugar is a good example. The company has
recently they had begun to audit Copperbelt investments enjoyed rising income and profits in recent years. Yet
that were granted tax incentives, and identified a small despite this, since 2008 the company has simply not had to
Step 4: Get your own tax haven number of companies that had not delivered the promised
projects.136 But even if a company does not deliver the
pay the usual Zambian corporate tax rate of 35%. Instead,
it has been permitted to pay just 15% on all its profits.143
project or investment for which it has enjoyed a tax break, The tax savings generated by this rate change are difficult
The final step in shrinking Zambia Sugars tax liabilities is little action is taken, since the ZDA says it wants to remain to calculate precisely without knowing what the companys
the result not of ingenious tax planning through foreign light touch with investors. Its not something where we taxable profits have been in years when large capital
tax havens, but the consequences of Zambias own tax say you havent done this, here are the penalties, ZDA allowances have been claimed; but the companys own
policies. officials told us. If it doesnt happen, we dialogue, see if accounts indicate that the rate change reduced the
there is something we can do. We are investor-receptive.137 companys tax liabilities by some 10.3% just in 2008, and
Both internal and external pressure to attract foreign a further 4.9% in 2012 a saving of some US$3 million
investment at any cost means that developing countries are Tax breaks themselves are granted to companies not by (ZK13.5 billion) in those years alone. In future years, when
caught between two competing pressures: the desire to the Zambian tax authority but by the investment promotion capital allowances are not being claimed, if Zambia Sugar
offer tax breaks to investors, and the need to raise scarce agency itself, the ZDA. As ZDA officials told us, Everything continues to be at least as profitable as it now is, we
tax revenues. starts and ends with the ZDA.138 ZDA officials confirmed estimate that the rate change will lose the Zambian revenue
that the ZRA has never successfully contested a decision authority some US$3.6 million (ZK18 billion) a year, and
In Zambia, as elsewhere, the balance of institutional power to grant a company a tax break, and that very few rising with rising profits.144
is tipped firmly towards investors and incentives. Zambias companies who apply are refused tax incentives.139 Despite
investment-friendly tax regime has granted tax breaks to the ZRA being nominally represented on the board that This is the result of a challenge mounted in 2005 by Zambia
multinational companies that have essentially cancelled approves or denies tax incentives to companies, in practice Sugars tax advisers, who argued to the ZRA that the
their Zambian tax bills for years on end, without checks that this approval has been delegated to the ZDAs management entirety of the companys income should be considered for
they are even delivering the promised business activities team, away from the boards scrutiny.140 Information on the tax purposes as farming income, thus qualifying for a
and investments in return. tax breaks granted to big companies is also by law special 15% tax rate.145 Previously, only the small amount
supposed to be available to the public, but in practice we of profit attributed to the companys cane-growing qualified
As a result, there is little clear evidence of investment, jobs found that it remains secret (see below). And ZDA and ZRA for this special farming tax rate.
and growth generated by such tax incentives. Companies officials told us that the government has no estimates of
qualifying for special tax breaks in return for new the amount of tax forgone from its tax incentives and tax Even these cane-growing profits are notional. The
investments have in theory to submit a confidential annual holidays.141 Revenue authority officials (commenting company said at the tax tribunal hearing that followed its
Enterprise Performance Form describing their investment generally, not specifically about Zambia Sugar) said that, appeal, premised on the notion of a company selling to
progress. These annual returns are supposed to be audited sometimes you find they [the companies] are asking for itself through Zambia Sugar notionally buying its own
by the national investment promotion agency, the Zambian incentives that are not at all permitted in the schedules [of sugar cane.146 Likewise Zambia Sugars own accounts have
Development Agency (ZDA) the same agency that grants the law].142 Some tax breaks are also drawn so widely in consistently attributed the vast majority of its profits to
the tax breaks in the first place. An external report Zambian law that companies far from their original target sugar production, not cane-growing (figure 8).147 Yet Zambia
commissioned on the ZDA in fact found that currently the can qualify for them. Sugar nonetheless told the tax tribunal in 2007 that the
agency does not carry out any audits to verify the higher-tax processing of sugar cane into sugar is incidental
Going, going, gone
Figure 8: Factory or farmer? to the main activity [of the company].148 The tribunal Further tax windfalls were to come for Zambia Sugar. The
accepted the companys overall argument that its profits costs of borrowing and spending on projects like expanding
Zambia Sugar profits from cane-growing
derived 100% from its farming operation and not really the Nakambala mill and sugar estate are usually expected
and industrial sugar production, 2007-12
from sugar production, and slashed its tax rate in half. to reduce companies profits in the short term. In practice
% profits from cane growing % profits from sugar production Since the tax rate change was retrospective, the Zambian Zambia Sugars profitability is not suffering post-expansion,
Tax Authority was also forced to pay back some ZK24.6 and the company already showed record profits in 2012,
billion (US$6.2 million) in 2008 and 2009 for previous years even after the costs of its loan repayments.152 Nonetheless,
120% tax payments. under a special regime intended to encourage investment
by compensating for a possible short-term dip in profits,
100% Lusaka-based tax experts we spoke to were surprised by the Zambia Development Agency (ZDA) has granted
80%
Zambia Sugars successful suit, since the 15% farming rate Zambia Sugar a further concessionary tax rate on income
was originally introduced to help domestic farmers, and has deriving from its expanded mill and estate.153 The second
60% previously been denied to commercial farms seeking a tax break, which has not yet been used, will likely shrink the
similar blanket low rate on their profits.149 Yet this tax break companys tax bill for years to come, despite the company
40%
is now being enjoyed by Zambias biggest multinational already being back at record profit levels since the
20%
agribusiness, over three-quarters of whose profits by investment.
Zambia Sugars own admission derives not from growing
0% and selling sugar cane, but from industrial commodity Troublingly, we do not know the precise terms of this
production in its Nakambala factory (Figure 8). second tax break, or what investments and jobs Zambia
-20%
Sugar has promised to deliver in return. Zambian law
-40% ABF told us that Any changes to the tax rates following requires the ZDA to keep a public register of the investment
2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2007-2012 the Zambia Revenue Tribunal ruling in 2007 should be certificates it awards to companies (the key qualifying
considered a reflection of due process and the rule of law, document for a tax break), and details of the conditions and
Source: Zambia Sugar annual accounts 2007-12)
and should not be criticised. Instead praise should be given incentives granted to the company. Any member of the
to an open and honest system... A key component of any public is by law permitted to view these documents.154 But
developing democracy is its application of the rule of when ActionAid asked to see Zambia Sugars investment
law.150 One ZRA advisor blamed tax incentives drawn too certificate and supporting documents, ZDA officials were
widely in outdated Zambian tax law: This is bad design: initially not aware that they were supposed to be public.155
we could have a revenue threshold on the rate so that They subsequently confirmed our legal right to see them,156
massive companies cant qualify for it.151 Yet instead, in but told us they were unable to separate out public-access
2012 the farming tax rate was decreased further to just documents from confidential ones in the relevant files.157
10%, which in future years will push Zambia Sugars tax At the time of writing, ActionAid has still not been granted
rate in Zambia below some of the rates its sister companies access. ABF also declined to disclose to us the terms of
enjoy in tax havens. this additional special tax incentive.158
The secretary-general of Senegals finance

ministry called excessive tax incentives
a budgetary cancer.
Going, going, gone
Zambia Sugar may have won this extra tax break just in
time. In late 2011 new Finance Minister Alexander Are tax incentives working for developing countries?
Chikwanda told parliament that the process of granting
additional incentives... provides discretion and lacks Many countries are engaged in a race to the bottom investors can on paper get [tax] incentives, but in
transparency, thereby creating opportunities for corruption, to attract business and investment with low tax rates practice we dont get the US$500,000 threshold. But
and proposed to remove the powers of the ZDA to grant and ever more generous tax breaks for multinational smaller investments in some cases can have much
discretionary incentives to prevent leakages in the tax businesses. greater impact like a ferry in a remote area rather
system.159 There is of course no suggestion of corruption than a bridge in a busy city.164
in Zambia Sugars case. But while the Zambian government For resource-rich but capital-poor developing countries,
is seeking to limit such discretionary, opaque tax breaks in pressures to compete in this low-tax race are even The tide, though, is turning towards tougher
the future, Zambia Sugar can continue to enjoy its own more intense including pressure from international accountability and tighter limits for tax incentives, as
special tax regime for several years yet.160 agencies like the World Bank, whose highly influential developing countries become more openly concerned
Doing Business rankings award countries each year about the decimation of their corporate tax bases. At
for the fitness of their business climate, in part ranking the most recent meeting of the African Tax
countries more highly simply for lowering their tax Administration Forum, an Africa-wide network of tax
rates.161 authorities, the secretary-general of Senegals finance
ministry called excessive tax incentives a budgetary
Yet there is limited evidence that tax breaks and cancer.165 His government calculates that Senegal
incentives, like those granted to Zambia Sugar, actually loses over 6% of its entire GDP to tax incentives.166
attract foreign investment. Econometric evidence from
the World Bank itself has shown that when foreign In Zambia, where the low tax take from hugely
investors are making decisions about where to invest, profitable mining companies became a major election
factors other than tax may be more influential, and tax issue in 2011, the new governments first full budget in
rates only become key to investment decisions where a October 2012 noted falling tax take due to a
favourable non-tax investment climate already exists: proliferation of inefficient tax incentives and
the infrastructure, education and security for which announced a complete review of all tax incentives
tax revenues themselves are needed.162 Even the during 2013.167
International Monetary Fund has suggested that wide
tax breaks and tax holidays are a particularly
ineffective way of promoting investment.163
Domestic investors and businesses also find it harder to

