History of Zea Mays

Maize Cobs and Cultures: History of Zea mays L.
John E. Staller
Maize Cobs and Cultures:

History of Zea mays L.
Professor John E. Staller
Department of Anthropology
The Field Museum
Chicago IL, USA
E-mail: jstaller@earthlink.net
ISBN: 978-3-642-04505-9 e-ISBN: 978-3-642-04506-6

DOI 10.1007/978-3-642-04506-6
Springer Heidelberg Dordrecht London New York
Library of Congress Control Number: 2009938015
# Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2010

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Cover illustration: Maize varieties around Pisac, Peru are still grown on terraces constructed by the Inca.
Pisac is in the Urubamba Valley, renowned for its unusual maize landraces
Cover design: WMXDesign GmbH, Heidelberg, Germany
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Acknowledgments
This book is a product of long-term research interest in maize and domestication

in general, and is in part a result of interactions and discussions on the origins of
maize, plant domestication, and cultivation in general with numerous colleagues
and collaborators. I am particularly indebted to Michael Blake (University of
British Columbia) and John E. Terrell (The Field Museum). Over the years, these
scholars and other colleagues have shared their valuable insights, thoughts and
kindly passed along their research and other published data in the biological and
social scientific literature on these topics. I also express my sincere gratitude to
Bruce Smith (Smithsonian Institution) for providing me critical information on the
maize cobs from Tularosa Cave at Field Museum, and for the inspiration his
research on maize and domestication have provided. Many thanks to John Tuxill
(Western Washington University) and Michael D. Carrasco (Florida State Univer-
sity) for extending the courtesy and use of some images. I also extend my thanks to
Stephen E. Nash (Denver Museum of Nature and Science) and Scott Demel (The
Field Museum) for granting access to the ceramic and botanical collections at Field
Museum. Special thanks as well to Christine Giannoni (Field Museum Library) and
her staff, for allowing me to photograph images from the pre-Linnaean and colonial
herbals in the rare books collection. I want to express my sincere thanks to Tom
Zuidema (University of Illinois-Urbana) and Sabine P. Hyland (St. Norbert College)
for the many insights they have provided over the years into New World ethno-
history and using sixteenth century accounts. All interpretations and statements of
fact are my own, and any errors of fact or misinterpretation of the data should not in
any way reflect on these scholars.
Chicago, September 2009 John E. Staller
v
Contents
1 An Introduction to Maize Cobs and Cultures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
2 Ethnohistory: Impressions and Perceptions of Maize . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

2.1 Ethnohistoric and Ethnographic Perceptions of Maize . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.1.1 Consequences of Conquest and Empire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.1.2 Western Perceptions of New World Cultures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.2 Using Sixteenth Century Accounts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.2.1 Early Pre-Linnaean Botanicals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.2.2 Earliest Sixteenth Century Accounts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.3 Central America and Mexico . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.3.1 Sixteenth Century Agriculture and Plant Cultivation
in Mesoamerica . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
2.3.2 Maize and the Chontal Maya . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
2.3.3 Storage and Redistribution: Mesoamerican Accounts . . . . . . . . . 43
2.4 First Impressions of Andean Civilization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
2.4.1 Storage, Tribute, and Redistribution in the Andes . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
2.4.2 Maize and Andean Political Economy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
2.5 Maize and Ancient Religion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
2.5.1 Maize and Religious Uses and Rites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
2.5.2 Maize: Religious Significance to Mesoamerican
Civilization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
2.5.3 Early Accounts on Maize Alcohol Consumption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
2.5.4 Maize Beer and Pulque in Mesoamerica . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
2.5.5 Maize Beer in Ritual and Religion in the Andes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
2.6 Maize Ethnohistory: Summary and Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
3 Scientific, Botanical, and Biological Research on Maize . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85

3.1 Introduction on a History of Science on Maize . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
3.1.1 Comparing and Contrasting Old and New World
Approaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
3.1.2 Research on the Rise of Early Agriculture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
vii
viii Contents
3.2 Archaeological, Botanical, and Biological Research

on Maize Origins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
3.2.1 Early Botanical and Biological Research on the
Origins of Maize . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
3.2.2 Historical Interface of Biological and Archaeological
Maize Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
3.2.3 Teosinte and the Search for the Origin of Maize . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
3.2.4 Approaches to Finding Wild Maize . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
3.2.5 Pod Corn as Wild Maize . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
3.2.6 Teosinte as a Progenitor of Maize . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
3.3 Maize: Morphological, Biological, Genetic, and Taxonomic
Approaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
3.3.1 Perennial Teosinte and a Reconsideration of the Tripartite
Hypothesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
3.3.2 Maize Antiquity and 14C and AMS Chronologies . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
3.3.3 Phylogenetic Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
3.3.4 Early Research on Maize Landraces and their
Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
3.3.5 Maize Landraces in the Americas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
3.3.6 Maize Landraces and Colonial Bioprospecting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
3.3.7 Morphological versus Genetic Maize Landraces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
3.3.8 Genetic Research and Paradigm Shifts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
4 Ethnobotanic, Interdisciplinary, and Multidisciplinary

Methodologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
4.1 Methodological and Technological Breakthroughs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
4.1.1 Comparing Research on Old and New World Ancient
Economies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
4.1.2 Paleoethnobotany: Methodological Approaches
to Domestication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
4.2 Interdisciplinary Approaches to Domestication, Agriculture,
and Adaptation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
4.2.1 Plant Domestication and Cultivation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
4.2.2 Approaches to Domestication and Cultivation
in the Tehuacan Valley . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
4.2.3 Approaches to Domestication and Cultivation in Oaxaca . . . . 179
4.3 Ethnobotanical Approaches to Early Agriculture
and Biogeography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
4.3.1 Classes of Ethnobotanical Evidence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
4.3.2 Pollen Analysis and the Spread of Early Cultigens . . . . . . . . . . . 188
4.3.3 Phytolith Analysis and Maize Biogeography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
4.3.4 Interdisciplinary Approaches to the Analysis of Phytolith
Assemblages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
Contents ix
4.3.5 Ethnobotanic Approaches to the Origins of Maize:

Central Balsas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
4.3.6 Isotope Analysis, Paleodiet, and Geochemical Approaches . . . . 202
4.4 Multidisciplinary Approaches to Maize Biogeography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
4.4.1 Ethnobotanic and Isotopic Research at La Emerenciana . . . . . 211
4.4.2 Advantages to Multidisciplinary Approaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
Chapter 1
An Introduction to Maize Cobs and Cultures
The importance of maize (Zea mays L.) has long been critical to our understanding
of the development of pre-Hispanic cultures in the New World. Our perceptions and
conceptions regarding its roles and importance to ancient economies are largely the
product of scientific research on the plant itself, this developed, for the most part,
out of botanical research and scholarship in plant biology and its recent role as one
of the most important economic staples in the world. The mutability of the plant and
its ability to adapt and reproduce in a wide variety of environmental circumstances
led to the previously untested assumption that its central economic role to sociocul-
tural development was at the very basis of its transformation from its wild progeni-
tor Zea mays ssp. parviglumis to domesticated corn (Matsuoka et al. 2002). The
morphological and botanical research surrounding maize has also had a profound
influence upon archaeological interpretation, since those biological data set the
limits of what was possible regarding the origins of maize and provided a basis for
understanding its biogeography in different regions of the Americas. Anthropologi-
cal research in the early part of the last century based largely on the historical
particularistic approach of the Boasian tradition provided the first evidence that
challenged the assumptions about the economic importance of maize to sociocul-
tural developments for scholars of prehistory. These and subsequent ethnographic
studies showed that the role of maize among Native American cultures was much
more complex than just as a food staple.
Multiple roles and uses of maize were also implied from early linguistic studies
in which the data suggested that its meanings and referents went beyond the
preparations as food and also crossed over to the religious association with primary
deities and traditional folk healing. However, the later emphasis on historical
linguistics and its association with certain language groups favored an emphasis
on the movement of maize economies with certain language groups (Sauer 1952).
The shift in emphasis was, in part, influenced by Old World scholarship, which
largely perceived by the spread of agriculture as moving with farming populations
from the Near East to different regions of western Europe as a kind of wave of
advance (see e.g., Childe 1935, 1939, and1954). The introduction of agricultural
grains, like wheat and barley, spread with an associated tool kit to different areas of
J.E. Staller, Maize Cobs and Cultures: History of Zea mays L., 1
DOI 10.1007/978-3-642-04506-6_1, # Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2010
2 1 An Introduction to Maize Cobs and Cultures
the European continent, and the presence of such artifacts provided the earliest
direct evidence of agriculture outside the southwestern Asia. Such models and
theories of agricultural origins became increasingly popular in American archaeol-
ogy during and after the 1930s. Previous cultural historical evidence generated out
of the Boasian school still continued to influence methodological approaches in the
field of archaeology. New World Archaeologists attempted to explain the biogeog-
raphy and adaptive shift to a greater dependence upon agriculture, particularly
maize agriculture, in terms of its earliest presence in the archaeological record
and, due in part to a lack of organic preservation, the appearance of associated
processing tools, e.g., ceramics, grinding stones as the evidence of a formative
economy (see e.g., Ford 1969). Even as recently as a half-a-century ago, the
appearance of such materials in archaeological deposits was largely perceived of
as synonymous with an agricultural adaptation and, in the Neotropics, with early
maize agriculture. After the advent of radiocarbon in 1950, research at a number of
cave sites in various regions of Mexico attempted to document the earliest appear-
ance of maize in the archaeological record and suggested that domesticated vari-
eties appeared long before the associated processing tools (see e.g., MacNeish
1958, 1962, 1967ac; 1985, and1992). However, these data did not hinder the
general predisposition by New World prehistorians to perceive the spread of
ceramic innovation as synonymous with a maize agricultural economy (see e.g.,
Ford 1969; Lathrap 1970, 1974; Lathrap et al. 1975).
The archaeological reconstructions of the post-radiocarbon era were greatly
influenced by botanical and genetic research carried out by luminaries such as
George Beadle, Paul Mangelsdorf and, more recently, Jack Harlan and Hugh Iltis.
During the late 1930s, a series of articles were published on the domestication of
Old World cereal grains, wheat and barley, which provided internally consistent
lines of evidence for the history of domestication of these food crops. Biological
scientists in the New World unwittingly attempted to apply similar approaches to
understanding and explaining the origins of maize (Iltis 1971; Harlan 1975). One of
the most influential scholars on the genetics, biology, and morphology of corn was
Paul Mangelsdorf. In a coauthored study, in1939, they presented genetic and
biological evidence to suggest that maize evolved from an as yet unknown wild
ancestor, and the hybridization of a second wild species of grass (Mangelsdorf and
Reeves 1939). Their results, subsequently referred to as the Tripartite Hypothesis,
were immediately challenged by Beadle (1939) who suggested that teosinte was the
wild ancestor of corn and that domestication involved the genetic mutation of four
or five genes. The Tripartite Hypothesis proposed by Mangelsdorf and Reeves had
far reaching implications for archaeological interpretations. This research also
played a major role surrounding archaeological interpretations of the spread of
maize races or varieties throughout the Americas. These data provided a basis from
which to assert multiple domestication events.
Teosinte was so different, morphologically, from domesticated maize that
the vast majority of prehistoric scholars doubted an evolutionary association,
and pursued research, which would document earliest presences. Moreover, the
Tripartite Hypothesis was more closely attuned to what was known about the
1 An Introduction to Maize Cobs and Cultures 3
domestication of Old World cereal grains. Teosinte is quite different from the
projenitors of Old World cereals. Teosinte grains are inedible, encased in a hard,
nonremovable cupulate fruitcases and have generally been absent from early
Archaic Period caves and rockshelter sites (cf. Iltis 2006; see also Flannery
1968ad). It was not until later genetic evidence demonstrated a biological associ-
ation between varieties of teosinte and domesticated corn that archaeologists began
to consider these evolutionary relationships more seriously. Hugh Iltis (2000)
proposed the provocative hypothesis that teosinte was not initially exploited as
food, but rather for the sugar in the pith of its stalk were consumed as a condiment
and used as an auxiliary catalyst to fermentation (see also Smalley and Blake 2003).
Most of the scientific research that has historically come from the biological
sciences surrounding the origins and evolution of corn was funded and geared to
making the plant more resistant to disease, insects and variations in climate to
increased productivity. Genetically modified varieties of corn have now become
essential to the survival of most second- and third-world economies the world over.
Moreover, the overwhelming literature on the genetic modification and scientific
manipulation of the mutational properties of Zea mays L., have also centered
around making this resilient plant more suitable to the feeding of livestock and to
monocrop cultivation. These biological and generic studies and the data they
generated, fostered the perception in archaeological circles that the current uses
of maize could be projected into the past. Thus, the archaeological record has been,
to a large degree, biased to the extent that methodologies and approaches to
understanding the cultural aspects of the plant in the past have been addressed
with the same detail, as its economic role to sustaining population densities, and to
the development of sociocultural complexity. Moreover, these perceptions were
largely supported by ethnohistoric accounts. Chroniclers generally perceived maize
as the New World economic staple and from their observations in Mesoamerica,1
that it was consumed as a grain, very similar in its role in the pre-Hispanic
subsistence economy to wheat and barley in the Old World.
The second chapter begins with a consideration of the ethnohistoric evidence as
these represent the only direct first-hand accounts of the role of maize in the Americas.
However, the field of ethnohistory has, relatively, recent beginnings in the western
hemisphere relative to the Old World. An awareness of primary sixteenth to seven-
teenth century documents spurred the movement toward the modern field of ethnohis-
tory. As researchers began reading the output of these historians, the potential
documentary evidence (for the most part literal readings) as a source for anthropolog-
ical studies became the focus of interest for a cadre of dedicated scholars from both
anthropology and history in the middle of the last century. This represents the
beginning of the modern field of ethnohistory (Barber and Berdon 1998; Carmack
1973; Carmack et al. 1996). However, in the Americas, an agreed-upon definition of
1
The culture area of Mesoamerica, is located in what are now the countries of southern and central
Mexico, Guatemala, Belize, El Salvador, and the western parts of Honduras and Nicaragua. This
culture area was the focus of complex, hierarchical cultures at the time of Spanish Contact, and
was long theorized to be a hearth of early agriculture in the New World.
what was under the purview ethnohistory was not realized until the late 1970s.
Nevertheless, the overall emphasis with regard to the historical documents was to
use those accounts that emphasized the role of maize in the ancient subsistence
economy and in the spread of polities into regions outside of their heartland centers
(see e.g., Murra 1973, 1980, and 1982). Since most of the ethnohistoric literature on
the topic of maize is derived from either Mesoamerica or Peru, particular emphasis is
given by scholars of ethnohistory to how the plant functioned culturally and economi-
cally within, what is known about, indigenous economies and religions in these
regions of the New World. This is also the case with regard to the ethnohistoric
literature of Northern Mexico and the American Southwest. Historically, the emphasis
in those regions has been to perceive cultural development and decline as directly
related to the importance of maize to the prehistoric economy. Climatic degradation
and the reduced carrying capacity that presumably resulted in the American Southwest
as a by-product of maize agriculture are often seen as primary factors in the disap-
pearance of Anazazi and related cultures (Willey 1964). The ethnohistoric evidence,
however, suggests that the importance of maize went far beyond its role as an
economic plant in this part of the hemisphere as well. The general reluctance of
scholars in the social sciences, particularly, anthropology and archaeology, to address
the ethnohistoric literature on the symbolic, ritual and religious significance of maize,
have to varying degrees influenced the current debates coming out of the biological
sciences and biochemistry, more specifically, stable carbon isotope research on
paleodiet (see e.g., Staller 2006b, 2008b, and 2009).
The third chapter takes an historical approach to maize research initially focus-
ing upon early studies in the archaeological and biological sciences and how those
studies were used by later scholars and indirectly influenced the current debates.
Research on plant domestication in the Old World also had a profound effect upon
the early biological research upon maize. A review of the botanical and archaeo-
logical literature indicates that these early studies on domestication in general and
primary economic staples in particular, had an important and often central influence
upon later interpretations. These historical influences have led, in some cases, to
erroneous assumptions surrounding the economic importance of plants such as
maize in the ancient past.
Discussion of the economic importance and role of maize to prehistory would be
incomplete without taking into account the early innovative research from the
biological sciences, particularly by specialists in paleobotany and plant morphology.
The research in paleobotany and plant morphology sustained the Tripartite Hypoth-
esis as researchers continued to look for species of wild grass that had morphologi-
cal characteristics, which were similar to those of maize (Mangelsdorf et al. 1967;
MacNeish and Eubanks 2000; Eubanks 2001a,b). Some scholars even began to
study at ancient pre-Columbian art and iconography seeking to identify botanical
species, which would provide some clues as to maizes seemingly mysterious
origins (see e.g., Eubanks 1999). Within the field of ethnobotany techniques
involving the identification of silica bodies or phytoliths had a profound influence
upon archaeological interpretations of the role of maize to ancient economies
and sociocultural development. Most of these studies adhered to the Tripartite
1 An Introduction to Maize Cobs and Cultures 5
Hypothesis, which assumes multiple origins or domestication events and pursued

the identification of microfossils, both opal phytoliths and pollen, in archaeological
soils. These studies focused particularly upon the earliest ceramic cultures, and in
some cases preceramic cultures in Central America, outside of the natural spread of
teosinte (Pearsall 1978, 1989, 1999, 2002; Pearsall and Piperno 1990; Piperno
1984, 1991, 2006; Piperno et al. 1985, 2007, 2009).
Similarly, early data on maize morphology was also predicated upon multiple
origins or domestication events. The numerous designations given to the multitude
of varieties or races throughout the Americas have taken on a life of their own and
have been given scientific names and cultural designations, which have little or
anything to do with their actual genealogy or phylogeny (see e.g., Anderson 1943;
Zevallos et al. 1975; Ampuero 1982). These morphological changes are a product
of conscious and unconscious selection by humans for larger cob and kernel size,
increasing row number, or modifications due simply to adaptation to distinct
environmental setting and climatic variations outside of their previous natural
range. Maize divergence is also a result of anagenesis, the persistence of one or a
suite of biological traits, which leads to varietal divergence over time, or cladogen-
esis, the development of evolutionary novelty through the eventual extinction of
preexisting forms (Benz and Staller 2006, 2009). The emphasis upon anagensis or
cladogenesis will depend upon how the analyst perceives evolutionary diverge. The
morphological data are complicated even more by the anthropological evidence on
maize varieties. These data have clearly shown that distinct varieties have strong
ethnic affiliations and therefore are sometimes taken as indirect evidence of long-
distance interaction, as certain varieties are associated with particular regions and
ethnic groups or societies (McK Bird 1966; McK Bird et al. 1988; see also Rivera
2006; Shady 2006). Many of these varietal designations are a direct outgrowth of
the Tripartite Hypothesis as certain varieties or races were further split into subraces
(Mangelsdorf et al. 1967; see also Huckell 2006, pp. 105106). The prevalence of
this botanical and morphological research and its widespread influence upon
archaeological interpretations and modeling early maize behavior has created a
formidable obstacle to understanding the biogeography of maize and the taxonomic
relationship(s) of the various lineages (Huckell 2006, p. 105).
The fourth chapter explores the methodological and technological break-
throughs in the study of maize over the past 30 years. Many of these more recent
approaches have provided a different series of data sets from which to understand
the prehistoric domestication and the role of maize to such developmental pro-
cesses. The most recent debates surrounding the antiquity and location(s) of the
original domestication event(s) have been greatly influenced by technological
innovations. These techniques include direct dating of macrobotanical remains
and plant microfossils. Recent archaeobotanical advances in the study of pollen,
opal phytoliths from archaeological soils and more recently from carbon residues in
ancient pottery has dramatically revised our understanding of the biogeography of
and antiquity of maize in the Americas (Thompson 2006, 2007; Thompson and
Mulholland 1994; Thompson and Staller 2001; Staller and Thompson 2000, 2002;
Chavez and Thompson 2006; Sluyter and Dominguez 2006; see also Lusteck 2006).
These approaches have, when dated by association, as in the case of pollen and
phytoliths from archaeological soils, or directly AMS dated as in the case of
microfossils from carbon residues, generated chronologies and culture histories
that are much more ancient than what had been documented on the basis of
macrobotanical evidence (Long et al. 1989; Benz and Long 1999; Blake 2006).
The data from the biological sciences has historically had a profound influence
upon archaeologists working on domestication and the role of primary economic
staples like maize, to such sociocultural processes. Perhaps, the most significant
breakthrough has been through analytical techniques at the molecular level of plant
DNA. The maize genome project and the breakdown of microsatellites at the level
of DNA have not only produced compelling evidence for the origins of maize (see
Matsuoka et al. 2002), but also the spread of maize lineages to different regions of
the Americas (Freitas et al. 2003). Studies at the molecular level have also identified
the existence of various alleles responsible for those characteristics such as starch
production and sugar content, which are necessary for the manufacture of maize into
flour for human consumption (see e.g., Whitt et al. 2002; Jaenicke-Despres et al.
2003; Jaenicke-Despres and Smith 2006). Early genetic research along these lines
considered characteristics such as glume architecture, which is intrinsic to modifi-
cations associated with human selection and an increased interdependence between
the maize and humans (Doebley and Wang 1997; Doreweiler 1996; Dorwieler and
Doebley 1997; Dorweiler et al. 1993; Eyre-Walker et al. 1998; Benz 2001; Staller
2003; Thompson 2006, 2007; Hart and Matson 2009; Hart et al. 2007a,b).
In the past decade, direct dates on ancient cobs have indicated a more recent spread
of maize through much of the Neotropics. AMS dates taken directly from macro-
botanical maize cob samples recovered from the earliest levels of the Tehuacan caves
in highland central Mexico, and the Guila Naquitz rockshelter in highland Oaxaca
have, in some specimens, produced younger dates by over two millennia than the
initial radiocarbon assays from associated archaeological strata (Long et al. 1989;
Piperno and Flannery 2001: Fig. 1). The morphological results from the most ancient
cobs at Guila Naquitz have also indicated that maize was not yet fully domesticated
at 5450 B.P (Benz 2002; Staller 2003; see also Bellwood 2005; Blake 2006). These
results indicate that in highland Oaxaca in the regions just outside of where maize
was domesticated, all of the genetic mutations and modifications associated with fully
domesticated maize were still undeveloped. The implications of these data for all
future archaeological interpretations regarding the origins and early economic signifi-
cance of maize to New World prehistory are profound. Some botanists and archae-
ologists have already begun to explore alternative explanations for the seemingly
rapid spread of this important New World domesticate (Iltis 2000, 2006; Staller and
Thompson 2002; Smalley and Blake 2003). The book concludes with a summation of
the current state of research regarding the application of new groundbreaking
approaches to understanding the maize at the molecular as well as the morphological
and phenotypic levels and its role in the ancient diet. Case studies are provided which
touch on some of the major implications brought about by recent methodological
approaches and the importance of internally consistent lines of evidence to our
understanding of maize evolution and biogeography.
Chapter 2
Ethnohistory: Impressions and Perceptions
of Maize
2.1 Ethnohistoric and Ethnographic Perceptions of Maize
The sixteenth century documents, pictorial codices, and iconographic and hiero-
glyphic texts are all evaluated to consider how earlier Indo-European perceptions of
the New World influenced our current understanding of the roles and importance of
maize to sociocultural development. Primary focus is given to the earliest primary
and secondary ethnohistoric accounts regarding the role of maize to New World
cultures. Since all the sixteenth century accounts were written to be part of history,
they are generally narrative and descriptive (Carmack 1973). Their analytical and
historical importance is not only that they provide a picture of relatively pristine
native culture (see, e.g., Cortes 1963 (14851547?); 1991 (15191526); Daz 1953
(15671575); and Landa 1975 (1566)), but also that they are a reflection of the
sixteenth century New Word culture and their perceptions of the world around
them. The only regions where native documents compare in ethnohistoric value to
the Spanish sources are those written in Mexico and Guatemala during the sixteenth
century1 (Carmack 1973; Carmack et al. 1996; and Barber and Berdan 1998). Most
of the preHispanic codices were destroyed in various campaigns to eradicate pagan
idolatry (Acosta 1961 (1590); Duran 1971 (1581); Landa 1975 (1566); Las Casas
1992 (1552); and Sepulveda and Las Casas 1975 (1540)). Those codices produced
after the conquest are largely commissioned by the Spanish nobility and illustrated
by indigenous and mestizo scribes who had converted to Catholicism. Conse-
quently, the content of most such colonial indigenous texts were conditioned to
1
Spanish influence stimulated a large corpus of Contact Period native Quichean documents. Most
were written during the first half of the sixteenth century. The fact that some Spaniards as well as
Mesoamerican scribes were literate is important for the study of native culture and sixteenth
century European culture therefore of potential value to archaeological and anthropological
reconstruction (Carmack 1973; Carmack et al. 1996; and Schwartz 2000).
8 2 Ethnohistory: Impressions and Perceptions of Maize
varying degrees by sixteenth century European perceptions and cultural biases

(Staller 2009).
Mesoamerica is the only region in the New World in which a highly specialized
native literary tradition already existed before the Contact Period (Anderson et al.
1976; Barber and Berdan 1998). It was primarily from these early accounts that
western culture began to comprehend that much of what had been written in
the scriptures did not take into account the existence of this New World, a
world that was dramatically different both environmentally and culturally from
their own. These sixteenth century accounts, were transcribed while these initial
contacts were occurring, and have immediacy and freshness in their descriptions
(Carmack 1973). They are dominated by personal impressions and details of
special value to the archaeologist as well as the historian, for the purposes of
studying Pre-Columbian foodways in general and the roles and uses of maize in
particular.
Maize was unknown in Europe prior to the arrival of Columbus in 1492. By that
time, Native Amerindians cultivated maize over much of the tropical and temperate
portions of the western hemispere from southern Canada to south central Chile
(Staller et al. 2006). The great adaptability and plasticity of maize are evidenced by
the fact that today it represents the second most important food plant on earth and its
current distribution is worldwide.
Much of what was initially known about maize comes from European explorers,
primarily clergy, Conquistadores and mercenaries who came to this hemisphere
seeking wealth, fortune, or to escape political and religious oppression and start a
new life. Most of the earliest eyewitness accounts of the conquest and of the Native
American cultures are from European clergy, such as colonial monks, priests, and
scribes (Staller 2009). Clergy and members of the European aristocracy constituted
the vast majority of the literate peoples of western Europe at the beginning of the
fifteenth century. As apparent by most of the extant literature surrounding the
conquest of the New World, European arrivals in the New World initiated processes
of cultural change that were sometimes rapid and catastrophic, sometimes pro-
tracted and complex (see, e.g., Carrasco 1999; Schwartz 2000). The King of Spain
provided Ferdinand Magellan and his navigator Juan Sebastian Elcano five ships to
circumnavigate the globe in 1519. This, after the king of Portugal Manuel I,
repeatedly turned down Magellan and his navigator. The commercial success of
the voyage laid the foundation for the Pacific oceanic empire of Spain and the
colonization of the Philippines (Elliot 1963). Combined with the Magellan expedi-
tions circumnavigation of the globe in 1522, the rapid conquest of the civilizations
of the New World convinced the Spanish Crown King Charles V of his divine
mission to become the leader of the Christian world, a world that still perceived a
significant threat from the forces of Islam (Elliot 1963; Carmack 1973; and Ife
1990). According to the Capitulaciones, the formal agreement between the
Spanish Crown (Ferdinand and Isabella) and Christopher Columbus, the explorer
would become the viceroy and governor-general of any and all lands and islands
he discovered (Columbus 1970 (1492), p. 23; Ife 1990, p. xvi). The Spanish
Crown would take 90% of all income generated from the territories under his
2.1 Ethnohistoric and Ethnographic Perceptions of Maize 9
jurisdiction2 (Ife 1990, pp. xvixvii). In the prologue to the journal of the expedi-
tion itself, it is written;
Your Highnesses, as Catholic Christians and princes devoted to the holy Christian faith
and the furtherance of its cause, and enemies of the sect of Mohammed and of all idolatry
and heresy, resolved to send me, Christopher Columbus, to the said regions of India to see
the said princes and the peoples and lands and determine the nature of them and of all other
things, and the measures to be taken to convert them to our holy faith; and you ordered that I
should not go by land to the East, which is the customary route, but by way of the West, a
route which to this day we cannot be certain has been taken by anyone else. (Columbus
1970 (1492), p. 23).
The original documents of the agreement or collaboration between the Spanish

Crown and the Conquistadores, therefore, sought the acquisition of territory and
their inherent riches, while at the same time promote the religious principles under
which most of the legal authority of the ruling nation states was sanctioned
(Madariaga 1947, pp. 10, 1214). The accounts provide considerable detail regard-
ing religious rituals, because many ecclesiastics and political authorities were
focused upon identifying pagan idolatry in whatever form they may find such
activity (Staller 2009, pp. 2627). Thus, accounts by religious clerics are generally
rich sources of information for pre-Columbian scholars concerned with native ritual
and religious belief (Carmack 1973; Barber and Berdan 1998). The accounts clearly
indicate that one of the primary goals of the conquest of the New World was to
convert its peoples. If the quest for wealth and power was what fueled the discovery
and conquest of the New World, it was the conversion of indigenous populations
that provided the religious and spiritual rationale for how these societies and
cultures were to be integrated into the empire of New Spain (Madariaga 1947,
p. 10). As the conquistador Bernal Daz del Castillo stated, We came to serve God
and his Majesty, to give light to those in darkness, and also to acquire that wealth
which most men covet (Elliot 1963, p. 64; Daz 1953 (15671575), p. 2).
2.1.1 Consequences of Conquest and Empire
The pursuit of wealth and power under the auspices of the Spain Crown led to the
widespread destruction and oppression of indigenous populations, and some clerics
and colonial officials protested against the Spanish Crown on behalf of the native
populations (see, e.g., Las Casas 1992 (1552); Sepulveda and Las Casas 1975
(1540)). In 1550, Charles V convened a now famous conference at Valladolid,
Spain in order to consider the morality of force used against the indigenous
populations of the New World (Madariaga 1947; Martby 2002). Charles V was
2
The Capitulaciones reserved certain rights to the Crown of Spain in newly conquered territories,
while at the same time guaranteeing the expedition leader due mercedes or rewards for services
rendered to the Crown (Elliot 1963, p. 58). Columbus also expected to enjoy the spoils of conquest,
through the attainment of property and captive slaves, as well as to receive the grants of the land
and title of noble (Elliot 1963, pp. 5859; see also Madariaga 1947).
both king of Spain (King Charles I) and Holy Roman Emperor in 1519, and it was
during the early period of his reign that the Aztec and Inca civilizations were
conquered and their wealth brought to the Spanish Crown and various royal houses
of Europe (Madariaga 1947; Elliot 1963; and Maltby 2002). Hernan Cortes
destroyed the Aztec Empire of Motecuhzoma II with 600 soldiers and 16 horses;
Francisco Pizarro, the Inca Empire with 37 horses and 180 men (Elliot 1963, p. 62).
The conquests of these New World civilizations helped to solidify the rule of
Charles V, providing the state treasury with enormous amounts of precious metals,
jewels, and incomprehensible wealth. Although it was his predecessors that
initiated the quest for a different route to the Indies, it was Charles V who sponsored
most of the early expeditions and organized and appointed the early colonial
officials who oversaw the governments of the kingdoms of New Spain (Madariaga
1947, pp. 1011). When Charles V passed away in 1558, he had amassed unimag-
inable wealth and power for Spain through the expeditions he had sponsored into
the West Indies, essentially creating the first empire in which the sun never set, an
empire that spanned some 4 million square kilometers (Fig. 2.1). Charles V of Spain
ruled over extensive domains in central, western, and southern Europe, as well as
the Spanish colonies in the Americas (Elliot 1963). He is credited with the first idea
Fig. 2.1 An sixteenth century map by the English chart maker Gabriel Tatton engraved in 1600
showing the Empire of New Spain (Nova Hispania). European interests by this time appear to have
shifted from Hispanola to Mexico, Nova Granada, California and the northern part of Florida,
which was the focus of an expedition by Hernando de Soto in 15401543 (Courtesy of Library of
Congress, Geography and Map Division)
Fig. 2.2 Charles V, King of Spain and Holy Roman Emperor on horseback. Painting by the
Flemish artist Anthony Van Dyck c. 1620, oil on canvas
of constructing an American Isthmus canal in Panama as early as 1520 (Haskin

1913). From an historical perspective, his reign represents the pinnacle of
Habsburg3 power, when all the far-flung holdings of the royal house were united
in the person of Charles V of Spain (Fig. 2.2).
The discovery of the New World also had a profound effect upon western
Europe. On the one hand, it opened the way from the secular world we live in
today by ultimately revealing to the world that not all of human history was contained
3
The House of Habsburg (sometimes spelled Hapsburg) was an important royal house in Europe
best known for supplying all of the Holy Roman Emperors between 1452 and 1740, as well as
numerous rulers and ruling families of the Spanish and Austrian Empire (Evans 1979). Charles V
was heir to the Habsburgs of Austria, The Valois of Burgundy, Trastamara of Castile and the
House of Aragon (Elliot 1963, pp. 6164; Evans 1979; Maltby 2002).
in Holy Scripture. Moreover, the Protestant Reformation began to threaten the power
and authority of the Catholic Church just before and after the discovery of the New
World. Many European Catholics were troubled by false doctrines within the church,
particularly the teaching and sale of plenary indulgences (Tentler 1977). Soon after
Charles V took power as Holy Roman Emperor, the city of Rome was sacked in 1527.
Mutinous troops loyal to Charles V are said to have played a critical role in the
victory over League of Cognac, which allied the Vatican with France, Florence,
Milan, and Venice (Tentler 1977; Coe 1994b). The sacking of Rome marked a
crucial early victory for the Holy Roman Empire over the Vatican and its allies.
This victory was a harbinger of later historical events, which to varying degrees mark
the overall decline of the political authority and power of the Roman Catholic Church
throughout Europe in centuries that followed (Tentler 1977; Coe 1994b, p. 32).
Another factor that fostered the Protestant Reformation was the spread of literacy,
particularly the invention of the printing press by Johann Gutenberg c. 1439. Such
advances had a direct effect upon how and to what detail discoveries in the New
World were recorded and disseminated (Fig. 2.3). The Holy Roman Empire also
determined where and how such information regarding the flora and fauna of New
Spain was to be recorded and disseminated.
2.1.2 Western Perceptions of New World Cultures
The earliest contact of Europeans with such cultures occurred in the Caribbean
(Hispanola), Mesoamerica (New Spain), and Andean South America (Peru). As
these newly discovered territories became incorporated into part of the empire of
New Spain, they became independent kingdoms that were ultimately under the
subject and political authority of the Spanish Crown (Elliot 1963). The ruler who
was most responsible for the creation of the Spanish American empire was Charles
V, who ruled Spain from 15161556. It was in these years that the Aztec and Inca
civilizations were conquered by the conquistadores in little more than a decade
(Madariaga 1947, pp. 89; Elliot 1963, p. 61). During the fifteenth and sixteenth
centuries, the Church in Rome sanctioned much of the political authority enjoyed
by the European aristocracy through a symbolic, and in some cases literal, associa-
tion with those royal families (Staller 2009). The ruling aristocracy attained great
wealth, and in some cases, absolute power over their subjects through a divine right
to rule. Before the sixteenth century and for several centuries later, Holy Scripture
provided the basis for European perceptions of all things great and small, as well as
the creation of heaven and earth. Coincidentally, writings of the Classical Age
appeared at the end of the fourteenth century, when there was a general revival of
learning associated with the Italian Renaissance (De Vorsey 1991, p. 17; Maltby
2002). Within these writings of the Classical Age was the Geographia, a complete
cartographers handbook, originally written in the second century in Greek by
Claudius Ptolemy. He described a method for producing maps of a curved surface;
in other words, in latitude and longitude (De Vorsey 1991, p. 71). Columbus
(1930 (1507)) applied the Ptolemaic concept of a west-to-east extent and of a
Fig. 2.3 (a) Map of the territorial possessions of the House of Habsburg in 1556 and at the time of
the abdication of Charles V, King of Spain and Holy Roman Emperor. Habsburg lands are shaded
(from Ward et al. 1912). (b) Flag and Coats of Arms of the Holy Roman Empire under Charles V,
from 1519 to 1558. The Emperors used the double-headed eagle as a symbol of their authority.
Individuals from the Habsburg dynasty were Holy Roman Emperors from 1452 until 1740 with
Charles VI
habitable world or oecumene to be 180 or half the earths circumference, thus