compete with multinationals benefitting from large tax
breaks. As Yusuf Dodia, Director of Zambias Private
Grade 5 class at Nakambala Basic
school, Mazabuka, Zambia.
Sector Development Association, told us, domestic
Unlike his multinational employer, Isaac

is unable to structure his loans through
an offshore tax haven.
Covering the gap: life as a

cane-cutter
To function properly, schools and health service
needs sustainable tax revenues to pay for ongoing
costs medicines, fuel, nurses salaries. At present,
despite the companys own (welcome) provision of
health services on its Mazabuka estate, some of
Zambia Sugars own employees are having to cover
the gap themselves.
Isaac Banda168 is a (tax-paying) cane-cutter who has

worked for Zambia Sugar for 10 years on seasonal
contracts. Last year he was called to his daughters
school to find her having a severe asthma attack.
We had to take a taxi [to the government hospital], but

the doctor was not there, so we had to take the child to
a private surgery. We paid 40 pin [ZK40,000] for the
X-ray and 50 pin [ZK50,000] for medicine.
As a seasonal worker like more than half the Zambia

Sugar workforce169 Isaac says that his family is not A cane-cutter harvesting sugar
cane on the Mazabuka estate.
eligible to use the Zambia Sugar clinic nearby (the
company makes a monthly deduction from his wages PHOTO: Jason Larkin/ActionAid
for his own medical treatment there).170 ABF told us

that this is because Seasonal workers usually return With overtime and bonuses, Isaac earns around via Zambia Sugars payroll from a local lender, Bayport
home annually when their contracts are complete. ZK2,212,000 a month during the cutting season.172 Financial Services, negotiated by the workers union.
Their homes are often situated far from the estate and With rising food prices in Zambia, basic provisions for a Repayments and interest are deducted from Isaacs
they generally do not bring their dependants [sic] and family of six now cost around ZK3,500,000.173 So, along salary: his payslip, seen by ActionAid, shows that in the
families to live with them. In Mazabuka, however, we with other seasonal Zambia Sugar workers ActionAid previous month, ZK1,140,000 (half his income) was
nonetheless met many seasonal workers like Isaac who has met, Isaac borrows money to cover the costs of deducted as loan repayment and interest. You take a
live permanently, with their families and children, close medical care and basic provisions. Unlike his credit from somebody, or a loan from Bayport, thats
to the estate. Indeed the headmaster of Nakambala multinational employer, however, Isaac is unable to the only one where you can make your chap [son] go to
Basic School, next to the estate, told us that most of his structure his loans through an offshore tax haven (see school.
pupils parents were seasonal Zambia Sugar workers.171 Step 2). Instead, he takes out monthly loans arranged
The cost of making education free for a schoolchild

in Mazabuka is equivalent to the tax we estimate
Zambia Sugar avoids every two minutes.
Education is preparation for education in Zambia, but then that free education needs Zambia Sugar has made donations to some government
to be supplemented by the parents. Buying books, schools around its estate, but this cannot replace
tomorrow: Nakambala Basic buying the uniform itself they struggle to do that. The adequate, sustainable government funding for all
School people in here are the [seasonally employed] cane- schools. The Zambian central education budget is still
cutters. When it is finished they are off-crop, they lose only able to provide US$77 per pupil a year, and so in
Cane-cutter Isaac Bandas children go to Nakambala employment. most schools money for school repairs and upkeep have
Basic School in Mazabuka town, on the edge of the to come from parents fees.176 The typical cost of these
Zambia Sugar estate. Most of the schools pupils have Mr Sumatama is surprised to hear about the level of fees the cost of making education free for a schoolchild
family members who are Zambia Sugar employees, Zambia Sugars tax payments. If we knew that is what in Mazabuka is equivalent to the Zambian tax we
from cane-cutters to irrigation workers, and many is happening, I think people would have been [up] in estimate Zambia Sugar avoids through tax haven
will go on to form the companys future workforce. arms with Zambia Sugar. Its very unfair. Zambia Sugar transactions every two minutes.177
The pupils are dedicated and the staff hard-working get a lot of profit, and it is just morally good to pay back
each of them paying tax on their ZK2,500,000 on these profits, than taxing a teacher who gets just
monthly salary.174 two, three million Kwacha [US$400-US$600] We are
just neighbours to Zambia Sugar. They have that
Over 1,200 schoolchildren have to fit into just 12 responsibility, that corporate responsibility to pay back
classrooms, sitting in shifts, taught by 20 teachers. The to the community in which they are operating from.
biggest class, Grade 5 combined into a single class of
90 because one of their two teachers is on maternity The struggle to pay school fees is very real. Prisca
leave and the government does not provide funds to Monga lives at Mulonga Extension on the outskirts of
replace her has to use an unfinished classroom block Mazabuka. Her husband, a carpenter by trade, stopped
with no windows, doors or floors. Some pupils have to working for Zambia Sugar in 2003, and cannot now find
Grade 5 class in an unfinished classroom, Nakambala Basic School.
stand at the back and write with their books pressed work. Prisca sells impwa and other vegetables at the PHOTO: Jason Larkin/ActionAid
against their hands, or sit on the floor. When it rains, Mulonga Extension market, but it often isnt enough to
they often have to move out of the classrooms cover the ZK140,000 (US$28) she has to pay each
altogether. month to rent her single room, and ZK36,000 (US$7)
for electricity. As a result, it is sometimes impossible to
The classrooms have been unfinished for eight years, pay her childrens PTA fees, and her son has had
since the government grant that the school receives several recent spells off school. She says that when the
just ZK1.2m (US$240) a quarter cannot pay for new fees rise in Grades 8 and 9, if they are not able to pay,
buildings. Parents pay Parent Teacher Association the kids have to stay at home. Her neighbour James
(PTA) contributions of ZK50,000 a year per child to Nakamba,175 an irrigation supervisor on the Zambia
cover the cost of their schools repairs and new Sugar estate, says that most of the children loitering in
buildings. This small amount is still sometimes these compounds are Grade 7 dropouts. Some of them
turn to be thieves, or do piecework, to help their Prisca Mongas single-room home at Mulonga Extension on the edge of
impossible for some parents. Headmaster Mr
the Zambia Sugar Estate.
Sumatama says: There is a policy of free [basic] parents to buy food. PHOTO: Jason Larkin/ActionAid
We estimate that Irish transactions undertaken by Zambia Sugar deprive

the Zambian government of some nearly US$2 million a year enough to
cover the PTA fees for 180,000 Zambian schoolchildren.
Giving with one hand

In Mazabuka, home to Isaac and to Zambia Sugar, both Nakambala
Urban Health Centre and Nakambala Basic School were built using
aid money from the Irish government Zambia being one of
Irelands nine key development partners on which Irish overseas
aid is focused. They provide vital services under great pressure. But
limited Zambian government revenues mean that ongoing costs of
schoolbooks, new classrooms and teachers fall all too often on their
poorest users.
As the Irish Minister for Trade and Development, Joe Costello,

recently said, Irish Aid plays a vital role in helping to meet the
needs of people in some of the poorest parts of the world. However,
to achieve a sustainable solution to poverty, developing countries
need to generate their own revenues... We will continue to work at
all levels, through the United Nations, the European Union and the
OECD in particular, in addressing these important issues relating to
taxation and development.178
Yet as we have seen, Irish tax rules enable the multinational

corporation next door to these Irish-funded schools and clinics to
siphon profits out of Zambia, into and via Ireland. We estimate that
Irish transactions undertaken by Zambia Sugar deprive the Zambian
government of nearly US$2 million (ZK9.2 billion) a year enough to
cover the PTA fees for 180,000 Zambian schoolchildren. Indeed,
according to our estimates, since 2007 this single companys
transactions via Ireland may have deprived the Zambian government
of revenues equivalent to one in every 14 of Irish development aid
to Zambia during that time.179
Nakambala Urban Health Centre is funded by Irish

aid. We estimate that since 2007, the Irish tax
transactions of local employer Zambia Sugar may
have deprived Zambia of the equivalent of 1 for
every 14 of Irish aid.
PHOTO: Mike Lewis/ActionAid
The bill
Who pays the bill?
Since 2007 Zambia Sugar has paid 30% of its Table 2: The bill
operating profit to associated companies in tax
havens.180 We argue that some of these 2007-12 Payments to tax haven Estimated Zambian tax
transactions have shrunk the companys taxable companies, 2007-12 foregone, 2007-12
profits in Zambia, while others have reduced or
cancelled Zambias share of taxes on cross-
Farming rate change N/A US$3 million
border interest income and profits distributed to
(ZK13.5 billion)
its overseas parent company.
Farming rate overpayment N/A US$6.3 million
As a result of these transactions, we estimate that for previous years (ZK24.6 billion)
since 2007 some US$17.7 million (ZK78 billion) of (repayment for 2001-5)
Zambian tax has been forgone. Add the tax revenues
Management and purchasing US$47.6 million US$7.4 million
lost thanks to Zambia Sugars tax incentives and tax
fees to Ireland (ZK209 billion) (ZK32.6 billion)
rate change from 35% to 15%, and we estimate that
the bill of lost tax revenues is over US$27 million Export agency commission US$6.1 million N/A
(ZK116 billion). to Mauritius (ZK30.4 billion)
Nor does the future look bright. The tax savings from the Dog-legging interest payments US$30 million US$3 million
companys rate change and other special tax incentives via Ireland (ZK135 billion) (ZK13.5 billion)
may reduce tax liabilities by at least US$3.6m a year even if Tax-free takeaway N/A US$7.4 million
the company does not increase in profitability, and may rise (ZK32 billion)
further with growing future profit levels. And while we
cannot predict the pattern of the companys future
TOTAL US$83.7 million Incentives Future incentives
transactions with tax haven companies, if they continue at
(ZK374 billion) US$9.3 million At least US$3.6 million
current patterns then alongside the growing impact of the
(ZK38.1 billion) (ZK18 billion) per year
companys Zambian tax breaks, we estimate that tax losses
to the Zambian exchequer in the future may easily reach Tax haven transactions
some US$7 million (ZK35 billion) a year. US$17.7 million
(ZK78 billion)
Our reckoning of the Zambian tax lost to the four steps
described in this report is necessarily an estimate. It is
TOTAL ESTIMATED US$27 million
currently impossible for a shareholder, ordinary employee,
ZAMBIAN TAX FOREGONE (ZK116 billion)
member of the public or even tax inspector to tell exactly
where and how much tax ABF or most other multinationals
are paying, since most stock exchanges, governments and
It is no longer clever to come up with the

smartest tax wheeze.
James Henderson, Managing Director, PR firm Pelham
Bell Pottinger
The bill
tax authorities currently do not require most multinationals Nonetheless some workers, as we have seen, still have to seen as an evasion of corporate responsibilities. It is no
to publish details of their tax payments in all the individual borrow just to meet basic household costs; while sums longer clever to come up with the smartest tax wheeze.186
countries where they operate. Nor are private companies in equivalent to nearly a third of the firms operating profits are
most tax havens required to make basic financial accounts being paid for off-shored services from other group To what extent does ABF bear responsibility for the tax
publicly available, as they are in the UK and in theory in companies in and via tax havens. practices outlined in this report? Of course, each of the
Zambia.181 And at the time of writing, ABF itself had not Illovo group companies is an independent legal entity, and
responded to any of our detailed questions regarding the Likewise, shifting profits to other group companies in tax in Zambia Sugars case there are other shareholders that
tax practices of its subsidiary companies.182 We have havens means that those profits can be maintained within control 48.5% of its parent company Illovo Sugar Ltd. We
therefore based our estimates on an analysis of those the corporate group as a whole, while reducing the local asked ABF what control and oversight it maintained over
company accounts and other financial documentation we profits from which independent shareholders returns are the tax function of the Illovo group and its constituent
have been able to obtain from European and African paid. In Zambia Sugars case, these are mainly Zambian companies, but did not receive a substantive reply at the
countries; and the prevailing tax laws in those countries. pension funds and individual investors, which together own time of writing.187 Nonetheless, as the majority shareholder
the 18% of the company not held by Illovo. They have of Illovo Sugar Ltd, ABF is certainly in a position to
Impact on workers and local investors complained about low dividends at recent shareholder influence the tax behaviour of its subsidiary sugar
We have seen the impact of inadequate tax revenues on meetings. Again, the company has blamed this on the costs businesses, and their continued use of pre-acquisition tax
ordinary Zambians using the countrys overstretched of its expansion, its company secretary telling dissatisfied structures and practices, should it choose to do so. Chief
schools, clinics and nutrition programmes. But the tax local investors at its last AGM, once we finish repaying the executive George Weston describes ABF as highly
haven transactions described above also impact directly on loan we owe the banks, everybody will be smiling.184 diversified and managed without imposing central edicts,
workers and local investors. but nonetheless insists that ABFs business principles
Tax responsibility? extend to all sites, in all countries and at every level of our
Lower profits thanks to tax haven payments, for example, ABFs chief executive, George Weston, writes in the organisation from board member to the shop floor.188
may depress local wages. Some seasonal workers on companys most recent Corporate Responsibility report that ABF also specifically states that it has a board-level tax
Nanga Farms the cane-growing farm majority-owned by over the years we have grown into a diversified policy imposing requirements on all [its] businesses.189
Zambia Sugar just outside Mazabuka have, up to July international food, ingredients and retail group, and we
2012, earned monthly wages around 20% less than the have focused more on the responsibility than on the Unfortunately this group-wide tax policy is not made
government-benchmarked minimum wage. Zambia Sugar corporate.185 Yet the companys corporate responsibility publicly available, and ABFs public statements regarding
employees themselves went on strike over wages in June policies have nothing to say about tax avoidance, tax compliance state simply that all businesses [must]
2012, and more recent payslips from both Nanga Farms negotiating tax breaks, or the companys responsibility to comply fully with all relevant local tax law, a superfluous
and Zambia Sugar seen by ActionAid show wage rates just pay its due taxes. commitment given that it would obviously be unlawful for
over the minimum wage.183 ABF denied categorically that any company not to do so.190
lower profits are the result of payments made to low-tax Elsewhere this message is getting through to large
jurisdictions, and said that [t]he company awarded a [pay] companies loud and clear. James Henderson, Managing ABF makes no public mention of its approach to legal but
increase that was double the level of the prevailing inflation Director of leading British PR firm Pelham Bell Pottinger, artificial tax avoidance, or to the negotiation or litigation of
rate, and was one of the highest percentage increases insists that If a company is going to try to pay less than tax breaks and tax rates. Although the practices outlined in
awarded in the country. Zambia Sugars contribution to the standard corporate rate there needs to be a very good this report may be common amongst large multinationals,
local employment undoubtedly brings great benefits. reason. The mood has changed. Tax avoidance is today some other FTSE-100 companies have begun to state
The bill
publicly that they will not seek to obtain significant benefit

from tax havens, or to engage in artificial tax planning.191
Certainly the creation of new offshore structures within the

Illovo group does not seem to have stopped since ABF
acquired majority control of Illovo Sugar Ltd in 2006. For
example, the reshuffling of Zambia Sugars holding
companies from Ireland to the Netherlands, reducing taxes
on Zambia Sugars profits distributed as dividends thanks
to an abstruse loophole in Dutch tax law, was done in
June 2007.192
The Illovo groups most recent project a now-aborted