extrapolating the known world from western Europe to eastern India and China
(see also Staller 2009).
Since New World societies were not found in the Old or New Testaments, many
European clerics and scholars searched for a biblical explanation of their existence
until the eighteenth century, with the Age of Enlightenment (Staller 2009). These
never-beforecivilizations and cultures, plants, and animals fascinated as well as
puzzled and troubled the European explorers (Sauer 1969). The plants, animals,
and cultures were, in fact, totally alien to anything written or spoken about by the
Church in Rome. Europeans nevertheless tried to fit these alien entities into a
cultural and religious framework consistent with what was known and familiar to
them (Carrasco 1999, pp. 1113). Many Spanish chroniclers in Mesoamerica,
mainly Mexico, Guatemala, and parts of Honduras, Nicaragua, and El Salvador
speculated that the indigenous cultures and civilizations of these regions were
descendants of the Lost Tribes of Israel (see, e.g., Duran 1994 (1588?), pp. 37).
Christopher Columbus and Amerigo Vespucci believed that the native Americans
were the result of the great biblical flood (Columbus 1990 (1492); Traboulay 1994).
A widespread belief that the Amerindians were part of the 10 tribes of Israel was
based upon readings from the Book of Genesis and persisted in various forms into the
nineteenth century and even later (see, e.g., Duran 1994 (1588?), pp. 810). Jose de
Acosta (1962 (1590), pp. 45, 54) believed the native Americans to have come from
Africa, although he was a bit more realistic and scientific in his assessment stating,
we would like to know how and why they came (cf. Duran 1994 (1588?), p. 3).
Spanish chroniclers in Andean South America, in fact, speculated that native
Andeans were descendants of the ancient Chaldeans who once lived on the Plain
of Sennaar in the Persian Gulf (Valera 1968 (1594), pp. 153154; cf. Hyland 2003,
p. 96). The Andeans worshipped natural features such as mountains, lakes and
springs, as well as celestial bodies in the night sky much like the Caldeans
mentioned in the Bible. The discovery of the New World revealed to Europeans
what could never have been imagineda world of untold-riches, strange customs
and wondrous sights. The Spaniards, and later to a lesser degree, the French,
English, Dutch and others recorded their impressions of the native peoples from
the arrival of the first conquistadores or pilgrims to the retreat of the last European
official during the periods and wars of independence. Indeed, the propensity of the
European colonial officials to keep detailed records of their affairs in their colonies
has been of considerable value to students and scholars of the colonial period in the
New World (Carmack 1973; Spores 1980).
2.2 Using Sixteenth Century Accounts
The earliest colonial accounts consist of primary sources, such as the Conquistadores
writings, and relaciones, which were first-hand accounts of what natives told
colonial officials in the context of legal claims, tribute, and religious practices
(Gadacz 1982). Primary ethnohistoric accounts are valuable sources of information
for archaeological interpretation because they are direct observations of nearly
untouched or pristine native culture. Primary sources have in common the fact
that as a whole, they are generally unsympathetic toward native culture, and most of
the earliest relaciones were predicated by an underlying desire to gain privilege
from their patrons, primarily Charles V, and through him the European aristocracy
2.2 Using Sixteenth Century Accounts 15
or so-called royal houses, and of course, the Holy See (Elliot 1963; Innes 1969;
Carmack 1973; Newsom 1996; Ife 1990; and Barber and Berdan 1998). The
accounts left to us by the conquistadores, explorers, and soldiers of fortune who
conquered the New World were relegated to the dusty archives of history, or to
monastic repositories and libraries in the former colonies of France, England,
Portugal and particularly Spain, until archaeologists and historians rediscovered
them at the turn of the twentieth century. Ethnohistoric sources have been appearing
with increasing frequency in the archaeological literature since the early eighties
(Spores 1980). Our current perceptions of the economic role that maize played in
the development of civilization in this hemisphere, was largely influenced by our
interpretations and study of such early primary ethnohistoric accounts, particularly
colonial botanicals (see, e.g., Staller 2009). The general tendency of the conquista-
dors to evaluate what they observed in their initial encounters with Amerindians in
terms of relative size and similarity to their own civilization are also useful for
understanding how maize became to have a role in the colonial cultures of the New
World and Europe (Oviedo 1959 (1526)).
Although New World archaeologists have been using ethnohistoric accounts
for their research on ancient sites for over 30 years, such data and research have
only recently begun to play a central role in archaeological and anthropological
research (Spores 1980). The only region in the New World where Spanish docu-
ments can complement, compare in ethnohistoric value to the native sources are
those written in Mexico and Guatemala during the sixteenth century. Scholars
who have written on those regions have noted that Spanish accounts, as a body of
information about native life, fairly well with what the natives had to say about
themselves in some aspects of the culture (Sahagun 1963 (d. 1590)). The fact that
the Mesoamericans were literate as well as complex societies appears to play a
role in how the chroniclers describe and discuss the native Mesoamerican socie-
ties (Carmack 1973). Many later European expeditions to the New World were
focused upon recording the natural history, botany and biology of plant and
animal species. The early colonial botanicals have been of value to botanists
and plant taxonomists for many years (e.g., Oviedo 1969 (1526); Sahagun 1963
(d. 1590); Gerard 1975 (1633); see also Gerbi 1985). The application of such
historical data to archaeological reconstruction is relatively recent compared to
the biological sciences. When geneticists and botanists began to study the origins
of maize, such ancient texts and botanicals were readily cited in the literature
(e.g., Mangelsdorf and Reeves 1939).
Most of the information we have about maize from colonial accounts comes
from what are referred to in the ethnohistoric literature as, relaciones.4 Landas
(1975 (1566)) relacion is the most detailed account of Maya writing and religious
4
The colonial letters or relaciones that come most often to mind are Hernan Cortes letters to
Charles V of Spain such as la carta de Vera Cruz (Cortez 1991 (15191526), pp. 1620, 3334:
Innes 1969), his Cartas y Documentos (Cortes 1963 (1485-1547). or Francisco Pizarros accounts
through his scribe Xerex, of the conquest of Peru (Xerex 1985 (1534); see also Pizarro 1921
(1517)), or Bernal Daz first-hand account of the conquest of Mexico (e.g., Daz 1953 (156775)).
practices remaining from the early colonial period. Relaciones also include first-
hand accounts [primary sources] of what natives themselves said to colonial
officials (Sarmiento 1942 (1572); Arriaga 1968 (1621); Sahagun 1963 (d. 1590);
Landa 1975 (1566)). However, most relaciones are records and notes taken at
colonial administrative centers or churches about native customs, territorial
disputes, land rights, grazing rights, cultivation and access to irrigation canals
etc., (Valera 1968 (1594); Acosta 1961 (1590); Arriaga 1968 (1621); Sarmiento
1942 (1572)). Such colonial and native interactions were generally governed by
self-interest, that may work both ways, such as when aborigines are making
territorial claims, or when the information will be used by the Crown to determine
the jurisdiction of colonial officials (Carmack 1973; Murra 1973, 1980). Territorial
claims in both Mesoamerica and the Andean highlands often involved areas where
maize cultivation was important to the local economies, or where certain highly
valued varieties of maize were being cultivated (see Carmack 1973; Murra 1973,
1980; Morris 1993; and Morris and Thompson 1985).
The monastic orders that provided the most useful information on the conquest
of the New World, are the Dominicans, Franciscans, and later the Jesuits. With
respect to the Dominicans, Las Casas defended of the Indians of Guatemala at
around 1540 and initiated his program of peaceful pacification in Veracruz
(Las Casas 1971 (15271565); Sepulveda and Las Casas 1975 (c. 1540)). The
sympathetic, ethnographic tradition of the Dominicans persisted for over two
centuries. It is somewhat ironic therefore that it was the Dominican order who
initiated the purges and inquisition earlier in Europe and then the later purges and
extirpations of mestizo and indigenous populations in the New World colonies
(e.g., Albornoz 1967 (15701584); Arriaga 1968 (1621); see also Traboulay 1994;
Perez 2005). In a symbolic demonstration of their domination over the Inca, they
built a Dominican monastery on top of the Coricancha or Golden Enclosure, the
palace complex and religious center of the Empire. The monastery was leveled
along with most of the colonial architecture in the former Inca capital by a
catastrophic earthquake in 1650, while the remaining Inca walls of the Coricancha
withstood this quake (Cobo 1990 (1653)). Subsequently, a Dominican priory and
the Church of Santo Domingo were constructed in the same location and likewise
destroyed in another major quake in 1950. The systematic eradication of native
religious architecture and expression has its historical basis in the Andes with the
reign of the Viceroy Don Francisco de Toledo in the 1570s (Toledo 1940 (1571);
see Perez 2005; Homza 2006). The Franciscans, who first came to the New World
in the 1540s, never developed an ethnographic tradition equal to that of the
Dominicans. Nevertheless, their excellent dictionaries (Quiche and Cakchiquel)
attest to an early interest in converting the native cultures (Ochoa and Jaime
Riveron 2005).
Overwhelmingly, most ethnohistoric documents were written for administrative
purposes: to report to higher officials on the general condition of the Indians, or to
gather specific information about native culture for some immediately practical use.
In either case, they were political instruments (Carmack 1973, p. 84). Diego de
Landas Relacion de las cosas de Yucatan is the most detailed account of the
ancient Maya surviving from the early colonial period, when some contact with the
pre-Hispanic culture was still possible and the processes of acculturation were not
yet very far advanced. Landas relacion, together with a handful of native
pictographic and hieroglyphic writings in Yucatec Maya, and written down in the
Latin many years after the Conquest is all that remains regarding the written
evidence on the writing of a once-flourishing civilization. In early 1562, de
Landa began to investigate incidents of idolatry and suspected countenance
among the Maya populations of the province of Yucatan.5 The Relacion was
composed while Diego de Landa lived in Spain, at around 1566, and may have
been his written defense during an investigation by the Church of his inquisitorial
activities into presumably idolatrous practices among the Yucatec Indians. Landa
(1975 (1566), p. 18) was suspicious that the Maya acceptance of the Colonial
religion was an error. He correctly observed that, in many cases, it was simply
the addition of a Christian god to an already flourishing religious pantheon and
tradition. These Maya populations were accused of idolatrous practices previously
outlawed by the Franciscans. Many of these idolatries and ritual practices involved
offerings of maize in various forms (Landa 1975 (1566)). Some general character-
istics of the sixteenth century Spanish sources can be explained in terms of histori-
cal factors and the sociocultural conditions of Spain and the colonies (Carmack
1973; Perez 2005; and Homza 2006). For example, the superiority of the accounts
of religious clerics and friars over those of civil officials in providing useful early
ethnographic observations on native life is a reflection of the strong humanistic
tradition that the clergy brought to the New World. The humanistic component of
the Renaissance came to Spain primarily through the Church, and was brought from
there to the New World (Alt 2005). It is from such ethnohistoric accounts that most
of the information on how maize was consumed and used in different aspects of
native culture at the time of the conquest was first recorded (e.g., Landa 1975
(1566); Cobo 1990 (1653)).
Ethnohistoric accounts reveals a great deal about how ancient political econo-
mies were organized, and how food crops as well as other subsistence and utilitarian
resources were managed, stored, and redistributed by the elite to their subject
populations (see e.g., Berdan 1982; Berdan and Anawalt 1992 (15411542)).
Present-day economic staples such as maize (Zea mays L.), peppers (Capsicum
spp.), and squash (Curcurbita spp.) were unknown in Europe prior to the arrival of
Columbus in 1492 (Schiebinger 2004). Trade and commerce of these domesticates
and other food crops and economic plants into the Old World and Asia have had far-
reaching effects upon agricultural economies, cuisines, and food habits worldwide
(Coe 1994b; Schiebinger and Swan 2005).
5
Most of the pre-colonial codices written by the Yucatec Maya were destroyed under the orders of
Diego de Landa, in his lifelong quest to eradicate idolatry.
2.2.1 Early Pre-Linnaean Botanicals
Our general perceptions of maize (Zea mays L.) are conditioned to varying degrees
by what was said about the plant when European settlers first arrived in the New
World. Our more lasting preconceptions and misperceptions were all about of how
maize and other New World cultigens were distributed and disseminated through-
out Europe and northern Africa. With the invention of the printing press, informa-
tion about the New and Old World flora and fauna could be systematically
documented and recorded. As more European universities were created, such
reference sources provided ever-wider access to both elite and later to literate
commoner populations. The first natural history of the Indies was written by the
Spanish aristocrat Gonzalo Fernandez de Oviedo y Valdes (1959 (1526)), which
was first issued in 1526 in Toledo in the form of a summary.6 The so-called
Sumario or De La Natural Hystoria de Las Indias represents the first systematic
attempt at a natural history of the New World. European wood carvers and
illustrators used Oviedos descriptions of exotic plants and other objects from this
book, and the later 1535 edition of this work and many became part of western
folklore (see, e.g., Staller 2009). Oviedos book described and illustrated New
World plants such as the pineapple, cacao, chile peppers, tobacco and of course
maize. Like many of these early accounts, they included fanciful depictions derived
through secondary sources, or authors who copied and illustrated what was pub-
lished in the first-hand accounts. A fanciful image of a hammock from the 1535
edition of De La Natural Hystoria de Las Indias (Fernandez de Oviedo 1969
(1535)) forever changed long-distance travel on the Seven Seas, after European
ship builders, sailors and explorers subsequently incorporated hammocks on their
ships (Sauer 1969, p. 236). Oviedo did not restrict his observations of New World
flora and fauna solely to what kinds of plants and animals were being consumed, but
also included how native societies consumed them. Caribbean islanders were
observed to only consume maize by roasting the ears or parching dry seeds
(Sauer 1969, p. 236).
As more information came to western Europe from the Americas, many attempts
were made at systematically documenting and describing the New World flora and
fauna (Gerard 1975 (1633); Andrew et al. 2001 (17891794)). However, it not until
the eighteenth century, with a florescence of exploration involved in recording the
geography and natural history of the plants and animals that many of these initial
descriptions were found to be more imagined than accurate. Scientific and botanical
descriptions and illustrations of the natural biota of the Americas did not begin until
early in the seventeenth century, at the same time when plant and animal specimens
6
The first part of De La Natural Hystoria de Las Indias appeared in Seville during 1535. The
complete work was not published until 18511855 for the Spanish Academy of History. Though
written in a diffuse style, it embodies a mass of curious information collected first-hand. The
incomplete Seville edition was widely read in the English and French versions published,
respectively, in 1555 and 1556 (Fernandez de Oviedo 1969 (1535)).
were being collected and studied in western museums (Andrew et al. 2001 (1789
1794)). Camerarius, a German botanist, began to systematically identify plants
primarily based upon their reproductive parts (Fussell 1992, p. 61).
The discovery of the New World provided more than just information on a whole
different array of exotic plants and animals, it introduced Western Enlightenment
thought to a systematic way of describing and understanding the natural ecology. In
the eighteenth century, a Swedish botanist, Carl Linnaeus began to hierarchically
classify the natural world into families, genus and species, providing the basis for
modern taxonomy (Schiebinger 2004, p. 194; Knapp et al. 2007, p. 261). Linnaeus
believed that the foundations of scientific botany were classification and binomial
nomenclature (Schiebinger 2004, p. 194). It is one of the greatest triumphs of
western science that these early pioneers developed a way to name and refer to
all described organisms on earth, and their fossil ancestors (Godfrey 2007, p. 259).
Using what became the universal languages of science, Latin and Greek, Linnaeus
classified maize as, Zea, a Greco-Latin term for a wheat-like grain, and species
mays, a Latinized term derived from the Tano-Arawakan word mahiz, or life-giver
(Las Casas 1971 (15271565); cf. Fussell 1992, p. 60). There were a number of
spellings of the term maize when it first appeared in written documents in Europe,
but in 1516, when the term first appeared in print in one of the Peter Martyr publica-
tions, it was spelled in the Latin, maizium (Weatherwax 1954, p. 5; Martire 1907).
Nomenclature can reveal a great deal about the culture history of plants; how
knowledge of them spread through botanical networks, and European cultures
understood their biogeography and useas well as western botanists evaluated
indigenous systems of knowledge (Schiebinger 2004, p. 195). Much of the ethno-
historic literature suggests that the earliest European explorers in the western
hemispere saw maize as the cultural and economic equivalent of wheat and barley
in the Old World (Oviedo 1959 (1526); Las Casas 1971 (15271565); Cieza de
Leon 1998 (1553); Innes 1969; and Sauer 1969). Pre-Linnaean herbals published
within a century after the conquest, give the general impression that among
European explorers, clerics, and botanists maize represented a primary economic
staple a staff of life (Fuchs 1978 (1543), fol. 473; and Gerard 1975 (1633), pp.
8182). This perception may also be related to later nomenclature Corn, or more
specifically, Indian corn, is the name applied to maize by the English explorers and
consequently, the dominant name applied to Zea mays L. in English-speaking areas
of North America (Weatherwax 1954). This term is taken from the sixteenth
century German (korn), which they applied to wheat and the name was used in
various other places in western Europe for oats, rye, barley, and even lentils (Cutler
and Blake 2001 (1976), p. 2). The earliest descriptions of maize and all the flora and
fauna witnessed upon the earliest voyages were by laymen, as no competent
botanists and naturalists were on board in these initial explorations (Weatherwax
1954, p. 5). Subsequently, some botanists perceived the rise of Linnaean systemat-
ics as a form of linguistic imperialism, a politics of naming, spread by, and at the
same time, promoting imperial global expansion and colonization (Schiebinger
2004, p. 195; Andrew et al. 2001 (17891794)). Eighteenth century nomenclature
served, both explicitly and implicitly, as an instrument of empire removing plants
from their indigenous cultural moorings and placing them within a classificatory
schema that was first and foremost comprehensive to Europeans (Schiebinger
2004, p. 224).
2.2.2 Earliest Sixteenth Century Accounts
On the October 12, 1492, sailing under the flag of Spain and sponsored by the
Crown of Castile, Ferdinand and Isabella, the Italian explorer Christopher Colum-
bus first set foot on Watling Island, a place he named San Salvador, in the central
Islands of the Bahamas (Keegan 1989, pp. 3134, 40). There, he found naked
people, . . .very well made, of very handsome bodies and very good faces
(Fig. 2.4). Columbus believed that he had found the outlying islands of East Asia,
and this is why he called the inhabitants of the new lands Indios, or Indians (Sauer
1969). The European Cultures that came to the New World after the arrival of
Columbus in 1492 were searching for a passageway to India.7 While western
history has generally placed much significance on his first voyage of 1492, Colum-
bus did not actually reach the mainland until his third voyage in 1498 when he
explored the north coast of South America. Only 7 years after the death of
Columbus on May 20, 1506, the conquistador Vasco Nunez de Balboa trekked
across Central America and gazed upon the Pacificalthough he had already heard
about the ocean by 1511 (Sauer 1969, p. 222). In a letter dated September 25, 1513,
Balboa stated that while on a hill near the Gulf of San Miguel in present-day
Panama, he observed the existence of a South Sea or Pacific Ocean (Blacker and
Rosen 1960, pp.5558). The so-called West Indies were not part of China after all,
but . . . a New World more densely peopled and abounding in animals than Europe,
or Asia, or Africa (Blacker and Rosen 1960, p. 59). Despite this observation and
subsequent discovery of the western coastlines of Central and North America,
fanciful depictions of New World cultures, plants and animals continued for
many years, as Europeans attempted to connect them to Asia and the Far East
(Milbrath 1989, pp. 184185). For example, the pre-Linnaean herbal by John
Gerard (1975 (1633), p. 81) has an image of the Corne of Asia suggesting that
at this time some botanists believed maize may have come to Turkey from the Far
East (Fig. 2.5a). In the same 1633, herbal different woodcuts of maize are called
7
Columbuss voyages across the Atlantic Ocean began a European effort at exploration and
colonization of the western hemispere. Columbuss four voyages (between 1492 and 1504)
came at a time when there was growing national imperialism and economic competition among
various European nation states. The national imperial expansion occurred under the rule of Charles
V, who in 1516 took the throne of Spain upon his marriage to Princess Joanna, the second daughter
of King Ferdinand and Isabella of Castile (Elliot 1963, pp. 23). Charles V, later, took power as
Holy Roman Emperor in 1519, just before Cortes landed on the present-day Veracruz coast
(Madariaga 1947; Maltby 2002). Many western ruling families in both the Christian and Islamic
cultures began seeking wealth by establishing trade routes and colonies in other parts of the world
(Madariaga 1947; Maltby 2002; and Schiebinger 2004).
Fig. 2.4 Wood carving of Christopher Columbus meeting the Tano on the Island of Hispaniola.
First-hand information on native dress was the basis for this depiction by the woodcarver. The
Mediterranean rowing gallery indicates the wood cutter was familiar with what kinds of ships used
in the expedition (from Giuliano Datis version of a letter from Christopher Columbus dated to
1493) (from Milanich and Milbrath 1989)
Turky Wheat or foreign wheat. Maize was a source of wonder and fascination to
Renaissance Europe (Staller 2009, Fig. 2.7). In sixteenth century Europe, most
people believed Turkish traders spread maize to regional food markets throughout
the Mediterranean, but the origins of the plant were shrouded in mystery (Weatherwax
1954). The term Turkey and/or Turkish came to refer to many animals and
plants foreign to western eyes and cuisines8 (Coe 1994b). Spanish traders
initially spread maize, then called Turkish Corn or Turkey Wheat through-
out the Mediterranean in the early sixteenth century and Venetian traders are
8
The bird turkey (Meleagris gallopavo L.) derives its name from these early trading patterns.
European explorers who first encountered turkeys in the New World believed the birds to be type
of guineafowl, and because of their importation to Central Europe by Turkish traders, there was a
general tendency at that time to attribute exotic animals and plants to far-off places (Coe 1994b).
During the sixteenth century, anything Turkey or Turkish was synonymous with foreign
(Madariaga 1947; Elliot 1963).
Fig. 2.5a (a) In sixteenth century Renaissance Europe, maize (Zea mays L.) fascinated elites and
commoners alike. Many Europeans thought Turkish traders spread maize throughout the Mediter-
ranean. In the Gerard (1975 (1633), p. 81) herbal, there is an image of the Corne of Asia
suggesting some sixteenth century European botanists believed the plant may have been traded
from the Far East (Courtesy of Field Museum Library, Chicago) (Photograph by John E. Staller).
(b) Maize (Zea mays L.) was perceived by Europeans to represent the economic equivalent to
wheat in the Old World. It was not only a food staple in the eyes of many Europeans, but also a
staff of life. The word maize is from the Tano-Arawakan word mahiz or life-giver, again
reinforcing this association. In the 1633 General History of Plants by John Gerard, maize is called
Turky Wheat or foreign wheat. Gerard appears to differentiate varieties or landraces on the basis
of kernel color, although the description mentions kernel shape and ear morphology as well.
During the sixteenth century, Europeans perceived maize as a grain and emphasized its economic
and religious importance (from Gerard 1975 (1633), p. 82) (Courtesy of Field Museum Library,
Chicago) (Photograph by John E. Staller)
Fig. 2.5b (Continued)
believed to have subsequently traded it to the Far East (Fig. 2.5b) (Tannahill
1973, p. 246). This terminology later confused scholars who studied the ethno-
historic sources as many chroniclers referred to maize beer as wine of wheat or
maize (Bruman 2000, p. 78; see also Weatherwax 1954). Such terminology
may also have influenced how Europeans and Old World cultures incorporated
the plant into their cuisines. Portuguese explorers and slave traders first intro-
duced maize to Africa where it quickly integrated into the local economies.
Maize was initially referred to by its common Tano-Arawakan name, mahiz or
life-giver (Weatherwax 1954; Sauer 1969). Such references and other refer-
ences in early accounts and pre-Linnaean herbals appear to have later predis-
posed Europeans to emphasize its economic importance to the rise of New
World civilizations.
Spanish colonial records from the early historic period mention some of the
plants that were cultivated, venerated, and esteemed by the Tano and other
Caribbean indigenes. In many accounts, there is clear evidence that maize was
venerated and central to indigenous cosmology and religion. Tano-Arawak socie-
ties first encountered by Columbus were said to live in small- to moderate-sized
villages of up to a 1,000 people. They were also said to have a strong economic
dependence upon cassava [bitter and sweet manioc] and maize (Deagan 1989,
p. 49). Columbus brought maize kernels back after his second voyage, which the
Italian Scholar Pietro Martire dAnghiera (Peter Martyr) understood to be called
maz, hence the modern term maize (Staller 2009). The earliest descriptions of
maize in Europe were by Martyr who wrote the first accounts of explorations in
Central and South America through a series of letters and reports, grouped in the
original Latin publications of 15111530 into sets of 10 chapters called Decades.
The Decades were extensively copied and of great value to later scholars of the Age
of Exploration. The second chapter of Martyrs De Orbe Novo [On the New World],
was written to a high-ranking cleric and dated April 29, 1494, and includes an
account of the first voyage (Martire 1907 (1516)). This important historical docu-
ment is the first time that the term the New World appeared in print. Columbus just
returned to Spain, in his letter he writes; The bearer [of this letter] will also give
you in my name, certain white and black grains of wheat from which they make
bread [maize] (Weatherwax 1954, p. 32). Martyr planted some kernels and
provided western Europeans with the first description of the plant (Sauer 1969, p.
55). Martyr began his account in De Orbe Novo Decades saying; they make bread
from a certain grain, noting this grain was snow-white inside (Sauer 1969, p. 55;
Martire 1907 (1516)). A clear description of the maize plant by Como dating to the
second voyage of Columbus and published in Latin by Scillacio on December 6,
1494 is noteworthy. He states; . . .it is a grain of very high yield, of the size of the
lupine (Mediterranean white lupine), of the roundness of the chick-pea (cicer), and
yields a meal (farina) ground to a very fine powder; . . . and yields a bread of very
good taste (Coma, quoted in Sauer 1969, p. 55). Coma goes on to say that many
Indios chewed the seeds when they were in need of nourishment.9
Oviedo (1959 (1526), Chap. 4) later wrote that Caribbean islanders mainly
consumed maize by roasting the ears or parching dry seeds, and that it was not a
major foodstuff. Many early explorers in North and South America mention that
indigenous peoples as far a field as the Huron and the Andean peoples of the Sierra
the Ancash prepared corn by soaking ears in water for as long as 2 or 3 months and
cooking it (Cutler 2001, pp. 1617). The earliest accounts appear to emphasize that
maize was consumed as a grain, was an economic staple, and that Europeans,
particularly the early explorers, seemed to prefer it, along with beans and squash,
over other more exotic New World plant species such as cassava (Manihot spp.).
Manioc (Manihot esculenta Crantz) was called yuca, in the 1633 British herbal by
Gerard (1975 (1633), Chap. 155, p. 346) and as in the herbal, The root whereof the
bread Casua or Cazava (cassava) is made. Yuca includes both bitter manioc, and
sweet manioc and was according to chroniclers, intensively exploited. Manioc was
also called cassava and mogo or mandioca. Manioc is a woody shrub of the
Euphorbiaceae family, native to South America, and presently the third largest
source of carbohydrates in the world. Tubers and root crops were very important to
the pre-Columbian Caribbean and Middle American diet because they were not as
susceptible to climatic perturbations (rains, hurricanes, etc.,) and able to withstand
drought when maize crops would have been destroyed (Freidel and Reilly 2009).
The next earliest account of maize comes from Michele de Cuneo. He was a
native of Savona, who traveled with Columbus on his second expedition. He wrote
9
The last statement by Coma probably refers to parched maize.
Gerolamo Annari a letter dated October 1528 1495, in reference to the abundance
of green vegetables in the New World and that a certain melic (apparently maize)
. . . is not very good for us and that it tastes like acorns (Gerbi 1985, p. 32).
Michele de Cuneo attempted to write a natural history of the New World by
providing vague descriptions and tasting the fruits and vegetables to determine
whether they were like those in Europe, to our taste or fit only for pigs (Gerbi
1985, p. 33). Most Spanish sailing expeditions from the West Indies were stocked
with cassava bread and pigs (Innes 1969). His tasting and experimenting was the
first step to methodologically empirical investigation, but in no way approaches the
later Sumario of Gonzalo Fernandez de Oviedo (1969 (1526)), which was the first
serious scientific attempt at a natural history of the New World. Cuneos opinion of
maize was not generally shared by the Conquistadors and most of the other
explorers or chroniclers (Weatherwax 1954, pp. 2830). Chronicler accounts
repeatedly state outright or in passing that they preferred maize over most other
economic staples, and later demanded it in large quantities as tribute during the
Colonial Period (Ochoa and Jaime Riveron 2005). Nevertheless, most of the early
sources describe the most prevalent indigenous cultigens in the agricultural plots of
the Caribbean as consisting of root crops and tubers (Fernandez de Oviedo 1969
(1535), pp. 1214). The preference for maize over other indigenous crops such as
cassava becomes apparent in many later accounts and may have influenced archae-
ological perceptions of its economic role in the Neotropics.
It appears that these early accounts, to varying degrees, evoked a perception among
Europeans to perceive maize as analogous to the Old World grains, wheat and barley.
Maize was brought to be cultivated in Spain early on. In his relaciones y cartas of
1498, Columbus wrote that there was a lot of it [maize] in Castile, and earlier in
1493, Peter Martyr mentions that in the West Indies, the Indians produce without
much trouble, a bread that is sort of a millet, similar to what is found in abundance
around Milan and in Andalusia . . ., indicating that maize was brought back to Europe
after the first voyage or that Columbus confused maize with sorghum and millet
(Weatherwax 1954, pp. 5, 29, 33; Gerbi 1985, p. 189; Martire 1907 (1516)). Las Casas
(1971 (15271565), p. 110) mentions that in parts of what is today Haiti, they
cultivated and harvested a plant throughout the year, or at least twice a year, the
grain maize, which the Admiral calls panizo . . . Columbus was in this case using a
Spanish term for grain sorghum or millet (Weatherwax 1954, p. 29; Martire 1907
(1516)). The ethnohistoric literature provides detailed descriptions of how maize was
consumed in different parts of the western hemispere at the time of contact. These
descriptions suggest a much more complex role than has generally been emphasized
and later reported by many scholars in the social sciences and humanities.
Oviedo (1959 (1526)) described pre-Hispanic agricultural plots as fertilized by
cutting and burning vegetation to clear ground. He states that; The Indians first cut
down the cane and trees where they wish to plant it [maize] ... After the trees and
cane have been felled and the field grubbed, the land is burned over and the ashes
are left as dressing for the soil, and this is much better than if the land were
fertilized (Oviedo (1959 (1526)), pp. 1314). Most of the early sources emphasize
that yuca or cassava (bitter and sweet manioc; Manihot esculenta and M. palmate
Fig. 2.6 Most agricultural economies among New World cultures were dependent, to varying
degrees, upon domesticated food plants. A European engraver created this carving based upon
Oveidos description of the Arawaks small circular mounds or conucos upon which their cultigens
were grown. Natives carry water directly to their fields, a form of pot irrigation (from Oviedos De
la Natural Hystoria de Las Indias c. 1535) (Courtesy of Field Museum Library, Chicago).
(Photograph by John E. Staller)
aip, respectively) and sweet potatoes (Ipomea batatas L.) as the most prevalent
cultigens on the indigenous agricultural plots of the Caribbean (Fernandez de
Oviedo 1969 (1526), pp. 1214; see also Las Casas 1971 (15271565), p. 110).
Initial preparation of agricultural plots was in some areas followed by the construc-
tion of small earthen mounds or platforms, measuring one foot high and three to
four feet in diameter. Upon such mounds they cultivated their various crops
(Newsom 2006, p. 328). Ultimately, the fields, conucos, consisted of a series of
the small circular earthen mounds or platforms, measuring one foot high and three
to four feet in diameter in some areas (Fig. 2.6). A variety of plants, what is
generally referred to as, multiple cropping was common to various regions of the
Caribbean and Mesoamerica and has been found to enhance environmental quality
as well as cultivation, particularly in regions prone to flooding (Mt. Pleasant 2006,
pp. 530531; Newsom 2006, p. 328; see also Sauer 1969, pp. 5154; Las Casas 1971
(15271565), pp. 110111). Similarly, in Hispanola, what is today the Dominican
Republic, there was not a shift to maize cultivation after the arrival of the Spaniards
in Oviedos time (15021509) as manioc was much more productive in the moun-
tainous terrain and they supplied themselves with pork and beef as their primary
sources of protein (cf. Sauer 1969, p. 157). The observation that there was a shift to
the cultivation of maize after the arrival of the Spaniards is significant, in that our
current perceptions of its importance to pre-Hispanic New World economies may in
fact be a byproduct of early European perceptions regarding indigenous economies.
The early account of maize and its preparation in the Sumario de la Natural
Hystoria de Las Indias is considered by many ethnohistoric scholars as the most
accurate and precise. Oviedo based his observations in Cueva countrywhat is now
Costa Rica (Fernandez de Oviedo 1959 (1526), Chap. 4, 1969 (1535) pp.1012).
Its ears, more or less a geme-long [the span between thumb and forefinger], bear grains of
the size of garbanzos [chick-pea]. The planting ground is prepared by clearing the
canebrakes and montes, which are then burned, the ashes leaving the ground in better
condition than if it had been matured. The Indians then make a hole in the ground by using a
pointed stick, about as long as they are tall, and drop seven to eight grains into the opening,
repeating the process as a step ahead is taken, and thus they proceed in a file across the
clearing. The grain matures in 34 months... The Indian women grind the grain on a
somewhat concave stone by means of another round one that they hold in their hands,
using the strength of their arms, as painters are accustomed to grind their pigments. They add
water little by little which is mixed with the grain as it is ground and results in a sort of paste
resembling dough [masa]. They take some of this and wrap it in a leaf of some plant or in one
of the maize. This is put into the hot embers and baked until it is dry and turns into something
like white bread, with a crust on the outside, the inside of the roll being crumbly and
somewhat softer ... such rolls may also be prepared by boiling but are inferior. This bread,
baked or boiled, keeps only a few days. In four to five days it moulds and is no longer fit to eat.
This description refers to a floury white variety that is soft enough to be ground
into meal, and does not need to be soaked in lime. The first printed botanical
illustration of maize that made a lasting impression on Western culture was
published in 1542 in the De histora stirpium commentarii insignes. . . first
published in Latin. The German physician Fuchs attempted to identify plants
described by the classical authors of ancient Greek mythology, Plato Socrates,
Homer etc., (Weatherwax 1954, p. 35; see also Fuchs 1542). The herbal10 by
Leonhard Fuchs was translated and published in German the following year and
the illustration of what he named Turkish Corn is taken from a German wood-
cutting that appears to depict a popcorn variety11 (Fig. 2.7). Leonhard Fuchs was
one of the founding fathers of botany. He initially set out to identify and illustrate
plants described by classical authors. The 1543 German edition has descriptions of
about 100 domesticated and 400 wild plant species as well as their medical uses
(Krafft und Wurckung) in alphabetical order (Fig. 2.8). Fuchs calls the maize plant
Frumentum Turcicum believing it brought into Germany from Asia by Turks, who
were said to have planted it when other grains were scarce (Fuchs 1978 (1543), fol.
473; Finan 1950, p. 159). Another woodcut, illustrated in a later Italian edition12 of
Oviedos Sumario de la Natural Hystoria, in 1552 also appears to be depicting a
popcorn variety (Fig. 2.9). These images of maize as a grain, a primary food crop,
10
The first botanical illustration of maize appeared in 1535 in a little known book by Jerome Bock.
Most early depictions were in herbals. Herbals were species lists popular in western Europe during
the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries as they satisfied an interest in the flora and fauna that grew
around many European societies. Herbals were essentially precursors to regional flora lists
documented by modern ecologists and botanists (Weatherwax 1954, p. 35).
11
Fuchs made no attempt at a natural system of classification, but the woodcuts were however
based upon first-hand descriptions, as well as botanical samples and are anatomically and
morphologically accurate. Many later sixteenth eighteenth century herbals have copied images
from this herbal. Fuchs herbal includes 512 images of plants, largely locally grown, and printed
from woodcuts. These include some of the earliest depictions of maize and chilli peppers in the
Old World.
12
Oviedo wrote two books about the natural history of the Americas, a shorter and longer version
of the same theme, and an image of maize first appeared in an Italian translation, edited by
Ramusio and first published around 1552 in a series of editions (Weatherwax 1954, p. 37, Fig. 14).
Fig. 2.7 One of the earliest and influential botanical depictions of maize Turkish corn in De
histora stirpium by Leonhard Fuchs, 1542 (from Weatherwax 1954, p. 35)
are further enhanced by the descriptions of its preparation. The accounts state the
dough or masa was shaped into rolls, wrapped in leaves then baked or boiled. This
preparation is in contrast to what occurs in Mexico, where maize kernels are first
soaked, then ground back and forth with grinding implements, i.e., manos and
metates, and baked into thin cakes or tortillas13 (Sauer 1969, p. 242; see also Daz
13
The Mexican today make tortillas (tlaxcalli) or maize bread by soaking the kernels in water with
ashes and chunks of lime. When the kernels have softened, the mixture is heated to the boiling
point, and then placed upon a metate (metlatl) or griddle where it is ground into flour from which
small, thin cakes are padded into shape. The cakes are then baked on a dry griddle (Duran 1971
(1588), p. 136 f. 6).
Fig. 2.8 Leonhard Fuchs (15011566) was a German physician and generally considered to be
one of the founding fathers of botany and the biological sciences. His interest in botany grew from
his research on medicinal plants mentioned in the classic Roman and Greek literatures mainly in
the maternia medica. His botanical in Latin and the 1543 herbal printed in German had a profound
influence upon botanists and plant biologists in later centuries
del Castillo 1953 (14671575), p. 90; Fernandez de Oviedo 1969 (1524), p. 11).
The chroniclers emphasize that two types of maize were grown in the Caribbean,
popcorn and a floury (white) variety, and the ethnohistoric evidence suggests they
had slightly different maturation periods (see Newsom 2006, p. 328, Fig. 23-2; see
also Anderson 1947a). The following excerpt from Layfield (1995 (1598), p. 154) is
an example:
Beyond cassava they depend on corn, from which a very fine bread is made, which they
make much use of. There are two classes of corn; the smallest does not differ much from
Fig. 2.9 The earliest printed

depiction of a floury variety
maize, presumably a popcorn
in Oviedos De la Natural
Hystoria de Las Indias,
Seville. Although this image
was believed to have been
published in the 1535 edition
of his work, many scholars
now maintain it first appeared
in the second edition of De la
Natural Hystoria de Las
Indias published in 1552
(from Finan 1950, Fig. 1)
rice in proportion, size, and flavor. I never saw this [type] in crop or raw, but I have seen it
in the bowl, and at first I took it for rice, except that I believed it was a little inflated. Those
that ate it [said] it tasted like rice. I have seen the other class in fields, and it is the same, or
appears very similar, to the grain that we call wheat. It grows with a knotted stalk like a cane
with large scattered leaves. It grows up to a height of at least a fathom and a half, and the ear
grows from the very tip14
However, unlike cassava, corn bread does not store well, but cobs do, and they
can be easily transported (Sauer 1969, p. 242; see also Raymond and DeBoer 2006).
Diego de Landa states that the Yucatan Maya would make balls of maize dough that
would, last several months and only become sour [but do not go bad]. From the
rest they take a lump and mix it in a bowl made from the shell of a fruit which grows
on a tree and by which God provided them vessels (1975 (1566), pp. 6667). The
vessels or containers may be referring in this case to coconuts (Cocos nucifera L.),
but they could also have been calabashes or bottle gourds (Lagenaria siceraria).15
Early Colonial Period observations emphasize gourds were used as containers and
14
Translation by Lee Newsom (2006, p. 328).
15
When gourds were introduced into Europe, in the sixteenth century, they were generally
associated with Old World species of cucumbers and melons. Many New World introductions
of the family Cucurbitaceae, which is predominantly distributed in the tropics, were confused with
similar edible fruits from the tropical regions of the Old World. Gourds and melons were amongst
the earliest cultivated plants in both the Old and New Worlds.
in fact continued to be widely used until recently when plastics appeared. New
World cultures often planted squash with maize and beans, as the cornstalk
provided support for the climbing bean-stalks, and also shade for the squash
(Mt. Pleasant 2006). Because of the high yield of the plant per unit surface planted,
maize became the primary staple for the Spaniards who could store cobs and
transport them wherever they traveled (Sauer 1969, p. 242). Chronicler accounts
throughout Central and South America repeatedly mention raiding indigenous
maize fields and after taking control of regions forcing indigenous populations to
grow races, which were of a higher yield, that is cobs with more rows and larger
kernels (see, e.g., Huckell 2006; Rainey and Spielmann 2006; and Wright et al.
2005). Ethnohistoric accounts indicate that the sixteenth century Spanish diet in the
New World was influenced by native subsistence practices, and aboriginal food
ways were, in turn, modified by European contact (Chaney and Deagan 1989,
pp. 180181). Although maize is by far the most important New World food crop
in the rest of the world, the discovery of the New World introduced a number of
food crops and other plants, which are now staples worldwide (see Coe 1994b;
McNeil 2006; Staller and Carrasco 2009; and Staller et al. 2006, 2009). Old World
cultigens and domesticated livestock were soon integrated into native subsistence
practices, as were metal hoes and other farm implements such as horse draw
plows.16 These factors had an important effect on the cultivation of maize as a
primary subsistence crop, as did the imposition of religious clerics in forcing native
populations into sedentary communities (Chaney and Deagan 1989, p. 181). The
discovery of the New World touched off an unprecedented movement of flora and
fauna to both sides of the Atlantic, that essentially restructured the world agricul-
tural map (Schienbinger and Swan 2005, p.9). It is the height of irony that after the
publications of Carl Linnaeus European efforts to scientifically classify the natural
world coincided paradoxically with the large-scale alteration of flora and fauna
worldwide through the military, economic, and political activities of western
colonial powers (Schienbinger and Swan 2005, p. 8).
In 1509, Columbuss son Diego de Velasquez became governor of Espanola.
The boom in gold mining there was as short-lived as the indigenous population, so
the Spaniards colonized Puerto Rico, Cuba and Jamaica. Christopher Columbus had
visited Jamaica on his second and fourth voyages, spending almost a year on that
island. There was little by way of gold there, but all commentators marveled at its
food supplies and its peaceful inhabitants. The indigenous populations of Jamaica
grew cassava, maize, and cotton, which they traded out to towns in mainland
Panama and Cuba. Colonization of Jamaica was similar to Espanola; due to disease,
native populations catastrophically declined, and were soon replaced by cattle, pigs,
16
New World crops such as maize, beans and squash replaced Old World legumes and cereal
grains in the Spanish diet, but indigenous cultures also began to incorporate such European crops
into their diets (Landa 1975(1566), p. 67; see also Staller and Carrasco 2009; Staller 2009).
Particularly important European contributions to the neotropic diet were poultry, pork, beef, and
to a lesser extent mutton. Native techniques for cultivating indigenous crops and hunting wild
game and fish were also adopted by the Spanish (Chaney and Deagan 1989, p. 180).
sheep and goats from Europe (Traboulay 1994, p. 34). Archaeological evidence
from the site of En Bas Saline suggests the now extinct Tano-Arawak societies
cultivated cassava and maize and were heavily dependant upon maritime resources.
Chroniclers observed that these societies carried out rituals and religious activities
that involved the veneration of idols or Zemis made from stone, ceramics, bone
wood and cotton (Deagan 1989, p. 49). Newsom (2006, pp. 331, 333) states that the
maize varieties from this region and at En Bas Saline were generally associated
with high status individuals. The Caribbean evidence suggests that maize was
integral to ritual feasting and communal-ritual activities, and may have been
consumed as beer. It is more probable that the popcorn variety identified by
Newsom was used for fermentation, while the floury variety was consumed in the
manner previously described (Newsom 2006, pp. 331, 333).
2.3 Central America and Mexico
On Christopher Columbus last voyage, they were traveling along the coast of what
is today known as Costa Rica (Veragua), searching for gold. A youth of 14, named
Ferdinand wrote, They have for their nourishment also much maize... from which
they make wine and red wine, as beer is made in England, and they add spices to
their taste by which it gets a good taste like sour wine . . .. Despite the fact that he
knew maize was an economic staple in this region, the youth was more interested in
the beer that was made from its maize kernels (Sauer 1969, p. 133). The societies of
Costa Rica apparently did not make bread from cassava or manioc like those of the
West Indies, but rather they made cakes from maize (Fig. 2.10). The Italian explorer
Girolamo Benzoni recorded the three steps involved in making corn cakes, boiling
the maize in lime, grinding husked corn to make dough, which was then patted into
small cakes and then cooked on a comal (comalli) or griddle (Staller 2006b,
Fig. 32-1B). Such griddles have been identified in archaeological sites throughout
northern South America, the Amazon Basin, and eastern Central America. They
continued to be used among indigenous populations in these regions until recent
times (Fig. 2.11). The labor surrounding the preparation of maize for is different
regarding gender. According to Landa (1975 (1566), p. 66), maize was the principal
subsistence crop of the Yucatan. During the sixteenth century as now, men worked
the milpa, performed appropriate rituals, and planted and harvested the maize crop,
while Maya women performed much the same tasks for the preparation of maize,
primarily grinding and cooking, as mentioned in the Popol Vuh and Chilam Balam
(Tedlock 1985; Christenson 2003). Present-day Maya still perform their tasks
regarding maize as they did in the sixteenth century; men labor in the milpa,
while women would grind corn and make tortillas. Tortilla production is labor-
intensive, a result of hours of cultivating and tending in the field and grinding with
mano and metate or standing with a griddle in front of the hearth. Indigenous
populations in Mexico still tend to take as much pride in their tortillas, as they do
in maintaining ethnically distinct morphological maize varieties (Raven 2005; Benz
2.3 Central America and Mexico 33
Fig. 2.10 Fanciful depiction of native Amerindians drinking as imagined by Theodore de Bry c.
1594. Women in the lower left corner initiate the fermentation process by chewing the kernels
(maize?) with their saliva into the bowl. The mashed fermenting maize kernels were strained then
boiled with lime, as depicted in the foreground at the right and center, respectively. Natives drink
and smoke cigars in the central image, and males dance, drink, and shake rattles in the background.
The woodcarvings of the Italian explorer Girolamo Benzoni who recorded the fermentation
process while traveling in Central and South America between 1541and 1555 may have influenced
this depiction (from Bradford 1973, p. 136)
et al. 2007). Landa goes on to state that, Maya women had to grind their husbands
corn by hand on the metate and that maize was the principal food crop among the
Maya populations in the Yucatan Peninsula. Diego Landa (1975 (1566)) wrote that
the Maya would
... make various kinds of food and drink; and even when it is drunk [instead of being eaten]
it serves them for both food and drink. The Indian women leave the maize to soak overnight
in lime and water so that by the morning it is soft and therefore partly prepared; in this
fashion, the husk and the stalk are separated from the grain. They grind it between stones
. . . (pp. 6667).
The Maya appear to have drunken more maize than other Mesoamerican cul-
tures. In Santiago Atitlan highland, Maya would make a gruel called maatz and
drink this during ceremonies associated with the planting of crops (Christenson
2001, p. 123; see also Staller 2009). They prepared maatz by making flour from
toasted maize and then mixing this with ash and water (Carlsen and Prechtel 1991,
Fig. 2.11 Maya woman from San Antonio Agua Calientes, Guatemala in a comal (comalli)
prepares tortillas on a griddle. Note the various griddles standing along the back wall on the left
side of the image. (Courtesy of Michael D. Carrasco). (Photograph by Michael D. Carrasco)
p. 3132). Landa (1975 (1566), p. 67) observed they used finely ground maize to
extract a milk, which they thickened over a fire to make a kind of porridge or
gruel and also made a drink from raw ground maize kernels and bread in a
number of different ways. The finely ground maize from which the milky substance
was extracted symbolized mothers milk or semen among some Maya societies, and
its consumption is connected to concepts of life-renewal, rebirth and regeneration
from death (Freidel and Reilly 2009; Freidel et al. 1993, p. 180; Christenson 2001,
p. 123; and Sachse 2008, p. 140). Maatz, central to certain feasts, was often served in
elaborately painted ceramic vessels, which were themselves of significant ritual and
political importance (Landa 1975 (1566), pp. 6869; Coe and Coe 1996, pp. 4354).
The Yucatecan Maya would also toast and grind the maize and dilute it with chilli
pepper (Capsicum annuum L.) and cacao (Theobroma cacao L.) to make a drink
and that they made a foaming drink generally associated with the caciques and elite
that was central to their ceremonial feasts (Landa 1975 (1566), p. 67; Daz del
Castillo 1953 (14671575)). Landa (1975 (1566), p. 67) states that, From ground
maize and cacao they make a foaming drink with which they celebrate their feasts.
Beverages made from maize and cacao, have clear and unambiguous associations to
high-status individuals in Mesoamerica, as well as to mythological beings (Taube
1985, 1989; Coe and Coe 1996). Like maize, cacao is linked to fertility, the rebirth
of ancestors, the feminine, in the iconography and death as funerary offerings
(McNeil 2006, pp. 360362, 2009).
Trade involving cacao and maize along the coast of the Yucatan, Tabasco, and
Veracruz was largely focused upon providing the necessary ingredients to consume
maize in the form of a beverage. Honey was also sometimes used in these drinks,
particularly in the Yucatan Peninsula (Landa 1975 (1566); Daz del Castillo 1953
(14671575)). Some chroniclers noted that maize flour could not be kneaded like
wheat flour, and when indigenous peoples would sometimes make a loaf of bread from
corn flour that it is worthless (Landa 1975 (1566), p. 67). Landa states that, They
make bread in a number of ways; and it is a good and healthy bread; but it is bad to eat
when cold so the Indian women go to pains to make it twice a day (1975 (1566), p. 67).
The Maya and other Mesoamerican societies would use maize when they made stews,
which would sometimes include a variety of other vegetables, and aquatic resources,
deer meat and/or wild and tame fowl (Landa 1975 (1566), p. 67). It is perhaps for this
reason when Cortes and his army landed in Veracruz the various high-ranking lords
they encountered would initially leave food as provisions (see also Staller 2009).
Many sixteenth century accounts provide detailed information regarding what
was demanded and provided as tribute by rulers of the various city-states. The
Aztecs were said to have had a basic plant diet consisting of maize, amaranth,
beans, curcurbits, and chillies at the time of the conquest (Duran 1994 (1588?),
40n). The most important forms of tribute were maize (ears and flour) beans, sage or
chia seeds, amaranth, pumpkin seeds along with various kinds of chilli peppers (see
also Staller 2009, Fig. 2.16). Duran (1994 (1588?), p. 412) states that Tlatelolco
warriors laid sacks of ground cacao before Motecuhzoma II as tribute, as well as
sacks, of toasted maize, maize flour, bean meal, loads of maize bread [tortillas],
loads of chillies and of pumpkin seeds. Maize was also stored in large quantities in
the royal storehouses of the various polities17 (Berdan 1982; Berdan and Anawalt
1992 (15411542); and Staller 2009). These accounts imply and in some cases
document that the redistribution of food was under the auspices of high ranking
lords. When the Aztec Emperor Motecuhzoma II heard of the arrival of Cortes
ships in what is today Veracruz, he ordered them provisions which consisted of
honey, turkeys, fish, eggs, maize bread [tortillas and tamales], and stressed that
everything was to be provided in abundance (Daz del Castillo 1953 (14671575),
p. 90, 166167; Duran 1994 (1588?), p. 509). Each of Cortes soldiers was given a
basket of tortillas for themselves and another for their horse (Duran 1994 (1588?),
p. 510). The absolute power of rulers such as Motecuhzoma II is reflected by the
fact that he could redistribute various foods as provisions and that he was aware of
precisely where the Conquistadores were within his realm.
The various islands of the West Indies introduced Europeans to an alien world of
exotic cultures and never-before-seen flora and fauna. However, it was the conquest
of Mesoamerica and the Aztec civilization and later the Incas that brought them the
riches and gold they truly sought (Fig. 2.12). In conquering the Aztec, capital of
Tenochtitlan (now Mexico City), Hernan Cortes also conquered a large, indigenous
empire. The empire extended from the Gulf Coast to the Pacific Ocean across
Central Mexico, its northernmost boundary, the present-day Mexican state of
17
A huge driving force of the Aztec state economy involved the destruction of large amounts of
prestige goods and even ritually sacrificed humans. Such destructive activities and human sacrifice
took place in the course of their state/court rituals and festivals. These cultural patterns suggest that
both redistribution and ritual destruction of wealth was central to Contact Period political
economies (Carrasco 1999, pp. 8185).
Fig. 2.12 A seventeenth century French map called the Carte DAmerique was one of the first to
show the entire western hemispere. Most of the gold and wealth accumulated by European
aristocracy and Spanish explorers and conquistadores was derived from the conquest of the
Aztec and Inca civilizations (from Azara 1809, p. 146) (Courtesy of the Library of Congress,
Geography and Map Division)
Hidalgo, and its southward control extended to approximately the Mexico-Guate-