investment in the planned expansion of a sugar estate and
biofuel plant at Markala in Mali was routed through a
subsidiary in the Indian Ocean haven of Mauritius, Illovo
Group Holdings Ltd, to which Illovos share of the Malian
Cane harvesting on Zambia Sugar estate.
profits would be paid, although the tax impact of this
structure likewise remains unclear and the investment was
abandoned in 2012 due to political instability.193 We have
also been able to identify tax-haven holding structures by the local tax authorities.195 They also told us that ABFs championing of the need for companies to pursue
whose tax impact likewise remains unclear for Zambia Zambia Sugar paid (from 2007/8) withholding taxes of wider social goals and give back to communities seems at
Sugars sister companies in Tanzania and Malawi. In a letter ZK28.7 billion (44 million Rand) and customs duty of odds with the tax behaviour we have outlined in this report.
to ActionAid on 28 November 2012, ABF told us that for ZK24.8 billion (39 million Rand) and collected employment ABF prides itself, for example, on providing significant
the latest Illovo year end to 31 March 2012 the Illovo taxes of ZK136 billion (228 million Rand). charitable funding out of its profits: about 40% of ABFs
groups effective tax rate was 30.3% [worldwide]. Over the shares are ultimately owned by the Garfield Weston
past 5 years Illovo has paid some 1.3 billion Rand (c.100 Leaving aside that the largest of these three are taxes borne Foundation, the Weston familys charitable trust, which
million) in taxes and collected a further 1.9 billion Rand not by the companys own profits but by its ordinary disburses 30-40 million each year to churches, community
(c.145 million) for central and local governments in the employees, we do not deny that companies like Zambia projects, education and arts organisations, mainly in the
African countries in which it operates.194 Sugar pay several kinds of taxes. Nonetheless it is taxes on UK. (It also helps to fund low-tax advocates the Institute of
income and profits that reflect the taxes companies and Economic Affairs,196 a think-tank whose editorial director
They told us that Illovo seeks to maintain a professional their owners bear themselves, rather than being passed on Philip Booth recently called for Britain [to] become a tax
and transparent relationship with all tax authorities that it to consumers in the cost of goods or borne by employees. haven both for companies and for people).197 But
deals with, ensuring full disclosure of all transactions and We believe taxing companies profits remains a vital and advocates for corporate social responsibility are
related tax matters have been made to the appropriate fair part of all countries tax bases, and should not be increasingly seeing responsible taxpaying as a core part
authorities and these are regularly reviewed and audited artificially avoided. of companies social responsibility.198
Conclusion
What next? all its subsidiary companies, including those in tax use of a range of different tax treaty models, and
The practices outlined in this report are the result havens. It should also provide clear information about including clauses permitting source countries to tax
not just of corporate ingenuity, but also of the functions, staffing and assets of every subsidiary. fees for technical services, management fees, and
regulatory weakness and government policies. payments for the use of intangible assets.
To the UK, Ireland and other developed country eveloped countries should insert anti-avoidance
D
Responsible companies; stronger tax authorities; governments: clauses in their bilateral tax treaties to deny treaty
better tax laws; and, critically, public action and As exporters of investment, aid donors, and the home benefits to artificial transactions such as treaty
scrutiny all have a part to play in protecting the countries of many multinational companies, developed shopping, and to transactions with no real economic
revenues that Zambia and many other countries countries have the opportunity and responsibility to ensure substance.
need to fight hunger and poverty. that companies headquartered within their jurisdictions are
o avoid their own jurisdictions being used as conduits
T
not artificially reducing their tax bills.
for financial flows into tax havens, developed countries
Recommendations eveloped countries should assess their own tax
D should impose withholding taxes on interest, dividend
To Zambia Sugar and ABF: regimes against the likely spillover effect on the tax and royalty payments into tax havens, and where
Companies must stop using corporate structures and base of developing countries, as recommended by the necessary abandon double tax treaties with tax havens.
transactions designed solely or mainly to avoid tax World Bank, IMF, UN and OECD.199
liabilities. eveloped countries should enhance international tax
D To the Zambian government and parliamentarians:
ssociated British Foods should publish a full tax
A cooperation with developing countries tax authorities Zambia should urgently renegotiate its bilateral tax
policy, covering its tax practices, their management, to overcome the difficulty of obtaining information treaty with Ireland to stop it being used by
and reporting of the companys tax position. about both ends of international transactions used to multinationals to treaty-shop and shift profits
minimise tax liabilities in developing countries. artificially into other jurisdictions.
his policy should, quite simply, rule out the use of
T
artificial transactions and arrangements to minimise tax In particular, developed countries should require efore it is ratified and comes into force, the Zambian
B
liabilities. multinationals headquartered in their jurisdictions to cabinet should ensure that Zambias new tax treaty with
disclose all international related-party transactions Mauritius does not unduly deny Zambia its taxing
ambia Sugar and other Illovo group companies should
Z
producing a significant tax advantage, and exchange rights, and in particular that it protects Zambias right to
stop paying management and agency fees to Ireland,
that information with relevant countries, where levy withholding taxes on interest, royalties, dividends,
Mauritius and other tax havens.
international agreements permit. technical and management service fees to Mauritius.
here paid-for services are being provided from tax
W
Ireland should urgently either renegotiate or cancel its he Zambian government should undertake a
T
havens, Zambia Sugar and ABF should aim ultimately
bilateral tax treaty with Zambia, to allow Zambia to levy comprehensive review of its tax treaties, to ensure that
to build the skills and expertise for those services in the
the tax rates it chooses on payments of royalties, its treaty network adequately protects Zambian taxing
countries where its main operations are located; and
dividends, interest and service fees from Zambian to rights.
ensure that payments for them, at market prices, go
Irish companies.
directly to the company providing them. he government should use its comprehensive review
T
eveloped countries should assess their bilateral tax
D of tax incentives during 2013 to assess tax
Investors, tax authorities and employees should be able
treaty networks to determine whether they are unfairly expenditures resulting from its incentives regime, and
to see where and how the group is paying its taxes.
denying taxing rights to developing countries. If so, they ensure that they are properly targeted and
ABF should publish annual accounts on its website of
should offer to renegotiate those treaties, permitting the commensurate with the benefits that they are expected
There are too many tax havens, too many places where
people and businesses manage to avoid paying taxes.
David Cameron, UK Prime Minister
Conclusion
to bring to Zambian citizens. In particular, tax incentives made available to all members of the public at the measures, as well as possible regional or international
should only be applicable to the income relating to the Zambian Patents and Company Registration Agency agreements to ensure that the attribution of taxable
activity which is being incentivised, and blanket tax (PACRA).200 In practice these documents are simply not profits to a given jurisdiction more closely accords to
holidays should be abolished. obtainable by the public from PACRA, and sometimes the real economic activity underlying those profits.
lear cost-benefit analysis of each tax incentive should
C not filed at all.201 PACRA should ensure that companies eveloping countries should not be required to
D
be done, both in terms of economic benefits to the are filing the information they are required to provide by implement the OECD guidelines on transfer pricing in
country from additional investment, and the opportunity law, and should make these available to the public at national law, or to use the OECD model tax treaty in
costs of better funding for public services. The reasonable cost. treaty negotiations. Both standard-setters like the
governments assessment of its tax expenditures rivately owned companies in Zambia should also be
P OECD and developed countries should instead ensure
should be published, to allow Zambian citizens to required to file publicly available annual accounts, as in that international tax standards allow the use of other
participate in a frank national debate about the costs other jurisdictions. pricing methods and model treaties which may serve
and benefits of the Zambian tax incentive regime. developing countries needs and capacities better.
he Zambian Revenue Authority, and not the Zambian
T To the international community: ll countries should require companies registered in
A
Development Agency, should approve the granting of It is time to stop talking and start acting, to tackle the their jurisdictions to file publicly available annual
tax incentives to specific companies. common global problem of endemic tax avoidance and the accounts, as is currently required in the UK and in
tax havens that facilitate it. UK Prime Minister David theory in Zambia, but not in tax havens like Mauritius
he ZDA should regularly audit all qualifying
T
Cameron has said, Some businesses and some individuals and Jersey. This would help shareholders, consumers
companies Investment Performance Forms, as it is
hide their taxes away and dont pay them fairly and there and tax authorities to see how much tax multinational
required to do. Likewise the ZDA must grant public
are too many tax havens, too many places where people companies are paying, and where.
access to investment certificates and supporting
and businesses manage to avoid paying taxes.202 To
documents, as it is required to do under the Zambian ax authorities, investors, and the general public should
T
ensure this:
Development Agency Act. be able to find out who owns companies and trusts. It
ax havens must provide information about the
T should not be possible for the ownership of parts of a
ections of the Income Tax Act providing incentives
S
companies, assets and wealth placed in their major, publicly traded multinational group like ABF to
aimed at domestic businesses and enterprises, such as
jurisdictions. In particular, countries should agree to remain secret, as with its Jersey subsidiary. All
the special corporate tax rate on farming income,
take serious countermeasures against tax havens that countries should subscribe to an international, legally
should be more tightly targeted to ensure that they only
do not sign the Multilateral Convention on Mutual binding standard requiring the public registration of the
apply to income deriving directly from the specified
Administrative Assistance in Tax Matters, including all beneficial ownership of all companies, trusts and other
activity (for example, farming). A revenue limit should
the levels of information exchange provided for under corporate bodies.
also be included to prevent large multinational
the Convention.
businesses qualifying for incentives intended for eveloped countries should apply serious
D
domestic businesses and farmers. Individual countries, regional groups, and standard- countermeasures against payments and financial flows
setters like the G20, OECD and UN Tax Committee into those jurisdictions that do not subscribe to such a
ambian citizens must be granted their right under
Z
should seriously consider alternative methods for standard.
Zambian law to access basic information about
taxing multinational companies, to prevent the artificial
companies registered in Zambia. This includes the
shifting of profits into low-tax jurisdictions. This should To Zambian and UK citizens:
annual returns of all companies, and annual accounts
include robust unilateral application of anti-avoidance Citizens must hold their governments to account for their
of public companies, which are required by law to be
Conclusion
tax policies. Consumers, investors and employees must

hold companies to account for their tax behaviour.
In Zambia, citizens should demand their existing rights
under the Zambian Development Agency Act and the
Companies Act to obtain public information about
company accounts, tax incentives and tax holidays.
ambian citizens should demand that the current
Z
government review of tax incentives reports publicly
on the impact of tax incentives and tax holidays on
government revenues.
ambian citizens should call on their parliamentarians
Z
not to ratify new tax treaties with low-tax jurisdictions,
including the treaty with Mauritius, unless such tax
treaties do not deny Zambia taxing rights.
In the UK and elsewhere, company employees,
shareholders and consumers should ask questions of
multinationals like ABF about their tax policies and
practices. If multinationals continue to engage in
aggressive tax practices, then shareholders and
consumers should consider choosing alternative
products, services and investments.
Sister Florence Mweemba and staff at Nakambala

Urban Health Clinic, Mazabuka, Zambia.
Glossary
Arms-length price Subsidiary Tax incentive/tax break
The range of prices that a company would be expected to A company wholly or partly owned, and wholly or partly A reduced rate of tax, or tax holiday, which a government
pay for a product or service when buying it from another, controlled, by another company. Subsidiaries are legally grants to a taxpayer in order to encourage particular
completely unrelated company. separate entities from one another and their parent behaviour. Developing countries often offer tax incentives to
companies, but may overall be controlled by that parent foreign investors for example, exempting them from
Corporation tax company. corporate income taxes for a fixed number of years in
The tax a company pays on its profits. Also called order to encourage foreign investment.
corporate income tax. Tax avoidance
Practices which minimise tax liabilities within the letter of Transfer pricing
Double taxation agreement (DTA)/tax treaty the law (and are thus not unlawful), but which are morally When companies that are part of the same multinational
A legal agreement between two countries that sets out how questionable and/or go against the intention of lawmakers. group trade with each other, for example when one
the right to tax income earned in country A by residents company in a group provides a service to another company.
(individual or corporate) of country B is divided between Tax competition Under existing accounting and tax rules, the groups
them. Tax treaties also provide for mechanisms of Competition between different jurisdictions to encourage accountants have to decide what price they should pay
cooperation and information-sharing between tax businesses or individual taxpayers to locate companies or each other. International standards require them to do this
authorities of the two countries. assets in their jurisdiction by lowering tax rates, or offering based on the range of prices that would be paid if the
other tax incentives or favourable tax rules. companies were completely unrelated (the arms-length
Multinational company price).
A company operating in more than one country. Usually, a Tax expenditure
multinational company is a group of subsidiary companies The amount of tax revenue forgone by a government as a Treaty shopping
all owned by an ultimate parent (in this case, Associated result of a tax incentive or tax break. Although it is revenue Exploiting particularly favourable features (usually reduced
British Foods), either directly or via other holding which is not collected, it is often recorded in national or cancelled withholding tax rates) of a double taxation
companies. accounts as an expenditure, since it is equivalent to paying convention (DTC), between countries A and B in order to
that amount of revenue to the taxpayer. lower taxes on income paid to country C, to which the DTC
Operating profit was never intended to apply. This is usually achieved using
A companys turnover, minus the amount it spends, but Tax haven a conduit entity a company or other corporate body in
only taking into account expenditures and income that A jurisdiction (sometimes independent countries, country B, through which income passes from A to C in
relate to the ordinary operations of the business. It therefore sometimes dependent territories such as the British Virgin order to take advantage of the DTC between A and B.
excludes interest payments to creditors, or income from Islands) that creates attractive tax rules, systems of
investments or debtors. Operating profit allows an investor regulation and veils of financial and corporate secrecy, for Turnover
to see how well the company is running its core business. the benefit of individuals and companies operating All the companys income for the year.
elsewhere. In Mauritius, for example, global business
Pre-tax profit companies pay much lower tax rates than domestic
A companys turnover, minus the amount it spends, taking companies. Also known as secrecy jurisdictions.
into account all forms of income and expenditure except
taxes on profits.
Glossary
Unitary taxation
A method of apportioning the corporation tax to be paid by
a company or group of companies in different jurisdictions
by considering the company or group as a single profit-
making entity, and dividing up the whole groups taxable
profits between the different jurisdictions where it operates
according to a formula generally based on the geographical
location of its employees, assets, and sales. Unitary
taxation would prevent companies from avoiding taxes in
higher-tax jurisdictions by shifting profits artificially to
low-tax jurisdictions where they do not maintain employees
and assets, and do not do business. Some US states
already use systems of unitary taxation to apportion taxes
paid by US companies in different states, and there have
been calls for countries to cooperate in taxing multinational
companies in the same way.
Withholding tax
A method of collecting tax from an individual or a company
by taking it from their income before it reaches them: for
example, the collection of income tax from employees by
their employer through pay as you earn, with the tax
remitted to the government by the employer. Many
countries require companies that make payments to other
foreign companies to pay a withholding tax on them,
especially if the two companies are related to each other.
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3
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4
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exchange rates for each calendar year in our calculations. 18
ActionAid telephone call with Head of Corporate Affairs and 34
Figures taken from Zambian Revenue Authority, Programme proposal to
5
World Bank, Nutrition at a glance: Zambia, September 2010, http://bit.ly/ Administration, Zambia Sugar, 12 October 2012. support specialized large taxpayer revenue administration in Zambia,
SL3gg9 (accessed 4 November 2012); UNICEF, State of the Worlds 19
ActionAid interviews, Mazabuka, 17-18 October 2012. 2011-2014, February 2011. This tax take/GDP estimate of 10-12% is
Children 2011, p.94, statistical table 2, http://uni.cf/PPGtAx (accessed 4
lower than the 19.4% projected in the 2012-13 Zambia budget, but takes
November 2012). 20
Figure for expenditure per primary school pupil as a % of GDP is from into account a likely underestimation of Zambias GDP in current
6
ActionAid calculation from OECD CRS Overseas Development UNESCOs UIS Data Centre, see http://bit.ly/bcbOFY (accessed 19 statistics by around 30-40%, according to government documents.
Assistance (ODA) database, searched on 4 November 2012 under November 2012); GDP/capita data for 2011 are from World Bank World
Development Indicators, see http://bit.ly/dxzQgO (accessed 19 35
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2007-11 was US$830,579. Figures for 2012 were not available at time of
writing. 21
UNESCO, Education For All Global Monitoring Report 2012, Statistical 36
World Bank/World Health Organization data at http://bit.ly/106P2bY
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7
The World Bank estimates that the cost of scaling up core micro-nutrition
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World Bank, Zambia: Country Brief, n.d., http://bit.ly/USKdmy (accessed
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ActionAid interviews, Mazabuka, 17-18 October 2012. 20 November 2012).
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Not his real name. To preserve their anonymity, we have changed the 38
Top 100 Food and Drink Manufacturers in the UK and Ireland, Food &
November 2012). For methodology see http://bit.ly/VGOvIJ (accessed 21
names and some identifying details of all Zambia Sugar employees Drink Business Europe, 5 July 2012. See http://bit.ly/X9l4V1 (accessed 3
November 2012). See below for further details of tax loss calcuations.
interviewed in the course of our research. November 2012).
Full calculations behind all tax loss estimates in this report are available
from ActionAid on request. 24
ActionAid interviews, date and location withheld. 39
Zambian GDP (2011) is 11.9 billion (ZK98,112 trillion), according to
World Bank figures at http://bit.ly/cTNYyU (accessed 3 November 2012).
8
Calculation of Zambian government spending per pupil based on 25
Payslip for September 2012 shown to ActionAid. The 2012/13 Zambian budget expenditure is projected to be ZK32,212.2
UNESCO figures for public expenditure per primary pupil as a % of GDP 26
Basic needs basket, July 2012, surveyed by the Jesuit Centre for billion ($6.3 billion USD): Zambian Ministry of Finance, 2013 Budget
per capita, and World Bank figures for Zambian GDP per capita. We
Theological Reflection, Lusaka. Address by Hon. Alexander B. Chikwanda, MP, Minister of Finance,
compared this figure (US$77) with the US$2.75m we estimate is lost to
delivered to the National Assembly on 12 October, 2012.
Zambian tax revenues annually through Zambia Sugars tax haven 27
National pension scheme (NAPSA) contributions are deductible from
transactions. PAYE tax, which explains the lower than expected tax charge in the
40
Associated British Foods Plc, Responsibility in Action: Billingtons, n.d.,
accompanying table. http://bit.ly/VK8IgT (accessed 3 November 2012); British Sugar, Fair
9
ActionAid has examined all of Illovo Sugar Irelands available accounts
Trade [brochure], n.d. See http://bit.ly/VK6PRe (accessed 3 November
since 2005, which state clearly: The company has no employees. 28
Delegation of the European Union in Zambia. Strategic Environmental 2012); Zambia Sugar Plc, Annual Report 2012, p. 47 Note 23.1.
10
2m is not the total amount paid to the Irish company by Zambia Sugar, Assessment (SEA) of the Sugar Sector in Zambia, January 2010, p.2.
41
Illovos sugar estates cover 120,154 hectares as of 2012. Illovo Sugar
but only the portion declared as received by Illovo Sugar Ireland as 29
Zambia Sugar Plc annual reports 2008-2012. Integrated Annual Report 2012, p. 119, Note 11.
management fees and on which it pays Irish tax, which might therefore
be expected to represent fees for services provided by Illovo Sugar
30
Corporate income tax payments refer to the cash tax shown on the 42
Illovo Sugar Ltd website, Fast Facts, n.d. See http://bit.ly/Tsm27D
Ireland, rather than fees paid to other service-providing companies companys cash flow statement. In terms of its book tax liabilities, in the (accessed 4 November 2012).
elsewhere in the Illovo Group. last five years Zambia Sugar has recorded a net tax credit of ZK31 billion.
43
Interviews with Zambia Sugar Plc employees, 11-18 October 2012;
11
Illovo Sugar Ireland accounts 2007-11.
31
Each of these taxpayers is liable for a different form of income tax, levied telephone interview with director of Illovo Group Holdings Ltd (Mauritius),
on their income in different ways. Caroline pays a presumptive fixed 26 October 2012.
References
44
George Weston, A sweeter future for Africa?, speech given to the Royal 64
Zambia Sugar annual accounts, 2007-12. 84
This assumes no withholding tax on these payments for management
African Society Business Breakfast series, London, 5 October 2010. See fees and purchases. While Zambian domestic law permits a 15%
65
According to Illovo Sugar Irelands accounts, the principal business
http://bit.ly/RzeZh9 (accessed 4 November 2012). withholding tax on management and consulting fees, Zambian source
activity of the company is the provision of management and technical
state taxation of such fees is not permitted under the Zambia-Ireland tax
45
Zambia Sugar annual reports 2011-2012; Associated British Foods, services to group companies. Presently the company only supplies
treaty. The full calculations for all of the tax loss figures in this report are
Corporate Responsibility Report 2010, p. 54. See http://bit.ly/UaiQhr services to Zambia Sugar Plc. Illovo Sugar Ireland annual financial
available on request from ActionAid.
(accessed 7 November 2012). statement 2011, p.2.
85
Zambia Sugar annual accounts 2012, p.47.
46
Letter from ABF to ActionAid, 28 November 2012. 66
Zambia Sugar actually pays more than US$2.6m (2m) to Illovo Sugar
Ireland; 2m is the portion declared as received by Illovo Sugar Ireland as 86
Letter from ABF and Illovo to ActionAid, 18 January 2013.
47
UNESCO, World Data on Education, 7th edition, 2010/11, figures for
management fees and on which it pays Irish tax; this might therefore be
average national pupil-teacher ratio in grades 1-9; World Bank, African 87
Letter from ActionAid to ABF, 28 October 2012; letter from ABF to
expected to represent fees for services provided by the Irish company
Development Indicators 2011, Table 3.1 (figure for proportion of ActionAid, 28 November 2012.
itself, rather than fees paid onto other service-providing companies
population at less than US$1.25 per day). See http:// bit.ly/w4Ylil
elsewhere in the Illovo Group. 88
Telephone interview, 26 October 2012.
(accessed 7 November 2012).
67
Illovo Sugar Ireland accounts 2007-11. 89
Mauritius Union Annual Report 2011. See http://bit.ly/TFsbSo (accessed
48
Interviews with Zambia Sugar workers and public health clinic workers,
5 November 2012).
dates and locations withheld. 68
Zambia Revenue Authority, Withholding Taxes Leaflet (n.d.)
90
Telephone interview, 26 October 2012.
49
ActionAid interviews with Zambia Sugar temporary workers, dates and 69
Zambia Revenue Authority, Budget Highlights 2013 (October 2012),
location withheld; ActionAid interviews with Nakambala Urban Health Section 1.2.2. 91
Times of Zambia, 27 January 2011.
Centre staff, 19 October 2012; payslips and contract documents seen by 70
Letter from ABF and Illovo Sugar to ActionAid, 18 January 2013. 92
Mauritus tax treaties only contain provisions for taxing royalties,
ActionAid; letter from Illovo Sugar to ActionAid, 18 January 2013.
dividends and interest income, and almost all contain clauses reserving
71
Letter from Illovo Sugar to ActionAid, 30 January 2013.
50
ActionAid interview, 18 October 2012. the right to tax any other income only to the state of residence of the
72
Illovo Sugar Ltd annual report 2012. company receiving the income.
51
ActionAid interview, 18 October 2012.
73
Letter from Associated British Foods and Illovo Sugar to ActionAid, 18 93
This assumes that Zambia Sugar will continue to enjoy the farming
52
January 2013. corporation tax rate, reduced in 2012 to 10%.
53
ActionAid interview with Nakambala Health Centre staff, 18 October 74
Illovo Sugar Ireland annual accounts, 2006/7 to 2011/12. 94
HM Treasury, Statement by the Chancellor of the Exchequer, Rt Hon
2012.
George Osborne MP; Britain & Germany call for international action to
75
Since 2007, Zambia Sugar has declared payments to Illovo Sugar Ireland
54
ActionAid interview, 18 October 2012. strengthen tax standards. Joint statement by the United Kingdom and
of ZK 209 billion (34 million), while Illovo Sugar Ireland has declared net
Germany, 5 November 2012. See http://bit.ly/ YKXJY1 (accessed 6
55
ActionAid interview, 18 October 2012. income of 12.2 million, entirely consisting of management fees from
November 2012).
Zambia Sugar. Illovo Sugar Ireland and Zambia Sugar annual accounts,
56
2007-12 95
BBC, Should Zambia impose windfall taxes on mining companies?, 13
57
Zambia Sugar Plc annual report 2012, p.18. September 2011. See http://bbc.in/pqLgSO (accessed 6 November
76
ActionAid telephone call, 26 October 2012.
2012).
58
Ibid. 77
ActionAid visit, 3 October 2012. 96
Interview with ZRA official, 8 October 2012.
59
Zambia Sugar Plc annual reports 2007-12. Note that the book tax 78
ActionAid telephone interview, 26 October 2012.
calculated on its profits and losses is greater than these tax payments, 97
Interview with ZRA advisor, date and location withheld.
but offset by tax credits and delayed by deferred taxes. Note also that 79
Letter from Ilovo Sugar to ActionAid, 30 January 2013. 98
For Brazils fixed margin method, see Tatiana Falcao (IBFD), Brazilian
Zambia Sugars domestic subsidiary, Nanga Farms Plc, has paid 80
Zambia Sugar accounts, 2007-12; Illovo Sugar Ireland accounts, transfer pricing a practical approach. Could this be a model for
significantly more tax in this period than its parent company.
2007-12. developing countries?, presentation to Helsinki Transfer Pricing Seminar,
60
Letter from Illovo Sugar to ActionAid, 18 January 2013 13 June 2012, http://bit.ly/WwHcJN (accessed 6 November 2012). For
81
Letter from Ilovo Sugar to ActionAid, 30 January 2013. Chinas adjustment of transfer prices using location saving formula, see
61
Zambia Revenue Authority, 2013 Budget: Overview of tax changes Zhang Ying (State Administration of Taxation of Peoples Republic of
82
Illovo Sugar Ireland accounts 2007-11; Deloitte, International tax: Jersey
(October 2012) China), Chinas transfer pricing system, presentation to Helsinki Transfer
highlights 2012. See http://bit.ly/SLD0T6 (accessed 4 November 2012).
62
See, for example, the mandate of the Mauritius Offshore Business Pricing Seminar, 13 June 2012, http://bit.ly/SSEta2 (accessed 6
83
Letter from Associated British Foods and Illovo Sugar to ActionAid, 18 November 2012).
Activities Authority, established in 1992 to sustain the growth of offshore
January 2013; email from Barclays Corporate Affairs to ActionAid, 13
industries. See http://bit.ly/ VLCHF4 (accessed 4 November 2012). In 99
European Commission, Proposal for a Council Directive on a Common
November 2012; Illovo Sugar Ireland annual accounts, 2007-12.
2001 it was renamed the Mauritius Financial Services Authority, with a Consolidated Corporate Tax Base (CCCTB), COM/2011/121, Brussels,
Payments from the Irish to the Jersey companies are not declared
more regulatory mandate. 16 March 2011. See http:// bit.ly/fUvjHH (accessed 6 November 2012).
directly in the Irish accounts, but as amounts due from Illovo Sugar
63
George Weston, A sweeter future for Africa?, speech given to the Royal Ireland to Illovo Project Services Ltd which have decreased each of these 100
Income Tax Act (Cap. 323), sections 97A-D.
African Society Business Breakfast series, London, 5 October 2010. See year ends, from 655,000 to zero.
http://bit.ly/RzeZh9 (accessed 4 November 2012). 101
Income Tax Act (Cap. 323), section 95.
References
Interview with ZRA advisor, 12 October 2012.