mala border (Baird 1993, p. 4; Schwartz 2000, pp. 46). The Aztec formed what is
termed a triple alliance with the states of Texcoco, and Tlacopan (present-day
Tacuba) thereby taking control of the Valley of Mexico (Fig. 2.13). The Aztec
derived their name from their place of origin, Aztlan, which is located at a region
called Chicomoztoc or seven caves (Schwartz 2000). Through warfare and alli-
ances, they emerged as the preeminent polity of Mesoamerica for approximately
100 years. At the time Cortes and his army entered the valley of Mexico, the
reigning monarch, Motecuhzoma II, in effect, ruled the entire area under the control
of the Triple Alliance. Military force had placed and maintained Tenochtitlan in its
supreme position (Baird 1993; Berdan 1982). The other great civilization of
Mesoamerica was that of the Maya, which at the time of the conquest was made
up of several confederated city-states.
2.3.1 Sixteenth Century Agriculture and Plant Cultivation

in Mesoamerica
Mesoamerica refers to the areas that in the present encompass the countries of
Mexico, Belize, and Guatemala, extending as far north as the Panuco River delta
Fig. 2.13 The Aztec Empire c. 1519 showing the various territories and allied and tributary city-
states
and Lerma-Santiago River (Stross 2006, p. 577). This region of the Americas is
characterized by great cultural and linguistic diversity, yet there are underlying
cosmologies and worldviews, particularly with regard to maize, that unite this
culture area (Fig. 2.14). In the Gulf coast and highland regions of central Mesoa-
merica, large populations were sustained by economies of scale that involved
elaborate and complex forms of irrigation technology, floating gardens, and elabo-
rate draining technologies. According to the Codex Mendoza (1540s) and the
Relaciones Geograficas (1580s) and various other chronicler accounts, much of
this technology was involved in the cultivation of maize and amaranth (Amaranthus
spp.) (Berdan and Anawalt 1992 (15411542); Ochoa and Riveron, 2005). Amaranth
seeds were consumed in the form of a gruel called pinole, and sometimes mixed
with ground maize in tamales. Intensive agriculture was practiced in various
regions of Mesoamerica, particularly along the Gulf Coast, Maya lowlands, and
the Valley of Mexico. Although such cultivation involved various plant species,
maize was a primary food crop in these regions during the Contact Period. The
Aztec developed complex drainage and irrigation systems (chinampas) in the valley
lakes of Zunpango, Xaltocan, Chalco, Xochimilco and Texcoco (Parsons 2006,
pp. 1115, Fig. 2.2; Staller 2009, Fig. 2.6).
The critical factors to plant cultivation in the Valley of Mexico were adapting to
the complex hydrology of the valley, which was highly prone to erosion and
maintained by restoration techniques that consisted primary of using organic
plant and fish fertilizer and allowing fields to fallow. The other primary challenges
Fig. 2.14 Mesoamerica refers to western, southern, and central Mexico, Guatemala, Belize,
E1 Salvador, and the western parts of Honduras and Nicaragua. This culture area was the focus
of major New World civilizations at the time of Spanish Contact, and was long theorized to
be a hearth of early agriculture in the New World
were climatic and involved periodic early frost in the higher elevations and drought.
The Aztec built elaborate terraces on the surrounding mountain slopes, which
covered most of the northern and central slopes in the fifteenth century (Sahagun
1963 (d. 1590)). Farmers maintained these terraces by living among their fields.18
Familial and/or community identity was closely tied to their agricultural fields,
particularly their cornfields or milpas (Stross, 2006, p. 581). Fray Bernardino de
Sahagun (1963 (d. 1590)) states that in the Valley of Mexico maize was planted in
April or early May and highly dependent upon rainfall and temperature. The
chinampas, which means fence of reeds in Nahuatl, was the most complex
irrigation technology in the Valley of Mexico (Parsons 2006). The chinampas or
as the Spaniards referred to them, floating gardens were cultivated year-round
and provided much of the food resources for the Aztec capital at Tenochtitlan and
the great open-air markets there and also at Tlatelolco and Tetzococo (Fig. 2.15).
Tlatelolco was at first a separate city on an adjacent island, but was eventually
18
Chinampas were not owned by the farmers but the calpulli, which is a Nahuatl term meaning
Big house, and referred to the core territorial unit of Aztec social organization (Schwartz 2000,
p. 254). Calpullis were associated to land units or barrios and could refer to a clan system,
somewhat analogous to ayllu in the Andes (see below). Farmers and their families who worked the
chinampas and could increase their landholdings if the family increased in size or the calpulli-
owned vacant land.
Fig. 2.15 The Valley of Mexico c. 1519 showing the various locations of major centers, artificial
causeways, and agricultural features
incorporated as part of greater Tenochtitlan. It also had pyramids, palaces, and

markets, but was most famous for its great marketplace (Schwartz 2000, pp. 78).
Because of its location in the midst of the lake and its maze of canals, many of the
first Spanish explorers who described Tenochtitlan compared the city to Venice
(e.g., Daz del Castillo 1953 (15671575), pp. 177178). According to the chronicles,
food crops, cotton, maguey and other primary resource commodities were differ-
entiated and classified by indigenous populations on the basis of where they came
from geographically (Sahagun 1963 (d. 1590)). Unlike the Andes, Mesoamerican
indigenous economies were market-based, and resources were brought to important
regional centers from vast distances.
As just outlined, various chronicler accounts emphasize that the Aztec Empire
was sustained by intensive agriculture through the creation of rectangular plots or
chinampas. Chinampas were stationary, artificial islands that measured roughly 30
by 2.5 m (Townsend 2000). Chinampas fields were used to cultivate maize, beans,
squash, amaranth, tomatoes, chillies, and a diverse array of flowers, which were
particularly important to festivals and feasts (see Fig. 2.15). The chinampas fields
around the imperial capital are estimated to have provided enough food to feed one-
half to two-thirds of the populace of the city of Tenochtitlan (Townsend 2000,
pp. 8084; Parsons 2006). The island location of the Aztec capital gave the center
its peculiar character with the constant traffic of canoes carrying goods to and from
the city. Fresh water was supplied by aqueducts, and away from the central precinct
many Aztec commoners farmed floating gardens or chinampas, rectangular plots
of silt on which multiple harvests could be made in a single year in a kind of
hydroponic agriculture (Schwartz 2000, p. 8; Parsons 2006). The fifteenth century
descriptions of the chinampas around Tenochtitlan also emphasize the importance
of fowl and aquatic resources to the Mexican diet, but state that the difference of the
chinampas maize fields was that some had . . . corn ripe for the picking, others
nearly ripe, still others with corn just spouting, and some with grains just planted.
In this way there could never be hunger in that land (Duran 1994 (1588?) p. 222).
There is archaeological evidence from the Gulf Coast at sites pertaining to the
Chontal Maya of irrigated fields in the Canderaria River (see, e.g., Siemens and
Puleston, 1972). The chronicler Francisco Lopez de Gomara (1943 (1554), p. 91)
informed Cortes in 1519 of such raised fields stating, that their agricultural fields,
both worked and in fallow . . . are difficult to cross. . . that those on foot could,
walk on a straight line, crossing ditches at each step(see also Siemens and
Puleston 1972).
In the Gulf Coast region, the Cempoalan channeled water through a series of
aqueducts that flowed from the river into storage tanks or cisterns (Ochoa Salas
et al. 2005, p. 39). From these storage facilities, water was channeled to other
cisterns through aqueducts until finally emptying into canals. They planted maize,
beans, and cotton provided a large surplus that was stored in silos. The Totonac of
Hueytlalpan province cultivated three crops of maize each year and one crop of
cotton every other year without irrigation. Analysis of the Relaciones Geograficas
by Lorenzo Ochoa and Olaf Riveron (2005, p. 42), however, indicates that in many
regions indigenous populations only had one harvest of maize per year. This would
explain why it was an important commercial crop involved in interaction networks
among various regions of Mesoamerica. The most well-known form of intensive
cultivation involved the floating gardens or chinampas (Parsons 2006). Such fields
are important in the Contact Period because they were controlled by the state
and sustained populations surrounding the Aztec capital of Tenochtitlan and the
Chontal Maya in the Gulf Coast lowlands of southeastern Mesoamericaboth
regions that were explored by Cortes and his armies.
Various chroniclers report that maize was an important staple crop in the Gulf
Coast, but the most important commercial crop was cacao during both pre and post-
Contact times (Brown 2005, p. 117). After cacao, the most important commercial
crops are maize, beans, manioc, yam, squash, and plantain. The flooded landscape
of the Chontal Maya along the Gulf coast of Tabasco represents a unique geography
and ecology. Dominated by the Grijalva-Mezcalapa drainages, the undulating
streams and lagoons in this region comprise one-third of all the wetlands of Mexico
(Olmsted 1993, p. 657). This is a region where societies had historically been
dependent upon aquatic resources and have traded such resources along with
plant crops throughout this region of the Gulf Coast (Brown 2005).
2.3.2 Maize and the Chontal Maya
The Chontal Maya had a profound political, economic, and cultural influence on the
rest of Mesoamerica (Thompson 1970). During the Contact Period, this region was
referred to as Acalan or Acalan-Tixchel and the inhabitants were referred to as the
Putun in some accounts (Scholes and Roys 1968, p. 52). J. Eric Thompson (1970,
p. 7) called the Chontol Maya the Phoenicians of the New World because of their
watercraft and reputation as traders (Brown 2005, p. 117). In fact, the name Acalan
is from the Nahua word acalli or place of the canoes (Scholes and Roys 1968,
p. 50; Thompson 1970, p. 118). Acalan is situated between Tabasco, the Peten, and
SW Yucatan. Cuzumel and Bacalar in the Caribbean coast, where important
Putun trading centers were, and interaction was carried out by watercraft and
over land with these surrounding regions (Scholes and Roys 1968). Cortes (1963
(14851547), p. 421422) related in his letters that an entire sector of the town
consisted of merchants under the supervision of the rulers brother, and that some of
the principal commodities included pine resin, cloth, cacao, and red shell beads
(probably, Thorny Oyster or Spondylus spp.). He goes on to mention that maize and
beans were also traded and that the region was . . .very rich in food supplies and
there is much honey. The Chontal Maya carried out three annual harvests, the first
March-May, is referred to as marceno and is primarily focused upon the cultivation
of maize (Brown 2005, p. 128).
There is some reason to suspect that intensive cultivation of maize in this region
as well as the Yucatan and other regions of present-day Mexico and Central
America is related to tribute demanded by the colonial authorities of New Spain
(Scholes and Roys 1968, pp. 149153, 240241; Mitchem 1989, p. 105). On the
other hand, Cortes (1963 (14851547?)) received maps from merchant traders from
Tabasco, Xicalango and Acalan which showed trade routes in which large quan-
tities of maize, chillies, and other plants, fish and fowl were transported to the
Zoque region in Chiapas in early colonial times in exchange for salt and other
status-related commodities.
These accounts suggest that even before the creation of the encomienda system,
maize was an important trade item, particularly to regions such as Zoque where the
climate was not ideal for the cultivation of cacao and where maize was largely
obtained through interaction networks (Scholes and Roys 1968, p. 39). For example,
in the jurisdiction of Villa de los Valles, the Franciscan order established a network
of missions for the purposes of pacifying the Huastec and Pame Indians of
Southern Veracruz, and ultimately used these populations to plant and harvest
sugarcane, raise livestock, and engage in artisan crafting (Herrera Casasus 1989).
The indigenous populations under the jurisdiction of the Franciscan missions were
largely involved in the cultivation of maize and beans for their own sustenance
(Zevallos 2005, p. 89). In addition, they grew sugarcane, made and sold piloncillo,
and engaged in other activities. The populations of Tampico exchanged their fish and
shrimp for maize and beans in the local markets. The overall impression given by the
relaciones is that these populations were specifically adapted to coastal and inland
resources, respectively and used markets to obtain resources not available locally.
While marching through Iztapa to Acalan, Cortes and his soldiers were cut off
from their supply ships on the coast of Eastern Yucatan (Scholes and Roys 1968,
p. 102). After traveling through the dense jungle for 2 days, Cortes and his soldiers
were near death from starvation, they came upon an abandoned and burned cere-
monial center and discovered a plentiful supply of maize and other foods (Daz del
Castillo 1953 (15671575); Cortes 1991 (15191526)). Daz and Mexa formed an
advance party for Cortes on this journey and they were instructed to bring him as
much food as possible. They collected as much maize, fowl, and other supplies as
possible and with 80 Maya carriers brought these things to Cortes and his army
(Daz del Castillo 1953 (15761575)). His soldiers, hungry and exhausted, con-
sumed all the food that they brought leaving none for Cortes and his captains. Daz
anticipated that there would be a wild scramble for the food so he hid some of it in
the forest, and agreed to share it with Cortes and a captain, Gonzalo de Sandoval
(Daz del Castillo 1953 (15671575); Scholes and Roys 1968, pp. 105106, 111).
During the Contact Period, many of the Chontal Maya were bilingual, able to speak
both Chontal and Nahua, and Cortes made several early incursions into Acalan and
through Cehuache territory (Daz del Castillo 1953 (15671575), p. 90; Scholes and
Roys 1968, p. 391). The current consensus is that Cortess famous translator Dona
Malnche (Marina), was Chontal, as this would explain her ability to translate Maya
and Nahua, and also her detailed knowledge of the region and talent in cross-
cultural negotiations (Schwartz 2000, pp. 6465, 251, Fig. 5; Brown 2005, p.118)
(Fig. 2.16). Dona Marina was a slave of Maya cacique, who was probably given to
Fig. 2.16 Indigenous depiction of Cortes disembarking on the Mexican coast of Veracruz and his
interpreter Dona Marina interpreting to him (from Duran 1994 (1581), Chap. 71)
Cortes by the Chontal Maya after their defeat at Potonchan (Schwartz 2000, p. 251).
Dona Marina could speak both Nahuatl and Yucatec Maya and she could commu-
nicate with Cortess Maya captive Geronimo de Aguilar, who had before this time
been his principal translator (Daz del Castillo 1953 (15671575), p. 90; Schwartz
2000, pp.66, 251). Dona Marina was crucial to Cortes when he and his army entered
the Aztec capital of Tenochtitlan and furthermore she gave him a son Don Martin
Cortes (Schwartz 2000, p. 66, 126129; see also Brown 2005). When Cortes and his
men later passed through Acalan in 1525, they were well received and provided
with a daily supply of, honey, turkeys, maize, copal and a great deal of fruit
(Scholes and Roys 1968, p. 391).
2.3.3 Storage and Redistribution: Mesoamerican Accounts
The importance of maize to the Spaniards is clearly evidenced in these accounts.

One of the reasons that maize was central to the indigenous societies throughout
Mesoamerica as well as the Spanish was that it could be easily carried and stored.
Colonial administrators throughout New Spain demanded that Indian populations
increase their maize production and required that maize be given to the state as tax
and tribute. The accounts from tax assessors and colonial bureaucrats indicate that
maize was not paid as tax or tribute in many regions of New Spain in the early years
because local populations were only cultivating as much as they would consume in
an agricultural cycle. Surplus production of maize appears to have been at least in
part related to the tax and tribute demands of the indigenous emperors and caciques
in pre-contact times and later by Spanish colonial administrators, particularly with
the onset of the encomienda system (Scholes and Roys 1968, pp. 184, 240243).
There is also evidence from these accounts that increased population densities in
many regions of Mesoamerica and later New Spain may be related to cumulative
effects of increased maize production (Scholes and Roys 1968, p. 301).
The basic plant diet of the Aztecs at the time of the conquest was maize,
amaranth, beans, curcurbits, and chillies (Duran 1994 (1588?), 40n; Sahagun
1963 (d. 1590)). The traditional Aztec meal at the time of the conquest consisted
of tortillas, a dish of beans and a sauce made from tomatoes or peppers (Sahagun
1963 (1590)). Maize (cobs and flour) was also important as a form of tribute,
along with beans, sage or chian seeds, amaranth, pumpkin seeds and various
kinds of chile peppers (Duran 1994 (1588?), pp. 205, 317; see also Long-Sols
1986). For example, Duran (1994 (1588?), p. 412) mentions that Tlatelolco
warriors laid before Motecuhzoma II as tribute, sacks of ground cacao, of
toasted maize, maize flour, bean meal, loads of maize bread (tortillas), loads of
chillies and of pumpkin seeds. Maize was also important as provisions for
warriors during times of conflict and was stored in large quantities in the royal
storehouses of the various city-states. The importance of maize to the Aztec diet
is reflected by the complex vocabulary associated with maize cultivation (see,
e.g., Berlin 1992). Sahagun (1963 (d. 1590)) states that the Aztec differentiated
tender maize stalk by the term xiutoctuli, compala referred to rotten maize ear,
and so on. Such complex vocabularies were common among all Mesoamerican
cultures at the time of the conquest and continue to the present (see, e.g.,
Berlin 1992; Berlin et al., 1974; Stross 2006, Alcorn 2006; Hill 2006; and
Hopkins 2006).
When the Tepeaca rebelled against the Aztecs, Motecuhzoma II requested that
neighboring allied city states prepare great quantities of maize cakes (tamales),
toasted maize kernels, and maize flour (tortillas) as well as other important foods
such as chillies, and salt (Duran 1994 (1588?), p. 153). Aztec warriors carried
provisions when they set out to war. These provisions included, toasted maize
kernels as well as maize flour, bean flour, toasted tortillas, sun-baked tamales ...
great loads of chillies, and ground cacao that was formed into small balls (Duran
1994 (1588?), p. 350). Duran later goes on to say that such provisions came from
great storehouses and immense bins that were under the control of the lords of the
various city-states. Large-scale management and exploitation of wild plant and
animal resources such as agave or maguey, as well as an array of aquatic insects
and algae sustained and distinguished highland Mesoamerican civilization
(Parsons 2006). Such resources were also provided in tribute to Mesoamerican
lords (Staller 2009, Fig. 2.16).
In a later chapter, Duran recalls the 3-year drought, which began in the year 1454
called One Rabbit (Ce Tochtli) by the Aztecs (Duran 1994 (1588?), p. 238). The
drought appears to have had a devastating effect upon Central Mexico, as people
began to depopulate this region in search of food, Motecuhzoma I agreed with his
allies in neighboring Tlacaelel to use the royal storehouses to avoid depopulation
(Duran 1994 (1588?), pp. 238239). He ordered that canoes filled with [maize]
gruel . . .[and] maize dough was to be cooked in the form of large tamales each one
the size of a mans head and that these foods were to be dispersed among the Aztec
population (Duran 1994 (1588?), p. 239). He ordered, under the pain of death that
no grains or maize cobs were to be carried off to other parts. Twenty canoes of
tamales and another ten of gruel, made from maize kernels and mixed with chian
(Salvia hispanica) seeds entered the city for a period of 1 year, after which the
supplies in the storehouses ran out (Duran 1994 (1588?), p. 239).
These accounts suggest that large quantities of maize were kept in such store-
houses and that corn was depended upon by these societies as a buffer against
climatic fluctuations, brought on as in this case by widespread famine and drought.
It is also clear from the descriptions that unlike the Caribbean cultures, the
civilizations of Central Mexico depended upon maize for their sustenance and
that it was used economically and symbolically by the ruling elite as a means by
which to justify their rule and status among their support populations. Moreover,
these accounts clearly emphasize the importance of maize consumption in the form
of a grain (flour), rather than a vegetable as appears to be the case in other regions of
the Americas at the time of contact (Sauer 1950, 1952; see also Staller 2006b).
These accounts reinforce more recent research that emphasizes the role of eco-
nomic staples in defining and redefining status and class, and the roles of such
consumables in reinforcing status differences through its redistribution (Freidel and
2.4 First Impressions of Andean Civilization 45
Reilly 2009). Control over land, tribute, and economic resources are a pretext of the
right to rule and to the production and reproduction of socioeconomic differences
and hierarchical relationships. Many of the pictographic and hieroglyphic docu-
ments left to us from Central Mexico and other subregions of Mesoamerica deal
either directly or indirectly with storage, and keeping track of the movements and
redistribution of various commodities, consumables as well as status related items
(see, e.g., Berdan and Anawald 1992 (15401541)).
Despite the importance of maize to indigenous economies in these regions, it
was also a critical food staple to the Spanish explorers, who commonly pillaged
and destroyed agricultural fields to obtain maize for their survival. Duran (1994
(1588?), pp. 177178) mentions that when the Aztec waged war they would
pillage the maize fields of their enemies, and kill all the turkeys and domesticated
dogs (edible) they came upon, just as our own Spaniards do today unless they are
controlled (Duran 1994 (1588?), p. 178). When such wars were waged, the
people in the towns and cities being attacked would hide their maize, chillies,
turkeys ...and all their possessions (Duran 1994 (1588?), p. 178). Rations given to
soldiers included a large handful of toasted tortillas and another of toasted maize
kernels (Duran 1994 (1588?), p. 178). When the Aztecs sought to punish the
people of Xochimilco the Aztec ruler Itzcoatl ordered five officers and five
soldiers to . . .tear out ears of corn and destroy the plants . . . of their biggest
maize field . . .(and to) devastate the field entirely . . . (Duran 1994 (1588?),
p. 107). When Motecuhzoma called his stone-cutters to carve his image on a rock
in Chapultepec he repaid them for their services with . . .loads of maize, beans,
chillies, also mantles and clothing for their wives and children (Duran 1994
(1588?), p. 481).
These accounts suggest that maize was central to tribute and as payment for
services rendered to the state. Its critical importance to local and state economies is
reflected in the fact that when conflict and destruction were inflicted among
competing Mesoamerican polities, maize fields were often destroyed or pillaged
as a form of punishment or retribution (Staller 2009). The preference of maize as a
food source among Europeans is also implied by the apparent continuation of such
practices by colonial officials upon rebellious or aggressive indigenous population
resisting their right to rule. The Spaniards obtained their sustenance either by
plunder or barter. By the time of the Spanish conquest of Peru, many of these
seasoned explorers and soldiers understood the richness of these exotic New World
food crops and how they were consumed (Ceiza de Leon 1998 (1553), p. 86, n.6).
2.4 First Impressions of Andean Civilization
The chronicles from the Andes, like those from, Mesoamerica, the Caribbean and
the Gulf Coast of Mexico, repeatedly mention how the Spanish explorers were
seeking maize for their sustenance. These accounts suggest a clear European
preference for maize, beans, and squash over other indigenous crops. Mesoamerica,
however, is the region in which maize originated and where it was first domes-
ticated. When Charles V sent conquistadores to Andean South America, they
encountered one of the most extreme environments in the world, a region where
there were different food crops and cuisines than those they had observed and tasted
further to the north (Fig. 2.17). Maize also maintained an economic importance
among the indigenous Andean cultures, but not to the extent it did in Mesoamerica.
Maize was primary consumed as a vegetable in South America,19 and also as a
Fig. 2.17 Land of the Four Corners: Map of Tawantinsuyu, the Inca Empire showing the
approximate boundaries of the four quarters and their territorial extent
19
Rather than grinding maize into flour to make cakes or tortillas as in Mesoamerica, the ways it is
prepared in the Andes are parching (chojllo), popping (rosetas), boiling (chocohoka), and roasting
(kamcha or hamka) (Valcarcel 1946, pp. 477482).
fermented intoxicant (Valcarcel 1946, pp. 477478; Sauer 1950, p. 494; and Staller
2006b, pp. 449450). Instead of using maize as an economic and symbolic way of
justifying their rule over commoner populations and other city-states as in the case
of Mesoamerica, maize was used in the context of traditional forms of reciprocity
for sealing social and economic alliances as well as a recognition of hierarchy and
status (Staller 2006b, pp. 454, 462464). Despite these differences, the Spaniards
had already become accustomed to the food crops in other regions of the Neotropics
and sought out maize as a food staple, in part because it could be stored and carried
while traveling (Raymond and DeBoer 2006).
While sailing along the eastern Pacific by what is today the Esmeraldas coast of
Ecuador (Fig. 2.18), the Spaniards went ashore at a place called, Tacacmez,
searching for food, and after much suffering, came upon Atacames20 (Cieza de
Leon 1998 (1553), p. 84). There they found, plenty of maize and other foods to
eat. . . He goes on to say,
The Spaniards delighted with all the maize they had found, ate leisurely because where
there is want, if men have maize, they do not feel it; indeed, a very good honey [maize beer
or chicha] can be made from it, as those who have made it know, and as thick as they want,
because I have made some when I was there (Cieza de Leon 1998 (1553), p. 84).
These comments were made by a Conquistador, in this case, one of the first to
write a global history of the Andes. Pedro Ceiza de Leon had already spent time in
other regions of the Americas. This account infers that just a little over a quarter-of-
a-century after European contact, there was a clear food preference by the Spa-
niards for maize over other indigenous crops. Moreover, the cultivation of maize
along the coastal streams and on artificial terraces on the sides of mountains
further reinforced the European impression that in the Andes, as in New Spain
(Mesoamerica) it was a primary food staple, a grain, analogous to wheat and barley
in the Old World.
Coastal societies told the Spaniards of a great civilization ruled by a highland
culture called the Inca, which spanned most of the Andean cordillera and coast
between present-day Santiago, Chile and Quito, Ecuador. In 1531, when the ships
carrying Francisco Pizarro and his army landed on the shores of what is today Peru
they were amazed at the stark desolation along this desert coast and the nearby
mountainous terrain, and at the same time, the complex ecological and cultural
diversity high in the cordillera. How could such coastal societies have developed
urban centers and constructed such enormous pyramids? The accounts suggest that
they believed it was no doubt related to maize cultivation. Maize, cotton and other
indigenous root crops such as the potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) as well as legumes
such as the peanut21 (Arachis hypogaea L.) were grown along the coastal streams
20
Tacacmez refers to the area between the mouth of what is today the Esmeraldas River and Cape
San Francisco (Ceiza del Leon 1994 (1553), 86 f. 1).
21
Peanuts may have originally been domesticated in Peru as early as 7,600 years ago (Dillehay
et al. 2007, p. 1890). Their cultivation spread in pre-Hispanic times to Mesoamerica where they
were sold in the markets in Tenochtitlan (Cieza de Leon 1998 (1553)).
Fig. 2.18 Conquest of Peru. Map showing the early route of Francisco Pizarro and his army. Their
first landing was on the northern coast of Ecuador just east of the Esmeraldas River
and seemingly every place where water could be channeled by the vast irrigation
networks constructed by the indigenous populations.
When Pizarro and his men arrived in coastal Peru at a place called Peruquete,
named after a chief or cacique, Pedro Cieza de Leon (1998 (1553) p. 49) states,
they found nothing but some maize and those roots that they (the Indians) eat
(manioc or sweet potato). Speaking of the coastal valleys of Peru, Ceiza de Leon
(1998 (1553), p. 57) observed that the villages were dispersed and that the Andeans,
cut the forest on the slopes and sow their maize and other food stuffs. The Andean
economy was on the one hand, based upon local food crops, potatoes, manioc,
tubers of various kinds, raising camelids, and large-scale state-sponsored cultiva-
tion on artificial terraces build for and controlled by the Inca State (Murra 1973;
Morris 1993). Most of the state-sponsored cultivation involved maize, which was
consumed in various ways and generally redistributed as a form of reciprocity to
subject communities in exchange for labor tasks carried out for the Inca state
(Staller 2006b, p. 464). Traditional Andean forms of reciprocity provided the
basis for tribute in the form of labor exchanges (mita).22 (Valera 1968 (1594);
Guaman Poma 1980 (15831615); and Murra 1973, 1980). Mita represented a
cultural and symbol association that was ultimately beneficial to all parties, and
organized and carried out on a rotating basis by communities (ayllus), organized
by their community leaders (curacas) and is a reflection of the non-market basis
of Andean economy (Vega 1966 (1609); Urton 1985; MacCormack 2004; and
Cummins 2002).
During the Colonial Period, mita labor was used to carry out tasks for the
interests of the Spanish Crown, who were only able to sustain an altered form of this
traditional system of corvee labor by recognizing the authority of Andean curacas
or community leaders (Cummins 2004, p. 4; Staller 2006b, pp. 252, 262). Subsis-
tence cycles were based in part upon such labor exchanges and were organized by
ayllus23 on a rotating basis, while their leaders provided food and beer for the
community several times a month as a form of reciprocity (Vega 1966 (1609);
Guaman Poma 1980 (15831615); and Murra 1973, 1980).
The Spaniards were informed about this enormous empire called land of the four
corners or Tawantinsuyu, despite being located in one of the most desolate and
extreme landscapes on earth (Fig. 2.19). What was even more remarkable was that
this vast empire was connected by a system of paved roads referred to as the Inca
highway or camino real (Hyslop 1990) Along the camino Real were numerous Inca
administrative centers that in some cases contained huge storehouses of maize, that
were dispersed throughout the highlands and coast (Morris and Thompson 1985;
Hyslop 1990). Maize was central to Inca political economy and closely associated
with the cult of the Sun and veneration of their dynasty (Staller 2006b, p. 464). John
Murra (1973, 1980) concluded on the basis of his reading of the sixteenth century
accounts, that the emphasis upon maize as a prestige crop by the state created a split
economy based upon local food crops, potatoes, tubers of various kinds, raising
camelids, at the local level and large-scale state-sponsored cultivation. State-spon-
sored cultivation of maize consumed in various forms and generally redistributed as
22
Mita is a Quechua term used to refer to a form of corvee labor provided to the state for services
rendered or commodities provided. In pre-Hispanic, non-market Andean economies, it represented
a form of reciprocity between the polity and the community of laborers (Staller 2006b, p. 449).
23
Quechua term for a landholding collectivity, self-defined in kinship terms, including lineages,
which derive their wellbeing and identity from the same locality or place, and through this identity
set apart as a distinct social unit (Staller 2006b, p. 453). Ayllu is similar in certain respects to the
Aztec calpulli although in the case of the calpulli with reference to barrios in different parts of the
city (see e.g., Carrasco 1999; Schwartz 2000).
Fig. 2.19 The Incas had a complex system of roads that spanned the entire length and width of
the empire. They also manufactured bridges made of fiber cord, which joined mountain passes
and steep ravines. Here the Governor of the bridges (vedor de puentes) makes a gesture of counting
with his left hand, perhaps to organize the passing on the bridge (from Guaman Poma 1980
(15831615), p. 328, fol. 356)
a form of reciprocity to subject communities primarily involved the manufacture of