102 118
Although at present the Netherlands does not apply withholding taxes to 134
interest.
Interview with ZRA staff, 8 October 2012.
103 135
ActionAid interview, 12 October 2012; OECD Development Assistance
119
The only other Zambia tax treaty that entirely cancels source Committee Network on Governance (GOVNET), Room Document 2
Interview with ZRA staff, 8 October 2012.
104
withholding taxes is the Zambia-Kenya treaty. Zambia Tax Incentives Study (prepared for Meeting of the Taxation Task
Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development.
105 Team, Paris, 4 November 2011), section 4.2.3. Internal document on file
120
Interview with ZRA official, 8 October 2012.
with ActionAid.
IMF/OECD/UN/WB, Supporting the development of more effective tax
106
121
Zambia Revenue Authority, Zambia renegotiates United Kingdom Tax
systems: a report to the G-20 development working group (2011), p.27. 136
treaty.
Zambia Sugar annual report 2009, p. 2
107 137
Ibid.
122
Megha Bahree and Deborah Ball, Island tax haven roils Indias ways,
Zambia Sugar annual reports, 2007-12; Illovo Sugar Ireland annual
108 Wall Street Journal, 29 August 2012. 138
Ibid.
accounts, 2007-11. There was a two-year interest moratorium at the start 123
Shri S.S. Palanimanickam, Minister of State in the Ministry of Finance, 139
ActionAid interviews, 10 and 12 October 2012.
of the expansion project, in 2007 and 2008.
Answer to unstarred question no. 4689 in the Lok Sabha (Indian 140
OECD Development Assistance Committee Network on Governance
Particulars of a charge created by a company incorporated in the state,
109 parliament), 4 May 2012.
(GOVNET), Room Document 2 Zambia Tax Incentives Study (prepared for
Illovo Sugar Ireland mortgage document, filed in Ireland, dated 30 124
Letter from ActionAid to ABF, 28 October 2012; letter from ABF to meeting of the Taxation Task Team, Paris, 4 November 2011), section
November 2007.
ActionAid, 28 November 2012. 4.2.2. Internal document on file with ActionAid.
110
125
See diagram for details. When Illovo Sugar Ireland was the parent 141
ActionAid interviews, 8 and 10 October 2012.
Statement from Zambia Sugar Plc and Citigroup, sent to ActionAid, 17
111 company of Zambia Sugar in this structure, it appears from its accounts 142
ActionAid interview, 8 October 2012. There is no suggestion that the
January 2013. not to have paid Irish corporate income tax on dividend income from
official was referring to Zambia Sugar in this statement.
Zambia, probably because Irish tax law deems the dividends to be have
There is no Zambia-US DTC, so presumably the full 15% WHT rate
112
been taxed once already as profits in Zambia for which the company 143
Zambia Sugar annual report 2008; previously the companys revenue
would be applicable to interest payments to Citibank N.A. If the interest receives a tax credit for this underlying tax that cancels any further tax streams were taxed differentially, with profits from cane growing and
were paid directly to Standard Bank in South Africa (which is the security due. sugar exports taxed at 15% in accordance with Zambian tax incentives
trustee of the loan), then according to the Zambia-South Africa DTC it
for farming and non traditional product exports; and profits from sugar
would be taxable only in the country of residence of the debtor (i.e. 126
Irelands dividend WHT is levied, with some exemptions, at the standard
production and domestic sales taxed at 35% (Zambia Sugar Annual
Zambia), presumably at the 15% rate. See Agreement for the Avoidance rate of income tax, currently 20%.
Report 2006).
of double taxation and the prevention of fiscal evasion with respect to 127
Subject to a participation exemption and a substantial shareholdings
taxes on income [between the Union of South Africa and the Federation 144
This estimate is made by applying to Zambia Sugars pre-tax profits the
test. See Illovo Sugar Ireland annual accounts 2007.
of Rhodesia and Nyasaland], 22 May 1956 (still in force), Article XII(4). reduced corporate tax rate that the company now enjoys (10%); and
128
Illovo Sugar Ireland annual accounts 2007; Illovo Sugar Cooperatief U.A. comparing this to the tax that would have been due conservatively
The Zambia-UK Double Taxation Convention limits Zambian WHT on
113
financial statements 2007-8. assuming that pre-tax profits rise no further than current levels; and
interest payments to Standard Bank in the UK to 10%.
patterns of profit from farming, non-farming and export income continue
129
Tamara Martin, Jeffry Van Brussel, Jaime Young (PriceWaterhouse
Illovo Sugar Ireland annual accounts, 2007-11.
114 (leading to an effective tax rate, without the rate change, of around 23%).
Coopers), Dutch co-ops: a primer, in CCH: international Tax, No. 48
Full details of this calculation are available from ActionAid. The reduction
The Ireland-UK double taxation convention forbids source-state taxation
115 (November 2008).
in tax liabilities from the rate change from 2007 to 12 is taken from
on interest payments; Irish tax law also contains a general domestic Zambia Sugar annual report 2008, p. 30, note 6; Zambia Sugar annual
130
There appears to be no discernible provision for tax in Illovo Sugar
exemption which exempts interest payments to companies in other EU report 2012, p. 37, note 7.
Cooperatief U.A.s accounts. It is difficult from the Cooperatiefs
member states from Irish withholding tax: International Bureau for Fiscal
abbreviated accounts to see how and when profits are being distributed
Documentation (IBFD), Country Survey: Ireland (19 December 2005). 145
ambia Sugar Plc vs. ZRA (2006/RAT/02/DT), 2007 ruling on file with
Z
to its members; certainly some of the Cooperatiefs income is currently
ActionAid.
Particulars of a charge created by a company incorporated in the state
116 being placed in the companys own profit reserve.
(Illovo Sugar Ireland mortgage document, filed in Ireland), dated 30 146
Ibid.
131
5% rate applies if recipient owns more than 25% of the shareholding in
November 2007, on file with ActionAid. Withholding tax would also be
the Zambian company. 147
Zambia Sugar accounts 2007-12.
waived for interest payments to South African and USA-resident
companies under Irelands respective tax treaties. 132
Assuming that the full 15% was avoided in 2007 thanks to the rate in the 148
Zambia Sugar Plc vs. ZRA (2006/RAT/02/DT), 2007 ruling on file with
Ireland- Zambia treaty, and 10% thereafter thanks to the rate in the ActionAid.
Calculation based on 10% withholding tax rate which would otherwise
117
Netherlands-Zambia treaty.
be charged on interest payments to the UK branches of these banks 149
Interview with Lusaka-based tax lawyer and tax adviser, 15 October
(ActionAid calculation based on Zambia Sugar annual reports 2007-12). 133
Corporation Tax Act 2009, Section 931E, as amended. It is possible that 2012. One such previous case mentioned was ZRA vs. Nanga Farms Ltd
This is a conservative estimate: using the 15% rate which would be dividends paid from Illovo Sugar Ltd to ABF are subject to withholding in the Revenue Appeals Tribunal, March-April 1999 (1999/RAT/38). N.B.
applicable if the interest payments were going straight to the banks taxes in South Africa (previously called secondary company tax, and This company is not to be confused with the Nanga Farms Plc which is
South African and US headquarters would yield a larger figure for tax replaced in April 2012 by a formal withholding tax); depending on majority-owned by Zambia Sugar.
lost. whether taxes paid by the Illovo group elsewhere can be offset against 150
these withholding taxes.
References
Interview with ZRA adviser, date and location withheld.