maize into beer or chicha. Chroniclers in South America noted early on that maize
was predominantly consumed as chicha, the term they used to designate both
alcoholic and non-alcoholic beverages made from a variety of plants and prepared
in diverse fashions (La Barre 1938, p. 224; Staller 2006b, p. 449450). The
Quechua term for maize beer is aqha; however, the term chicha is now commonly
used throughout the Andes with reference to maize beer.
Carl Sauer (1950) suggested that the word chicha had Arawakan roots, derived
from chichal or chichiatl, chi meaning with, and chal denoting saliva
or with saliva, or to spit, while chichia and atl mean to fertilize and water,
respectively (Nicholson 1960, p. 290; see also Staller 2006b, p. 449). The etymol-
ogy of the term chicha was more recently identified as pertaining to Nahuatl, not
Arawakan, derived from the Nahuatl chichiya, which according to the chronicler
Molina (1989 (1575)) means, to become sour, bitter referring in this case to the
results of the fermentation process (Staller 2006b, pp. 449450). Indigenous Maya
populations in various regions of Guatemala still use chicha to refer to maize-
based fermented intoxicants (Staller 2006b, pp. 449450). Present-day Andeans use
the term to refer to maize beer, and in Bolivia, to maize and more rarely to
fermented intoxicants made from the Peruvian pepper tree (Schinus molle L.).
The fruits of Schinus molle are bright pink in color and often sold as pink
peppercorns, although S. molle is not related to the true pepper (Piper nigrum L.),
which is an Asian species, native to southern India.
In the Andes, the manufacturing process was generally under the exclusive
domain of women (chicheras) in the cordillera, while men (chicheros), primarily
mta workers, processed maize beer in the desert coast (Arriaga 1968 (1621), p. 12;
see also Moore 1989; Rostworowski 1999). Chicha was made by allowing the
kernels to spout in the shade until the spouts were about an inch in length. The
spouted kernels or joras were then chewed, to initiate the fermentation process and
formed into small balls that are then flattened and laid out to dry. Naturally
occurring enzymes in the saliva catalyze the breakdown of starch in the kernels
into maltose. The mashed fermented kernels were then strained and boiled and
stirred for many hours with lime (Staller 2006b, Fig. 32-1A). Maize beer has a pale
straw color, a slightly milky appearance, and a slightly sour aftertaste, a flavor
reminiscent of hard apple cider. It is drunk either young and sweet or mature and
strong and contains only a small amount of alcohol, about 13% (La Barre 1938).
Oviedo described the preparation of chicha in Panama, pointing out that, as in the
Andes, the kernels are allowed to spout (joras) and are then boiled in water which
contained certain herbs for a considerable amount of time (Fernandez de Oviedo
1969 (1535), p. 136). Once the joras and herbs are allowed to cool, it is left to sit for
3 or 4 days and then consumed (Bruman 2000, p. 97). However, there is no mention
of the addition of saliva or chewed maize added to the fermenting mixture. Most
chroniclers emphasize the importance of pineapple and plantain to the manufacture
of fermented intoxicants in this region of Central America (Bruman 2000, p. 98).
There was no indigenous culture in the hemisphere that had the vast system of
storehouses, or received tribute in the scale of the Inca Empire.
2.4.1 Storage, Tribute, and Redistribution in the Andes
Inca storehouses were distributed throughout their empire and for the most part held
maize, but in the higher puna and altiplano environmental zones, they stored
freeze-dried ducks and tubers such as potatoes or oca (Oxalis tuberosa Savign)
(Murra 1980). Oca is one of the important staple crops of the Andes, only the potato
(Solanum tuberosum L.) is more important as a food staple, due primarily to its easy
propagation and tolerance for cold and poor soils. The place where the Inca perhaps
had their most extensive granaries, warehouses, and storehouses was in the Imperial
Capital, Cuzco. These buildings were said to have been built under the orders of
their first rulers, who also dictated how the stored commodities were redistributed
(Coe 1994b, pp. 195196). The conquistador Juan de Betanzos 1968 (1551), p. 35,
stated that the Inca ruler,
. . . ordered that all the lords and chiefs who were there would meet in his house on a
certain day, and when they had come together as he had ordered, and being in his house, he
told them that it was necessary that there be in the city of Cuzco warehouses of all the
foodstuffs: maize, chile, beans, tarwi, chichas, quinoa, and dried meat, and all other
provisions and preserved foods that they have, and therefore, it was necessary that he
order them to bring them from their lands. And then Inca Yupanqui showed them certain
slopes and mountainsides around the city of Cuzco and visible from it and ordered them to
build granaries there, so that when the food was brought there would be somewhere to put
it. And the lords went to the sites that the Inca showed them, and got to work, and built the
granaries. . .24
The chronicler Felipe Guaman Poma de Ayala states that Inca law also placed strict
regulations on how food crops should be grown, as well as what should be eaten,
We command that there be an abundance of food throughout the kingdom, and that they
plant very much maize, potatoes, and ocas; and make caui, kaya, chuna, and tamas [various
preserved roots], and chochoca [lightly boiled and sun-dried maize]; and quinoa, ulluco,
and masua. . . That they dry all the foods including yuyos [greens] so that there will be food
to eat all year round, and that they plant communally. . . maize, potatoes, chile. . . Let them
make up the accounts each year; if this is not done, the tocricoc [royal official] will be
cruelly punished in this kingdom. We command that nobody spill maize, or other foods,
or potatoes, nor peel them, because if they had understanding they would weep while
being peeled, therefore do not peel them, on pain of punishment (Guaman Poma 1980
(15831615), I p. 164).
The Inca had sumptuary laws forbidding luxury in daily dress and status-related
accoutrements such as adornments made of precious metals and gems and did away
with banquets and meals (Coe 1994b, p. 200). The Inca put considerable techno-
logical effort into transforming the mountainous Andean landscape through the
construction of vast irrigation terraces. Inca territorial expansion was based, in part,
upon large-scale maize production associated with such widespread terrace con-
struction on mountain slopes both in the highlands and the coast (Murra 1980). The
transformation of steep mountainsides into garden terraces has its beginnings in
pre-Inca times, but the Inca took this highland Andean practice to an unprecedented
scale (Morris 1993). In order to harness the corporate labor necessary to maintain
and create such terraces and their associated administrative facilities, the state
employed traditional forms of reciprocity, what was called mita, in which
24
Translation by Sophie Coe 1994b, pp. 195196.
corporate labor was demanded in exchange for commodities provided by the state
in the form of chicha and consumables (Murra 1980; Morris 1993). The widespread
modification of the natural landscape in the form of mountainside terraces, such as
those near Pisac in the Urubamaba Valley grew maize that was manufactured into
beer or chicha at various Inca administrative centers along the Inca highway
(Staller 2006b, pp. 463464; see also Morris and Thompson 1985). The Inca and
other highland cultures provided the Spanish clerics and colonial administrators
information on territorial claims and how such consumables were redistributed by
the state, as well as mythic histories dealing with Inca dynasty and the legends
surrounding the various rulers (see, e.g., Toledo 1940 (1570); Sarmiento 1942
(1572); and Acosta 1961 (1590)).
Mythological history recorded in sixteenth century relaciones states that the
ruler Inca Pachacuti Yupanqui instituted banquets and ritual feasting as a form of
reciprocity for allyus involved in corporate labor projects (Sarmiento 1942, (1571)).
Research by Thompson and Morris (1985) at the Inca administrative center and
ushnu at Huanuco Pampa uncovered archaeological evidence of such feasting,
banquets, and ceremonial activity (Staller 2006b, Fig. 32-9). Huanuco Pampa was
a provincial capital directly beside the Inca highway, in which certain buildings and
areas of the site were set aside for chicha brewing and ritual feasting and drinking
(Staller 2006b, p. 462).These areas included large structures around the main plaza,
which were full of organic remains associated with cooking, feasting, and broken
drinking vessels or keros remains from ritual drinking of maize beer. Sophie Coe
(1994b, p. 192) states quite rightly that if Inca civilization were to be categorized by
Europeans in the present, they would probably be seen as an empire of accountants.
Thirty years after the conquest, chroniclers marveled that the Inca rulers and their
accountants (quipucamayus) could still account for every grain of maize consumed
by the armies of the emperor Huayna Capac during his campaigns into northern
Ecuador (Fig. 2.20). Jose de Acosta states that the Inca state was,
. . .an admirable and provident government, because being neither religious, nor Christian,
the Indians in their own manner reached this high perfection, having nothing of their own,
yet providing everything necessary to everybody, and sustaining so generously the things of
religion, and those of their lord and master. (Acosta 1961 (1590), p. 196)
The chronicler Martn de Murua pointed out that maize and a host of other food
crops had close association to the ruling elite (see also Staller 2006b, 2008b). The
Inca promoted laws in which the poor, destitute, blind, crippled and maimed were
provided for with food and cloth from the public storehouses (Coe 1994b, p. 200).
The emperor Huayna Capac was described by Pedro Pizarro (1978 (1571), p. 49) as,
. . .a great friend to the poor, and ordered that especial care be taken of them in all his
dominions. . .They say that he drank more than three Indians put together, but nobody ever
saw him drunk, and his captains and great lords asked him how he could drink so much and
not get drunk, he said that he was drinking for the poor, because he was concerned with
their sustenance.
These accounts appear to suggest that of all the consumables cultivated and
stored by the state, maize is the plant with the closest symbolic association with the
Fig. 2.20 Felipe Guaman Pomas depiction of Collca the Inca storehouses. He writes Topa Ynga
Yupanqui at the top of the far left storehouse, indicating the man represents the Inca emperor
Topa Inca Yupanqui. The emperor gestures to the administrator of the storehouses Poma Chaua,
his identity written on the far right storehouse. Poma Chaua holds the knotted cords or quipus
which Inca quipucamayus used to keep track of the items stored in this facility (from Guaman
Poma 1980 (15831615), p. 309 fol. 335)
elite. For example, the principal wife or coya of the first Inca emperor Manco Capac
and her successors were said to have consumed maize in various forms. Indigenous
Inca informants informed Murua what the first coya ate;
Her daily food was usually maize either as locros anca (stew), or mote (boiled maize
grains), mixed in various manners with other foods, cooked or otherwise prepared. For us
these are coarse and uncouth foods, but for them they were as excellent and savory as the
softest and most delicate dishes put on the tables of the rulers and monarchs of our Europe.
Her drink was a very delicate chicha, which among them was as highly esteemed as the fine
vintage wines of Spain. There were a thousand ways of making this chicha. . . and the
maidens of her household took great pains with it. (Murua 1962 (1590), p. 29)
The accounts emphasize that chicha was central to maize consumption in the
Andes. The primary food was described in one relacion as maize and chile and
greens and little protein, which was derived mainly from maritime or aquatic
resources, and for this reason they are so fond of drinking chicha, because it fills
their bellies and nourishes them (cf. Coe 1994b, p. 205). The Andean cultures also
derived considerable meat protein from camelids, particularly llama and alpaca,
however even in this case such mammals were commonly offered as sacrifice
(Guaman Poma 1980 (15831615)).
In summary, the primary consumption of maize in the Andes during the Contact
Period appears in contrast to Central and Mesoamerica to have been in the form
of beer25 rather than as bread or tortillas (Staller 2006b, p. 449). When consumed as
a fermented intoxicant, it had a profound significance to religious rituals and rites,
as well as a symbolic significance to forms of traditional reciprocity, tribute and to
mita obligations associated with corvee labor (Cutler and Cardenas 1947; Nichol-
son 1960; Murra 1973, 1980; and Morris 1993). Maize beer played a fundamental
role in most all Andean fertility rites and was perceived as linking humans to the
spiritual realm through the fecundity of the earth (Otero 1951; Coe 1994b). The
ancient cultural and symbolic association between chicha and the earth (pacha-
mama) is reflected in Andean customs, when noting that if it is spilled accidentally
the rationalization or explanation is that, the earth is thirsty (Jimenez Borja 1953)
Andean girls in some regions spill chicha on the earth during planting to make it
more fertile (Nicholson 1960). Cutler and Cardenas (1947, p. 33) suggest that
mildly alcoholic brews were so common in some regions of Bolivia and Peru, they
may have contributed substantially to the ancient diet. An appreciation of the role of
such customs requires some recognition of the inter-relatedness of the cultural and
natural world to Andean worldview and cosmology (Rostworowski 1986; Staller
2008a). At the time of the conquest, it was common for Andean cultures to
construct platforms and sacred oracles in the form of cut or sculpted stone on the
summits of mountains and hills; these modifications of the natural landscapes are a
reflection of a widespread concept of a sacred landscape (Staller 2008b; see also
Townsend 1992)
2.4.2 Maize and Andean Political Economy
The Inca emphasized maize as a prestige crop, rather than as an economic staple, as
appears to have been the case in Mesoamerica. Maize was also used to fostering
social alliances in the context of long-distance interaction, and chroniclers state that
it was redistributed by the Inca as a form of reciprocity in exchange for corvee labor
(Morris 1979, 1993; Murra 1980; and Rostworowski 1986). The significance of
maize to indigenous Andean culture is attested by numerous ethnohistoric accounts,
25
The Quechua word for maize beer is akka or aqha while the Aymara term is kufa (Nicholson
1960). Indigenous Andean populations in the present generally refer to maize beer as chicha.
which state that when it was consumed in various forms it was an acknowledgement
of rank and power (Betanzos 1987 (1551); Valera 1968 (1594); and Cobo 1990
(1653)). The economic significance of maize in the Andes was also closely tied to
the Inca Solar deity (Inti) and to veneration of former rulers and nobles of high rank
and status. Its significance to the ruling class and to dynastic imperatives is evident
by its presence in the form of gold maize stalks in the Garden of the Sun located in a
courtyard of the Coricancha, the most sacred temple in the imperial capital Cuzco
(Cobo 1990 (1653), pp. 4850; see also Vega 1966 (1609); Ceiza de Leon 1998
(1554); and Betanzos 1996 (1557)).
The consumption of maize beer in Andean culture played a fundamental role in
exchange and particularly in sealing alliances between two or more social groups
(Staller 2006b, pp. 454456). Ethnohistoric accounts indicate that the sharing and
drinking chicha was not only a gesture of hospitality, but also contained explicit
references to hierarchy and power (Cummins 2002; Staller 2006b). Chicha offered
with the left hand inferred the recipient was of inferior status, while beer offered
with the right hand indicated that those individuals were of equal or superior status
(Vega 1966 (1609); Guaman Poma 1980 (15831615). Maize beer was, therefore,
well suited as a social lubricant to interactions and transactions between first-time
partners, particularly when the individuals or groups are of unequal status. Ritual
feasting and drinking furthermore couches interactions that may include the
redistribution of goods as well as corvee labor, and labor exchanges (mita) into a
cultural and symbol association that is ultimately beneficial to all parties (Morris
1979; Murra 1973, 1980; and Staller 2006b).
The symbolic exchange and consumption of maize beer was also common to
Andean customs between humans and huacas or sacred places in the landscape, i.e.,
certain mountains, caves, rivers, natural springs, etc. Ceremonial centers, temples
and oracles were customarily given maize beer as offerings (Betanzos 1996
(1557)). Sacred Places, material manifestations of the sacred, such as architecture
or modifications to the landscape, and even in some cases departed ancestors, were
customarily given chicha as offerings (Fig. 2.21). Maize beer was of critical
importance to rituals and rites associated with the Cult of the Dead and to customs
surrounding ancestor veneration, as were textiles and llamas, which were com-
monly burned in veneration and as ritual offerings (Zuidema 1973; see also Staller
2006b). Andean communities commonly had huacas that is, stone or wooden
sculptures worshipped as its mythological ancestor (Classen 1993). Cobo (1990
(1653)) observed the Inca toasting their idols, and pouring out much chicha in their
honor. These idols and oracles or huacas were fed and offered drink in return for
good health, propitious weather, and bountiful crops (Vega 1966 (1609)). When
members of a community or lineages (ayllus) exchanged drink or participated in
feasting and imbibed fermented intoxicants, it was a reminder of the obligation they
had to one another to aid in personal and communal work to sustaining a shared
livelihood (Cummins 2002; Staller 2006b). Maize beer played a fundamental role in
such activities, in maintaining alliances and carrying out communal labor tasks.
Maize beer was central to Andean political economy as evident from the
chronicler accounts, which often emphasized that Inca nobility in Cuzco used it
Fig. 2.21 The emperor or Sapa Inca and the Queen (Mamakilla) drinking and making offerings of
chicha to a previous ruler and queen. The deceased ruler sits on a low stool and the mummified
queen kneels to the right of him. Mummies of previous rulers and their principal wives were
commonly brought out during ritual festivals and rites of passage (from Guaman Poma 1980
(15831615), p. 262, fol. 287)
to extend and maintain their authority over their vast empire (Morris 1979; Murra
1973). In fact, aqha or chicha appears to have played a major role to Inca political
expansion. Unlike Mesoamerica, all forms of interaction and exchange in indige-
nous Andean culture were non-market based, and involved in traditional customs
surrounding reciprocity and redistribution (Staller 2006b, pp. 455456; see also
Murra 1975; Rostworowski 1977; and Morris 1979).
Redistribution and reciprocity in Andean culture are social and economic
aspects of interaction and corvee labor similar to gift-giving in that the value of
a commodity is culturally associated to the status of the individuals involved in the
transaction (Morris 1979; Rostworowski 1977; and Murra 1980). The value of an
object or commodity is not only dependent upon what is exchanged, but also who is
exchanging it (Morris 1979) and in some cases even where it came from, e.g.,
huacas or oracles, important ceremonial centers (Staller 2006b, 2008b). Exchanges
represent a form of reciprocity. Reciprocity and the customs and traditions sur-
rounding this concept permeate all aspects of Andean social structure (Murra 1975;
Vega 1966 (1609); Zuidema 1983; and Rostworowski 1999).
Evidence on traditional forms of Andean interaction comes from ethnohistoric
documents and the Spaniards generally depended upon local leaders (curacas) to
carry out orders and perform labor tasks. However, the Spaniards were not particu-
larly predisposed to recognize the subtleties of native customs surrounding hierar-
chy and interaction. This becomes readily apparent when they attempt to curb native
drinking customs and drunkenness (Rostworowski 1977; Staller 2006b). When the
Spanish noble Gregorio Gonzalez de Cuenca outlawed the curacas right to redis-
tribute and dispense aqha or chicha, he almost immediately rescinded the order
(Cummins 2002, pp. 4243). Curacas customarily provided their workers drink in
exchange for labor or services rendered and without reciprocity in the form of beer or
other fermented intoxicants, the communities and their associated ayllus felt no
obligation to bow to the will of their leaders (Cummins 2002, p. 43; Staller 2006b,
p. 462). Subsistence cycles in the Andes were based, in part, upon labor exchanges
(mita) (Murra 1982). Corvee labor and tribute to the state was organized by ayllus
on a rotating basis (Cummins 2002). Community leaders (curacas) provided food
and maize beer several times a month in reciprocity (Urton 1985; Cummins 2002;
and Staller 2006b). The Jesuit chronicler Blas Valera, noted that the Inca reinstated a
custom whereby curacas were commanded to hold feasts two or three times a month
in their central plazas to make certain that the needs of the sick, lame, and widows
were attended (Cummins 2002). Other chroniclers emphasize that such practices
and customs were of great antiquity (Vega 1966 (1609); Guaman Poma 1980
(15831615)). The sociopolitical relationships between Inca rulers and local curacas
were fermented by maize beer or chicha and multi-varied. Customs surrounding
reciprocity and redistribution facilitated the movement of both consumables and
sumptuary items throughout the empire in the highlands as well as the coast.
2.5 Maize and Ancient Religion
The sixteenth century accounts from various regions of the Neotropics clearly
emphasize the importance of maize to indigenous ritual practices and religious
beliefs. It is, however, in Mesoamerica, where maize appears to have played the
largest role in ancient religion; this impression is based, in part, on the iconographic
and epigraphic evidence from ancient texts and monuments. The Maya carved
various plants, both real and imagined on stone monuments, modeled them into
figurines, painted them on pottery and murals, and illustrated them in various
codices (Taube 1989; Berdan and Anawalt 1992 (15411542)). Maize was of
2.5 Maize and Ancient Religion 59
such religious and symbolic importance and a powerful icon to the Chontal Maya,
that maize was and still is perceived of as the cultural ideal of beauty in its
manifestation as the young Maize Lord26 (Taube 1985, p. 181, 1996). The delicate
features and Xoc Monster-Spondylus medallion of the young Maya Lord also reflect
a feminine nurturing quality, often associated with tending corn among some
contemporary Maya. Among societies of lowland Veracruz, maize was also of
great religious, ritual and iconographic importance as evidenced by images of the
maize deity (young Maize God) in a variety of Mesoamerican cultures from this
region (Alcorn et al. 2006, p. 599). Sacred indigenous texts such as the Maya Popol
Vuh27 and various Aztec documents convey a clear impression that maize was
central to the mythological origins, ethnic identification and very existence of the
Mesoamerican people (Stross 2006, p. 578; see also Tedlock 1985; Duran 1994
(1588?); Alcorn et al. 2006).
The sacredness of maize is apparent when noting that Mexican shaman still use
maize to interpret omens, make prophecies, divine future events, and its ancient
divinity is clear from iconographic and hieroglyphic associations with primary
deities and origin myths (Stross 2006, p. 588). The young Maize God of the
Maya civilization, like most Mesoamerican deities, was anthropomorphic, in this
case in the form of a young male ruler (Fig. 2.22a). In ancient codices like the
Dresden Codex,28 which dates to the eleventh or twelfth century, the young Maize
God is shown conversing with Itzamnaaj, the Creator God, a deity often associated
with the celestial realm, and with a bountiful harvest (Aveni 2000, p. 221). Ancient
Maya codices were usually doubled in folds in an accordion-like fashion in the form
of folding-screen texts (Fig. 2.22b). Like most prehistoric codices, pages of the
Dresden Codex are made of flattened Amatl paper, that is, kopo, fig-bark covered
with a lime plaster or stucco stand some eight inches high, and are as a long as
eleven feet in length (Aveni 2000, p. 221). Ancient and colonial period Mayan
codices usually contained painted hieroglyphics and images of primary deities on
both sides of each page. Most of the four remaining pre-Hispanic codices deal
primarily with mythology, history, or astronomy. On page nine of the Dresden
Codex, the hieroglyphic text above the central panel on page 9 of the Dresden
Codex reads, u-nu-chu po-lo ITZAM-na UT?-?-li Maize God, UK WE. The
term u-nu-chu po-lo refers to a discussion or literally translated putting heads
26
Karl Taube (1985, p. 181) points out, his elongated tonsured head mimics the long-tasseled cob.
Maize grain, at times infixed into his head, is an identifying feature of his personified nominal
glyph. Jade ornaments generally associated with the necklace worn by the young Maize Lord
evoke verdant, precious qualities of the living plant (Karl Taube (1985, p. 181)).
27
The Popol Vuh is an oral narrative of Quiche Maya mythological origins thought to have been
written in the middle of the sixteenth century by Maya speakers (Stross 2006, p. 584).
28
The conquistador Hernan Cortes sent the Dresden Codex as tribute to King Charles V in 1519
(Madariaga, 1947). The book was then lost and rediscovered later in Vienna in 1739. Since that
time, it has been housed in the Royal Library in Dresden, Germany. It was partially destroyed by
the firebombing of that city during World War II. Despite the damage inflicted upon the manu-
script, the Dresden Codex is considered the most complete of the four remaining American codices
(Aveni 2000).
Fig. 2.22a (a) Maya

sculpture of the young Maize
God, commissioned by the
13th ruler 18-Rabbit
(Waxaklajuun Ubaah
Kawiil). This was one of
eight that were set on the
cornice of Structure 22 at the
ceremonial center of Copan.
Structure 22 was built in A.D.
715 to commemorate the 20th
anniversary of his accession
to the throne. The young
Maize God represents the
Mayan ideal of beauty, and
features prominently in Maya
art during the Classic period
(200 B.C.A.D. 900). He
personifies the agricultural
cycle and is associated with
abundance and prosperity.
The head dress in this
sculpture is a stylized ear of
maize, his hair, the silk of the
cob (from Weatherwax 1954,
Fig. 75). (b) Pre-Hispanic
Maya codices with images of
the young Maize God include
the Dresden Codex. Dating to
the eleventh or twelfth
century, the Dresden Codex
comes from the Maya
ceremonial center of Chichen
Itza. On page nine, the central
panel shows a seated young
Maize God (left) speaking
with the creator god,
Itzamnaaj (right), to bring a
bountiful harvest. Itzamnaaj
is teaching the ancestral hero
twins about their dead fathers
(One Hunahpu) severed head,
presumably how to resurrect
their fathers seed as a
spouting young maize god
sprouting young Maize God.
Mayan codices were
generally painted on both
sides and primarily dealt with
mythology or history
together. The augury for this has been interpreted as bountiful food, while
uk we refers to feasting (Michael D. Carrasco, personal communication 2009).
Iconographic interpretation on Classic Maya stelae and architecture indicated that
the young Maize God was the First Father, while the Quiche Maya term Qanan or
corn literally means Our Mother (Taube 1985, p. 181; Freidel et al. 1993, p. 55;
Stross 2006, p. 583; see also Freidel and Reilly 2009). Maize, therefore, represented
a mythological lord, as well as Our Mother, in this case through a metaphorical
reference to the fertility and fecundity of the earth. The implication of these
symbolic and metaphorical associations is that maize represents a transcendence
of a binary duality or pairs of opposites, male/female. Among the Chontal Maya,
maize was venerated, along with the sun, moon, rain, and the wind as a god
(Schules and Roys 1968, p. 58; see also Carrasco and Hull 2002).
The close ethnic identity to maize fields or milpas is evident when noting that
among the Yucatec Maya. A Yucatecan mans identity is defined by his milpa, the
destruction of maize fields by indigenous nobility in times of conflict and by
Spanish conquistadors strongly suggests that such cultural identities and associa-
tions harkens back to the colonial period and to prehistoric Mesoamerica
(Stross 2006, p. 578; Carrasco 2009). The Yucatec Maya were noted for providing
their deities with numerous offerings of maize and incense, while their lords were
given a drink of toasted (parched) maize (Landa 1975 (1566), p. 101). Diego de
Landa (1975 (1566), p. 101) also states that the Maya priest would incense an idol
called Chacuuayayab with fifty grains of ground maize and their incense which is
called zacah. And that they would give Maya lords a drink of 380 toasted maize
cobs.
The spiritual power of maize in Mesoamerican culture is inferred anthropologi-
cal evidence and sixteenth century accounts by its use in rituals. Maize kernels were
usually cast, sometimes lots with pieces of thread during Aztec rituals (Duran 1971
(1588?), p. 118, 1994 (1588?), p. 493). Casting of maize kernels is related to the
indigenous belief that the maize kernels will jump towards the culpable object or
protagonist causing the illness or provide clues to the question being divined (Lipp
1991; Stross 2006). In the Bacalar region of the Yucatan indigenous tribes rebelling
against seventeenth century Spanish authority replaced hosts and wine in their mass
services with tortillas and maize gruel, emphasizing the importance that maize
continued to have among Maya populations long after they had converted to
Catholicism (Schules and Roys 1968, p. 346; Landa 1975 (1566), p. 62). The
association of maize with mythological beings has its first expressions with the
earliest civilizations of Mesoamerica (Taube 1996).
2.5.1 Maize and Religious Uses and Rites
Maize was crucial to ritual and sacrificial offerings to major deities during calendric
rites and therefore, central to Mesoamerican religion (Carrasco 2009; Stross 2009).
During the dry season, the Aztecs would make offerings of maize bread and fowl to
the feathered serpent Quetzalcoatl29 to bring on the coming rains and fertility of the
crops. Offerings consisted of small plates on which were tamales, as large as fat
29
Quetzalcoatl literally means the plumed or feathered serpent and is considered by Mesoa-
merican scholars to have been the primary deity associated with priests and merchants, and
revered for bringing language and civilization to Mexico. This deity has also been found to be
associated with the Maya pantheon, where it was called Kukulucan. In both cases, offerings of
maize in various forms were central to the rituals, rites and as offerings associated with this deity
(Schwartz 2000).
melons and upon these tamales were pieces of fowl and male turkeys (Duran 1971
(1588?), p. 136). Such offerings were made to ward off sickness (particularly,
respiratory illnesses) or to predict the coming rainy season. Various forms of
syncretism continue to the present, and maize continues to have a great importance
to ethnic identity, ritual, and in the local economy as a food staple (Christenson
2008; see also Tuxill et al. 2009).
Aztec deities have, generally, been grouped into three broad categories: Those
associated with the agricultural fertility and the earth, creator deities believed to be
responsible for the beginnings and ends of cosmological and world cycles, and
those, like their patron deity, Huitzilopochtli, associated with the cult of war and
human sacrifice (Schwartz 2000, p. 9; Carrasco 1999, p. 23). Religious rituals
surrounding the Festival of Toxcatl were dedicated to the Aztec deity the Lord of
the Smoking Mirror, Tezcatlipoca.30 Bunches of ears of corn as well as pine bark,
turkey, quail, and fish were provided as offerings to the Smoking Mirror. The
Temple of Tezcatlipoca had maidens who maintained the edifice and during the
festival dedicated to the deity, would make offerings and carry out processions clad
in blouses and skirts covered in strings of toasted maize. Their faces were also
covered with strings of toasted maize, and on their heads they wore crowns of
maize. Youths participating in this festivals had necklaces and garlands of toasted
maize (Duran 1971 (1588?), pp. 104105). The Lord of the Smoking Mirror
Tezcatlipoca was also associated with the surface of the earth and in the east, his
color was yellow referring to the rising sun and the fruitfulness of the maize plant.
Hence, the strings of toasted maize kernels worn by celebrants with the festival of
Toxcatl (Burland and Forman 1975, p. 56). Diego Duran (1971 (1588?), p. 107)
observed that after much celebration dancing and playing of drums the Aztec
returned to their homes at sunset and brought large platters filled with tzoalli,
maize dough mixed with honey, covered with cloths decorated with skulls and
crossbones, another reference to the underworld. The honeyed tamales were eagerly
snatched up or carried away as relics.
In honor of the deity Xipe Totec, or the Lord of the Flayed Skin, the Aztec would
eat a ritual food consisting of tortillas and tamales made of corn flour that was
mixed with honey and beans. Duran (1971 (1588), p. 182) states that it was
forbidden to eat any other bread on the day honoring this deity. Such descriptions
imply that certain food prohibitions and fasting may have been practiced before the
arrival of Europeans to these shores.
The deity that represented maize in the Aztec culture was the goddess Chico-
mecoatl ( serpent of the seven heads) and Chalchiuhcihuatl or Woman of Precious
30
Tezcatlipoca literally means, smoking mirror in the Nahua language and he was considered the
deity of rulers, sorcerers, shaman and warriors, as well as the lord of the night sky and divination
(Schwartz 2000, p. 256). Taube and Miller (1993, p. 164) maintain that despite his many
associations and symbolic referents, Tezcatlipoca was the embodiment of change through
conflict.
Fig. 2.23a (a) Aztec depiction of the Maize Goddess, Chicomecoatl (Seven Serpent), holding
tasseled maize cobs, and wearing a necklace of young ears of corn. (from Duran 1971 (1588?),
Chap. XIV, p. 222, Plate 23). (b) Other depictions of the Maize Goddess, Chicomecoatl (Seven
Serpent), in her traditional crown and costume as well as her manifestation as Seven Serpent
(right). In both images, the indigenous scribe shows her holding tasseled maize cobs, and wearing
the head dress and holding the sun shield emblematic of her power to bring forth life (from Duran
1880 (1588?), Chap. XI, Plate 47)
Stone (Figs. 2.23a, b). She was the deity of the harvest and of all grains and plant
species of the state (Duran 1971 (1588?), p. 222, 1880 (1588?), Chap. 1, Plate 47).
Ritual celebrations made to the maize deity were held on September 14, preceded
by 7 days of ritual fasting (Duran 1971 (1588?), p. 223). The Aztec made sculptures
of maize goddess of finely carved wood, and she was often depicted holding carved
maize cobs in her hands and had a necklace of golden ears of maize held by a blue
ribbon (Duran 1971 (1581), Plate 23; Carrasco 1999, pp. 197200). She was clothed
in fine all-red garments and wore a tiara of red paper. Sometimes, the ears of maize
in her hands were imitated in fine feather work or garnished in gold (Duran 1971
(1581), pp. 222, 1880 (1588?)). This idol was housed in a chamber in the temple of
Huitzilopochtli all to her greater honor and glory31(Duran 1971 (1588?), pp.
222223). The chamber or hall that housed this idol was decorated and made green
with numerous strings of corn-cobs, chile peppers, squash, flowers and offerings of
amaranth seeds and seeds of various plants, which covered the floor (Duran 1971
(1588?), pp. 223).
The Aztec told chroniclers that she was part of them, their flesh and livelihood,
and when they planted kernels in the new growing season they would cry, as though
they were sacrificing part of themselves (Carrasco 1999; Schwartz 2000). Davd
Carrasco (1999, p. 200) has observed that in Aztec botanical thought, maize kernels
were believed to be composed of the visible seed and the invisible heart of maize.
Once maize kernels were planted they were immersed into the underworld, a place
called Tlalocan, in a colossal receptacle enclosed in the cosmic mountain. Aztecs
believed that the only way for maize kernels to become active seed was for that seed
to be united with the heart (Carrasco 1999, p. 200). The first name of this deity
31
Huitzilopochtli, the blue hummingbird of the south, a form of sun god, was the patron deity of the
Aztec and its temple located beside the main plaza or zocalo in the sacred center of Tenochtitlan
was the site of much ritual human sacrifice (Schwartz 2000, p. 5; Carrasco 1999, pp. 199200).
Durans reference emphasizes the great importance of the maize goddess through her association
with the patron deity of the Aztec culture.
(Chicomecoatl) has metaphorical reference to the catastrophic destruction brought

on by frost, drought and famine and the second name (Chalchiuhcihuatl) was in
reference to her ability to bring forth life, fertility and fecundity (Carrasco 1999,
p. 200). With reference to the destruction wrought by drought or famine, the Aztec
also used the term tecuani to sting or bite, when referring to a maize field frozen
or destroyed by drought and insects. It was common to say the fields were tecuani or
eaten by frost, anything that stings or bites was tecuani, thus a metaphorical
reference of the first name. The seven-headed serpent name may be indirect
reference to the cardinal directions and the tripartite cosmos. In other words, to
all plant life and to those things in the climate and environment that affect their
survival, i.e., rain from the sky, dust from the wind, and the past and future events
associated with such phenomena (Duran 1971 (1581), pp. 222223).
During the fourth month of the Aztec calendar, the people prepared special
maize bread, which was left as ritual offerings and only eaten during the ritual
celebrations marking this month. This ritual bread was prepared in the following
manner: a small quantity of ground maize kernels was mixed with toasted amaranth
seeds, and then kneaded together. Honey, instead of water, was then mixed into the
flour (Duran 1971 (1588?), pp. 422423). They called this bread tzocoyotl, while
the Spanish referred to it as bollitos or little loaves, and it was only eaten on this
day. Maize appears to have been a central ingredient to foods consumed in a
number of important rituals, and also had clear associations with certain parts of
the annual cycle (see Staller 2009).
2.5.2 Maize: Religious Significance to Mesoamerican Civilization
It is evident from the ethnohistoric accounts that the color of kernels was also
significant to the preparation of ritual offerings for certain festivals and to their
association with certain deities. During the 17th month of the Aztec calendar called
Tititl, they venerated Camaxtli, the god of hunting, with offerings of sour bread
(xocotamalli), and a bitter porridge made of purple maize. Ritual offering of the
bread and porridge were made to the civic shrine and temple in honor of this god as
well as at domestic shrines in some houses. The bitter bread and porridge were also
consumed by celebrants during the rituals surrounding this feast (Duran 1971
(1588?), p. 463). Blue maize in the form of kernels and flour were offered to the
waters of the chinampas that were channeled into the raised fields (Duran 1994
(1588?), p. 368). The stepped or raised field system of maize cultivations as
described here is also apparent in an engraving dated to 1585 from North America
(Hale 1966).
The religious and ritual importance of maize to Mesoamerican civilization was
also apparent by broken pieces of maize bread or tortillas, which were hung in
the temple chambers, like those of the maize goddess, where they were strung on
cords; this was like bread of oblation. They offered these to the captives . . . and
then the Aztec priests would address the prisoners with prescribed chants preparing
them for death by sacrifice (Duran 1994 (1588?), p. 157). Maize was apparently
consumed in these instances to create a symbolic link between those who were
being sacrificed and those who were sacrificing them to the deities. The Aztec and
other Mesoamerican cultures also believed that maize offerings were able to protect
those who were in battle and to facilitate their safe return. While Aztec warriors
were off to war, the native women would make offerings of tortillas, wine (tezvin or
pulque), and all kinds of foods to the gods (little statues), and seated before these
images they would weep and moan chanting prescribed prayers for such rituals,
beseeching the deities to bring their husbands and sons home safely (Duran 1994
(1588?), pp. 350351).
Duran (1994 (1588?), pp. 151152) described funerary rites for fallen warriors in
the conflict against the Tepeaca as initially involving 4 days of singing, chanting,
and clapping to the playing of drums. On the 4th day, they set fire to bundles of
pines and used the resultant ashes to wipe the faces of the war dead (Duran 1994
(1588?), p. 151). The widows of the deceased were then ordered to make offerings
for 5 days. Funerary offerings consisted of prepared breads and bowls of toasted
maize, which were taken to the burned pine bundles. These offerings along with
the mantles and breechcloths worn by the deceased were then all burned. After only
ashes were left, they took wine of the earth (tezvin or pulque) and poured it all over
the place the clothing had been burned (Duran 1994 (1588?), p. 152). Having
completed these rituals for the war dead, widows were required to make the same
offerings of food 80 days later, where they were again burned and wine was
poured on the ground. It is important to emphasize here that commoners were not
trained as warriors, only sons of the Aztec nobility, thus, these rituals and funerary
rites were organized and made by the ruling class for their own departed children
(Carrasco 1971, p. 372).
The ritual use of maize was also believed to have an impact on meteorological
phenomenon. As the rainy season drew near, the Aztec performed rites and ritual
sacrifices to summon the life-giving rains. During the ritual feasts called Coming
Down of the Waters ceremonies included offerings of tamales as well as other
vegetables and blood let from various parts of the body. These offerings were
believed to help bring on the coming rainy season (Duran 1971 (1588?), p. 462).
The rituals and rites associated with the Coming down of the Waters represented a
metaphorical connections between the sacred center of Tenochtitlan and natural
features in the surrounding landscapes, in this case the mountain of Tlalocan,32
named after Tlaloc, the deity associated with rain, lightning, thunder, and in Maya
and Toltec culture also with wind. The idol of Tlaloc, like the idol to the Maize
Goddess was kept in the Temple of Huitzilopochtli, in the central precinct of
32
Tlalocan means place of Tlaloc, and had a temple dedicated to this deity on its summit
(Duran1971 (1588?), p. 156). The temple on the summit of the mountain also had a centrally
placed idol dedicated to the deity and smaller idols dedicated to the surrounding mountains and
hills (Duran 1971 (1588?), p. 156).
Tenochtitlan33 (Duran 1971 (1588?), p. 156). Tenochtitlan was to the Aztec, the
foundation of heaven, the political, symbolic, and ritual center of their universe
(Schwartz 2000, p. 6). While the Aztec emperor and the rulers from the surrounding
city states made offerings to the idol in the sacred center of Tenochtitlan, religious
specialists, members of the elite and soldiers from all over Mesoamerica made
ritual processions and pilgrimages to the mountain top and carried-out solemn rites
and offerings during the Feast of Tlaloc, which occurred every year on the April 29
(Schwartz 2000, pp. 158160). Duran (Schwartz 2000, p. 156) goes on to state that
the purpose of the Feast of Tlaloc was for a good maize harvest . . .since all the
maize which had been sown had now spouted. These rituals and ceremonial rites
included human sacrifice and many objects of value, cloth, food, newly manufac-
tured pottery and figures, all centered upon controlling the forces of nature,
particularly meteorological phenomenon such as frost, hail, lightning etc., which
had a direct impact upon agricultural fields, particularly the maize crop. The
Festival of Tlaloc was one of regeneration and rebirth of the agricultural cycle in
which maize was of critical importance to the survival and sustenance of Meso-
american commoners and rulers alike.
The Festival of Tlaloc was particularly important to the Aztecs because they
reckoned their cultural origins with water. According to the Aztec codices, their
pictographic representations and oral history, which are a mixture of legend, myth,
and history, they migrated into the Valley of Mexico around the year A.D. 1250 and
by A.D. 1325 settled themselves in the midst of the lake (Schwartz 2000, p. 5). Their
mythological origins are also associated with water, an island at a place called
Aztlan, a Nahuatl term that means place of whiteness or herons. The exact
geographic location of this place is unknown, but believed to be northwest of the
Valley of Mexico, in the Chichimeca region (Schwartz 2000, p. 5; Sachse 2008,
p. 127). The Aztecs depicted their place of mythological origin as a cave called
Chicomoztoc or place of the seven caves (Fig. 2.24). From these modest begin-
nings, the Aztecs came to rule the Valley of Mexico, exacting tribute from many
distant regions of Mesoamerica, and their rise to power is according to their own
pictographic representations symbolically linked to maize cultivation (Duran 1880
(1588?), Chap. 1, Plate 1; Sachse 2008, pp. 132134).
Both colonial accounts and indigenous pictographic representations and codices
emphasize the importance of maize to Mesoamerican religious rituals, calendric
rites, tribute and economy, and particularly associations with the ruling class. The
Spanish accounts strongly infer that it did not hold the economic importance to
Contact Period cultures in Mesoamerica that it does today. Many accounts indicate
that, the indigenous diet was highly diverse and complex. In the Valley of Mexico,
33
The central temple precinct was dominated by a great 60-meter-high pyramid with twin temples
(the Great Teocalli), one to Tlaloc, and another to Huitzilopoctli, the patron deity of the Aztecs.
Around the central precinct were 7080 other palaces and temples, including the rulers residence
and the school for the priesthood. Beyond the enclosing wall were other palaces, temples, markets,
and the adobe residential buildings, some of them two stories high with gardens on their roofs
(Schwartz 2000; see also Daz del Castillo 1953 (156775), pp. 177182).
Fig. 2.24 Pictographic representation of the Aztec origin site, Aztlan, the Land of Heronsm, that
the Aztec called Chicomoztoc, the Seven Caves. Other chroniclers say it was an island and the
exact geographic location of this place is unknown, but thought to be northwest of the Valley of
Mexico, in the Chichimeca region (from Duran 1880 (1581) Chap. 1, Plate 47)
Gulf Coast, and Maya lowlands, indigenous societies depended, upon aquatic and
maritime resources, and a whole host of plants and fungi, both wild and altered by
human selection, which were available locally or acquired through interaction
(Sahagun 1963 (d. 1590); Duran 1880 (1588?), 1994 (1588?); see also Schules
and Roys 1968; Thompson 1970; Parsons 2006).
The Spanish accounts also reflect a preference for maize, beans, and squash by
the early explorers, as well as a perception of maize as the equivalent of wheat and
barley in the Old World (Staller 2009). Even in regions such as the Caribbean,
where maize was clearly not consumed as a grain, the accounts appear to emphasize
those regions where it was consumed in this manner. Its apparent rapid introduction
into Western Europe immediately after the discovery of the New World further
created the impression of maize as a primary economic grain, and the basis for
complex sociocultural development in this hemisphere. With the later introduction
of the encomienda and plantation system, New World populations were encouraged
and at times forced by the colonial authorities to cultivate maize at ever-increasing
scale. These accounts show a clear ignorance of the importance of maize varieties
to various ethnic groups under their domain and a general trend to cultivate varieties
that were more productive, i.e., more rows and larger kernels (Huckell 2006;
Newsom 2006; and Rainey and Spielmann 2006). The predominant use of maize
in ceremonial rites and rituals associated with the Mesoamerican calendars, primary
deities, and ethnic identity is clear and abundant (Duran 1880 (1588?), 1994
(1588?); Sahagun 1963 (1590)). These accounts and descriptions strongly empha-
size the sacredness of maize to Mesoamerican cultures and its symbolic importance
to the transference of divinity and spiritual power. The complexity in which it was
prepared and used in this manner among Mesoamerican cultures is extraordinary,
particularly in the light of how it was used and consumed in other regions of the
hemisphere.
2.5.3 Early Accounts on Maize Alcohol Consumption
In the area west of present-day Panama City, referred to as Coiba by the chroniclers,
toasted ground maize was stirred into water and drunk, identical to the drink pinole
of Mexico, and wine or maize beer was similar to what the Mexicans referred to
as tezvin (Sauer 1969, p. 271). In the interior of the region of Coiba, the indigenous
populations made wine or maize beer from a small-grained and floury lineage of
maize known as Early Caribbean (Newsom 2006, p. 330, Fig. 23-2; Newsom and
Deagan 1994, Table 13.1, pp. 215216; see also Brown 1953, 1960; Bretting et al.
1987). This landrace or lineage of maize is believed to have been one of the earliest
types introduced into Europe and has been suggested to be only distantly related
to any known varieties in either Central or South America (Brown 1960, p. 161;
cf. Newsom 2006, p. 330).
The consumption of maize in the form of beer in Mesoamerica has generally
been absent in the archaeological record, but various relaciones and chronicler
accounts, particularly in the northern and western parts of Mesoamerica, suggest
vino de maz or maize beer was widely consumed in the state of Morelos and in
regions to the north and westmore specifically among the Tarascans, Huichol and
indigenous cultures in the states of Michoacan, Durango, Chihuahua, Jalisco and
Nayarit (Bruman 2000, pp. 3746). Maize beer is referred to as tesguino in these
regions, which is a Uto-Aztecan term, probably Cazcan, and closely akin to Nahuatl
(Bruman 2000, p. 39). Maize beer is also referred to by this term and consumed in
eastern parts of Guerrero on the south coast, as well as Central Chiapas, and the
eastern regions of coastal El Salvador (Bruman 2000, Map 5). Jose Tudela (1977
(1541)) states maize beer was central to various Tarascan ceremonies. In a later
relacion, Beaumont (1932 (1700s), vol. 3, p. 462) states, These Indians (in
Michoacan) made many alcoholic beverages by the fermentation of the grains of
this plant (cf. Bruman 2000, Chap. 4, f. 2). In the Memorias of Sinaloa of the Carta
Anua of 1593 a Jesuit states, They make also wine from the same maize, and at
times have a solemn drink festivals for which the whole town congregates, although
they do not allow youths (mozos y gente nueva) to drink (Carta Anua 1593, p. 26;
cf. Bruman 2000, p. 39). Henry Bruman (2000, pp. 4041) states that the ethnohis-
toric literature on the varieties of maize used to make the strongest beer or tesguino
is lacking, however, his informants suggest a yellow variety (maz amarillo) was
preferred, and that it may have been a flint landrace.34 Maize beer in Mesoamerica
was made in various ways. Initially they malt the maize kernels by moistening them
in the shade on a reed mat and covering them in a moist until they produce colorless
spouts of about an inch or so long. The moistening of the kernels releases enzymes
called diastases which convert them into fermentable sugars through the process
of saccharification (Bruman 2000, pp. 4041). Once the malt is ready it is ground
and then diluted with water and boiled for over twenty four hours with continuous
stirring into homogeneous syrup. The syrup is put into an olla and then left in the
shade to ferment. It is usually ready to drink in twenty four hours time (Bruman
2000, p. 41).
2.5.4 Maize Beer and Pulque in Mesoamerica
The Nahua term for cornstalk and/or maize beer tesquino35 is generally used in
the central highlands, western, and southern coastal regions of Mesoamerica. The
Nahuatl term chicha was brought by the Spaniards from the Maya highland
societies to different regions of the Americas to refer to fermented intoxicants in
general (Staller 2006b, pp. 449450). In the Andes, this term generally refers to
maize beer and more rarely intoxicants made from the Peruvian pepper tree (Staller
2006b, p. 449). Mesoamerican cultures also made beer from cornstalk36 (see, e.g.,
Beadle 1972; Smalley and Blake 2003). Cornstalks were crushed to collect the juice
34
If the Mesoamerican accounts are accurate, this would be in contrast to the Andes where popcorn
varieties were most commonly used to make maize beer (see below).
35
This term for maize beer is thought to be derived from teiuinti, a general term for intoxicating
in those areas where pulque was not used for such drinks (Bruman 2000, p. 78).
36
It is highly significant that the distribution of cornstalk beverages, and its use as a condiment
directly corresponds to the biogeography where maize was originally domesticated, and where the
earliest evidence of maize has been recorded archaeologically (see Bruman 2000, Map 8).
and then boiled down into syrup, a process described by various chroniclers
(Bruman 2000, p. 57; Smalley and Blake 2003). Hernan Cortes (1963 (15191526))
related in his second letter to the Spanish Crown that cornstalk syrup was sold
in the great market of Tlaltelolco, as were honey and maguey syrup. The general
consensus with regard to the chroniclers is that cornstalk wine was considered to
be inferior to maize beer or tesquino, and usually consumed when grain was not
readily available or out of season (Bruman 2000, p. 57). Smalley and Blake (2003)
have presented evidence to suggest initial exploitation and transportation of teosinte,
the progenitor of maize, was for its stalk, which was presumably chewed as a
condiment and/or used as an auxiliary catalyst to the fermentation process. In the
Tehuacan Valley, two beverages are described using cornstalk juice, pulque and other
ingredients, including toasted maize (Bruman 2000, pp. 5859).There is some evi-
dence to suggest that among the Kiche Maya and the Huaxteca along the Gulf coast
near Tampico a drink was consumed in which toasted maize was fermented in
cornstalk juice (Bruman 2000, p. 60). A potent drink made of toasted maize, cornstalk
juice, and pepper tree (Schinus molle) fruit called bone breaker (quebrantahuesos)
was consumed in Tezcoco and Tacuba (Bruman 2000, p. 59).
The Mesoamerican cultures consumed a whole host of fermented intoxicants,
generally referred to as pulque; however, these are made from a variety of fruits and
succulents, but rarely from maize (Bruman 2000, pp. 6182). The etymology of the
word pulque is somewhat contentious. It is suggested to be the Nahua equivalent of
octli or uctli and some accounts state it was brought from Chile and derived from
the Arawakan term pulcu, which referred to fermented drinks, and maize beer in
particular (Clavigero 1844). Bruman (2000, p. 76) suggests that the term has more
ancient roots.
What is generally called pulque agave refers to fermented intoxicants made from
maguey cactus. Maguey is native to the south-central Mexican highlands. The
maguey worm (Aegiale hesperiaris) or chinicuiles was a delicacy greatly favored
at the Aztec court and is still relished today (Parsons 2006, pp. 113116; see also
Staller 2009, Fig. 2.8). The maguey cactus (Agave americana) astonished many of
the chroniclers and explorers. Oviedo (1959 (1526)) describes the yellow flower as
about the size of a persons hand and resembling a maize cob. Fray Toribio de
Benavente Motolina (1979 (1528), pp. 243244) called the wine made from
maguey very good and healthy, noting that indigenous women would store ground
maize flour in its spiky leaves. Maize and beans were commonly cultivated with
maguey and such multiple cropping techniques greatly increased the carrying
capacity of the central highlands (Parsons 2009, Fig. 4.7).37 Approximately one
million people lived in the Valley of Mexico at the time of the conquest. Maguey
37
Maguey leaves were also used to make thread from which cloth was manufactured, as well as
paper twice as big as the size of paper produced by the Spaniards (Motolina 1979 (1528), p. 246;
see also Parsons 2006, 2009; Parsons and Parsons 1990). Jeffrey and Mary Parsons (1990, pp. 363
364) have noted that the management and exploitation of maguey and seed crops augmented the
carrying capacity of the cold central highland environment (tierra fria) almost twofold than if such
highland environments would have been solely cultivated with seed crops (see also Parsons 2009).
fiber could potentially have clothed the entire population through cultivation of
only five percent (approximately 10,000 hectares) of the total arable land (Parsons
and Parsons 1990, pp. 337338). This same amount of land has the potential for
producing about 5090 million liters of maguey sap or aguamiel annually, roughly
6,000 metric tons of cooked maguey flesh, perhaps 8,00010,000 metric tons of
food by multiple cropping maguey with maize or beans (Parsons and Parsons 1990,
pp. 337338). The most widely used kind of pulque mentioned by sixteenth century
chroniclers was made from agave or maguey. Maguey sap or aguamiel is often
distilled to make mescal, while a related species blue agave (Agave tequilana) is
distilled to make tequila;varieties of maguey are made into pulque in different
regions of Mexico (Parsons and Parsons 1990, 6770, Table 3). Jeffrey Parsons
(2006, 2009) has provided ethnobotanic and ethnohistoric evidence to suggest that
there were dozens of different-named varieties of maguey, in different parts of
highland Mexico, distinguished on the basis of their characteristics, for producing
fiber, sap, ability to withstand aridity etc. However, the diversity of maguey with
respect to specific characteristics and qualities is as yet poorly understood, nor is the
extent to which such differences are a product of human selection of specific
qualities of the species themselves in terms of their adaptation to different environ-
mental and climatic conditions.
Landa (1975 (1566), p. 49) mentions that the wine or pulque made by the
Yucatan Maya was made from, . . .honey and water and a certain root of a tree
which is cultivated for this purpose, with which they make the wine strong and foul-
smelling. Landa is apparently referring to baalche (balche), which is made from by
fermenting diluted honey and the bark (rather than roots) of a fruit-bearing Balche
tree of the species Lonchocarpus violaceus. According to Tozzer (1907, p. 124),
balche is milky white in color and has a sour smell, and when first consumed, has a
disagreeable taste. Balche is the only alcoholic intoxicant of the Yucatan Maya
during the time of the Conquest (Bruman 2000, p. 91). Maya societies in Chiapas
made what is described as a truly indigenous beverage from sprouted maize kernels
and the bark of what is called mecate colorado38 made from what is thought to be
either a species of Hibiscus or Heliocarpus (Bruman 2000, p. 91). With the possible
exception of tezvin described above, and the ethnographic information from various
Maya regions of Guatemala, maize is generally not consumed by these cultures in
this manner. One exception, however, is pulque atole, which is soured maize gruel
that was strained and sweetened. The accounts suggest that Maya beverages in the
Yucatan were honey-based, while the highland Mexicans generally fermented
maguey or century plant (Agave spp.) (Parsons 2009; Parsons and Parsons 1990;
Bruman 2000). Maya groups in eastern Yucatan are also known to have managed
and cultivated maguey for the purposes of cloth and fermented beverages (Serra and
Lazcano 2009, Fig. 5.3).
38
Mecate is a Nahuatl term from the word mecatl or cord. The bark is sold in markets in Chiapas
in the forms of small skeins composed of long pliable strips used mainly for tying bundles
(Bruman 2000, p. 91).
2.5.5 Maize Beer in Ritual and Religion in the Andes
The consumption of maize in the form of beer or chicha (tesquino), a term the
Spaniards brought from Mesoamerica to refer to alcoholic beverages, appears to
have been prevalent throughout Central and South America as well as, the
Amazon lowlands at the time of contact. In fact, the cultural geographer, Carl
Sauer (1950, p. 494) stated that, The Spanish annalists give the impression that
more of it was drunk and less eaten . . . by indigenous populations in these
regions. Ethnohistoric accounts of maize beer consumption in the Andes are
many, and emphasize the different roles that maize played in traditional forms
of reciprocity and redistribution as an alcoholic beverage among indigenous
societies under colonial rule. It is apparent that some chroniclers liked the taste
of chicha. Oviedo (1969 (1526), pp. 136137) described maize beer as better than
the apple cider or wine made and drunk in Biscay, and the beer and ale drunk by
the English and in Flanders (both of which I have tried and drunk). Other
explorers, such as Francisco Pizarro, Hernando Pizarro, de Soto, and Diego
Trujillo, were more interested in the aquillas or keros, gold and silver drinking
goblets, than the maize beer they contained (Titu Cusi Yupanque 1985 (1570),
p. 128; Cobo 1990 (1653), p. 11; Staller 2006b, p. 460). The conquest of the Inca
Empire, occurred in 1531, when Francisco Pizarro initially landed with his army
on the present-day Esmeraldas coast of Ecuador, some ten and a half years after
the total destruction of Tenochtitlan, the conquest of South America brought a new
group of explorers and mercenaries. According to the various accounts, these
conquistadores appeared at least initially, to be more interested in wealth and
power, than converting indigenous populations to Christianity (Xerex 1985
(1534); Cieza de Leon 1977 (1551), 1998 (1553); Betanzos 1996 (1551); see
also Staller 2006b; Traboulay 1994). Regardless of their overt or covert intentions
for the conquest of the Inca civilization, it is clear from these accounts, as it was
from the earlier chronicles from the Caribbean and Mesoamerica, that there was a
clear preference by the Spaniards for certain indigenous food crops. Maize was
clearly one of these crops, if not the preeminent food crop desired by Spanish
explorers (see Staller 2009).
The large scale consumption of fermented intoxicants particularly chicha or
maize beer was a critical component of almost every Andean social, political, or
religious transaction (MacCormack 2004, p. 107). It is clearly apparent from
chronicler accounts that maize beer or chicha was central to Andean ritual related
to ancestor veneration and to rites associated with agricultural fertility (Arriaga
1968 (1620), p. 56; Staller 2006b, pp. 454456, Fig. 32.2). During the campaigns to
extirpate what the colonial administration considered pagan idolatry, many chroni-
clers made detailed descriptions of how maize and maize beer was used in Andean
ritual practices. For example, Fr. Pablo Jose Arriaga (1968 (1620), p. 41) observed
that maize beer or chicha was considered to be the principal offering, the best and
most important part. . . of Inca rituals. It is through the consumption and offering
of chicha that the religious festivals to huacas (sacred places) were initiated.
Spanish chroniclers mention that the drinking powers of the Indians were formida-
ble (Cieza de Leon 1977 (1551); Cobo 1990 (1653)).
Fr. Bernabe Cobo (1990 (1653) p. 194) referring to what they kept in their
houses mentions a preponderance of large earthen jars filled solely with their wine
or chicha and this does not last them a long time. The largest jars held four to six
arrobas (1624 gallons) and was suggested to last a man no more than a week
(Cobo 1990 (1653), p. 194). These prestigious amounts are probably exaggerated;
but clearly emphasize the importance of ritual feasting followed by drinking in Inca
festivals and calendar rites. Such ritual practices and customs are still important to
Andeans in the present. During the festival of the Sun, Inca rulers would toast the
Sun (Inti) and at other occasions, huacas or sacred places in the landscape, as a form
of symbolic alliance, and reciprocity, but it was believed that only the Inca rulers
could make the huacas speak (Vega 1966 (1609), p. 223; Guaman Poma 1980
(15831615) p. 220, fol. 246, 235, fol. 261) (Fig. 2.25). This emphasizes the
importance of drinking and toasting maize beer in Andean culture as a recognition
of status, as well as hierarchy and rank (MacCormack 2004, p. 107; Staller 2006b,
pp. 456458).
Making chicha was under the domain of women in the sierra and men along the
coast and in some places they chose girls for this task (Arriaga 1968 (1620), p. 34).
Inca administrative centers commonly had chicheros or males responsible for
making chicha from maize they cultivated in the surrounding landscape solely for
the purpose of ritual feasting at such centers and to give back in payment to
commoner populations for labor carried out for the state (Morris 1993; Morris
and Thompson 1985). Along the coast south of Chancay, chicha was called yale and
generally offered with powdered espingo, which is a indigenous pepper tree species
with a small, dry, round, bitter-tasting fruit, and the drink could be made as strong
and thick as desired (Arriaga 1968 (1620), pp. 41, 44). Arriaga (1968 (1653) p. 44)
states that this fruit was consumed in powdered form, and that the Andeans paid a
high price for it, and would sometimes use it to pay their tribute to the Inca. Sale and
consumption of espingo or molle (Schinus molle L.)39 was later prohibited by the
Church (Archbishop Bracamoros) under the penalty of excommunication (Arriaga
(1968 (1653) p. 44). This mixture was poured on the huaca40 (so it can drink), and
priests or shaman consumed what was left. Arriaga observed that when religious
practitioners consumed it, that it made them act as if they were mad (Arriaga (1968
(1653), p. 41). The Inca used the sweet outer part of ripe fruit to make a drink.
Berries were rubbed carefully to avoid mixing with the bitter inner parts, the mix
strained and then left for a few days to produce a refreshing and wholesome drink.
It was also boiled down for syrup or mixed with maize to make nourishing gruel
39
The term molle comes from Quechua word for tree, molli (Goldstein and Coleman 2004,
p. 523).
40
Huaca is a Quechua term for sacred or extraordinary. It is an all-encompassing term that can
refer to sacred places in the landscape, mountains, certain locations associated with myth and
legend, certain objects which were out of the ordinary or unusual in some way, even venerated
ancestors (Vega 1966 (1609), p. 73, 7677; Staller 2008, p. 269270).
Fig. 2.25 Chapter of the Idols (Capitulo de Idolos) Guaman Poma writes in Quechua Uaca Billca
Incap or the divinity of the Inca. Only the Inca rulers were believed to have the power to make
huacas speak. Here he shows the Inca emperor Topa Inca Yupanqui addressing a circle of stone
idols. Below Guaman Poma writes that all of these idols and huacas speak with the Inca. The
idols on the summit of the mountain represent mountain spirits, what were referred to as apu or
wamani. (from Guaman Poma 1980 (15831615), p. 235 fol. 261)
(Coe 1994, pp. 186187). Garcilaso de la Vega (1966 (1609), p. 182) points out that
. . .if mixed with the maize beverage the latter is improved and made more
appetizing. If the water is boiled until it thickens, a very pleasant syrup is left.
The liquid, if left with something or the other, becomes sour and provides a splendid
vinegar. . . There is archaeological evidence to indicate that the fruits of the
Peruvian pepper tree Schinus molle were used extensively to make chicha in the
Central Andes between A.D. 550 and 1000 (Goldstein and Coleman 2004).
In the highlands, the beer or chicha offered to huacas was sometimes made from
certain yellow lineages or races, or maize grown specifically for the purpose of
ritual offerings. The fields in which maize was grown for this purpose, was often the
first to be cultivated, and Andean societies were prohibited by the Inca state from
sowing their own fields before they had sown the fields for making chicha (Arriaga
1968 (1620), p. 42). The Andean people would also offer or sacrifice round masses
or balls of corn meal or porridge mixed with salt called yanhuar sanco or sancu to
their huacas (Arriaga 1968 (1620), p. 47; see also Staller 2006b, p. 454). The
porridge or yahuar sanco was also used in purification rituals during the festival
called Citua (Cobo 1990 (1653), p. 166; Staller 2006b, p. 454). The rite of Citua
was held just before the rainy season, the time of the year most people become most
susceptible to illness and disease. During purification rituals held during the Citua
festival, chroniclers indicate that maize was used to purify living space and to effect
healing among the sick (Cobo 1990 (1653), p. 166). Ritual purification also extends
to what the Spanish chroniclers like Arriaga (1968 (1620), pp. 4750) interpreted as
confession while in the indigenous tradition it related primarily to physical ail-
ments, spiritual cleansing and uncovering social disorder.41 Before the cleansing
rituals were performed during Citua, all foreigners (non-Inca) and persons with
physical defects were ordered out of Cuzco (Cobo 1990 (1653)). Once they left the
imperial capital, all the Inca inhabitants of Cuzco would bathe in the springs and
rivers. These natural springs were located along one of the 41 sight lines called
ceques that radiated from the Coricancha in the Temple of the Sun to the various
huacas in the valley (Zuidema 2002).
The color of maize kernels, as in the case of Mesoamerica, was also important in
such rituals (Fig. 2.26). Cobo (1990 (1653), p. 166) observed the Inca purifying
rooms during the Citua festival with maize flour made from both black kernels
(which they used first) and then white kernels varieties. The flour from the kernels
of these varieties was mixed and then used to scrub the walls and floors of a room.
While cleaning the room in this manner, the Incas would also burn some flour as a
sacrificial offering. First, maize flour using white and black kernels and then of
other colors was mixed with crushed seashells of as many colors as they could
obtain and this powdered mix was then put in a sick mans hand. The sick persons
are then ordered to chant certain words and then to blow on it as an offering to a
huaca. In a ritual called tincuna, the religious practitioner would place and then rub
a pebble they called pasca (meaning pardon) on the head and then wash the
individual with yanhuar sanco and water in a stream where two river channels
come together (Cobo (1990 (1653), p. 48). Maize was also used in healing or curing
rituals. Andean priests would advise the sick to toss white kernels of maize on the
Inca highway, so that the passersby will take away their illness (Arriaga 1968
(1620), p. 77). They also rub the sick with chicha and white corn kernels, to take
away their illness (Arriaga 1968 (1620), p. 77).
41
Social disorder is generally defined in Inca culture as acts or activities that were detrimental or in
some way harmful to the Sapa Inca or ruler or to Inca rule.
Fig. 2.26 (a) White choclo maize cob cultivated in the sacred Urubamba valley, located northwest
of Cuzco where the Sapa Inca had an imperial estate in the Inca Empire Such white popcorn
varieties were used almost exclusively for ritual purposes and the manufacture of maize beer or
chicha. (from Staller 2008b, Fig. 9.5). (b) Mayan xmejen-nal maize variety showing the pheno-
typic variation maintained within this lineage. The variety is cultivated in North Central Yucatan,
Mexico. Many Maya populations continue to use their maize varieties as ethnic markers. These
cobs were deliberately cultivated for certain characteristics particularly kernel color and morphology,
fast maturation time, and husk coverage (Courtesy of John Tuxill) (Photograph by John Tuxill)
Maize was also central to linking the surrounding Andean landscape to the
sacred center of Cuzco and to creating fictive relationships between non-Inca
populations to the so-called children of the sun.42 The Inca referred to themselves
as the children of the sun. They claimed mythological origins from the Island
of the Sun in Lake Titicaca and their panaca or ethnic group also claimed
their original ancestors emerged from a series of caves from the town of
Pacariqtambo located south of Cuzco (Urton 1990, 1999; see also Sarmiento
1942 (1572)). The Capac Hucha festival involved sacrificing those conquered
in battle to the Sun (Inti), or selected individuals (Betanzos 1987 (1557);
McEwan and van der Guchte 1992, p. 360). The Capac Hucha were unblemished
children, boys and girls of the empire, who had been promised by non-Inca
communities to the Sapa Inca or ruler. The sacrificial victims or Capac Hucha
were made divine (become huacas) by carrying out rituals that first involved
rubbing of the dregs of the chicha on their bodies (Cobo 1990 (1653)). These
children were then led to certain places in the surrounding landscape with great
pomp and ceremony, and then ritually interred in carefully selected sites in the
four corners of Tawantinsuyu (McEwan and van der Guchte 1992, p. 360).
Sometimes, they were entombed alive and kept intoxicated by feeding them
chicha through a tube for 5 days or until they died (McEwan and van der Guchte
1992, p. 360).
The Capac Hucha children were buried in specially prepared tombs on moun-
tain peaks and sacred caves and provided ritual offerings and were perceived of as
and worshiped as venerated ancestors (Staller 2008b). They symbolized the
spiritual power embodied in the natural world, and at the same recognized the
political and religious power of the Inca state to transform them into huacas (Vega
1966 (1609)). In this important ritual, maize serves as a symbolic medium for
spiritual transfer and what all these various rituals demonstrate maize was an
ethnic marker used by the Inca to transfer spiritual power to their subjects, and as
a form of reciprocity, to maintain balance (ayni) and harmony within their empire
(Classen 1993, p. 11). Transfer of divinity is through sight, taste, sound, touch,
and fluidity (chicha), and within a certain prescribed ordered sequence (Cobo
1990 (1653); Classen 1993; and Staller 2008b). These cultural patterns indicate
that the Incas did not want to obliterate the boundaries of the senses, but rather
order them as a mirror of an underlying duality embodied in the cosmos, e.g.,
structure/fluidity, male/female, as complementary, yet distinct (Classen 1993,
p. 80; see also Staller 2008b, Fig. 9.3). The ethnohistoric accounts clearly empha-
size maize played a variety of roles and functions involved with Andean feasting,
ceremonial activities, curing rituals and religious rites of passage (Classen 1993,
p. 80; see also Staller 2008b). In the Inca examples, maize mostly played not only
important social roles but also involved a symbolic reference to elite status, as
42
These mythological claims and legends distinguished them from other Andean panacas, and
these distinctions were maintained by marriage customs and other cultural practices focused
mainly upon veneration of their dynasty (see Rowe 1944; see also Staller 2006b).
well as an ethnic marker central to rituals surrounding the Cult of the Sun and the
Dead and in the case Capac Hucha to ancestor veneration. There are numerous
iconographic and archaeological examples from various ancient Andean cultures
to indicate maize was associated with various religious cults and consumed as
chicha in ritual ceremonies long before the arrival of the Spaniards (Classen 1993,
p. 80; Staller 2003, 2006b, 2008b; Staller and Thompson 2002).
2.6 Maize Ethnohistory: Summary and Conclusions
The discovery of the New World as traced from the early accounts suggest that the
cultures, plants and animals of this hemisphere had a profound impact upon western
culture and also facilitated the development of modern scientific principles and
ways in which to classify and organize the cultural and natural world. Maize,
perhaps more than any other plant, introduced from this hemisphere to the rest of
the world, has had the most profound impact upon the worlds economies. What is
telling with the ethnohistoric accounts is that they appear to have conditioned our
perceptions of maize to a greater extent than might be initially supposed. The
ethnohistoric accounts from the Caribbean, Central and South America suggest
that maize was solely a primary economic staple in Mesoamerica, where it was
consumed as a grain, and made into bread, tortillas, cakes etc. and all point to its
enormous importance to indigenous religious practices and beliefs. Nevertheless,
despite these descriptions and what they clearly tell us about maize and its various
roles, the fact that it was perceived by early explorers to be a grain, similar in
importance to wheat and barley in the Old World, appears to have had an important
impact upon western culture and how maize was spread and cultivated subse-
quently. This impact is also apparent in later archaeological interpretations of its
role to New World prehistory.
The perception of maize as a primary cultigen consumed as a grain is evident in
the name given the plant by western scholars. Its scientific name, Zea, is a Greco-
Latin term for a wheat-like grain, and species mays, a Tano -Arawakan word
mahiz, or life-giver. The archaeological evidence and ethnohistoric accounts
appear to indicate the Tano used this term because of its perceived spiritual
properties, not because it was an important food crop, a staff of life. However,
the discovery of peoples and plants not mentioned in the Bible predisposed Euro-
pean nobility and Spanish explorers to pass off indigenous beliefs as idolatry and
superstition. Fanciful depictions of New World cultures, plants and animals
continued for many years, even into the 1800s in some circles, as Europeans
attempted to connect indigenous cultures to Asia and the Far East or to those
societies mentioned in the holy scriptures (see, e.g., Milbrath 1989, pp. 184185).
The fact that the later English and French explorers referred to maize as Indian
corn, from the German (korn), which the Germans in that time used to refer to
barley, oats, rye, and even lentils. Such terms may also have played a role in the
2.6 Maize Ethnohistory: Summary and Conclusions 81
general European perception of maize as first and foremost a grain, and subse-
quently the basis for much of the complex sociocultural development in this
hemisphere (Anderson 1947b, p. 3; Cutler and Blake 2001 (1976), p. 2). Perhaps
the most important characteristics of maize that made it very important to the
survival and sustenance of the Conquistadores are its storabilty and the fact that it can
be easily transported (Sauer 1969, p. 242; see also Raymond and DeBoer 2006).
The earliest accounts from Central America (Costa Rica) emphasize the con-
sumption of maize as a fermented intoxicant, despite its apparent economic role in
these regions (Sauer 1969, p. 133). Like the Caribbean, Central American societies
also consumed maize in the form of cakes. The Italian explorer Girolamo Benzoni
recorded the various steps involved in making corn cakes and maize beer (Staller
2006b, Fig. 32-1B). Perhaps because of the enormous scale and wealth of
Mesoamerican cultures, and the fact that it was consumed as a grain in these
regions, the general emphasis upon its economic role as a grain by Europeans
was facilitated and reinforced. It is also clear from the Mesoamerican accounts,
that maize had a profound spiritual, ritual and religious significance among these
societies. Perhaps more than any other region in the Americas, maize had
clear relationship to ethnic identity and to the origins and very existence of the
Mesoamerican people (Stross 2006, p. 581). Maize sustained economies of scale in
Mesoamerica. Its cultivation involved elaborate and complex forms of irrigation
technology, the chinampas or floating gardens, and elaborate draining technologies,
sustaining urban centers and open-air markets that were comparable and in many
cases exceeded in scale those in the Old World. Many chroniclers rationalized the
scale of human sacrifice they witnessed among the Aztec and other Mesoamerican
cultures as due to an absence of large terrestrial mammals like those of the Old
World. Yet, the accounts and the Mesoamerican codices indicate that despite the
importance of maize to sustaining these cultures, they consumed a complex variety
of maritime resources as well as fresh water fish, fowl, cactus and a complex array
of plant foods.
It appears that the overall preference of maize over other indigenous plants by
the European conquerors may have played a role in its subsequent cultivation at
ever increasingly larger scale in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. This
pattern is already apparent in the later chronicles with the introduction of the
encomienda and plantation system. For example, indigenous populations under
the jurisdiction of the Franciscan missions in the Gulf Coast were largely involved
in the cultivation of maize and beans, which were consumed by the clerics for their
own sustenance (Zevallos 2005, p. 89). The accounts suggest that even before the
creation of the encomienda system, maize was an important trade item, implying
that it was primarily grown in areas that were favorable to its cultivation (Thompson
1970, p. 7; Scholes and Roys 1968, p. 39). The Spaniards also emphasize in their
accounts those regions or areas with multiple annual harvests. Most of these
regions, like the chinampas of the Valley of Mexico, and the irrigated fields of
coastal Peru produced multiple maize harvests and this is also reflected in the
population densities they sustained. The regional variability with regard to maize
production no doubt influenced the European perceptions of its role and importance
to indigenous economies.
Another perhaps more important factor is the role that maize played in tribute
and in maintaining corvee labor for the construction and maintenance of state-
sponsored buildings and irrigation fields. The critical role maize played in provi-
sioning warriors and the retribution exacted by indigenous polities through the
destruction and devastation of maize fields was no doubt instrumental in how later
colonial administrators, and even the early explorers, exacted vengeance upon their
indigenous enemies. The role of stored maize in both Mesoamerica and the Andes
as a buffer to climatic perturbations, famine and drought most surely impressed its
economic importance upon their conquerors and clearly influenced their accounts.
The preference of maize as a food source among Europeans is further implied by the
continuation of these practices upon indigenous population who resisted their right
to rule.
The chroniclers also bring out clear differences in how Mesoamerican and
Andean cultures used maize to maintain their authority and power over subject
populations. Among Mesoamerican societies, maize appears to have been used
economically and symbolically to justify their right to rule, and as a critical
consumable in the context of interaction and long-distance exchange. In the
Andes, it was a prestige crop used for sealing social and economic alliances through
traditional forms of reciprocity and through ethnic identity as recognition of the
status and power of the ruling Inca elite (Betanzos 1987 (1551); Morris 1979, 1993;
and Rostworowski 1986). In the Inca empire, subsistence cycles were based, in part,
upon such labor exchanges that were organized on a rotating basis by ayllus while
their leaders provided food and beer for the communities as a form of reciprocity
several times a month (Vega 1966 (1609); Guaman Poma 1980 (15831615)).
Among Andean cultures, the economic significance of maize was also closely
tied veneration of their patron huacas and former rulers and nobles of high rank
and status (Valera 1968 (1594); Vega 1966 (1609); and Cobo 1990 (1653)). In
contrast, maize among Mesoamerican cultures was symbolically and literally
associated with various deities in their pantheons, such as the Maya maize god or
the Aztec Maize goddess (see, e.g., Duran 1971 (1588?); Freidel et al. 1993; and
Stross 2006).
Perhaps what is most striking about the early chronicles is the extent to which
that maize played such an important role in indigenous rituals and religion. The
religious importance of maize to Mesoamerican and Andean cultures has been
widely documented and described in considerable detail in the accounts. Despite
the overwhelming evidence for symbolic and literal association of maize with
ancient and colonial religion, most of these descriptions and accounts are unsym-
pathetic to native beliefs, or largely negative in their assessments (e.g., Cortez 1991
(15191526); Acosta, 1961 (1581); Duran 1971 (1588; Sahagun 1963 (d. 1590);
Vega 1966 (1609); Arriaga 1968 (1621); and Cobo 1990 (1653)). These inherent
biases in the accounts, and in some cases, dismissive evaluations of native belief
and ritual practice no doubt influenced later interpretations and applications of such
information to archaeological reconstructions and interpretations and meaning of
2.6 Maize Ethnohistory: Summary and Conclusions 83
their art. The description of syncretism, tortillas and maize gruel, replacing hosts
and wine in their mass services among certain native populations must have been
disconcerting to colonial proselytizers. The continued melding and syncretism of
indigenous and western beliefs among native populations throughout the Neotro-
pics is another indication that such beliefs remain in various forms, and that maize
continues to play a central role in such practices (Christenson 2008).
What is perhaps most striking about the role of maize in indigenous ritual and
religion throughout the Neotropics is the importance it held to ritual and sacrificial
offerings and calendric rites. The differences between Mesoamerica and the Andes
is the way in which cobs and kernels were prepared in various ways and then
offered to the deities in the former, while maize beer largely played this role in the
latter. Indeed, maize beer was central to Andean ritual practice and as a religious
offering. Another pattern found in all of these accounts is how maize was critical to
religious cults and ethnic identity. These ethnohistoric accounts convey a distinct
impression that among native societies of the New World, maize was considered to
be a sacred plant as well as an economic staple. The clear preference of maize over
other indigenous species appears to have played some role in our current assump-
tions regarding its economic importance to the development of civilization and its
consumption as a grain.
Chapter 3
Scientific, Botanical, and Biological Research
on Maize
3.1 Introduction on a History of Science on Maize
This chapter takes an historical approach to maize research. It is focused on early

studies in the archaeological and biological sciences: How did these studies
indirectly influence the current debates? How were these debates directly influ-
enced by earlier research on plant domestication in the Old World? How are the
methodological approaches taken by the New World archaeologists, specialized in
domestication and early agriculture, different from those taken by such specialists
in the Old World? How do these differences affect the history of research on the
origins and spread of maize? Recent groundbreaking results from maize geneticists
have indicated that earlier archaeological interpretations of plant domestication and
the economic significance of maize need to be reconsidered, yet earlier research and
interpretations continue to strongly influence the current research. The term domes-
tication has come to be used in the archaeological and biological literature as
referring to a symbiotic relationship among human populations, the local ecology, a
mutualism or coevolution that is not necessarily dependent on human involvement,
particularly with reference to resource management.1 In this volume, domestication
is defined as the genetic change brought about in a biotic population as a result of
interactions with humans, and leads to a dependence relationship (Benz and Staller
2006, p. 665). These definitions on the process of domestication are more in line
with those generally published in the biological sciences. Prior to the recent
developments in direct dating and molecular biology, archaeologists and historians
perceived agricultural practices surrounding primary economic cultigens in terms
of a culture history. There appears to have been a general consensus with regard to the
1
Note: this is not the way it has generally been defined in the archaeological literature and to a
lesser extent in the biological literature, particularly before the middle of the last century.
86 3 Scientific, Botanical, and Biological Research on Maize
economic importance of food plants such as maize in the ancient past, in part
because maize was seen as analogous to wheat and barley in the Old World.
The domestication of New World food crops, like maize, has come to be seen as
a process of evolutionary change involving the genetics of plant populations. These
changes are primarily in response to human influence or deliberate selection for
certain favorable traits, conscious selection, or artificial selection (unconscious
selection), that is, genetic responses to human modification of the environment or
management of plant reproduction. Discussion on the economic importance and the
role of maize in prehistoric times would be incomplete without taking into account
the early innovative research from the biological sciences, particularly by specia-
lists in genetics, paleoethnobotany, and plant morphology. These data have histori-
cally had a profound influence on the American archaeological community and
consequently, on research on the pre-historic role of maize in ancient economies.
This is particularly true with regard to how the role of maize in pre-historic times
was interpreted and what lineages expanded to different areas of the Neotropics and
beyond. In fact, many of these pioneering studies continue to play a major role in
the methodological approaches that research on maize has taken historically. The
following chapter considers how and why the biological and social sciences have
framed the current issues influencing the questions that have been and are still
being asked regarding the data. The data presented in this chapter are designed to
provide hindsight, and at the same time, an increased sensitivity and awareness of
the inner workings of science and research. The primary goal of this chapter is to
show how early data and methodologies are historically linked to current debates on
the origins of maize, early plant domestication, and the role of economically
important plants such as maize in the socio-cultural development.
3.1.1 Comparing and Contrasting Old and New World

Approaches
The archaeological, botanical, and biological research on maize in American

Archaeology has historically been structured, and incorporated into the research
and subsequent literature, in a manner very different from the way in which
European scientists have considered the food crops and plant and animal domesti-
cation in the Old World (Terrell et al. 2003). Many scholars of early agriculture2
have taken the position that plants such as maize provided the economic basis for
the rise of civilization in the Americas. In fact, maize has generally been seen as the
primary catalyst to complex sociocultural development in the Americas from the
beginning (Tykot and Staller 2002). Almost a century ago, Herbert J. Spinden
(1917) postulated the existence of a formative stratum underlying the basis of
2
Agriculture is defined as a symbiotic or mutual interdependence of any food plant and humans
(Smith 2001, 2005b; Benz and Staller 2006).
3.1 Introduction on a History of Science on Maize 87
civilization and that the primary constituents of this stratum, which he called
Archaic Culture, included maize agriculture, ceramics, anthropomorphic figur-
ines, and ceremonial mound construction. He also hypothesized that New World
cultures developed as a result of the diffusion of maize, beans, and squash out of
highland Mexico to other regions of the hemisphere and that agriculture was
invented only once (Spinden 1917). The advent of ceramic technology and grinding
stones (metates) at ancient sites has long been thought to develop simultaneously
with maize agriculture in the Americas. Ceramic containers and processing stone
were seen as essential for processing this food crop into flour for mass consumption
(Lathrap 1970; Lathrap et al. 1975; Staller 2001b). The extent to which pottery and
maize agriculture were seen as synonymous is evident by early surveys of formative
cultures in the Americas, which were largely based on the comparative analysis of
pottery assemblages (e.g., Ford 1969).
Similarly, cereal grains such as wheat, barley, and oats in the Old World have
traditionally been reported to be the basis for the early sociocultural development,
and ultimately civilization. The appearance of processing tools such as grinding
stones and lithic tools for the harvesting of grains was also an indicator of food
production in the Old World (Braidwood 1952, 1960; Harris 1989; Bar-Yosef and
Belfer-Cohen 1992). Childe (1951b, p. 59) first coined the term food production
in an attempt to contrast the ancient adaptations involving food producing with
those of food gatherer in analyzing the transition from hunting and gathering to
an agriculture economy. Agriculture, the deliberate planting and harvesting of
domesticated plants, appeared to many archaeologists working at the turn of the
last century and before the development of radiocarbon to be a revolutionary
invention. For historical reasons, the integration of cereal grains to ancient econo-
mies in the Near East and later Mesopotamia was perceived as an adaptation
involving a greater dependence upon certain plants and animals, and generally
associated with the beginning of the Neolithic (Childe 1935, 1946, 1951b; Braid-
wood 1960; Bar-Yosef and Belfer-Cohen 1992). The Neolithic in the Old World is
essentially analogous to the Formative in the New World, and thus the transition
from food gatherers to food-producing societies was termed the Neolithic revolu-
tion (Childe 1951b, p. 61, pp. 7071). The idea of an agricultural revolution was a
very popular theory in the 19401950s and was first put forward by the archaeolo-
gist V. Gordon Childe (1946), who perceived a major economic revolution in
prehistoric times brought on during a period of severe drought, and in this vision
of prehistoric times, a climatic and environmental stress caused a new relationship
to be forced between humans and their natural environment. But, long before
Childes (1951b) book Man makes Himself made such theories and ideas popu-
lar, the English anthropologist Edward Tylor (1889) observed that agriculture is
not to be looked on as a difficult or out-of-the-way invention, for the rudest savage,
skilled as he is in the habits of the food plants he gathers, must know well enough
that if seeds or roots are put in a proper place in the ground they will grow.
Botanists, anthropologists, and archaeologists later discovered that indigenous
farmers, past and present, have considerable knowledge of the food crops they
cultivated, much more than that of the deliberately planted seeds that eventually
germinate. The gradual interdependence and changes in the adaptation associated

with domestication involve significant changes in the archaeological record. One of
the primary archaeological patterns associated with the formative was a shift to
sedentary, permanent sites associated with rivers and streams and away from the
mobile lifestyles of hunting and gathering (Flannery 1972, 1986b, 2002). The
epistemological basis of ideas surrounding an agricultural revolution and a forma-
tive stratum are in part a product of Western philosophy, particularly the French
Enlightenment, and the notion of progress as well as the social Darwinism of
Herbert Spencer and ideas about the evolution of civilization and cultural complex-
ity (Spencer 1867, 1897; see also Carneiro 2002). While the criteria used by Old
World specialists to divide the Mesolithic from the Neolithic cultures have
changed over the years, the initial assertions that formed the basis for such ideas
came out of the late nineteenth and early twentieth century perceptions about the
evolution of social stratification, the importance of food production as an indica-
tor of progress, and complex sociocultural development (Childe 1951a,b; Harris
1989; Zvelebil 2000; Stiner 2001). The idea of progress was extended to the history
of ancient societies and cultures by two of the founders of anthropology, L. H.
Morgan and E. B. Tylor, and the Three Age System, a unilinear evolution from
Savagery, to Barbarism, and ultimately to Civilization (Willey and Sabloff 1980,
pp. 34).
American scholars maintained early on that the beginning of agriculture and a
dependence upon crops such as maize was a revolution in human history upon
which the destinies of cultures, and later, nations would be dependant (Enfield
1866). These perceptions also dominated this period of Western history and were
reified by the Industrial Revolution, mechanization of Western agricultural econo-
mies, and spread of colonial domination. Consequently, the integration of agricul-
tural economies in the Old World has historically been couched as a product of
diffusion, migration, or acculturation in the context of a NeolithicMesolithic
transition (Barker 1985; Harris 1989; Bogucki 1996; Gebauer and Price 1992;
Price 2000; Bar-Yosef and Belfer-Cohen 1992). The transition from food gathering
to food production is central to archaeological issues surrounding the development
of civilization. Nevertheless, as more ethnobotanic, archaeological, and chronolog-
ical evidence regarding the transition is reported, there still appears to be consider-
able disagreement as to precisely when and where to draw the line along this
developmental continuum (Terrell et al. 2003; Staller 2004, 2006c).
American anthropology, however, remains somewhat grounded in the four-field
approach and more holistic in its breadth and scope, and particularistic and historical
in its focus of research than in the Old World (Willey and Sabloff 1980, pp. 130131).
For example, Alfred L. Kroeber (1930) elaborated upon a common agricultural
foundation for the formative with identical food plants as those outlined by Spinden
(1917) and similar techniques in weaving, metallurgy, and architecture. Such trait
lists could then be used by archaeologists to determine the presence or absence of an
agricultural economy and the degrees of complexity exhibited by the cultures being
studied. Willey and Phillips (1958) presented a historical-developmental interpre-
tation of the formative defined, by the presence of maize and/or manioc agriculture
and the successful socioeconomic integration of such an agriculture into well-

established sedentary life (p. 144). A definition that largely paralleled that of
V. Gordon Child (1946, 1951) for the Neolithic, the integration and spread of Old
World cereal grains, and the transition from food collection to food production.
Rather than transitions, Ford (1969, p. 5) perceived centers of domestication
and classified the formative into two parts, the colonial formative beginning at
about 3000 B.C. and a later theocratic formative for the period after about
1,200 B.C. (see also Vavilov 1926). This perspective saw formative lifeways and
the associated material constituents radiating to more peripheral centers, initially
with the spread of agriculture and later associated with an overarching religious
cosmology. This idea was much more closely tied to the European models of
waves of advance or the assertion that migration and diffusion spread the primary
food crops and agricultural technology. In the New World, the early origins of
pottery technology, and by extension, maize agriculture in the Americas have also
been considered as a result of diffusion (Vavilov 1926; Meggers et al. 1965;
Ford 1969; Lathrap 1970). These differences in approach are, in part, related to
the fundamental difference in the emphasis on the way in which agriculture is
studied in the New versus the Old World (Staller 2006, p. xxi, 2006c; Terrell et al.
2003; Brown 2006). archaeological evidence from the Americas has traditionally
been analyzed in terms of how well the data conformed to the definition of a
formative way of life, and despite some inherent ambiguity, the presence and
absence of such constituents have been consistently applied as a classification
scheme (Staller 2006c). Consequently, archaeologists early on were encouraged
to integrate different lines of evidence into their interpretations, particularly on the
subject of early maize agriculture (Smith 1998, 2001). This is also the case with
regard to plant domestication in general, in that investigations were more specifi-
cally concerned with the factors and circumstances surrounding plant domestication
and also upon the plants themselves (Smith 1986; Hoopes 1994).
In the New World, the development of complex social organization as well as
cultural evolutionary approaches has traditionally been perceived as the shift from
foraging and a hunting and gathering way of life to a fully developed agricultural
economy or formative way of life in terms of a developmental continuum (Spinden
1917; Vavilov 1926). Willey 1964, 1971; Service 1975; Harris 1989; Kelly
1995). However, American archaeologists have historically couched the origins
of agriculture in foraging/farming dichotomies that are specific and distinct to
different regions of the hemisphere and their associated time periods, rather than
an overarching result of migration or acculturation (see, e.g., Flannery 1973, 1986a;
Smith 2001). This developmental continuum, however, is the basis upon which
there is a dialogue, transitions are a favored approach in both sides of the Atlantic
among prehistorians (Harris 1989; Gebauer and Price 1992; Zohary and Hopf
1993). It is the particularistic nature of research from region to region in the
Americas versus the emphasis upon acculturation that differentiates research in
this case. It should be noted that the predisposition to analyzing the spread of
agriculture and primary food crops in terms of transitions is antithetical to Darwin-
ian natural selection, which time and again demonstrates that it is the plant and
animal species in landscapes that are consciously and unconsciously being modified
in the process of human adaptation (Staller 2004, 2006c). Such transitions have
occurred in varying degrees for as long as humans have been selecting certain animal
and plant species such as maize for their survival (Heiser 1988, p. 78; Rindos 1984;
Terrell et al. 2003; Staller 2004, 2006c). The prime mover of culture change is
another striking distinction. In the Old World, analyses of the spread of agriculture
and cereal grains has been dominated by the human dynamics or waves of advance
as responsible for the spread of agriculture, largely based upon human DNA, rather
than plant genetics, as is the case in this hemisphere (e.g., Ammerman and Cavalli-
Sforza 1971, 1973; Diamond 1997; Renfrew 2000; Stiner 2001; Emshwiller 2006).
Later archaeological and chronological evidence in this hemisphere challenged
these earlier interpretations and suggested instead that cultural complexity and the
associated agricultural economies did not diffuse from the nuclear areas of the
Neotropics, but rather were in most cases a result of in situ sociocultural develop-
ments (see, e.g., Staller 2001a, 2004, 2006c). However, as more ethnobotanic,
archaeological, and later radiocarbon evidence regarding the shift to food produc-
tion were reported, there still appeared to be considerable debate as to where to
draw the line between food gathering and production, and moreover precisely what
are the primary constituents that characterize a formative way of life (e.g., Piperno
1999; Staller 2004, 2006c). Subsequently, the focus in American archaeology has
been primarily upon culture process (rather than culture history) by considering
agricultural transitions rather than look into diffusion and migration for explana-
tions regarding sociocultural development (Staller 2001a, 2006c). Many scholars of
early agriculture have taken the position that plants such as maize provided the
economic basis for the rise of civilization. Maize (Zea mays L.) has been proposed
as having played a major if not central role in agricultural subsistence, sedentism,
and particularly precocious ceramic innovation throughout the Americas (Staller
2001a, 2006c). In the past three decades, archaeologist have begun to turn their
attention away from generalized Formative patterns and their presumed asso-
ciated correlates, and begin to focus upon the dynamics of these processes at a more
restricted regional scale (Hoopes 1994).
3.1.2 Research on the Rise of Early Agriculture
The study of agriculture in this hemisphere has placed a major emphasis on the
crops themselves: primarily maize and, to a lesser extent, beans and squash, which
together formed the basic New World crop assemblage (Flannery 1986a, pp. 58).
The presence of maize in archaeological sediments and ancient middens has
generally been cited as an evidence to what has generally been termed a formative
way of life. Maize has historically been an important focus of scientific research
how it originated, what its ancestors were, and how different landraces are related to
one another (Flannery 1973, 1986a,b; Smith 1998, 2001; Staller et al. 2006).
An emphasis on the waves of advance also has important consequences for issues
such as demographic change in prehistoric Europe (Richards 2003), as well as for