151
income over ZK2 million raised in 2012 to ZK2.2 million. See http://bit. ly/VLe4bN (accessed 4 November 2012).
Zambia Sugar Plc annual report 2012.
152 175
Not his real name. 190
Ibid.
Zambia Sugar annual report 2011 (note 7); letter from ABF and Illovo to
153 176
Calculation based on UNESCO figures for public expenditure per primary 191
Responses by four FTSE-100 companies to ActionAid tax policy survey,
ActionAid, 18 January 2013. pupil as a % of GDP per capita, and World Bank figures for Zambian April-May 2012.
GDP per capita.
Zambian Development Agency Act, Section 76.
154 192
In the absence of a universally agreed definition of tax haven
177
The average annual PTA fee per head at the schools we visited in jurisdictions, ActionAid uses a relatively standard list of tax havens
Telephone call with ZDA official, 18 October 2012.
155
Mazabuka district was ZK50,000. We estimate that Zambia Sugars tax produced by the U.S. Government Accountability Office, adding the
Email from ZDA official, 19 October 2012.
156 haven transactions have reduced its Zambian tax liabilities by some ZK73 Netherlands and the U.S. state of Delaware because of their widespread
billion over the last six years. use in international tax avoidance structures. See ActionAid, Addicted to
Telephone call with ZDA official, 18 October 2012.
157
tax havens: The secret life of the FTSE 100, ActionAid UK, 2011, http://
178
Department of Foreign Affairs, Press Release, 27 September 2012. See
Letter from ActionAid to ABF, 28 October 2012; letter from ABF to
158 bily/qyztfi (accessed 4 November 2012). For details of the Netherlands
http://bit.ly/ TMLfOw (accessed 8 November 2012).
ActionAid, 28 November 2012. tax haven features, see Michiel van Dijk, Francis Weyzig and Richard
179
See below for estimates of Zambian tax loss due to Zambia Sugars Irish Murphy, The Netherlands: A tax haven?, SOMO, November 2006, bit.ly/
Zambian Finance Minister, budget address, 11 November 2011.
159
transactions ($9.1m/ZK41 billion). Irish development aid to Zambia taken TslVbX0 (accessed 4 November 2012).
Zambia Sugar Plc Annual Reports 2008 and 2009 (income statement and
160 from available Irish Aid annual reports 2007-11, available at http://bit.ly/ 193
Agreement dated 26 June 2007 between the Government of the Republic
cash flow statement) UToS6R (accessed 21 November 2012).
of Mali, Illovo Group Holdings Ltd and Schaffer & Associates International
World Bank/IFC, Paying Taxes: Doing Business. See http://bit.ly/rpmPTh
161 180
Total operating profit from 2007-12 was ZK866.8 billion. Zambia Sugar LLC, on file with ActionAid. Following the March 2012 coup in Mali, Illovo
(accessed 21 November 2012). annual reports 2007-12. reportedly wrote off its investment in the Markala project, citing concerns
about the countrys deteriorating security situation. Mike Cohen, Illovo
James, S. Tax and non-tax incentives and investments: evidence and
162 181
Ian Bowler, The potential transparency benefits of public registration of Pulls out of Malia Sugar Project on Security Concerns, Bloomberg, 28
policy implications, Investment Climate Advisory Services, World Bank statutory accounts of unlisted companies. Presentation to OECD Task May 2012. See http://bloom.bg/Kyvu89 (accessed 4 November 2012).
Group, December 2009. Force on Tax and Development, 29 March 2012, http://bit.ly/SJxfCL
(accessed 4 November 2012). 194
Illovo Sugar (Malawi) Ltd annual report 2012, note 24.
International Monetary Fund, Kenya, Uganda and United Republic of
163
Tanzania: Selected Issues, IMF Country Report No. 08/353, October 182
Letter from ActionAid to ABF, 28 October 2012; letter from ABF to 195
Letters from ABF and Illovo to ActionAid, 28 October 2012, 18 January
2008, p.11. See http://bit.ly/ R5ePMW (accessed 4 November 2012). ActionAid, 28 November 2012. 2013.
ActionAid interview, 13 October 2012. The Zambian Development
164 183
Nanga Farms payslips shown to ActionAid, dates and locations withheld. 196
Garfield Weston Foundation annual report 2011.
Agency Act specifies that investment tax incentives are only available for Monthly payslip dated 30 June 2012 showed wage rate of ZK330,720, 197
Philip Booth, Tax havens are essential and do us all a favour, The
investments over $500,000. compared to the government-benchmarked minimum wage of
Telegraph (UK), 11 November 2012. See http://bit.ly/UgXgIe (accessed
ZK419,000 for general (non-specified) workers. The Zambian minimum
Les dpenses fiscales : un cancer budgtaire , ATAF press release, 15
165 20 November 2012).
wage was increased on 4 July 2012 to ZK700,000. More recent payslips
October 2012. See bit.ly/YQ1I5m (accessed 6 November 2012). seen by ActionAid for equivalent jobs show wage rates of ZK772,200. David Williams (KPMG), Tax and corporate social responsibility,
198
166
An exchange market for tax experiences, ATAF News, September 2012, The government minimum wage is intended to benchmark minimum September 2007. See http://bit.ly/9li02u (accessed 20 November 2012).
p.1. This is based on the results of a tax expenditure assessment carried wages across the country, but are not binding on the pay of workers, like 199
Supporting the development of more effective tax systems: a report to
out in 2008, which found that the Senegalese tax code contained those at Zambia Sugar and Nanga Farms, who are subject to collective
the G20 Development working group by the IMF, OECD, UN and World
derogations resulting in the cancellation of CFA378 billion in otherwise pay bargaining. See Government of Zambia, Minimum Wages and
Bank, November 2011, chapter 2. See http://bit.ly/AnAEwv (accessed 21
due taxes. Conditions of Employment (General) Order 2011, Statutory Instrument
November 2012).
No.2 of 2011.
2013 Zambian Budget speech delivered 12 October 2012. See http://bit.
167
The Companies Act (Cap 388), articles 184-189, 374.
200
ly/SUKCPq (accessed 21 November 2012).
184
Judith Hara, Zambia Sugar shareholders bemoan low dividends, Times
of Zambia, 13 August 2012. UK International Development Select Committee, Tax in Developing
201
Not his real name.
168
Countries: Increasing Resources for Development: Government
185
See http://bit.ly/Vo7r3F accessed 4 November 2012. Emphasis added.
Monthly employment figures taken from Zambia Sugar annual reports
169 Response to the Committees Fourth Report of Session 2012-13 (HC
2007-12.
186
James Henderson (Pelham Bell Pottinger), Does Tax Transparency have 708, 8 November 2012). See http://bit.ly/ V8VzCW (accessed 26
a role in corporate social responsibility?, presentation to International November 2012), p.4.
170
Tax Reviews Tax and Transparency Forum, April 2012.
David Cameron, speech at NACCO Materials handling factory, Northern
202
171
187
Letter from ActionAid to ABF, 28 October 2012; letter from ABF to Ireland, 20 November 2012.
September 2012 payslip seen by ActionAid.
172 ActionAid, 28 November 2012.
Basic Needs Basket, July 2012, surveyed by the Jesuit Centre for
173 188
ABF, Corporate Responsibility Report (introduction), 2010. See http://bit.
Theological Reflection, Lusaka. ly/Vo7r3F (accessed 4 November 2012).
Employees are liable to personal income tax at 25% on any monthly