New World population densities based on an agricultural economy in which crops
such as maize can be intensively cultivated. The wave of advance model also
implies uniformity in the manner in which agriculture arrived in different parts
of Europe, rather than the heterogeneity that has characterized so much of the
archaeological research on agriculture and maize in this hemisphere (Thomas 1993,
p. 357; Brown 2006, p. 6; Zohary and Hopf 1993, pp. 230234). In this hemisphere,
methodologically driven analyses, designed specifically to uncover precisely where
and particularly when food production originally occurred, has generated data sets
that focus almost exclusively on the earliest economic plants (particularly, maize)
to the exclusion of other wild plants in the paleobotanical inventory and this has
generally been the case with cereal grains on the other side of the Atlantic (Terrell
et al. 2003; Staller 2006c). The general perception in the archaeological literature is
that maize was spread as a food crop from the central highlands of Mesoamerica,
the earliest presence recorded in the Tehuacan valley and Guila Naquitz rock-
shelter, north to the American SW, and south along the coast and inland into
Andean South America (Fig. 3.1).
In the Old World, the origin and spread of agriculture is rarely looked on as
an event in itself, and research on cereal grains is generally undertaken by specia-
lists in the biological sciences, rather than by archaeologists and paleoethnobota-
nists (Zohary 1996; Zvelebil 2000; Brown 2006; Zohary and Hopf 1993). These
distinctions speak of a fundamental difference in what is emphasized in the research
surrounding plant domestication and agriculture, and therefore on how food crops
like maize and cereal grains in Europe were spread and subsequently related to the
development of complex social organization (e.g., Richards 2003). The develop-
mental and evolutionary theories and models we have inherited, in other words, our
search for agricultural transitions, centers of domestication, and agricultural revo-
lutions have profoundly affected our understanding of the past (Staller 2006c).
The extent to which such approaches to early agriculture and plant and animal
domestication have influenced anthropological and biological science in the USA is
Fig. 3.1 Map showing the spread of maize to different parts of the Old and New World. Maize was
brought early on to the Philippines, SE Asia, and southern India by Spanish explorers. The time
scales and place of origin for Zea mays L. are based upon the evidence from molecular biology and
analysis of early 16th century historical documents
also a product of history. Before the end of the World War II, scientific research
surrounding maize was largely concerned with creating better hybrids and more
productive varieties or landraces (Wallace and Brown 1956, pp. 1118). After the
mid 1940s, European approaches to the origins of agriculture and economic crops,
particularly grains, had a slowly increasing influence on the natural and social
sciences in this country3 (Wallace and Brown 1956; Willey and Sabloff 1980).
While the initial influences from overseas were minimal, they have gradually
increased in the past three decades. After the Second World War, research on
maize became more focused on the integration of anthropological, archaeological,
and botanical evidence in the pursuit of the origins of domesticated maize, but as
with Old World cereal grains, this process was perceived as a product of slow
gradual artificial selection (Mangelsdorf 1974, pp. 1114; Zohary 2004). More
recently, the domestication process is perceived as involving the gradual and
fortuitous accumulation of genetic mutations that create a form of mutualism that
develops between a human population and a target plant or animal population, and
has strong selective advantages for both partners (Zeder et al. 2006, p. 139).
However, conscious selection for larger grain size and greater productivity could
not have occurred in the case of Zea mays before certain critical mutations regard-
ing the tga1 glume architecture occurred (Iltis 2006, pp. 2829; Dorweiler and
Doebley 1997). It was in part through mutation and changes in alleles that teosinte
was transformed into maize and became totally dependent upon humans for its
reproduction.
The study of maize within American archaeology developed with strong focus
on the earliest presence, in the context of the origins of food crops, without a
necessary emphasis on locating those origins within the social and cultural context
of communities living in the region at a specific timeperiod (Brown 2006, p. 5). Part
of this is based on the earlier research on maize morphology and biology, which did
not assume a single domestication event related to a specific region as has long
been the case in the Old World with cereal grains (see, e.g., Price 2000; Richards
2003). In the New World, the natural distribution of teosinte now places a geo-
graphical limitation on the region of origin (Matsuoka et al. 2002; Freitas et al.
2003). However, earlier research on maize ancestry provided a much wider geo-
graphic range to consider the maize origins (e.g., Pearsall 1978, 2002; Piperno
1991; Piperno et al. 1985; Pohl et al. 2007; Zarrillo et al. 2008). The initial
biological research emphasized the mutability of maize and the significant morpho-
logical and genetic variation displayed by modern specimens, and therefore
inferred or assumed the crop was domesticated on multiple occasions in different
regions of the Americas (Mangelsdorf and Reeves 1959a,b).
3
There is some reason to believe that this historical shift in theory and methodological approaches
in American Anthropology may be related, at least in part, to the passing of Franz Boas in
December of 1942. The Father of American Anthropology and a staunch proponent of a holistic,
four-field approach to anthropological research, he trained many of the most prominent and
influential scholars of their generation (Willey and Sabloff 1980, pp. 8485, pp. 9495).
3.2 Archaeological, Botanical, and Biological Research on Maize Origins 93
The underlying presumption of a multiple origin model was to have a pro-

found effect on both the archaeological and botanical research focused on the
earliest appearance of domesticated maize, and most of this research took place
after the discovery of radiocarbon and absolute dating in the early 1950s. These
archaeological samples and chronometric results have provided scholars with
exciting new approaches to their research on the questions of when, why, and
how maize spread out of its Mexican homeland to regions far beyond its region of
initial domestication (Smith 2001; Blake 2006; Zeder et al. 2006).
In summary, there historically appears to have been a much more open dialogue
and interaction between the social and biological sciences in the Americas, which
continues into the present. This is perhaps most clearly apparent when we consider
how archaeologists in this hemisphere have used research from the biological
sciences, particularly botany, and most recently molecular biology, in their
interpretations, and to frame and formulate their research design. Archaeologists
have historically exploited paleobotanical results on inflorescence morphology,
pollen size, phytolith shape, and abundance, and recently starch grain analysis to
document the domestication process (Piperno et al. 2007). These lines of ethno-
botanical evidence have played a major role in the Americas in tracing and
explaining the origins and the early spread of maize in prehistoric times, but
have their limitations with respect to their prehistoric contexts, associated dates,
maize identification, and archaeological preservation (Staller 2003; Haslam 2004;
Rovner 2004; Reber and Evershed 2004; Thompson 2006). The paleobotanical
and biological evidence has been critical in directing archaeological research
questions in part because the biological results are presented as hypotheses that
can lead to inferences regarding maize culture history (Benz 2006, p. 10). The
archaeological evidence is ideally suited to testing whether these biological results
and conclusions can be replicated in the field setting. However, this more holistic
integration of multiple lines of data continues to be influenced by previous
assumptions and methodological approaches in spite of recent molecular evidence
from maize DNA that make such interpretations and assumptions no longer
tenable. Since the late 1970s, the research coming out of molecular biology has
dramatically revised our understanding of the origins and spread of maize through-
out the pre-Hispanic Mesoamerica.
3.2 Archaeological, Botanical, and Biological Research

on Maize Origins
It was the eminent plant geneticist and maize specialist Paul C. Mangelsdorf
who, in the 1960s, encouraged Richard MacNeish to work in a series of caves in
Tehuacan, Mexico (MacNeish 1961, 1962, 1967a, 1978; Mangelsdorf et al. 1967).
These caves are located in the arid highlands of south central state of Puebla, as it
was assumed that macrobotanical remains from such localities would be more
preserved than in open-air sites. The historical fact that Mangelsdorf influenced
MacNeish to carry out research at the Tehuacan cave sites is an example of how
biologists have had a direct influence on where archaeological research on domes-
tication was carried out, although in this instance it was through informal interac-
tions rather than through the published literature.
It has also been the case that scientific research in the botanical and biological
sciences have influenced archaeologists in what kinds of questions were being
asked of their data, and particularly in the case of maize, what was the origin of
this economically important food crop.
Mangelsdorf and Reeves (1931, p. 329, 1939, p. 33) had initially asserted that
domesticated maize was the result of a hybridization event between an unknown
pre-Columbian wild maize, and a species of Tripsacum, a related genus. In its
final manifestation, the Tripartite Hypothesis later postulated that Zea mays L.
evolved from a hybridization of Z. diploperennis by Tripsacum dactyloides
(Eubanks 1997, 1999; see also Iltis et al. 1979). The widespread acceptance of
the Tripartite Hypothesis4 is an example of how hypothesis testing can influence
and promote the focus of archaeological investigations (Mangelsdorf and Reeves
1931, 1938, 1939; Mangelsdorf 1974). Biological scientists working in this hemi-
sphere have moreover been much more attuned to how their research should have
direct applications to the field of archaeological research and inquiry (Mangelsdorf
and Reeves 1939, pp. 273302; Anderson 1947b; Weatherwax 1954; Mangelsdorf
1974; McNeish 1985; Eubanks 1995, 1999, 2001). There is some reason to believe
that Mangelsdorf and other geneticists who fostered the Tripartite hypothesis
may have been influenced to look at such hybridizations as a byproduct of working
with archaeologists such as MacNeish and Flannery in their cave and rockshelter
excavations.
3.2.1 Early Botanical and Biological Research

on the Origins of Maize
The basis for modern botanical and biological research on maize had its inception
at the same time that American anthropology was being developed into a distinct
field in the social sciences. This was to have a profound effect on the field of
archaeology, because it was subsumed into one of the subfields of anthropology,
and not an independent field in its own right as is the case in Europe and much
of the rest of the world (Willey and Sabloff 1980, p. 5). Consequently, the holistic
approach taken by early anthropologists in this hemisphere had, to varying
degrees, an influence on where archaeological research was undertaken and the
4
The role of Tripsacum (gama grass) in the origins of maize has been refuted by modern genetic
analysis, negating the tripartite hypothesis (DeWet and Harlan 1972, 1976; Matsuoka et al. 2002;
Iltis 2006, pp. 4344).
extent to which archaeologists were predisposed to look to the other sub-fields

and to the biological sciences for hypothesis testing and how the questions they
would ask of their data should be applied to the archaeological data (Staller
2006a, p. xxi).
During the late nineteenth and twentieth century, the botanical sciences
focused considerable attention on the phylogeny, morphology, cytogenetics, and
origins of maize. The plant was identified on the basis of its constituent parts in
order to carry out systematic scientific research, which would explore its phylog-
eny and develop ways in which to make maize more productive (Fig. 3.2a). The
previous chapter on the sixteenth century ethnohistoric accounts of maize demon-
strates that maize played numerous and varied roles among prehistoric and early
colonial New World indigenous cultures. One of the most important was its role
in ancient religion and by extension ethnic identity (Sandstrom 1991; Raven
2005). Botanists working in the beginning and middle of the last century noticed
early on that modern races of maize in the USA and Europe were very different
from the maize found in archaeological sites and still being grown in many
regions of Latin America (Mangelsdorf and Reeves 1939; Wallace and Brown
1956). The primary reason for these differences has to do in part with the role of
maize to indigenous subsistence, which is highly varied from region to region,
and its significance to indigenous ethnic identity and traditional religion (Sand-
strom 1991; Berlin 1992; Berlin et al. 1974; Raven 2005; Staller 2006b; Chris-
tenson 2008).
Wallace and Brown (1956, pp. 3941) mention that various Amerindian
societies understood the function of pollen, and even made metaphorical refer-
ence to it in their religions (see also Whorf 1954, pp. 225251; Christenson
2003). Yet despite their understanding and knowledge of cross-breeding and
their devotion to their maize plots, they kept their varieties pure apparently
over long spans of time (Pernales et al. 2003b). This is directly in contrast to the
goals of modern maize research, which at the outset sought, through cross-
breeding and hybridization, to create more productive races to supplement the
national economy, and to exportation in order to help to sustain the economies of
third world nations, particularly in Africa, Europe, and to a lesser extent Asia
(Enfield 1866, pp. 1112; Wallace and Brown 1956, p. 25). One of the most
important effects on maize in the process of domestication through genetics is the
so-called founder effect of domestication, population bottleneck.5 This is when a
small population experiences a time in its life history where only a small
proportion of the genetic diversity is retained, because of random sampling or
genetic drift (Emshwiller 2006, pp. 100101). Maize diversity is in part a
reflection of human or conscious or unconscious selection due to changes in the
environment brought about by human control of plant reproduction and the result
5
The founder effect is the loss of genetic variation that occurs when a new population is established
by a very small number of individuals from a larger population (Mayr 1942, p. 120). The new
population may be distinctively different as a result of the loss of genetic variation both genetically
and in terms of phenotypic expression (Provine 2004).
was a set of diverse maize varieties or landraces. Questions surrounding the gene
flow between domesticated maize and the teosintes such as, what is the genetic
basis for morphological change, are some of the research being addressed by the
most recent studies (Emshwiller 2006, p. 99; Doebley et al. 1983, 1984, 1987,
1990, 1997). These early researchers were using what was known at that time
about maize landraces and attempting through cross-breeding and hybridization to
create heartier and more highly productive maize varieties (Fig. 3.2b). Maize
Fig. 3.2 (a) Maize and its

constituent parts labeled.
Maize tassels are
distinguished from other wild
grasses by their thick and
highly condensed terminal
spikes (with many spikelets)
and their slender and
uncondensed lateral branches
(from Wallace and Brown
1956, Fig. 1). (b) Teosinte
spikelet (left) compared to
three early archaeological
maize cobs (center) and an
ear of modern genetically
modified sweet dent corn
(right). Teosintes are
distinguished from maize by
their spikelets and small
distinctive female
inflorescences, which mature
to form a two-ranked ear of
five to ten triangular or
trapezoidal, black or brown
disarticulating segments, each
with one seed enclosed by a
hard fruitcase. The fruitcase
consists of a cupule or
depression in the rachis, and a
tough lower glume. There is
no archaeological evidence
from the various early cave
and rockshelter sites to
suggest that teosinte
fruitcases were exploited for
food
farmers in Mexico often grew teosinte in their maize fields (milpas) to make them
more drought resistant and less prone to insect infestation.
The research goals with regard to maize beginning in the nineteenth century and
extending to the middle of the last century was the creation of hybrids, which were
more productive, i.e., produced greater yield per acre cultivated. The hybridization
of maize lineages or races to further the utilitarian aims of farmers, go to the very
beginnings of modern biological research on maize (Enfield 1866; Myrick 1904).
This research emphasis sought to produce races that provided the greatest number
of kernels, in order to sustain ever-greater populations (Wallace and Brown 1954,
pp. 1113; Fussell 1992, pp. 6465). The funding and research in the United States
that went into developing ever more productive maize varieties also had a profound
influence on how prehistorians viewed the role of economic plants to the develop-
ment of civilization in general, and the role of maize in such developmental
processes in particular (e.g., Wilson 1981).
The botanical research on cross-breeding to develop varieties which were more
drought resistant, more productive, and resistant to predation, began at around 1878
(Wallace and Brown 1956, p. 14). They are an indirect outgrowth of inventions,
such as the microscope, and a byproduct of the religious wars that more or less
ended at the beginning of the eighteenth century in the United States (Wallace and
Brown 1956, p. 44). Cotton Mather, a puritan minister,6 became interested in the
maize reproduction, when he noticed in 1716 that his neighbors garden had
varieties of maize with multiple color kernels. Mather thought that the row of
blue and row of red kernel varieties in the center of this garden were affecting the
kernel colors particularly on the windward side of the garden, where the most
multicolored rows of maize were standing (Wallace and Brown 1956, pp. 4445). A
member of the Royal Society wrote on maize pollination and hybridization, with
pollen being the male element in the reproductive process (Fig. 3.3a, b). It was
such insights that fostered later research in cross-breeding and hybridization.
One of the first discoveries made by geneticists at the early part of the last
century was that genes appeared to control some of the particular traits that are
affected by domestication. Beadle (1980) believed that it was one trait for each gene
(Doebley 2001). These early maize studies considered how domestication has been
manifested genetically in the crop, but in order to carry out such studies maize must
be compared to its wild progenitor, and it is at this point where research on the
origin of maize begins. Most of this early research on maize origins was focused on
the identification of an unknown wild maize from which Zea mays L. was
domesticated (Mangelsdorf et al. 1967, Fig. 96). Many of these early cross-breeding
6
Cotton Mather was a Quaker, a puritan divine who condoned the persecution of witches but not
the extreme methods of execution used by their prosecutors. Mather was aware of the effect of
corn pollen from one variety falling on the silks of another and reported on this in various
publications. Paul Dudley, a wealthy aristocrat, whose family were bitter enemies of the Mather
clan, reported on the same phenomenon 8 years later without citing Mathers published work
(Wallace and Brown 1956, pp. 4547). Dudley referred to pollination as wonderful copulation
(Wallace and Brown 1956, p. 47).
Fig. 3.3 (a) Teosinte spike (right) and maize cob (left): while maize seed dispersal is dependent
upon humans, teosinte fruit cases are not. Maize is highly mutagenic and kernel color and ear
morphology are highly affected by wind pollen from different maize varieties grown in surround-
ing fields. This led scholars to deduce that particular phenotypic characteristics and traits in Zea
mays were genetically controlled. (b) The silk of the maize plant is a female element, while pollen
is male. The silks are fertilized by wind pollen from tassels of other maize plants. (Courtesy of
John Tuxill) (Photograph by John Tuxill)
studies were initially interested in understanding Zea phylogeny, and searching for
a wild form, which would have given rise to the many races found throughout the
Americas. Botanists at the Botanical Garden received a seed from Mexico, which
was said to be from a plant known in that country as maz de coyote and assuming it
was a new species, classified the plant as Zea canina (Watson 1891). Subsequent
research of this species indicated that it was not a distinct species, but rather that it
could potentially be the progenitor to domesticated maize (Bailey 1892). John
Harshberger (1893) compiled a treatise on the various races of maize and assumed
that Zea canina was the ancestral form. Ultimately, all of these conclusions had to
be reconsidered when it was disclosed from Mexico that the plant in question was a
hybrid of maize and teosinte (Harshberger 1896a; cf. Weatherwax 1956, p. 142).
The teosintes are a group of large grasses of the genus Zea found in Mexico,
Guatemala, and Nicaragua. Despite the importance of agriculture to scientific
research in the social sciences, their contributions to our understanding of agricul-
tural origins have been minimal (Ford 1985a, p. 13). Basically, cultural geography
and anthropology as well as archaeology and linguistics have made important
discoveries and promoted ground breaking research. However, most of the litera-
ture from these fields was to some degree derived from a close symbiosis with the
biological sciences in general and botany in particular. Early studies in the social
sciences on the origins of plant domestication and early agriculture were more
closely aligned with psychological arguments that appealed to ideas that the
developmental processes or advances through time were the product of inventions

of an individual genius, or part of human nature, and show a tendency to assume
either explicitly or implicitly an idea of progress and cultural superiority.
Ascherson (1875) initially discovered and reported on teosinte, and in the
process, provided the first evidence of the possible existence of wild maize.
Teosinte7 was known to grow spontaneously in various regions of Mexico and
Central America, and closely resembled maize in a number of its characteristics,
particularly the silks of the ears to the point where it was often mistakenly
identified as a variety of maize (Collins 1921). Hybrids of teosinte and maize
were long known to be able to be self-pollinating, to cross-pollinate with one
another, and even to backcross with either parent, thus resulting in many interme-
diate forms (see, e.g., Mangelsdorf and Reeves 1938; Mangelsdorf 1974; Benz
2001). Some of the hybrids morphologically resembled maize very closely, yet had
enough teosinte germ plasm to maintain a wild state for a considerable period
of time. Various scholars in the biological sciences presented evidence of the
genetic similarities of maize and teosinte in that both had ten pairs of chromosomes,
and readily hybridizes with maize (Beadle 1939, 1980). Hybrids such as these
were referred to early on as possible candidates for wild maize (Collins 1917,
pp. 395396; Weatherwax 1954, p. 142; Mangelsdorf and Reeves 1939, pp. 2932).
Research on hybridization was focused on exploring the origins of maize and its
phylogenetic relationships to other wild grasses (Beadle 1939; Mangelsdorf and
Reeves 1939). Teosintes were generally not considered by botanists and plant
morphologists to be related to Zea mays L. because they were seen dramatically
divergent in morphology, and it was on the basis of morphological similarity that
wild taxon may be supported by the genetic and morphological data as a probable
progenitor, or as a closely related taxon that was nevertheless not the progenitor
(Emshwiller 2006, p. 100). Once the progenitor taxon is identified, the crop and the
progenitor are usually considered to belong to a single species, because they are not
only capable of continued interbreeding, but usually are indeed continuing to
exchange genes (see Zohary and Hopf 1993; Smith 2006).
Research into the origins of maize in the biological sciences continued to be the
primary focus for the rest of the twentieth century (Mangelsdorf 1948, 1958, 1974,
1986; Iltis 1971, 2000; DeWet and Harlan 1976; Beadle 1972, 1978, 1980). The
early research in the biological sciences on maize was concerned with making
maize varieties more productive, and increasing yield as evidenced by the various
studies just outlined. During and after the 1930s, the scientific research on Zea
became more directly focused on its phylogeny and particularly the origins of
maize. The shift in emphasis was related in part to scientific advances in the
molecular sciences, particularly on research on microfossils and plant DNA
(Benz 2006, pp. 1011). The ground breaking genetic research by George W.
Beadle was primarily concerned with how genes work within cells, and as a result
7
Teosinte takes its name from the Nahuat teocintli, which means good or evil grain and is used to
widely refer to seven taxa of wild grasses closely related to maize (Benz 2006, p. 9).
he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology in 1958 for his insight that genes act
by regulating definite chemical events (Fussell 1992, p. 77). He observed early on
that although maize was the most productive New World grain, it was at the same
time the least able to reproduce itself. He revived the research of Ascherson and
others that the ancestor of maize could be found in one of its relatives in the grass
family and focused on annual teosinte (Euchlaena mexicana), because he observed
that when its seeds were heated, they produced popcorn identical to that of popped
maize (Beadle 1939, p. 247, Fig. 8, 1972, p. 10, 1980). Beadle (1939, pp. 246247)
suggested that since there was not any clear evidence to infer that Mexican or
Guatemalan farmers consumed teosinte as a source of food, that perhaps it may
have initially been exploited and consumed as popcorn, thus providing an incentive
for its cultivation. Research in the biological sciences are more concerned with
answering how anatomical changes and speciation occurred, while the social
sciences emphasize why questions. This results in a focus on the complexity of
human behavior and a search for causation in human history, particularly with
regard to culture change (Ford 1985a, p. 13).
3.2.2 Historical Interface of Biological and Archaeological

Maize Research
Beadle (1972, p. 10) noted in passing that the sugary maize stalks could have
been chewed as a condiment, and still is by Mexican nationals (see also Bruman
2000, pp. 5761; Iltis 2006, p. 26, Fig. 3-2A). Smalley and Blake (2003) recently
expanded along these lines to propose that maize was initially exploited for the
sugary pith and other edible parts rather than as a grain. The consumption of maize
for the sugary stalk provides another possible explanation as to why teosinte was
exploited by archaic and preceramic populations8 (see also Mangelsdorf et al. 1967,
p. 194; Bruman 2000; Iltis 2004). Excavations at the Tehuacan caves and at Guila
Naqutz produced quids of plant stalks of various species including maize (Man-
gelsdorf et al. 1967, pp. 194197, Figs. 117118; Smith 1986, Fig. 19.4). However,
such quids were found in the later levels of these sites, suggesting that preceramic
and archaic peoples occupying such localities in their annual cycles were consum-
ing other grasses (Fig. 3.4a, b). Flannery (1973, p. 297, 1986b, p. 25) reports that
teosinte and other small-seed plants particularly foxtail millet (Setaria sp.) were
consumed during the Late Archaic Period (see also Callen 1967, Fig. 170). Other
plants such as prickly pear, roasted agave, pochote root, mesquite, chiles, maguey,
acorns and pinyon nuts, hackberry, and wild avocado were also present in
8
Mangelsdorf (1974, pp. 7273) asserted sugarcane of the genus Saccharum can cross with Zea,
producing infertile hybrids, but others consider this claim unproven (Clayton and Renvoize 1986,
p. 331). However, both sugarcane and maize stalks produce sweet juice that can be easily extracted
and once the sugar is concentrated, consumed in making syrup and particularly alcoholic bev-
erages or pulque (Smalley and Blake 2003, p. 675).
Fig. 3.4 (a) Quids in various stages of maceration from San Marcos Cave, Palo Blanco Phase
(A.D. 01000) actual size (from Mangelsdorf et al. 1967, Fig. 117). (b) Quids of mostly chewed
archaeological deposits (Callen 1967, pp. 269, 271, 279). However, the archaeo-
logical evidence appears to indicate that teosinte seeds, because of their bitter flavor
and hard fruit cases, were largely absent in Early Archaic Period sites (Coe 1994a,
p. 33; Iltis 2000, pp. 2324; Smalley and Blake 2003, p. 677). Teosinte seeds are
unpalatable and for this reason were shunned by archaic populations (Coe 1994a, p.
33). If consumed at all, it would have been during periods of resource scarcity, i.e.,
starvation of food (Flannery 1973, p. 290). Iltis (2000, pp. 2324) states that
utilization of the teosinte grain is out of the question, since it is encased in a hard
fruit case. Teosinte has, according to Flannery (1973, pp. 290, 296297) the
following characteristics; it is difficult to harvest efficiently. It has a high percent-
age of roughage up to 53%. When mature, the seed generally shatter from their
casings when bumped or disturbed. The evidence from archaeological sites for
early and intense exploitation of teosinte, however, has been lacking, which left
open the possibility for a hypothetical wild progenitor (Harlan and deWet 1973).
Early research on domestication and the evolution of food crops such as maize
primarily involved analysis of macrobotanical remains for botanical identification
(Ford 1985a, p. 8). Some ethnobotanists, however, suggested that such ancient
samples could provide evidence for maize origins and the analysis of undigested
seeds could potentially provide evidence on its importance to the ancient diet
(Harshberger 1896b). Mangelsdorf (1974, p. 156) mentions in this regard that a
number of coprolite specimens excavated at La Perra Cave in Tamaulipas included
teosinte fruit cases that were still hard and bony, essentially unchanged (see
also MacNeish 1947, 1958). Callen (1967, pp. 266267) observed that of the wild
grasses, foxtail millet (Setaria spp.) appears in coprolites from all five of the archaic
cave sites in Tehuacan, and was in fact the principal plant consumed in the El
Riego and Coxcatlan Phases at Coxcatlan Cave (Fig. 3.5). With regard to Zea mays,
Mangelsdorf et al. (1967, pp. 180181) state that on the basis of their analysis of the
earliest cob samples from San Marcos and Coxcatlan Caves that the separation of
the staminate and regular pairing of the pistillate spikelets, among other morpho-
logical features, provide convincing evidence that an extinct pre-Columbian species
of wild corn, a hypothetical polystichous species, rather than teosinte or Tripsa-
cum was the progenitor of cultivated maize (Fig. 3.6a, b).
The shift in focus from biological research involved with maize productivity in the
late nineteenth and early part of the twentieth century, to a concern with phylogeny
and particularly earliest occurrence or origin was related in part to archaeological
discoveries with large macrobotanical inventories that included obviously ancient
and archaic looking maize cobs. Mangelsdorf et al. (1967, p. 180) suggested that the
earliest maize cobs were identified in excavations from San Marcos and Coxcatlan
Caves, and in fact, since these pioneering studies, most of the ancient macrobotanical
samples were recovered from rockshelters and caves rather than open air sites in the
Americas. The botanists and geneticists working with the archaeological macrobo-
tanical samples recreated a hypothetical wild maize on the basis of morphological
<
Fig. 3.4 (continued) maize stalks from San Marcos Cave Palo Blanco phase (A.D. 01000) actual
size (from Mangelsdorf et al. 1967, p. 194, Fig. 117)
Fig. 3.5 Coxcatlan Cave, Tehuacan Valley, where prehistoric deposits extended from the right
edge of the cave mouth to the left hand margin of the image from MacNeish (1962)
Fig. 3.6 (a) Intact cob of what was believed to be wild corn. The authors emphasize that the long
soft glumes gave the general impression of pod corn. This early maize specimen is from excava-
tions at San Marcos Cave in the Tehuacan Valley and was subsequently determined to represent
early domesticated Zea mays L. (from Mangelsdorf et al. 1967, Fig. 97). (b) Examples of different
varieties of pod corn (from Weatherwax 1954, Fig. 49)
information gathered from these samples (Fig. 3.7). These early studies also provide a
clear indication of the extent to which the biological sciences influenced archaeolog-
ical research on the origins of maize, and reveal that despite evidence for other edible
parts of the maize plant, the primary focus was almost exclusively on the seeds or
kernels, rather than the stalks (Doebley 1994).
Despite Beadles (1939) observation that teosinte seeds could be made into
popcorn that was edible, ethnobotanical evidence and analysis of ancient coprolites
indirectly supported the assertion by many in the biological sciences that an
unknown wild maize was the progenitor. Beadle (1972) later suggested that maize
may also have been exploited for its sugary stalk, but the scientific community
largely ignored this insight until many years later. This is because many of the
biologists, botanists, and archaeologist during the early and middle part of the
twentieth century were focused almost exclusively on the ear morphology and
Fig. 3.7 Wild maize reconstructed on the basis of an ancient maize cob from San Marcos Cave.
The authors assert the husks enclosed the young ears, but opened when the cob was in a mature
state, presumably permitting the natural dispersal of the kernels (from Mangelsdorf et al. 1967,
Fig. 124)
kernel shape and size, when attempting to understand the origins of domesticated
maize. Moreover, the hard fruit cases, and bitter flavor of teosinte seeds continued to
be considered as an unlikely candidate progenitor by most scientists outside of plant
genetics. It was genetic research on maize that created the possibility for considering
teosinte as the progenitor just as it was that such research provided the basis for
considering these wild grasses as the closest relative of Zea mays (Langham 1940;
Kellogg and Birchler 1993).
3.2.3 Teosinte and the Search for the Origin of Maize
In the same year that Beadle published evidence of teosinte representing the
proposed ancestor of domesticated maize, Mangelsdorf and Reeves (1939) proposed
that there was a species of wild maize, that is, an undomesticated form of the plant,
and that the most likely candidate for the origin of cultivated maize was pod corn
(Fig. 3.8). Moreover, the hypotheses they set forth provided no genetic basis for the
close similarities of maize and teosinte.
Beadle (1939) pointed out early on that any hypothesis that proposed an extinct
or wild prototype must remain unsatisfactory until tangible evidence for its exis-
tence was forthcoming. This is brought out in his statement on the question of the
genetic relationship between maize and the teosintes that;
. . . would account for the close relationship between teosinte and maize by assuming that
teosinte arose through contamination of cultivated maize by the addition of segments of
chromosomes of Tripsacum. While this view that teosinte is secondarily derived has points
Fig. 3.8 Cobs of wild maize associated with the Coxcatlan Phase occupations at San Marcos
Cave, Tehuacan Valley. The authors emphasized uniformity and the relatively long glumes and
fragile rachises (from Mangelsdorf et al. 1967, Fig. 96)
in its favor, the hypothesis still assumes an extinct or undiscovered wild prototype of
maize. . . The sequence of operations employed by Mangelsdorf and Reeves to obtain the
F1 hybrids artificially is such that the natural occurrence of these hybrids would appear to be
precluded. In addition, the transference of the particular four of five necessary chromosome
segments through rare crossing over involves another sequence of events a priori [original
italics] improbable. Finally, admitting the close relationship between teosinte and maize, it
appears to be quite unnecessary to postulate an hypothetical wild prototype of maize which
through hybridization with Tripsacum gave rise to teosinte (Beadle 1939 p. 246).
Beadle also hypothesized that each morphological trait that separated maize
from its teosinte ancestor was regulated by one gene, however, later research would
provide evidence of a more complex genetic profile (Dorweiler 1996; Dorweiler
et al. 1993; Dorweiler and Doebley 1997; Doebley 2001; Doebley and Stec 1991;
Doebley et al. 1993, 1997). What made teosinte an unlikely progenitor was mor-
phological; the most recognizable feature of Zea mays L., the massive husked ear, is
absent in the teosintes (Beadle 1939, 1972). It was the massive husked ear that
inspired Beadle to refer to domesticated maize as a biological monstrosity. The
inflorescences and pronounced difference in the ears of domesticated maize to other
related wild grasses, was what was so perplexing to researchers. Recent research on
maize DNA has established that the ancestor of maize was a variety of teosinte
because this species is the only large-seeded, wild, annual grass in the tropical
Americas (Doebley and Iltis 1980). Teosinte lacks a cob; instead, its seeds are
contained in a spike of hard fruit cases (Weatherwax 1954). Its seeds are dispersed
through shattering, but in other respects annual teosinte varieties are very similar to
maize and they produce fully fertile offspring when interbred with the domesticated
plant (Beadle 1972; Iltis 2006).
Some members of the related genus Tripsacum are locally referred to as teo-
sinte, plants that have compound leaves, a Cycad. The term teosinte accompa-
nied the first Guatemalan accession and does not appear in Mexico. There are six
annual and perennial species of teosinte (Iltis 2006). Zea diploperennis and Z.
perennis are perennial, while all other taxa are annual9 (Iltis 2006, Fig. 3.5). The
two annual teosintes are most similar to domesticated maize, but one of them had
the specific proteins from one of these annual teosinte subspecies (Zea mays spp.
parviglumis) which were indistinguishable from maize (Matsuoka et al. 2002).
Teosinte and maize have similar tassels and DNA, as well as amino acid and
nutritional compositions (Matsuoka et al. 2002). Even examination with a SEM
cannot distinguish the pollen of annual types of teosinte from small-seeded varieties
of corn such as early domesticated maize (Horn 2006; Pohl et al. 2007). The
geographic distribution of the parviglumis subspecies occurs at an elevation of
9
The most puzzling teosinte is Z. mays ssp. huehuetenangensis, which combines morphology
rather like Z. mays ssp. parviglumis with many terminal chromosome knobs and an isozyme
position between the two sections. Phenotypically, the most distinctive and the most threatened
teosinte is Z. nicaraguensis, which thrives in flooded conditions along 200 meters of a coastal
estuarine river in the northwest Nicaragua (Iltis 2006). There may be some questions regarding the
Nicaraguan species, as geneticists do not mention it (see e.g., Matsuoka et al. 2002; Vigouroux
et al. 2003).
4001,200 m (1,3003,900 ft) along the slopes of the central Balsas river drainage,
250 km (155 mi) west of the Tehuacan Valley (Piperno et al. 2007). Teosinte often
grows in the same fields with maize, beans, and squash. Teosinte is a weedy pioneer
that thrives in disturbed areas such as seasonally wet streambeds and abandoned
campsites. Because of their hard fruit cases, the teosintes are not easily ground into
flour, and their seeds have a bitter taste (Mangelsdorf et al. 1967). Teosinte,
however, has a sugary stalk and the stalk may occasionally have been chewed for
its sugary taste or used as an auxiliary catalyst for fermentation (Beadle 1972,
1978). It appears to have been the morphological differences between the teosintes
and domesticated maize that fostered such intense research into the possible
existence of a wild maize progenitor.
Mangelsdorf was also a geneticist, and he was particularly interested in cross-
breeding and plant taxonomy (Fussell 1992, p. 78). He believed that domesticated
maize was the progenitor of teosinte; Mangelsdorf and Reeves (1939) concluded on
the basis of their research that the teosinte grasses arose as a result of contamination
of domesticated maize by the addition of chromosomes from Tripsacum, and that
maize was derived from an unknown, possibly extinct, wild maize (Beadle 1939,
p. 246). Mangelsdorf (1974) carried out extensive field survey in various regions of
Mexico, Guatemala, and Peru searching for maize landraces or varieties that might
provide clues to this hypothetically unknown, presumably extinct, wild ancestor. It
was this field experience that reinforced his interdisciplinary approach to maize
origins, because it became quickly apparent that such an ancestor could only be
identified in archaeological investigations in the Neotropics. This was to some
extent realized by the research directed by Richard S. MacNeish in the Tehuacan
valley. However, as they were discovered before the advent of AMS radiocarbon
dating, there was no way to directly determine the age of these macrobotanical
remains (Smith 2005a). The earliest occurrences and antiquity of maize was largely
a matter of estimated chronology by associated artifacts and conventional 14C dates.
Later developments in absolute dating exposed problems with the contextual
reliability of associated conventional dates and the morphological viability of
extinct wild maize progenitors (Fig. 3.9).
Excavations in the Tehuacan Valley spanned over 40 caves, five of which San
Marcos, Coxcatlan, Purron, Tecorral, and El Riego had enormous quantities of
maize macrobotanical remains. More than half of these macrobotanical samples
are whole cobs. Excavations at five Tehuacan caves uncovered over 24,000
specimens of maize cobs from various timeperiods, and more than half were
whole or almost intact and initially 14C dated by association to a time span of a
little over 7,0005,000 years ago (Mangelsdorf et al. 1967, p. 179). The earliest
ears were small (about the size of an index finger) and contained no more than
four to eight rows of kernels. Mangelsdorf et al. (1967, p. 180) provided six
morphological and archaeological reasons to suggest that 27 of the earliest cobs
from San Marcos Cave and 44 from the Coxcatlan Cave may be considered as
examples of wild maize (see Fig. 3.6b). Later genetic evidence proved that this
was not the case. The conventional 14C dates for maize at Tehuacan appear in
cave deposits dating to the end of the sixth millennium B.C. (Benz and Long 2000;
Fig. 3.9 Tripsacum or gamma grass was thought to be one of the progenitors of domesticated
maize, and a central part of the Tripartite Hypothesis. Tripsacum dactyloides grows in the Midwest
and has a much greater natural range than the teosintes, which are confined to present day Mexico,
Guatemala, and Nicaragua
Benz et al. 2006). The initial estimates of the earliest occurrence of Zea mays L.
based on conventional radiocarbon assays were later considerably revised with
the advent of direct dating by Accelerator Mass Spectrometry (AMS) dating.10
Nevertheless, the associated dates from the Tehuacan caves had a profound
influence in the field archaeology since it provided an incentive for those studying
the origins of maize to look for Archaic sites dated to about 7,000 years ago
(Long and Fritz 2001, p. 87). Since the mid-1980s, AMS radiocarbon dating, with
its small sample size requirement, has allowed seeds and other small plant parts
to be directly dated (Long et al. 1989). This dating technique has ended the
reliance upon age estimates obtained by conventional, large sampling dating of
charcoal or other organic material found in close proximity to botanical samples.
Directly dated seeds and other plant parts that exhibit morphological changes,
consistent with domestication, now constitute the primary class of evidence for
plant domestication in the Americas (Benz et al. 2006). The ability of researchers
to later date minute maize cob samples has provided a basis for establishing a
reliable, absolute chronology for its initial appearance and eventual dispersal
(Long and Fritz 2001, p. 87; Blake 2006, p. 55; see also Smith 1997a, b, 2000).
The early AMS dates based on direct 14C AMS dates of the early maize cobs
10
Subsequently, direct AMS dates on some of the earliest of the San Marcos and Coxcatlan cobs
have shown that they were more recent in time, raising considerable controversy and debate in the
field of archaeology and palaeoethnobotany (Long and Fritz 2001; see also Smith 2005a).
themselves produced results to the mid-third millennium B.C., several 1,000 years
younger than previously thought (Table 3.1). The new AMS dates, therefore,
provide a new timetable for the arrival of maize into the Tehuacan Valley (Benz
and Long 2000; Benz et al. 2006).
Some anthropologists took the early botanical results by Asherton and others
to correctly surmise that teosinte was ancestral to domesticated maize, and that
the two plants were taxonomically related to one another (Thompson 1932).
However, Mangelsdorf and his associates still sought the elusive extinct wild
species and spent the rest of their career maintaining that pod corn represents wild
maize, and the key was to find the so-called extinct or unknown progenitor
connecting pod corn to Zea mays11 (Mangelsdorf 1974). Because of the research
by Mangelsdorf and others, many anthropologists, archaeologists, botanists, and
some plant geneticists remained skeptical and subsequently continued to pursue
other plants as ancestral to Zea mays L. and this history of research is to some
degree reflected in the taxonomies which were initially established for the various
grass taxon. The phylogenetic relationships of the various maize varieties, was of
central concern to research interests in the origins of maize. Mangelsdorf was
extremely influential in the research and scholarship surrounding maize. From his
laboratory at Bussey Institution at Harvard University, his pursuit of internally
consistent interdisciplinary evidence provided him a basis for working and col-
laborating with botanists, plant geneticists, and particularly archaeologists and
anthropologists to look for answers to the origins of maize (see, e.g., Mangelsdorf
et al. 1967). He long believed that domesticated corn was the result of a
hybridization of Tripsacum with another unknown wild grass related to teosinte,
the species called Manisuris (Euchlaena mexicana12), which pertains to the same
family as maize and teosinte (Mangelsdorf 1974, p. 13; see also Ascherson 1875;
Bailey 1892). Mangelsdorf and Reeves (1939, pp. 220221) dismissed, for mor-
phological reasons, the possibility of teosinte as the progenitor of maize early on,
and instead asserted it was a descendent, the result of a hybridization of an
unknown wild maize and Tripsacum. Later research indicated that all the cobs
11
Mangelsdorf et al. (1967, pp. 179180, Fig. 97) believed that they had identified a specimen of
pod corn derived from San Marcos Cave, Zones F and E, which were dated by association to 7,000
years ago (see Fig. 3.5a). Later he joked that his initials stood for Pod Corn Maize. Mangelsdorf
continued to declare until his passing in 1989 at the age of 90, that pod corn represented the wild
ancestor of maize (Fussell 1992, p. 78).
12
Manisuris is teosinte now classified as Zea mays ssp. mexicana. Yoshihiro Matsuoka and his
collaborators (2002:6083) have emphasized the importance of gene flow from Z. mays ssp.
mexicana as contributing to the maize diversity. This subspecies grows as a weed in many
highland maize fields (above 1,8002,500 m) where it frequently hybridizes with maize, whereas
Z. mays ssp. parviglumis often grows at lower elevations (below 1,800 m) and rarely hybridizes
with maize (Wilkes 1967, 1977). Z. mays ssp mexicana is also adapted to lower rainfall
(5001,000 mm) than subspecies parviglumis (Pearsall and Piperno 1998, p. 161). These various
factors appear to play a role in this subspecies role to maize diversity.
Table 3.1 Direct AMS dates on maize macrobotanical samples
110
14 14
Country/Region Site Dated material C method C years B.P. Sample ID No. Reference
SW United States
New Mexico Bat Cave Maize AMS 3010 150 Wills (1988)
New Mexico Fresnal Shelter Maize AMS 2945 55 AA-6402 Tagg (1996, p. 317)
Arizona Milagro Maize AMS 2930 45 Huckell et al. (1995)
Arizona Three Fir Shelter Maize AMS 2880 140 Smiley (1994)
Arizona Fairbank Maize AMS 2815 80 Huckell (1990)
Arizona Cortaro Fan Maize AMS 2790 60 Roth (1984)
Arizona West End Maize AMS 2735 75 Huckell (1990)
New Mexico LA18091 Maize AMS 2720 265 UGa-4179 Simmons (1986)
New Mexico Jemez Maize AMS 2410 360 Adams (1994, p. 79)
New Mexico Sheep Camp Shelter Maize AMS 2290 210 A-3396 Simmons (1986, p. 79)
New Mexico Tularosa Cave Maize cob AMS 1920 40 b-166755 Jaenicke Despres et al.
(2003, p. 1207)
Mexico
Oaxaca Guila Naquitz Maize cob AMS 5420 60 b-132511 Piperno and Flannery
(2001, p. 2102)
Puebla San Marcos Cave Maize cob AMS 4700 110 AA-3311 Long et al. (1989, p. 1037)
Puebla El Riego Cave Maize cob AMS 3850 240 AA-52684 Benz (2006, Table 5.1)
Puebla Coxcatlan Cave Maize cob AMS 3740 60 AA-3313 Smith (2005a, Table 1)
Tamaulipas Romeros Cave Maize cob AMS 3930 50 b-85431 Smith (1997b, p. 373)
Tamaulipas Valenzuelas Cave Maize cob AMS 3890 60 b-85433 Smith (1997b, p. 374)
Chiapas San Carlos Kernel AMS 3365 55 b-62911 Clark (1994), Blake et al.
(1995, p. 164)
Chihuahua Cerro Juanaquena Maize cob AMS 2980 50 INS-3983 Hard and Roney (1998,
p. 1664)
Tabasco San Andres Maize cob AMS 2565 45 AA-33923 Pope et al. (2001, p. 1372)
Sonora La Playa Maize AMS 1885 50 n/a Matson (2003, Table 1)
Central and South America
Honduras/inland El Gigante Maize cob AMS 2280 40 b-159055 Scheffler (2002)
Ecuador/coast Loma Alta Kernels AMS 3500 n/a Pearsall (2003, p. 223)
3 Scientific, Botanical, and Biological Research on Maize
Ecuador/coast Loma Alta Carbonized kernels AMS 2490 40 b-103315 Zarillo et al. (2008, p. 5007)
Peru/highlands Pancan Maize cob Conventional 1500 n/a Smith (1998), Rodriquez
and Aschero (2007,
p. 261)
Brazil/Minas Gerais Peruacu Valley Maize cob AMS? 990 60 ? Freitas (2001)
Argentina/Mendoza Gruta del Indio Maize Conventional 2065 40 GrN-5396 Gil (2003, p. 297)
Catamarca/highlands Punta de la Pena 4 Kernel AMS 740 40 UGA-15089 Rodriquez and Aschero
(2007, pp. 259, 268)
date given: 560 50
Chile/North Coast Ramaditas Maize cob AMS 2210 55 GX-21725 Rivera (2006, Table 29-4)
Guatacondo Maize cob AMS 1865 UCLA-1698c Rivera (2006, Table 29-4)
Rixhasca Kernel AMS 1025 GX-21748 Rivera (2006, Table 29-4)
Tiliviche 1-b Maize cob AMS 920 32 AA-56416 Rivera (2006, Table 29-3)
Only the earliest direct dates on macrobotanicals are included in this table
3.2 Archaeological, Botanical, and Biological Research on Maize Origins
111
analyzed from this site were already fully domesticated Zea mays L. (Benz et al.
2006, Tables 5-2 and 5-3). However, Mangelsdorf and Reeves were convinced
that the progenitor of maize was a non-extinct pre-Columbian wild grass, and for
many years pursued this line of thinking in seeking the origins of this plant
(Mangelsdorf and Reeves 1933, 1939). Those grasses were maize, pod corn,
teosinte, and Tripsacum (Mangelsdorf 1974, p. 13). They carried out numerous
cross-breeding experiments over many years in the pursuit of the origins of
domesticated maize. Since they were concerned with several species of wild
grass, they could pursue the quest for wild maize in terms of multiple domestica-
tion events in geographically different regions of the Neotropics (Mangelsdorf
and Reeves 1959a,b). They state early on that, since they dismissed teosinte as a
possible progenitor, there remains no necessity for seeking the center of origin
either in Mexico or Central America (Mangelsdorf and Reeves 1939, p. 241).
They go on to state that it was paradoxical that their conclusion on the origin of
teosinte as a hybrid of Zea and Tripsacum suggested to them that, we seek the
center of origin of maize or at least the primary center of domestication in a
region where its relatives do not occur (Mangelsdorf and Reeves 1939, p. 241).
The broader implications of these conclusions had profound consequences for
archaeological and later ethnobotanic research on early domestication in general
and the origins of maize in particular. The archaeological research became focused
early on upon where to look for such domestication events, and how early in time
maize was originally domesticated. Archaeologists in this hemisphere were, there-
fore, predisposed to look for earliest occurrence, and to seek out Archaic sites in
Mexico, Central and northern South America. Moreover, such research in this
hemisphere has generally interpreted the factors responsible for the adoption of
agriculture and plant domestication at a particular site as complex and multifaceted,
that is, very different from one site or region to another (Brown 2006, p. 3; see also
Smith 2001). Although there has historically been a strong focus on earliest
occurrences, the spread of maize and its integration into the agricultural economy
has in recent years been generally interpreted as distinct from region to region
(Hoopes 1994; Smith 2000, 2001, 2006). Teosinte was also dismissed as a possible
progenitor by many archaeologists because there is no prehistoric evidence from
any of the Tehuacan cave sites to suggest it was consumed as flour (Mangelsdorf
et al. 1967). Scientists have been exploring questions surrounding the origin of
maize since research on the crop began. However, important data on how the
domestication process affected the transformation from teosinte to maize have
only recently been addressed (Emshwiller 2006). These include how the genetics
of maize populations or varieties are affected by conscious selection, how the extent
of hybridization and gene flow between domesticated and wild grass populations
influences the genetic basis of the morphological and other changes that occur
during domestication. These new areas of inquiry were made possible by recent
DNA research which provided the molecular tools now applied to systematics,
population genetics, and genetic mapping (see, e.g., Matsuoka et al. 2002; Doebley
et al. 2006). Had such tools in genetic research been available in the last century, the
search for the wild progenitor may have been quite different.
3.2.4 Approaches to Finding Wild Maize
The search for wild corn took two approaches; one was the quest to find wild corn
plants still growing. This approach was inspired in part by study or an eighteenth
century document by the Italian explorer Lorenzo Boturini (1746, p. 21) who stated
that he found wild maize in the jungle forests of Mexico, and that their kernels were
small and had an excellent flavor (cf. Weatherwax 1954, p. 141). The search for
information of a wild variety of maize began by an examination of the legends,
myths, folktales, and early chronicler accounts. Boturnis account combined both of
these goals in that he couched his descriptions of wild maize in historical
speculations involving ages of history. The first age being of course occupied by
the gods who on burning the forests of Mexico found parched grains of maize and
other seeds, which they tasted and found good to eat. Seeds, which were not
damaged by the fire, were presumably planted in the same soil as the mother of
plants, which eventually produced good harvests (Weatherwax 1954). Studies of
indigenous folklore and mythology revealed that the appearance of maize was
generally through some supernatural agents or mythological ancestors.
Later scholars had a different way of seeing the natural world, replacing the
medieval way of reading the worlds diversity as symbolically as historical ages in
Gods poem, into a textual analysis of natures prose (Fussell 1992, p. 60). These
more systematic scholars also applied human analogs to plants, as Indian myth
makers had done, but for very different ends. Where Amerindians imbued maize
with concepts of gender and sacred mythology,13 Linnaeus and others created
taxonomies based on phylogenetic relationships to make all Gods creatures one
(Godfray 2007).
It was also in the eighteenth century that some Europeans began to use also
human analogies to separate the plant world from the human one and to reconstitute
plants into groups of autonomous interrelated families. New tools for observation,
such as the microscope, led plant scientists to presume they were discovering the
thing in itself and around these observations there developed a new language,
which systematized their discoveries (Fussell 1992).
During the colonization of the New World, clerics and priests systematically
learned and wrote down many indigenous languages for the purpose of religious
conversion. Later linguists would use such vocabularies and create new ones to
trace when and how terms for the plant were introduced into various New World
indigenous populations (Swadesh 1951; Berlin 1992). The anthropological research
involving this methodological approach has largely been dominated by historical
13
For example, this Osage myth; For the fourth time Buffalo threw himself upon the earth, And
the speckled corn, Together with the speckled squash, He tossed into the air, Then spake, saying:
What living creature is there that has no mate? And thus he wedded together the speckled corn, a
male, to the speckled squash, a female. He continued: The little ones shall use this plant for food
as they travel the path of life. Thus they shall make for themselves to be free from all the causes of
death as they travel the path of life. (Rankin 2006, p. 563).
linguistics (Swadesh 1959a; Kaufman 1994; Campbell 1997; Dixon 1997; Hill
2001, 2006; Brown 2006). Folk taxonomies provide anthropologists and archaeo-
logical a sense of how various indigenous groups thought about maize and explor-
ing the vocabularies surrounding the cultivation and preparation of maize (and
other cultigens), provided a linguistic basis for understanding how it spread and was
consumed (Swadesh 1959b; Campbell 1997; Hill 2001, 2006; Rankin 2006; Hopkins
2006). In the case of historical linguistics, there has been relative success in
identifying linguistic cognates specific to maize being introduced and borrowed
by neighboring populations, and also in tracing the beginnings of maize by an
indirect glottochronology (Swadesh 1951, 1959a; Berlin 1992; Dixon 1997; Brown
1999, 2006; Rankin 2006). Such linguistic data were, therefore, critical to scholars
attempting to understand the antiquity and spread of maize since it was believed at
the time that it could have been domesticated in numerous regions of the Neotrop-
ics. For example, Mangelsdorf and Reeves (1939) initially believed that maize
originated in the Amazonian lowlands because of historical references to pod corn
in that part of the Americas. The possibility of an Amazonian origin influenced later
research on maize cultivation in this area of the Neotropics (Lathrap 1970; Bush
et al. 1989).
3.2.5 Pod Corn as Wild Maize
Pod corn is a grass in which the kernels are enclosed in floral bracts, similar to
the majority of grasses and other cereal grains (Mangelsdorf 1948, pp. 377378;
Weatherwax 1954, Figs. 4950). The premise that pod corn was the progenitor of
maize was appealing because their principal morphological characteristic, enclosed
kernel in floral bracts, is nearly a universal characteristic of wild grasses (Mangelsdorf
1974, p. 13). Nineteenth century botanists attempted to make a compelling case for
pod corn as wild maize classified it within the genus (Zea tunicata). Pod corn
because of its morphology also intrigued later botanical and biological scholars; it
has ears known to resemble maize except that six small husks cover each grain or
kernel (see Fig. 3.8). Pod corn was known to be more resistant than other varieties to
insect predation. Its morphological characteristics were ideally suited to what many
scholars had associated with a wild variety of Zea (Kellerman 1895). Although these
traits made it a compelling candidate for wild or undomesticated maize, pod corn
had little to recommend it as an economic staple (Weatherwax 1954, p. 143).
Nevertheless, it is for these morphological reasons that it was, even after being
rejected as a possible candidate for wild maize, later resurrected again in association
with an elaborate array of evidence (Mangelsdorf 1948, 1974).
Like other early searches for wild maize, scholars studied ethnohistoric
accounts and herbals. Since Mangelsdorf and Reeves (1939, p. 248) saw the
Andes as the primary center of domestication of maize. Moreover, they believed
that they identified representations of pod corn in prehistoric Peruvian pottery.
Although pod corn is unknown in Peru they began to explore its presence in other
regions of tropical South America. In looking through sixteenth and seventeenth

century herbals they noted that, pod corn first appeared in the herbal published
by Gaspard Bauhin in 1623 (Mangelsdorf and Reeves 1939, pp. 222, 226). Early
South American accounts of wild maize and maize varieties stated that pod corn
was mentioned by the Guaicuru Indians, and the Guarani in present day southern
Bolivia and the state of Entre Rios in northern Paraguay where it was said to be
indigenous to this region and believed to grow there in the humid forests
(Mangelsdorf and Reeves 1939, p. 226). The 1829 reference to pod corn by
Saint Hilaire to the French Academy of Sciences, refers this species as Zea Mais
var. tunicata (Mangelsdorf and Reeves 1939, p. 226). Mangelsdorf and Reeves
considered the ethnographic evidence from Paraguay among the Guarani and
Guaicuru to be so important that he concluded that maize originated in northern
Paraguay and that in its natural state the grains were covered with glumes,
and these were presumably lost following cultivation (Mangelsdorf and Reeves
1939). Recent ethnographic research among the Guarani in southern Bolivia has
demonstrated that maize (Zea mays L.) is an important economic staple and closely
associated with their rituals and Native religion (Ortiz et al. 2008, pp. 179180).
However, these ethnobotanical and ethnographic data provide no comfort to pod
corn as important economically or symbolically to present day Guarani culture.
The ethnohistoric literature and early herbals provided a compelling case for pod
corn as the progenitor of maize. These data also explain why Mangelsdorf and
others were predisposed to multiple domestication events over a vast geographic
area, and why such thinking was later taken as a given by archaeologists and
ethnobotanists searching for earliest occurrences. What perhaps made a great
impression was the first known illustration of pod corn in Bonafous monograph,14
as it suggested to them that this was a heterozygous form of the plant, and the
ethnohistoric accounts indicated that different varieties of it could have been
consumed, and therefore cultivated by this culture (see Fig. 3.10). Bonafous
(1836) reported that this plant species was referred to as pinsingallo. The term
was seen as a corruption or modification of the word bisingallo, which Dobrizhoffer
(1822 (1784)) used in connection with a kind of corn grown by the Guarani.
Dobrizhoffer, a Jesuit missionary in Paraguay from 1749 to 1767, states: The
Guaranis sow various kinds of it, . . . the abati hata [is] composed of very hard
grains, the abati moroti, which consists of very soft and white ones, the abati mid,
which ripens in 1 month, but has very small dwarfish grains and bisingallo the most
famous of all, the grains of which are angular and pointed (cf. Mangelsdorf and
Reeves 1939, p. 226). The use of the expression most famous of all as well as
angular and pointed suggested to these scholars a type of maize that was different
14
Bonafous classical monograph Histoire naturelle, agricole et economique du Mais, published
in 1836, makes reference to pod corn which he called Zea cryptosperma. Pod corn is currently
classified as Zea mays var. tunicata Larranaga ex A. St. Hilaire.
Fig. 3.10 Earliest known illustration of the heterozygous form of pod corn, ca. 1836, reproduced
in the Bonafous botanical, Histoire naturelle, agricole et economique du Mais (from Mangelsdorf
and Reeves 1939, Fig. 87)
from the other varieties, and they were intrigued by his description of pointed grains
of pod corn with the glumes attached (Mangelsdorf and Reeves 1939, pp. 226227).
Furthermore, the terms, bisingallo and pinsingallo, initially reported by Bonafous
with reference to pod corn, and this additional linguistic evidence led them to
conclude that the missionary was describing pod corn (Mangelsdorf and Reeves
1939, p. 226). They point out that this description was earlier than that of Azara
(1809). Azara (1809) was the Spanish commissioner and commandant of Paraguay
from 1771 to 1801 and made early reference to its natural history (cf. Mangelsdorf
and Reeves 1939, p. 224). Varieties of pod corn were also identified in the Far East,
China, and India presumably taken there by Portuguese and Spanish traders in the
early sixteenth century (Mangelsdorf and Reeves 1939).
The first American publication to report on pod corn was by Teschemacher

(1842) of a botanical sample from Texas, which he concluded did not represent a
distinct species. A report to the Horticultural Society of London by Lindley (1846)
stated that this pod corn was from the Rocky Mountains as Native Indian corn.
Lindley who published the first comparative data on pod corn and maize pointed out
that the cob or rachis of maize was much larger, as if the deterioration of the latter
[glumes] had caused the enlargement of the former [cob] (Mangelsdorf and
Reeves 1939, p. 228). Moreover, Salisbury (1848) subsequently reported that pod
corn was composed of several subspecies with white, yellow, red, or purple kernels.
This was particularly compelling to archaeological and botanical scholars studying
the origins of the plant because it was identical to the variability known for maize
varieties in Mexico and the American Southwest, where Native American taxo-
nomies generally consider kernel color, shape, size, and row number as key
morphological traits (Berlin 1992; Berlin et al. 1974; Perales et al. 2005; Huckell
2006; Benz et al. 2007; Tuxill et al. 2009). Such phenotypic and morphological
traits are also used in folk taxonomies in other parts of the New World to distinguish
different varieties or landraces.
An illustration of pod corn appeared in the Annual Report of the Commissioner
of Patents (1852) accompanied by the statement of an anonymous writer that this
type of corn is found in a wild state in the Rocky Mountains and in the humid forests
of Paraguay (Mangelsdorf and Reeves 1939, p. 228). Candiole (1855) was one of
the earliest scholars to remain skeptical. After discussing pod corn morphology at
length he concluded that there was insufficient evidence to consider this plant as a
progenitor to Zea mays L. Similarly, Charles Darwin (1868) observed that pod
corn reverted to its normal state upon cultivation and therefore ruled out this type as
a progenitor, but nevertheless conceded that its morphology was compelling,
surmising that the original form would have had its grains thus protected
(cf. Mangelsdorf and Reeves 1939, 228229; see also Kellerman 1895). Later
Galinat (1954) considered pod corn as a false progenitor of maize and saw this
plant as exhibiting morphological traits associated with a remote ancestor of the
family Maydeae. Since the progenitor of maize was not definitively established
until after the twenty-first century, a number of different wild grasses continued to
be plausible as progenitors for different races of maize.
3.2.6 Teosinte as a Progenitor of Maize
In the New World, the natural distribution of teosinte in Mexico and Central
America places a geographical limitation on the region where maize agriculture
could have first appeared archaeologically, but the initial interpretation, based on
the substantial morphological and genetic variation displayed by modern maize,
was that it was domesticated on multiple occasions (Mangelsdorf 1974, pp. 14, 163;
Galinat 1988, pp. 9597). It was in fact the discovery of fossil pod corn in Mexico
that reinforced the possibility of multiple domestication events, i.e., that maize
evolved into its present form in multiple locations in Mexico and particularly South
America (Mangelsdorf 1974, p. 14, 1983; Mangelsdorf and Reeves 1959a, b).
Mangelsdorf (1974) reported that wild maize differentiated into at least six races
and that these landraces then spread to North, Central, and South America, while
teosinte was confined to Mexico, Guatemala, Nicaragua, and Honduras. This
hypothesis presumed that teosinte evolved from maize, rather than being an ances-
tral progenitor. Since Tripsacum underwent extensive divergence and differentia-
tion in its glume architecture and number of chromosomes during its speciation
process, it was more diverse morphologically and genetically, thus, able to adapt to
a wider range of New World environments (Galinat 1976, p. 94).
Mangelsdorf and Reeves (1939) noted early on that maize farmers often planted
teosinte around maize fields in order to acquire cross-pollination and disease
resistance. Maize and teosinte hybrids are highly fertile indicating that there was
still gene flow between the species. It is in fact the mutability of corn that inspired
much of the research into its origins, and it is this characteristic that also has made it
such an important staple (Iltis 1983, 2000). Hybrid varieties of maize were devel-
oped by cross-breeding, that is putting the pollen or male element from one variety
on the silks or female element of another variety (Wallace and Brown 1956, pp.
1415 [original emphasis]; see also Mangelsdorf and Reeves 1939, pp. 7783;
Beadle 1939; Langham 1940).
The first approach of looking for a wild ancestor of maize occupied much of the
scholarly research on the topic of maize origins in the biological sciences for the
first part of the twentieth century. The reason that pod corn played such an
important role early on in the quest for maize origins is that many scholars in the
botanical and biological sciences were to varying degrees looking to Old World
grains and approaches to agricultural origins. Thus, many became fixated upon
finding a homozygous, true breeding, earless form of Zea with seeds in the terminal
inflorescence, in other words, a subspecies which morphologically approximated
maize phenotype, but which was at the same time primitive in appearance.
Secondly, they were focused on the kernels, and did not consider the possibility
that the young sugary stalk may have also been an attraction to early archaic
peoples as a condiment and/or used in the fermentation process (Beadle 1972, p.
10; Smalley and Blake 2003; Iltis 2004). Moreover, there was no archaeological
evidence to suggest that teosinte was exploited by humans for food or that its seeds
were consumed in prehistoric times, although the stalk was very high in sugar
(Smith 1986, pp. 273274; Staller 2003; Smalley and Blake 2003). A review of
the botanical and biological research on maize suggests that pre-domestication
cultivation during which a crop was partially managed by a distinct population, but
not completely isolated in a reproductive sense from its wild relatives, genetic
bottlenecks, and disruptions in gene flow was of primary interest (Eyre-Walker
et al. 1998, pp. 4441; Brown 2006, p. 5; Benz 2006, pp. 1215; Benz et al. 2006,
pp. 7879).
All the evidence from comparative morphology of that time suggested that
cultivated maize had in its ancestry a perfect flowered plant having covered
seeds on a terminal inflorescence, with brittle branches (Mangelsdorf and Reeves
3.3 Maize: Morphological, Biological, Genetic, and Taxonomic Approaches 119
1939, p. 231). Precisely, what would be expected if such a potential wild maize did
in fact exist. One of the reasons botanists and biologists looked beyond teosinte for
so long as a possible progenitor is that the glume architecture and the caryopsis or
seeds were morphologically distinct (Benz 2001, Fig. 1, 2006, Fig. 2.2; Iltis 2006,
Fig. 3.4). These early studies did not take into consideration artificial selection,
asserting that what was referred to as a naked-seeded corn (as opposed to a pod
corn with covered seeds) would not have survived long in nature without human
management, and despite the fact that it had been established that teosinte was the
closest living relative of Zea mays among the wild grasses (Beadle 1939; Langham
1940; Wilkes 1967).
These early studies not only provided them with a vast geography in which to
look for maize origins, but also emphasized that the domestication of maize could
have been the result of multiple events. The archaeological evidence of an interme-
diate species of maize, which shared morphological characteristics of both pod corn
and domesticated maize was not forthcoming. Mangelsdorf (1974, p. 13) later
dismissed pod corn as a possible progenitor because it was inconsistent with the
archaeological evidence, but then resurrected the tripartite hypothesis with the
discovery of the teosinte Zea diploperennis (Iltis et al. 1979).
3.3 Maize: Morphological, Biological, Genetic, and

Taxonomic Approaches
The second approach to the discovery of wild maize was deductive and applied by
many ethnobotanists and biologists in the late nineteenth and throughout the
twentieth century. The basic approach involved attaining an intimate knowledge
of the plant morphology and biology, particularly in depth knowledge of the plant
phylogeny (Kellogg and Birchler 1994). This research was heavily grounded in
methodologies surrounding plant morphology and genetics, particularly cross-
breeding and comparative analysis of what were believed to be related plant species
(Weatherwax 1954, p. 140; Galinat 1983; Iltis 1983; Eyre-Walker et al. 1998).
Despite attempts to cross-breed maize and/or presumably related species, no
self-sustaining maize plants were ever produced using such scientific approaches
(Bennetzen et al. 2001). Part of the reason for this had to do with the fact that the
initial assumptions and associations, both theoretical and comparative, were flawed,
and the predominant theory and methodological approach to the evolution and
origins of maize was the tripartite hypothesis.
Mangelsdorf and Reeves (1939, p. 52) carried out numerous cytogenetic experi-
ments to obtain true hybrids of Tripsacum, with Zea mays L. and Euchlaena, and
also a trigeneric hybrid involving all three genera. They did this by repeatedly
backcrossing from teosinte, translocation segments originally from Tripsacum that
distinguish it from maize. In order to create a naked type of maize with many wild
genes, not the same genes that characterized the original wild corn in its genetic
complex, perhaps, but genes presumably similar in their effects (Mangelsdorf and
Reeves 1939, p. 241). By superimposing genes for poddedness through repeated
backcrossing, they believed they would create a plant quite similar in its essential
features to the primitive wild maize. They also believed that such a plant would be
capable of perpetuating itself in nature, at least in those regions where teosinte now
grows in the wild (Mangelsdorf and Reeves 1939). Their results provided evidence
suggesting that phylogenetically teosinte was more closely related to maize than
Tripsacum, but the hybrids produced by these experiments produced no fertile
maize specimens (Wet and Harlan 1978, p. 135). This was for many years dis-
missed as relating to genetic variability related to geography and adaptation to
distinct environmental settings (Fig. 3.11).
Fig. 3.11 Teosinte (Zea mays ssp. mexicana) from the central highlands of Mexico (Weatherwax
1954, Fig 46)
Galinat (1964) had suggested that Tripsacum is a hybrid of wild maize and
Manisuris. Later, when considering the cytogenetics, he found that teosinte was
more variable than either maize or Tripsacum, and therefore, correctly concluded
that it probably evolved earlier in time since both teosinte and maize had ten pairs
of chromosomes that they were related15 (Galinat 1976, p. 94, 1983; Doebley
2001). Weatherwax (1954) considered the tripartite hypothesis to be overly com-
plex and laden with assumptions that would fall like a house of cards if any of the
premises were found to be inaccurate.
During the 1970s and 1980s, the long held hypotheses proposed many years
before by Beadle (1939) and Mangelsdorf and Reeves (1939) as well as many
others regarding the progenitor of domesticated maize were slowly being generated
by archaeologists, botanists, and plant genetics. These data, with few exceptions,
seemed to point to maize having its earliest presence in ancient Mesoamerica, and
its progenitor being one of the species of teosintes from this region. These data,
presented in a series of published reports, for the most part, directly challenged the
tripartite hypothesis, and the role of Tripsacum in the origins of Zea mays L.
Mangelsdorf (1974) and others (Randolph 1975) nevertheless continued to hold
fast to the idea of wild maize and genetic divergence. Research from ethnobotany
on pollen, plant morphology, and genetic studies of chromosome structure consis-
tently ruled out Tripsacum as a possible ancestor of maize (DeWet and Harlan
1978, pp. 137138; Galinat 1985; Mangelsdorf 1986). Mangelsdorf (1986) con-
ceded at least in part that domesticated maize originated from the hybridization of
perennial teosinte, and a primitive pod-popcorn. Hugh Iltis (1983) proposed the
idea that the hybridization from teosinte to corn was a result of epistasis, multiple
genes affecting a single trait, which in this case resulted in a sudden evolutionary
transformation involving the male tassel spike at the lateral branch of teosinte
suddenly transforming into the female ear of corn attached to a central stem. He
later conceded that rather than being a sexual transmutation that the origins of
maize more likely had to do with sexual translocation of its genetic makeup (Iltis
2000). Cytogenetic research by Walton Galinat (1970) established that the
progenitors of Tripsacum were a result of wide-cross hybrid of Manisuris from
the family Andropogoneae and teosinte a result of an alloployploid followed by a
doubling of the chromosomes. Galinat (1983, 1985), in contrast to Iltis, perceived
the process of domestication of Zea mays to be a gradual one, involving the paired
kernels gradually transmuting without sex change into the soft kernels. In other
words, the kernels liberated themselves outward from their hard teosinte spikes
(Galinat 1985).
15
All teosinte species are diploid (n 10) except Z. perennis, which is tetraploid (n 20). The
different species and subspecies can be readily distinguished based on morphological, cytogenetic,
protein and DNA differences and on geographic origin, although the two perennials are sympatric
and very similar.
3.3.1 Perennial Teosinte and a Reconsideration of the