174 189
ABF Plc, Investors Corporate Governance Risk Management, n.d.
www.actionaid.org.uk
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Sweet

From 2008 to 2010, an agricultural labourer employed

Its not right if you have businesses [who] instead

was asked recently why many large multinationals were not

For ordinary taxpayers, of course, paying tax is far from

From 2008 to 2010, an agricultural labourer employed by

This report traces the international money trail to find out

Where else? Newly harvested sugar cane being

This report shows how tackling the problem will require

As Caroline and Isaac have duly paid

Introduction payments of corporate income tax at all.

Caroline Muchanga Isaac Banda* Zambia Sugar Plc

30,000 25,500 0 (2008-2010)

4.6% 1.2% 0 (2008-2010)

PHOTOS: Jason Larkin/ActionAid

Zambia Sugar should be paying more tax than us.

The real bottom line

15% Corporate income tax

A global food giant

ABFs move into African sugar began in 2006 when it

A global food giant

Figure 2: Illovo Sugars operations and payments between companies

Note: This diagram shows the beneficial ownership

Sources: Corporate structure provided by

25% 60% 90% 73.3%

76% 75% 81.55% 99%

The sweetest town in Zambia

Our sugar factories employ loads of

Mazabuka: the sweetest islands of relative prosperity.

We do manage to eat, but not always.

Hunger amidst plenty: Nakambala

Dailess Mwiinga, or Mrs Sholoka as she is known to

Going, going, gone

Going, going, gone

it easy for companies to shift profits

Use tax haven jurisdictions

Exploit [step 4] an opaque

Going, going, gone

A sculpture dedicated to famine, outside

in Ireland (and Mauritius)

ABFs chief executive has candidly described its sugar

Yet since Illovo took over Zambia Sugar in 2001, the

21% Fees to tax

Illovo Sugar Ireland

Money paid on from Illovo

When ActionAid visited Illovo Sugar

When our auditors turn up, they

Going, going, gone

Zambian companies to Mauritius subsidiaries could PHOTO: Evan Bench/Flickr/Creative Commons

significantly impact Zambias future tax take.

In Zambia Sugars case, if Zambian taxing rights are denied

Going, going, gone

Transfer pricing: from footnote to fury

Why would a loan to expand a sugar factory in southern

Figure 5: The Dublin dog-leg: following the money

Step 2: A Dublin dog-leg

PHOTO: SIMON WICKS

PHOTO: SIMON WICKS

Why would a loan to expand a sugar factory in southern

Employees are liable to personal income tax at 25% on any monthly