Tripartite Hypothesis
Field research in 1978 by the Mexican botanist Rafeal Guzman in the state of
Jalisco provided evidence of a new species of teosinte Zea mays ssp. diploperennis
or perennial teosinte which could easily produce offspring when cross-bred with
maize (Fussell 1992, pp. 81, 82). Subsequent research at the Herbarium at the
University of Wisconsin indicated that this perennial species of teosinte had the
same number of chromosomes as maize (n 10), and given its reproductive
capacity in backcrosses with Zea mays L., it was perceived as a potential progenitor
to maize (Iltis et al. 1979). Despite the seemingly indisputable evidence that
Tripsacum was not involved in the domestication of maize, and thus the tripartite
hypothesis no longer tenable, Eubanks (1995) continued to pursue such lines of
research. Eubanks (1995, 1997) attempted to replicate the tripartite hypothesis for
the origin of maize by postulating that its descent resulted from a hybrid cross
between an extinct maize and a wild ancestor. She crossed and backcrossed
Tripsacum with the diploid perennial teosinte, Z. diploperennis (Eubanks 1995,
1997, 2001ac). Eubanks (1995, 1997) had previously demonstrated that crossing
diploid perennial teosinte with Tripsacum dactyloides will produce fully fertile
hybrids, some of which closely resemble the archaeological specimens of maize
found in the Tehuacan Valley. There was a strong impetuous to maintain the
tripartite hypothesis by some scholars because it appealed to previous research
largely predicated upon multiple domestication events, and the natural distribution
of grass species related to this hypothesis16 (Mangelsdorf and Reeves 1939, 1959a,
b; see also MacNeish and Eubanks 2000; Piperno 1984; Pearsall and Piperno 1990).
Galinat (1978, p. 94) found teosinte to be cytologically more variable than either
maize or Tripsacum. It was ultimately the research from geneticists and molecular
biologists, which would have the most dramatic effects on the viability of Tripsa-
cum, Z. diploperennis or teosinte being the progenitor of domesticated maize
(DeWet and Harlan 1972, p. 137; Doebley et al. 1984, 1987, 1990; Dennis and
Peacock 1984; Buckler and Holtsford 1996).
Maize was discovered to have the least cytological variability on the Maydeae,
this despite the fact that more than 200 races had been identified morphologically
(Galinat 1978; see also Goodman 1968, 1973, 1978). Identification was first and
foremost on the basis of ear morphology, kernel shape, color and size, number of
rows, etc. Such classifications were initially believed to pertain to different lineages
and reinforced the belief that extant wild maize still existed and that the origins of
maize predated that of teosinte (Weatherwax 1954, pp. 139149). Goodman and
McKBird (1977) identified 219 races for South America alone, using multivariate
statistical analysis of morphological traits. Galinat (1978, p. 106) believed that
16
Collins (1931) noted early on that the region that includes Peru, Bolivia, and Ecuador has a
greater diversity of maize varieties than the whole North American continent, presumably making
it a center of origin (Mangelsdorf and Reeves 1939, pp. 242243).
when ancient maize was taken out of landscapes that included teosinte, the previous
systems of obligatory epistasis between blockers were broken down resulting in
greater morphological variability due to a recombination of genes. This was
particularly apparent in the ears of maize varieties in Peru and Guatemala (Galinat
1978). In a final rebuttal of the tripartite hypothesis and the later tripsacum-
diploperennis hypothesis, a number of maize genetics and evolutionary biologists
synthesized the evidence from the biological sciences and molecular biology
(Bennetzen et al. 2001). These scholars concluded that the evidence supporting
teosinte as the progenitor of maize was overwhelming and that although it may be
possible to produce crosses with Tripsacum-diploperennis hybrids the research did
not demonstrate they were successfully hybridized (Bennetzen et al. 2001, p. 85).
Previous hybrids of teosinte and maize were found to be highly fertile and produced
hybrids that approximated those found at Archaic sites (Wilkes 1967). The hybrids
produced from Tripsacum teostine hybrids were found to be sterile (Talbert
et al. 1990; cf. Bennetzen et al. 2001, p. 85). Moreover, the molecular data
presented by Eubanks (1995, 1997) do not appear to establish that the hybrids are
real (Bennetzen et al. 2001, p. 85). These scholars also pointed out that despite
the years of research with crossing and backcrossing Tripsacum there was no
direct evidence ever produced for its contribution to maize ancestry (Bennetzen
et al. 2001).
3.3.2 Maize Antiquity and 14C and AMS Chronologies
The various articles on maize and the chronological spread of the crop reported in
2001 in the first issue of the journal Latin American Antiquity represented a cross-
roads of sorts for archaeologists investigating the origins of agriculture and maize in
the Americas. The article publications in this journal also unleashed a number of
controversies that extended beyond the antiquity and phylogeny of maize, to issues
surrounding its biogeography based on ethnobotanical remains. It also extended to
published research on maize origins based on plant microfossils as well as more
general theoretical questions involving plant domestication. Despite the over-
whelming evidence for teosinte as the ancestor of maize, and a more recent
chronology for its original domestication and spread, many in the archaeological
and biological science continued to maintain the possibility of multiple domestica-
tion events, and maintain the original chronological data reported for its domesti-
cation and spread to different regions of the Americas (e.g., MacNeish 2001a, b;
Eubanks 2001). Reasons for continued archaeological research on the earliest
presence and the possibility of multiple domestication events had to do with a
paucity of macrobotanical remains recovered from Archaic sites in Mexico. The
well-known early maize cobs were derived from dry caves or rockshelters in three
separate regions Tamaulipas, Tehuacan, and Oaxaca (Smith 2001, p. 1325; Blake
2006, p. 56). The first directly dated maize remains using AMS radiocarbon dating
from Archaic contexts are restricted to 12 samples from the Tehuacan Caves, six
from Coxcatlan Cave and six from San Marcos (Long et al. 1989), six from the
Ocampo Caves in Tamaulipas (Smith 1997b, pp. 373374; Jaenicke-Despres et al.
2003), and the two cobs from Guila Naquitz in Oaxaca (Piperno and Flannery
2001). The dendrocalibrated AMS dates of the two of the earliest cobs at Guila
Naquitz dated to ca. 4200 and 4300 CAL B.C. (Piperno and Flannery 2001, Table 1).
The original chronology for the earliest wild cobs at San Marcos Cave from
associated charcoal and organic remains were reported to extend back to about
7,000 years ago (Johnson and MacNeish 1972, p. 17). The dates ranged from ca.
5000 to 3500 B.C. for the Coxcatlan Phase and 3350 to 2000 uncal. B.C. for Abejas
Phase. The later AMS dates from Coxcatlan Caves produced assays of 35602850
CAL B.C. and moreover, all the cobs analyzed thus far were found to be already fully
domesticated (Benz and Iltis 1990; Benz and Long 2000, Table 1; Benz et al. 2006,
Table 5.1, Figs. 5.2, 5.3). The AMS dates on several early Abejas Phase cobs from
Coxcatlan Cave reported by Bruce Smith (2005a, Table 1) suggest a chronological
range of between 2850 and 2040 CAL B.C. for the earliest samples. This indicates
that when the major landmark articles from the biological and molecular sciences
appeared at the beginning of this decade, there was little direct evidence on the
distribution of early maize (see Table 3.1). Subsequently, maize chronology was
dramatically revised for its early presence throughout the Americas by direct AMS
dates (Fritz 1994; Smith 2000, 2005a).
In the article by MacNeish and Eubanks (2000), they not only attempted to
resurrect Tripsacum as a possible ancestor of maize, but they also rejected the direct
AMS dates and revised chronologies from the ancient cobs found in the Tehuacan
Caves (see also MacNeish 2001b). Long and Fritz (2001) mention the previous
assertion that the dates produced by AMS dating were false because they had been
contaminated.17 Long et al. (1989) addressed possible questions surrounding the
contamination in some detail in their initial report, and moreover, MacNeish
selected all the cob samples they AMS dated (Long and Fritz 2001, p. 88).
Ultimately, the results indicated that the earliest AMS dates were derived from
Guila Naquitz Cave in Oaxaca were 5410 40 and 5420 60 B.P. [b 132511]
and from San Marcos Cave in the Tehuacan Valley, dated to 4700 110 B.P.
[AA-3311] (see Table 3.1) (Long et al. 1989, Table 1; Piperno and Flannery 2001,
Table 1). Maize appears to have radiated slowly northward as indicated by the
3930 50 B.P. [b-85431], date from Romero Cave in Tamaulipas (Blake 2006,
p. 57). In the north coast of Tabasco, only two AMS dates have been reported
2565 45 B.P. [AA-33923], and another from the El Gigante rockshelter in
Honduras, 2280 40 B.P. [b-159055] (Blake 2006, p. 57). Along the Pacific
17
MacNeish and Eubanks (2000, p. 15) claimed that the Tehuacan cob samples AMS dated by
Long et al. (1989) were contaminated by Bedacryl, a polymethyl acrylate used to preserve fragile
botanical materials. The Mexican curators, however, stated emphatically that they never treated
the macrobotanical remains since they arrived at the national museum in Mexico City in the early
1970s (Long and Fritz 2001, p. 88). Moreover, when Benz conducted his morphological analysis
of the remains he commented to Long and Fritz that they were covered with soil and ash from the
original excavation (Long and Fritz 2001).
coast, the earliest dates from Soconusco range from 3365 55 B.P. [b-62911] to
3000 65 B.P. [b-62920] (Clark 1994). Blake and his associates report finding
dozens of carbonized maize kernels and cob fragments in Early Formative period
household trash deposits from sites on the Pacific coast of southeastern Mesoamerica,
which were dated by conventional methods on associated charcoal and ceramic
diagnostics as well as direct AMS dates (Clark 1994; Blake et al. 1992, 1995). Their
results indicate that six of seven AMS dates on maize macro remains fell within
their expected phase time ranges ca. 37002800 B.P. (at the one sigma level)
and the seventh did so at the two-sigma level (cf. Blake 2006, p. 60; Blake
et al. 1992, 1995). These results indicate that maize has a very early presence
in the coastal lowlands of Soconusco, but is of secondary importance to the
formative diet (Chisham and Blake 2006, pp. 166167; Blake et al. 1992). The
overall revised chronology from AMS dates from the regions of central and south-
eastern Mesoamerica suggest that domesticated maize spread slowly, over a period
of 2200 years from its earliest appearance in Oaxaca and the Tehuacan valley, to
the north and south coastline of Mexico and neighboring Honduras. This chrono-
logical range is in stark contrast to the earlier estimates based on conventional 14C
dates from the various cave site in Tehuacan and are consistent with early dates of
other domesticated food remains from those sites based on direct AMS dates (Smith
1997b, p. 342; Kaplan and Lynch 1999, p. 264; Long and Fritz 2001, p. 89).
Maize does not appear to have spread to the American SW until later ca. 2000
3000 B.P. (Table 3.1). Jaenicke-Despres and her associates (2003) reported that with
the spread of maize into the American SW at 1920 40 B.P. [b-166755] the maize
cobs they analyzed from Tularosa Cave, New Mexico still maintained an allele of the
starch gene su1 common to teosinte. The sugary 1 (su1) gene encodes a starch
debranching enzyme expressed in kernels (Rahman et al. 1998). Together with the
branching enzymes, this enzyme determines the structure of the amylopectin, the
chain length of which as well as the ratio of amylose to amylopectin is critical to
the gelatinization properties of starch (Whitt et al. 2002; Rahman et al. 1998). Since
the su1 allele affects the gelatinization properties of starch it also affects the textural
properties of tortillas (Jane and Chen 1992; Jane et al. 1999). These data indicate that
early maize in the American SW could not have been consumed as flour (Jaenicke-
Despres et al. 2003, p. 1206; Jaenicke-Despres and Smith 2006).
The three genes that they considered in their study were involved in the plant
architecture, storage protein synthesis, and starch production and they analyzed
archaeological cob samples from both Mesoamerica and the American SW
(Jaenicke-Despres et al. 2003; Jaenicke-Despres and Smith 2006). Their results indi-
cate that Mesoamerican maize had allelic selection typical of contemporary maize
by 2,200 B.C., but that one of the genes (su1) was as yet incomplete at 2000 B.P.18
18
The fact that 2,000 B.P. maize cobs from Tularosa carried an su1 allele which occurs today in
teosinte but is very rare in modern maize, suggests that the selection process at su1 was incomplete
at that time making such maize unsuitable for the manufacture of tortillas. This implies that the
selection for su1 starch properties occurred long after the initial domestication of maize in central
Mexico.
These data indicate that early varieties of maize brought into the American SW lacked
the high quality starch necessary for making tortillas found in the later and modern
maize varieties found at this and other sites in this region (Fig. 3.12). The missing
alleles, however, do not appear to have affected the cob morphology. This genetic
discovery emphasizes the importance of how analysis of ancient DNA can be used to
integrate archaeological and genetic approaches, to understand the early role of maize
to pre-Columbian subsistence economies and explore several different sets of questions
on the early history of maize (Jaenicke-Despres and Smith 2006, p. 83).
The other major proposed center for the domestication of maize, northern South
America and the Andes, have few directly dated cob or kernel samples. Exceptions
in this regard are one of five cobs from the site of Ramaditas in the Atacama Desert
of northern Chile with date of 2210 55 B.P. [TO-4810] (Rivera 2006, Fig. 29.3,
Table 29-4). This date pertains to one of the late occupations and the site compound
is associated with a vast formative period irrigation network (Staller 2005). Most of
the directly dated maize from Andes and other regions of South America are
microfossils from carbon residues in ancient pottery (Staller 2003; Staller and
Thompson 2000, 2002; Thompson and Staller 2001). The earliest dates from coastal
Ecuador are approximately 2,000 years earlier than those from Ramaditas in
northern Chile. These dates and the data from plant microfossils, both pollen and
phytoliths, are discussed below with regard to the spread of maize from the
Mesoamerican heartland. Research is being undertaken by Michael Blake and
Bruce Benz to directly AMS date Latin American macrobotanical remains and
Fig. 3.12 Maize cob fragments maintaining the su1 allele for starch, common to teosinte. Cutler
(1952, pp. 464, 465) excavated all these cob fragments from Unit 3R2, Level 11 [catalogue #
315267] at Tularosa Cave, New Mexico. Right to left; (a) 10 rowed, 7 cm. long, 2.0 cm. diameter;
(b) 10 rowed, 7.3 cm. long, 2.2 cm. diameter; (c) 12 rowed, 9.5 cm. long, 2.5 cm. diameter (AMS
date: 1920 40 Cal B.P. [b-166755]); (d) 10 rowed, 11.3 cm. long, 2.7 cm. diameter (Note that
these genetic distinctions do not appear to effect the phenotypic characteristics of the archaeolog-
ical maize (Courtesy of Field Museum Collections)) (Photograph by John E. Staller)
study their morphology and microbiology. These data will provide a much clearer
understanding of the biogeography and spread of maize into the Neotropics in the
near future beyond the early AMS dates for maize from Mesoamerica mentioned
in this chapter. As more dates are being reported, many in the archaeological
community are becoming increasingly aware, that the direct AMS dates on early
cobs from Mesoamerica document a more recent domestication event than reported
previously (Fritz 1994; Staller and Benz 2006). Consequently, some archaeologists
and paleobotanists have had to considerably revise their thinking about associated
processes and timing of agricultural transitions.
The revised chronology and genetic data have established that teosinte is the
ancestor of domesticated maize and that the so-called wild maize long sought
by various scholars does not exist. The early spread of macrobotanical maize to
different regions of the Americas is synthesized by Michael Blake (2006, Table 4.1,
Fig. 4.1) and supports the most recent data from genetics and the revised chron-
ologies provided by various archaeologists with direct AMS dates (see Table 3.1).
The preliminary evidence appears to indicate that both conscious and unconscious
selection have resulted in an extensive mosaic of maize landraces (Heiser 1988).
Since all of these landraces were initially identified before the advent of AMS
dating, and many are clearly distinct in terms of their morphological and phenotypic
characteristics, their evolution and spread over different regions of the Americas
have been based on the assumption of multiple domestication events.
The recent genetic and chronological research brought on by AMS dating has
also generated data resulting in some significant revisions of maize antiquity and
taxonomy. Given the paucity of certain kinds of data from different regions of the
Neotropics, focus is given to the kinds of modifications that appear to have occurred
with the earliest cobs due to conscious selection. Morphological analysis of maize
cobs from the Tehuacan Valley suggests that prior to 2500 B.C. (ca. 4450 B.P.)
there was a conscious selection for ears with more kernels and in the later periods
for larger kernel size (Benz and Long 2000, p. 463). After 2500 B.C., the rate of
change in ear morphology stabilizes and human selection may have been more
concerned with increasing ear numbers per plant. Genetic analysis of maize from
the Ocampo caves indicates that people were selecting for increased protein and
starch quality and that some specimens were similar to modern maize by 4450 B.P.
(ca. 2500 B.C.) (Jaenicke-Despres 2003, p. 1207). A comparison of the Ocampo cob
morphology with the earlier cobs from Guila Naquitz suggests that there was a
continuous selection by early farmers for increased cob size and the presence of pbf
and su1 involved in protein and starch quality, respectively, in cobs dated to
4,400 years ago. This suggests that kernel quality was, along with the cob size,
selected early on by ancient farmers. Just how early this artificial selection process
began is at this point unknown, but it may be sometime around 4,4004,300 years
ago. The absence of alleles necessary for starch production among early cobs found
in the American SW has broader implications for the role and spread of maize
landraces in this part of the Americas and in the North American continent in
general. Such data speak directly of the importance of genetic markers in providing
a basis by which to study the evolution and biogeography of maize, and to
incorporating these data with morphological information and phenetic traits that
characterize different landraces to understanding the interrelation of the various
maize varieties and their spread to different regions of this hemisphere.
3.3.3 Phylogenetic Considerations
The phylogeny of maize landraces has generally been based first and foremost on
the morphological characteristics of the ear traits, rather than on the anthropogenic
neutral morphological traits. Although such traits are of considerable importance to
botanists in the classification of such varieties, they are not necessarily the best
traits for understanding evolutionary relationships (Doebley 1994, p. 102; see also
Doebley 1990a, b; Doebley and Stec 1991; Kellogg and Birchler 1994). Doebley
(1994, pp. 102103) emphasized that phenetic traits, and their overall similarity,
can be useful indicators when assessing similarities and differences among maize
varieties. However, the most effective manner to analyze the biogeography and
evolutionary relationships through phenetic traits is at the molecular level of their
chromosome constituents (McClintock 1978, p. 159; Vigouroux et al. 2002, 2003;
Doebley et al. 2006).
Phylogenetic inferences from phenetic analysis predisposes analysts to linearity,
that is to require one to identify which traits are primitive and which are more
advanced states for each morphological trait (Doebley 1994, p. 104). Many
archaeologists and botanists have come to assume that such lineages are useful
for tracing the spread and origin of maize through distinct domestication events
(Wellhausen et al. 1952, 1957; Grobman et al. 1962; Timothy et al. 1961, 1963).
Subsequent ethnographic research has shown that distinct varieties were closely
associated with ethnic identity and largely a product of conscious selection for
specific traits (Sandstrom 1991; Perales et al. 2003a, b; Wright et al. 2005; Benz
et al. 2007). The recent research in molecular biology has had profound conse-
quences for plant taxonomy and phylogenetics in general and for maize phylogeny
in particular. Analysis at the level of DNA is incontrovertible and speaks directly of
the kinds of questions and relationships that plant taxonomists and geneticists have
been asking for centuries.
The remarkable diversity of maize landraces has long been held to be consistent
with multiple domestications; however, a comprehensive phylogenetic analysis for
maize and teosinte has found that such diversity is equally consistent with a single
domestication and subsequent diversification (Matsuoka et al. 2002, p. 6080;
Freitas et al. 2003; Doebley and Wang 1997; Doebley et al. 2006). The microsatel-
lite study by Matsuoka et al. (2002) was the first to reconsider maize phylogeny on
the basis of 99 microsatellite loci that provide broad coverage of the maize genome
and a sample of 264 maize and teosinte plants. The implications of these molecular
data have been profound for ethnobotanical and archaeological research on the
origins of maize. These researchers concluded that maize is monophyletic and arose
from a single domestication in southern Mexico about 9,000 years ago (Matsuoka
et al. 2002, pp. 60836084; Piperno et al. 2007, Fig. 2). Rather than using genetic
distance markers, Matsuoka et al. (2002, p. 6080) used the proportion of shared
allele distance with multilocus microsatellite data to construct phylogenetic trees.
Their results indicate that Zea mays L. is a direct domestication of a Mexican annual
teosinte Zea mays ssp. parviglumis, native of the Balsas River drainage19 (Mat-
suoka et al. 2002, p. 6083, Fig. 2a). Research has shown that modifications
involving conscious and unconscious as well as natural selection for the so-called
tga1 mutation for soft glume architecture resulted in a mutation in which teosinte
(Zea mays ssp parviglumis) began to approximate some, but not all, of the morpho-
logical characteristics of maize, representing a significant departure from teosinte
morphology (Benz 2001, 2006). The morphological changes from the stiff hard
fruit case of teosinte to the soft glume architecture of maize are among the first
mutations associated with the domestication of the plant (Benz 2001, pp. 2104
2105, 2006). Three genes of critical importance to the transformation of wild
teosinte into maize some 6,000 years ago were teosinte branched-1 (tb1), which
affects the overall plant architecture; the prolamin box-binding factor (pbf), which
regulates the expression of protein storage in the kernels; and sugary 1 (Su1) is
involved in the starch biosynthesis pathway (Jaenicke-Despres and Smith 2006,
p. 85). Research into these various genes have not only uncovered the evolutionary
relationship between teosinte and maize, but have also played a major role in how
the plant taxon is currently classified.
Plant taxonomists classify maize (Zea mays L., sensu lato) as a member of the
grass family Poaceae, which is divided into the family Andropogoneae (maize, sugar
cane, sorghum, and teosinte), two genus of the subfamily Maydeae (Tripsacum and
Zea) and finally into the genus Zea, which contains six distinct taxa classified into
four species (Doebley and Iltis 1980, p. 982). The genus Zea includes Z. mays ssp.
mays (cultivated maize) and the teosintes represent the various subspecies (Anderson
and Cutler 1942, pp. 69, 70; Iltis 1972, pp. 248249; Doebley and Iltis 1980, p. 982;
Doebley et al. 1984, 1987, 1990; Matsuoka et al. 2002, Fig. 2ab). The fruit of
Poaceae is a caryopsis, that is, it has the appearance of a seed. Flowers among the
Poaceae are usually arranged in spikelets, each has one or more florets further
grouped into panicles or spikes (Weatherwax 1954, pp. 150151; Mangelsdorf
1974, p. 71). All taxa of Zea have a central spike or terminal branch, the continuation
of the central inflorescence axis (Doebley and Iltis 1980, p. 986, f.; Iltis and Doebley
1980; but see Wilkes 1967, p. 103). Male inflorescences (tassels) have generally 12 or
more branches (except for maize), a central terminal spike that is stiffer, stronger, and
more densely beset with lateral spikelets that are highly exaggerated than those of
others in the Zea taxon (Doebley and Iltis 1980, p. 988). Spikelets consist of two (or
sometimes fewer) bracts at the base, called glumes, followed by one or more florets
(Fig. 3.13a, b). A floret consists of a flower surrounded by two bracts; the external is
19
Maize DNA studies have shown that up to 12% of its genetic material was obtained from Zea
mays ssp. mexicana through introgression or gene flow, more specifically, by backcrossing an
interspecific hybrid with one of the parent species (Matsuoka et al. 2002, p. 6083).
Fig. 3.13 (a) Close up of a tassel from the xmejen-nal maize variety of Yucatanm, Mexico. Maize
spikelets occur at the terminal portion of the tassel (Courtesy of John Tuxill) (Photograph by John
Tuxill). (b) A single maize spikelet (greatly enlarged) showing three anthers ready to shed pollen.
The male spikelets occur in the terminal tassels and they drop their pollen on the maize silks (from
Wallace and Brown 1956, Fig. 2)
called the lemma, while the internal palea. The grasses are usually hermaphroditic.
Maize is an exception in this regard, it is monoecious, that is, each flower has a
stamen or a pistil, but not both (Weatherwax 1954, p. 150; see also Iltis 2006), and
pollination is always wind borne or anemophilous. Mexican farmers are apparently
aware of this and sometimes plant teosinte in their fincas to make them more resistant
to fungi and other natural parasites (Tykot and Staller 2002). The success of grasses is
directly related to their morphology and growth processes, as well as their physiolo-
gical diversity (Anderson and Cutler 1942).
The teosintes contain four species of large grasses classified under the genus Zea,
with wild stands in Mexico, Guatemala, and perhaps Nicaragua. There are five
recognized species of teosinte: (1) Zea diploperennis (Iltis, Doebley, and Guzman),
(2) Zea perennis (Hitchc.), (3) Zea luxurians (Durieu and Asherson), (4) Zea
nicaraguensis, and (5) Zea mays. The last species is cultivated maize or corn, the
only domesticated taxon in the genus Zea. The teosintes are further divided into four
subspecies: Zea mays ssp. huehuetenangensis, Z. mays ssp. mexicana, Z. mays ssp.
Parviglumis, and Z. mays ssp. mays. Teosinte varieties in Guatemala are classified as
Z. mays ssp. huehuetenangensis. The two perennials teosintes, Z. diploperennis, and
Z. perennis, and the annual Z. luxurians are more distantly related and considered
unrelated to domesticated maize (Matsuoka et al. 2002, p. 6080).
The subfamily Maydeae is further divided into three main groups, and one of
these groups includes the genus, Zea (maize and teosinte), and Tripsacum all are
native to the Americas (Anderson and Cutler 1942. pp. 69, 70; Weatherwax 1954,
pp. 150, 151; DeWet and Harlan 1976, pp. 130134). Both Tripsacum and teosinte
are known to occur in the wild state in the Americas; but maize is the only food crop
of this group, and as has just been discussed in detail, much research went into
attempting to identify this species in its wild state; no such species has been
identified. Cross-breeding experiments encouraged botanists and later ethnobota-
nists and archaeologists to search for a wild that is, undomesticated form of Zea
mays L. The relationships of maize to its relatives in this subfamily were initially
obscure (Mangelsdorf and Reeves 1934, p. 33).
Wild grasses can be divided physiologically into two groups, on the basis of
photosynthetic pathways for carbon fixation, that is, they are either C3 or C4. Maize
is a C4 grass and its photosynthetic pathway is linked to specialized Kranz leaf
anatomy that particularly adapts this species and other C4 grasses to hot climates
and an atmosphere low in carbon dioxide (Sage et al. 1999). The C4 photosynthetic
pathway leaves traces in human bone chemistry and can therefore be used as a
quantitative measure of its dietary importance (Tykot 2006, pp. 136137).
Grasses generally spread out from a parent plant. Growth habit refers to the
type of shoot growth present in particular grass plants and is directly related to
their ability to spread out from the parent plant and ultimately form a clonal
colony. There are three general classifications of growth habit present in grasses:
bunch-type, stoloniferous, and rhizomatous (Weatherwax 1954, pp. 154156).
The genus Zea includes all of the various landraces of maize (McClintock
1978). Although maize comes in a great variety of forms and botanists attempted
for many years to divide the genus into varieties or subspecies (landraces), which
could be classified into a binomial system, they are all now classified taxonomi-
cally into a single genus (McClintock 1978, p. 156). It was these phenotypic and
systemic characteristics that motivated scientists in the botanical and biological
sciences to identify a related species which would provide a basis for the origins
of domesticated maize in the form of a still extant wild ancestor, but it was
ultimately the genetic and molecular research which provided the answers to this
scientific mystery (Beadle 1972, 1980).
3.3.4 Early Research on Maize Landraces and their Classification
The search for more productive maize varieties, which had its inception at the end
of the nineteenth century, continued throughout the next century and into the
present century. However, this scientific research soon became the domain of the
industrial sector of the first world, and was an anathema to much of the third world
where maize had its origins and where it continued to play an important role to
ethnic identity beyond its importance as a food crop (Raven 2005; Pernales et al.
2003a, b). The identification of various landraces of maize initially involved an
attempt to gain an understanding of the diversity of those maize varieties, which
were of commercial importance created through hybridization and crossing
(Fussell 1992, p. 86). Classifications were initially based on the composition of
the endosperm of the kernel. The maize classification by E. Lewis Sturtevant (1899)
was published into a monograph entitled Varieties of Corn and still seen by
botantists as comprehensive almost a century later (Mangelsdorf 1974, p. 102).

Sturtevant classified the variability of maize landraces into six main groups, five of
which were based on the endosperm composition of the kernel and this classifica-
tion was used by biological and social scientists almost without modification for a
period of 50 years (Mangelsdorf 1974). Differentiating flint varieties from dents,
and popcorns, from sweet corns and those with lesser or high levels of starch (flour
varieties) was done first and foremost through economic incentives,20 and second-
arily for scientific reasons, i.e., to develop classifications, trace the spread and
biogeography of different landraces, or how such races related to different domes-
tication events (Fig. 3.14). Classifications such as these were primarily concerned
with the morphological characteristics of the kernels and the cobs, as significant
identifiers for the uses and forms of consumption of the various maize varieties.
Such classifications have an inherent problem in that they are only indirectly
related to taxonomy and phylogeny, yet many scholars in the social and biological
sciences have historically treated them as if they represent a phylogeny of maize
ancestry and evolution, as was the case with Strurtevanis sixth group, pod corn.
Anderson and Cutler (1942) first sensed a problem with this classification and noted
that it was almost entirely based on the characteristics of the endosperm. They
reported that several of these traits in floury and sweet varieties were known by
geneticists as primarily dependent upon single loci on a single chromosome for
their expression. In their opinion, a natural classification, should take into account
the entire genetic constitution of the plant.
Anderson and Cutler (1942) did emphasize that the original classification by
Strurtevani made an important contribution in showing that the maize tassel, whose
central spike has long been recognized as the homolog of the ear, is valuable to
classification of maize varieties in that it was one of the more easily measured
characteristics of the plant (see also Anderson 1944, 1952). Mangelsdorf (1974,
p. 102) later disagreed stating in defense of an earlier botanical study that domes-
ticated species vary primarily in those parts of the plant which are consumed,
and the other characteristics are either unmodified or present trifling alterations.
Doebley and Iltis (1980, p. 985) later observed that the tassels are critical to maize
classification and clearly differentiated from those associated with the teosintes (see
Fig. 3.13a). They state that the central spike or terminal branch, i.e., the continua-
tion of the central inflorescence axis, is present in all species of the Zea taxon
(Doebley and Iltis (1980, p. 986f).
In summary, the initial pattern with regard to the classification of maize
landraces has been for botanists and plant taxonomists to focus on those parts of
the plant which are related to conscious selection, i.e., the part of the plant
that is consumed and then compare them with related species in the wild state
(e.g., Einfield 1866; Strurtevant 1899; Harshberger 1893, 1896b; see also Wallace
and Brown 1956; Mangelsdorf et al. 1967). It was John Harshberger (1896b) who
20
His sixth category, pod corn, was at the time a botanical curiosity, but one, which in later years,
had a profound effect on research on maize origins and phylogeny.
FLINT CORN
DENT CORN
FLOUR CORN
SWEET CORN
POP CORN
Fig. 3.14 Different kernels of maize from the principal varieties or landraces to show the
arrangement of flinty and floury parts (from Weatherwax 1954, Fig. 63)
first proposed the idea of a symbiosis between botany and archaeology to studies of
plant domestication. He recognized the necessity of botanically trained specialists
who understood plant morphology and who could analyze plant fragments often left
in layers at archaeological sites. Hershberger also recognized the importance of
such specialists to study plant phylogeny and taxonomic identification. Conse-
quently, research on the origins and domestication of plants in the United States
has formed the scientific basis for research on prehistoric plant production (Ford,
1989a, p. 13). The phenetic differences are generally assumed to be a measure of
how the plant had been changed through time and space by different human
populations and by artificial and natural selection (Fig. 3.15). An interest in a
more systematic consideration of maize taxonomy and phylogeny was not forth-
coming until after World War II, and this was related in part to the increasing
Fig. 3.15 Variation within a single maize landrace (xmejen-nal) showing the effects of human
selection for kernel shape as well as ear size and shape. Note that the kernel shape is maintained
throughout, yet kernel color varies, effected by wind pollen from nearby male inflorescences. This
landrace is cultivated and maintained by a single Yucatec Mayan farmer, Esteban Cuxin. Such
phenotypic divergence within and among landraces is related to the founder effect and bottleneck
phenomenon. Indigenous farmers have for centuries selected certain characteristics or traits, which
are often tied to cultural norms related to ethnic identity or how different varieties are processed
and consumed (Courtesy of John Tuxill; Photograph by John Tuxill)
research by plant morphologists and geneticists focused on the origins of maize (e.g.,
Wallace and Brown 1956; Harlan 1975; Galinat 1970, 1976, 1983; Hastorf 1994;
deWet and Harlan 1972, 1976; Harlan et al. 1973; McClintock 1976; Iltis and Doebley
1980; Doebley and Iltis 1980; Doebley and Stec 1991; Doebley et al. 1983, 1990).
3.3.5 Maize Landraces in the Americas
The classification of domesticated species or landraces has historically lagged

behind the creation of plant phylogenies in general. Edgar Anderson (1952)
observed this as an issue with domestic plants in general, and with maize in
particular what Doebley and Iltis (1980, p. 983) referred to as the Great
Ethnobotanical Paradox. Phenetic or morphological analysis had long been a
mainstay of ethnobotanic research on cladistics and these analyses have only
recently begun to have a profound influence on the archaeological reconstructions
for the spread of maize lineages (Doebley 1994; Doebley et al. 1983, 1990, 2006;
Hill 2006; Rainey and Spielmann 2006; Vierra and Ford 2006). The beginning of
the pursuit of identifying and classifying landraces has like studies into the origins
of maize, undertaken during and just after World War II (Mangelsdorf 1974,
p. 101). The search for finding landraces or maize varieties had its inception with
Mangelsdorf and the Rockefeller Foundation in association with an agricultural

program with the Mexican Ministry of Agriculture (Mangelsdorf 1974). The stated
intent was the initiation of a program of practical maize improvement and in
order to carry this out, a comprehensive inventory of what maize varieties were
being cultivated and available to plant breeders was undertaken (Mangelsdorf
1974). When Mangelsdorf and his collaborators began their initial classification
of the Mexican maize varieties in 1948, they focused almost exclusively on the ear
morphology as the basis for distinguishing different landraces (see e.g., Wellhausen
et al. 1952, 1957; Grobman et al. 1961; Timothy et al. 1961, 1963). The reasoning
was that since this is the part for which maize is cultivated, it is the most highly
specialized organ of the plant and it is the ear structure that distinguishes Zea mays
from all other species of grasses. The initial presumption was that the ear and not
the tassel would offer those diagnostic characters most useful in classification and
differentiating maize landraces (Mangelsdorf 1974, p. 102).
A systematic survey was undertaken and varieties from all parts of Mexico were
assembled at Harvard University in Cambridge, Massachusetts for controlled
experiments (see, e.g., Wellhausen et al. 1952, 1957; Brown 1960; Goodman
1976; Goodman and McKBird 1977). This provided Mangelsdorf with the neces-
sary assemblages to test his ideas surrounding the origins of maize and to identify
its possible progenitor. In the context of the project, these varieties were tested in
order to assess their potential productivity, disease resistance, and other characteri-
stics of general importance.
The creation of natural species taxonomies grew out of the realization of the
extraordinary diversity of the various maize landraces of Mexico. Out of this
diversity various cytological, genetic, and particularly botanical studies emerged
(Mangelsdorf 1974, p. 101). Botanical surveys were specifically geared to finding
little known varieties in the remote corners of Mexico (Wellhausen et al. 1952;
MacNeish 1961, 1962, 1967b). Subsequently, such classification studies and
associated research was expanded to different regions of Latin America (e.g.,
Anderson 1947a; Anderson and Cutler 1947; Wellhausen et al. 1957; Grobman
et al. 1961; Timothy et al. 1961, 1963). The Mexican results produced a total of
25 more or less distinct races and were then further divided into four major
groups on the basis of their presumed chronological origins: Ancient Indigenous,
Pre-Columbian Exotic, Prehistoric Mestizos, and Modern Incipient (Mangelsdorf
1974, p. 101).
The numerous publications that arose from this early research are still having a
major influence on how archaeologists reconstruct the archaeological record with
regard to the movements of ancient populations, and their influence on the socio-
cultural development in different regions of the Americas. Wellhausen and his
associates (1952) presented very explicit hypotheses with regard to the evolutionary
relationships of the various Mexican landraces, based on the phenetic analyses of
morphological traits. They concluded that most Mexican landraces arose from the
hybrids of other races, i.e., were a product of artificial selection, whether deliberate
or not (Fig. 3.16). Given that later research showed maize to be monophyletic, and
the only characteristic being considered in the classification was ear morphology,
Fig. 3.16 The distinctive

Mexican Popcorn Palomero
Tluqueno; a landrace
distinguished by long, pointed
dingy pericarp colored
kernels, and small cone
shaped cob as it appeared in
the 1950s. Popcorn varieties
are found throughout the
Americas and are associated
with the early spread of maize
into central and Andean South
America from Wellhausen
et al. (1952)
this conclusion would appear in retrospect to be a self-fulfilling prophesy. Studies

by ethnographers and linguists among indigenous Mexican populations had shown
that ear morphology, kernel color, and shape were deliberately being selected by
different groups as a means of differentiating themselves and their maize from those
of linguistic and culturally distinct surrounding indigenous communities. These
early botanical studies were, however, methodologically encouraged by the fact
that many of these similar varieties were directly related to one another from a
developmental standpoint. In other words, one landrace was consciously modified
from a variety brought into the communities in the past, and the introduction of
different landraces could be traced using traditional plant taxonomies and project-
ing them back in time with historical linguistics (Swadesh 1951, 1959b; Kaufmann
1994; Campbell 1997; Hill 2001, 2006; Brown 2006).
The indigenous societies that grew these popcorn varieties did so even though
more productive races could be locally obtained. They emphasize that their studies
appeared to indicate that the four different Mexico races identified on the basis of
ear morphology had been cultivated since pre-Columbian times and maintained
their phenetic characteristics throughout the centuries to the present (Grobman et al.
1952; Mangelsdorf 1974). However, the hybridization of certain landraces by
indigenous populations has not been necessarily related to greater productivity
particularly, in the later periods where societies were closely associating maize
varieties (on the basis of certain phenotypic characteristics, kernel color, cob shape,
etc.,) with their ethnic identity. We may infer from these data that the classification
of maize varieties under Mangelsdorfs direction saw characteristics as leading to
greater productivity as being more advanced morphologically. Such linearity was
also involved in the search for wild maize, and in the identification of ancient maize
cobs and ultimately with the spread of landraces through different regions of the
Neotropics. The San Marcos Cave maize cobs from the Coxcatlan Phase were
interpreted as wild. Researchers interpreted these wild maize macrobotanicals
as resembling pod corn (see also Fig. 3.6a, b) while the rest of the archaeological
cobs were fully domesticated (Mangelsdorf et al. 1967, Fig. 122). It was in these
archaeological examples that the conscious selection for more productive varieties
is most apparent, although in this case it was clearly for adaptive reasons associated
with domestication, agriculture, and a greater interdependence upon hunters and
gatherers and certain food crops and other plant species (see, e.g., Benz 1999, 2001;
Benz and Long 2000).
3.3.6 Maize Landraces and Colonial Bioprospecting
The multiyear research on the identification of maize landraces involved consider-

able ethnographic data derived from interactions with indigenous and mestizo
maize farmers in Latin America. The classification of maize landraces using
primarily anthropogenic morphological characteristics has for these reasons tended
to take on a life of its own, particularly since many archaeologists studying maize
biogeography perceived such classifications in terms of phylogeny and evolution
through time and space. Moreover, the tripartite hypothesis and search for an
apparently extinct species of wild maize, created initial conditions by which
scholars in the biological and social sciences could consider the possibility of
multiple domestication events over a wide geographic area. When reviewing this
literature, it is immediately apparent that the evolutionary relationships and their
biogeography with regard to the phenotypic similarities and differences of various
landraces was what was particularly emphasized this despite the overall tendency
for indigenous populations to maintain pure landraces for cultural reasons for
long periods of time. This is in stark contrast to what has occurred with regard to
maize breeding and cultivation in the colonial and post-colonial world. With the
advent of the European governments of New Spain and Peru, and their later
appearance in various regions of the North and South American continent, govern-
ment officials and colonial administrators generally encouraged indigenous socie-
ties to produce ever more productive varieties (Cutler 2001; Rainey and Spielman
2006, Tables 34-5-34-8; Huckell 2006, Fig. 7-2, Table 7-2). This is not to infer that
various landraces are necessarily unrelated to one another, in some cases they have
directly led to the appearance of recognized landraces, but rather, that they have had
a direct effect on how archaeologists have in some cases come to understand the
origin of maize and its biogeography in different regions of the Americas.
Botanists and archaeologists have historically tended to use morphological
characteristics of domesticated plants on the one hand, and earliest appearances
on the other, as directly reflecting the evolutionary relationships and then using
these relationships to trace the early spread of plants such as maize on the basis of
supposed primitive and more advanced traits21 (Goodman 1968, 1988). In both
cases, analysts generally did not take into account how different environmental
settings and human selection have affected and modified maize landraces in
different regions of the Americas (Darwin 1868; see also Gould 2002). Darwins
observations on the great variation of cultivated species infers that such varia-
bility is primarily a reflection of human or conscious selection to increasingly
broader phenotypic variation. This is particularly apparent in North America
where the original maize varieties were dramatically changed early on in the
pursuit for greater productivity and ability to tolerate dramatic climatic and
environmental variability (Enfield 1866; Myrick 1904; Wallace and Brown
1956). This was also apparent in later periods in Mexico, in association with
the so-called pre-Columbian Exotic varieties. The collaborators concluded that
four other races of maize were introduced from further south (Andean South
America) and these four, called Cacahuacintle, Harinoso de Ocho, Oloton, and
Maiz Dulce, hybridized with the Ancient Indigenous races and with teosinte to
produce an incredible diversification of Mexican landraces resulting in the crea-
tion of 13 new races classified as Prehistoric Mestizos (Wellhausen et al. 1952).
The Mexican Ministry of Agriculture published the classification and descriptions
resulting from these intensive studies in 1951. The Bussey Institution of Harvard
University published another English edition in 1952 (Wellhausen et al. 1952).
Both Spanish and English editions of the monograph by Wellhausen and his
collaborators were distributed throughout the hemisphere and have subsequently
had a major impact among corn breeders, geneticists, botanists, and archaeolo-
gists. Later studies of maize varieties were funded for Latin America in Ecuador,
Peru, Bolivia, Chile, Venezuela, and the West Indies (Brown 1960; Wellhausen
et al. 1957; Grobman et al. 1961; Ramirez et al. 1960; Timothy et al. 1961, 1963;
Goodman 1976; Goodman and McKBird 1977). These publications along with
the original work on the landraces of Mexico, represented a comprehensive
inventory of maize landraces of this hemisphere, and the germ plasm collected
from these surveys was made available to corn breeders. Maize varieties were
also classified, that is given distinct names on the basis of how they were
classified by indigenous and mestizo farmers and these folk taxonomies are
based in part on the phenotypic characteristics, some non-adaptive, such as kernel
color, or adaptive such as ear size, but also by characteristics or traits that are in
response to both human and natural selective pressures (Benz et al. 2007). In this
way, the different language groups who have worked with the maize researchers
are also contributing to maize diversity through their distinct linguistic terminol-
ogies. Later studies on maize genetics has uncovered evidence to indicate that
some biochemical traits, such as the presence of certain alleles such as those
21
The general tendency in the archaeological and biological literature has been to assume an
overall pattern of selection for more productive (larger kernels and/or more rows) Pre-Columbian
landraces over time.
involved in the storage protein synthesis, and starch production are not apparent
by ancient cob morphology. Thus, it is logical that different varieties are at times
classified not solely on the basis of phenotypic variability, but also on how and
with what they are consumed (Jaenicke-Despres et al. 2003). This suggests that
such folk classifications would have been different among native groups involved
in breeding and cultivating the plant than in those given among consumers (Benz
et al. 2007, p. 290; see also Tuxill et al. 2009).
Fifty years later, various government-sponsored programs to introduce more
productive varieties appear to have had only limited success in Mexico. Similarly,
indigenous and mestizo populations in several Andean nations have resisted the
introduction of more productive and now genetically modified varieties, and this is
related for the most part to cultural rationales. The maintenance of particular
landraces to certain cultures and social groups has ancient roots (Perales et al.
2003a, b; Tuxill et al. 2009). Despite more recent attempts by corporations and first
world governments to introduce genetically modified species, certain maize
lineages have been steadfastly maintained, by indigenous and mestizo societies
(Raven 2005; Thomson 2007).
In some regions, these studies went hand in hand with linguistic analysis
involving the movement of prehistoric populations and the spread of certain
terms and terminologies (Swadesh 1951, 1959a; Berlin et al. 1974). However,
Mangelsdorf (1974, pp. 103104) had little confidence in linguistic folk taxonomies
or historical reconstructions this, due in part to the fact that what was interpreted
as distinct landraces were given the same or similar names (see, e.g., Pernales et al.
2003a; Tuxill et al. 2009).
The comparative analysis of maize phenotypes involved taking the landraces of
Mexico or another Latin American country and looking for phenotypic similarities
between these and the varieties from all other countries (Mangelsdorf 1974, p. 104).
Other criteria considered included adaptation to altitude, earliness, kernel color, and
hardness, tiltering, pilosity, basically characteristics associated with the cob portion
of the plant. The conclusions drawn from the diversity of maize landraces was that
Mexico and Peru were the major centers for the origin, evolution, and the later
diversification of maize. In other words, the basic premise regarding all these
publications is based on the assumption of a multiple-origins hypothesis, the
assertion that maize was a product of an extinct pre-Columbian wild maize.
In the context of these initial premises, a conclusion was reached on the basis of
the high frequency of so-called endemic varieties unique to these countries. In light
of the recent genetic and phylogenetic revisions of the taxon, these patterns
regarding a high incidence of endemism among landraces in Peru and Mexico
may be explained in a number of ways. With regard to Mexico, the role of the
teosintes, particularly Zea mays ssp. mexicana in the hybridization and variation of
maize landraces is no doubt a critical factor (Goodman and Brown 1988; Matsuoka
et al. 2002). Other factors would no doubt be related to the movement and exchange
among indigenous populations in Pre-Columbian Mesoamerica, conscious selec-
tion for certain characteristics or traits, and of course, the later imposition of
colonial governments and their demands for more productive maize for tribute
and taxes (Rainey and Spielman 2006). With regard to the perceived endemism in
Peru, more recent genetic research has determined that such varieties are a product
of conscious selection of particular traits in combination with adaptation to the
extreme environmental conditions that characterize this region of the world (Sevilla
1994, pp. 233237). Variation as a result of adaptation to extreme conditions in the
Andes is apparent in the Copacabana Peninsula where an endemic variety of maize
grows in altitudes over 3,100 masl (Chavez and Thompson 2006, pp. 416417). The
systematic identification of maize varieties in the context of the research funded by
the Rockefeller Foundation and others, as well as the more recent research in
various parts of Latin America has provided clear evidence of the incredible
mutability of Zea mays ssp. mays and its ability to adapt to a whole host of
environmental and climatic conditions.
The systematic identification of maize varieties in the context of the research
funded by the Rockefeller Foundation and others, as well as the more recent
research in various parts of Latin America has provided clear evidence of the
incredible mutability of Zea mays ssp. mays and its ability to adapt to a whole
host of environmental and climatic conditions. Mangelsdorf and his associates
believed that their research represented a complete inventory of the maize landraces
of this hemisphere, and that their collections in storage represented virtually all the
germ plasm available to farmers and breeders. There was no doubt on the part of the
various researchers that the majority of the maize landraces were classified and
described and reported by their 11 subsequent publications (Mangelsdorf 1974,
p. 103). However, research on maize and teosinte genetics and a reconsideration of
the Zea taxon would ultimately revise much of this earlier research, but not before it
became widely accepted and spread through the scientific communities of both
Latin and North America. What the early studies of maize landraces provided is a
comprehensive data on the biogeography of maize as well as a great deal of
botanical data on maize morphology from different regions of Latin America.
The classifications of these various landraces also provided a basis for recon-
structing lineages and evolutionary relationships by later scientists and scholars
of prehistoric times.
3.3.7 Morphological versus Genetic Maize Landraces
Research on maize landraces appeared to have documented different morphological

changes over time, primarily as a product of conscious selection, and secondarily
related to selective pressures as maize varieties adjusted to distinct environmental
and climatic circumstances. The importance of maize landraces dealing with
regions of the Neotropics appears to be derived from the close ethnic association
with certain places and to particular ethnic groups within those regions (Huckell
2006; Newsom 2006). The various survey and analyses of maize landraces resulted
in the classification of more than 300 landraces, which Mangelsdorf (1974, p. 113)
and others attempted to categorize, on the basis of genetic and morphological
evidence, into a smaller number of what they referred to as super races. Their
attempts were, however, largely unsuccessful. What was discovered upon closer
analysis was that the majority of the landraces could be assigned to a limited
number of lineages; that they were descendant from a common progenitor
(Mangelsdorf 1974). The concept of descent from a common ancestor was by no
means new, but had never before been applied to landraces of maize, and at the
time, the idea was seen as somewhat revolutionary, and largely met with enthusi-
asm from a phylogenetic standpoint, but later disproved by the molecular evidence
(deWet and Harlan 1972, 1976; Doebley 1990a,b; Doebley and Wang 1997). The
revolutionary aspect of this idea of superraces of maize was that it postulated
at least six different landraces of wild maize from which all present-day
maize varieties had descended (Mangelsdorf and Reeves 1959b; McClintock
1960; Mangelsdorf and Galinat 1964; Mangelsdorf 1974). In other words, they
were attempting to create phylogenies of landraces, and it was at this level where
the complications, derived from their initial assumptions of multiple domestication
events, and origins based on an extinct pre-Columbian wild maize landraces, first
arose and then later took on a life of their own (see, e.g., Grobman et al. 1961).
Recent cautionary research on maize landraces is somewhat justified, particularly
the avoidance of race names to refer to archaeological maize, excepting perhaps the
Northern Flints (Benz and Staller 2006). Nevertheless, tracing morphological
variation that is anagenic versus cladogenetic22 evolutionary processes through
time and across space can lead to a greater understanding of the dispersal of
landraces and/or human migration and markets, and given the recent genetic
research on maize DNA suggests that the future potential for such research may
be particularly enlightening with regard to maize biogeographic selective pressure
(Benz and Staller 2006; Hard et al. 2006; Jaenicke-Despres and Smith 2006).
One important point for the early spread of maize, which was uncovered and
appears to have been verified by later research, is that pointed popcorn lineages,
under various names spread from Mexico to Guatemala, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru,
Bolivia, Chile, Argentina, Venezuela, and Brazil as well as the United States (see
Figs. 1.26a, b, 3.15, 3.16). The apparent absence of pointed popcorns in the West
Indies may be related to the relatively late arrival of maize in that part of the
Neotropics, and explain in part the secondary role of maize in the pre-Columbian
subsistence economy of that subregion (Freitas et al. 2003; Newsom 2006; Newsom
and Deagan 1994; Blake 2006; Bonzani and Oyuela-Caycedo 2006).
The pointed Mexican landrace referred to as Palomero Toluqueno, one of the
popcorn races described by Wellhausen and categorized as an ancient indigenous
landrace, was asserted to be the source of the ancient and wide spread of maize to
22
Anagenesis refers to the persistence of one or a suite of biological traits that over time leads to
varietal divergence. Cladogenesis refers to the development of evolutionary novelty through the
extinction of pre-existing forms (Benz and Staller 2006, p. 665).
other regions of the Neotropics (Mangelsdorf 1974, p. 103; see also Wellhausen
et al. 1952). Although this has yet to be demonstrated on the basis of molecular and
ethnobotanical data, some researchers have reported that some of the earliest maize
cobs in regions outside of the Mexican heartland are associated with pointed
popcorns, called Canguil and Pisankalla in Ecuador and Argentina, respectively
(Thompson 2006, pp. 89, 90, Table 7.4; see also Dorweiler and Doebley 1997).
However, the phylogenies that they created and their assessments and interpreta-
tions of the spread and origins of the various wild landraces of maize were
substantially revised by research from plant taxonomists and particularly geneti-
cists. The introduction and the extensive movement of genotypes through artificial
and natural selection during the post-Columbian period have complicated research
regarding the origin of South American maize (see, e.g., Pearsall and Piperno
1990). The diversity of maize landraces can only be understood through a compar-
ative genetic analysis of modern varieties with those of primitive landraces and
preserved maize remains (e.g., Freitas et al. 2003).
The research by Mangelsdorf, Wellhausen, Grobman, Grant, Timothy, and their
various associates can be summarized as an attempt to use phenetic characteristics
of the ear morphology in order to create a phylogeny of maize landraces (Sevilla
1994; Bonzani and Oyuela-Caycedo 2006). What resulted was a history of relation-
ships (phylogeny), based on the assumption of a linear progression of traits, i.e., that
eight row varieties would lead, through conscious selection to ten and ultimately to
varieties with more rows and larger kernels. The general consensus on the basis of
the early maize from the various cave and rockshelter sites in Mexico was that
archaic and preceramic societies consciously selected for ever more productive
landraces. These scholars sought to identify extant races in prehistoric contexts and
therefore emphasized anagenetic change as the principal mechanism by which such
maize races evolved (Benz and Staller 2006, p. 672; see also Benz and Staller
2009). Persistence over time of maize phenotypes characterized by one or a suite of
traits implies that varietal divergence would have occurred through anagenesis
(Benz and Staller 2006, pp. 672673). This is particularly the case with archaeo-
logical collections in that one can infer that if two distinct forms are present in one
stratigraphic layer and one landrace is present in lower earlier strata, then the
subsequent landraces are often asserted to be the result of human and natural
selection having given rise to new varieties. Punctuated equilibrium is the evolu-
tionary model used to describe this phenomenon while species selection is the
mechanism (Gould 2002). Cladogeneis on the other hand, emphasizes the develop-
ment of evolutionary novelty as a result of the extinction of the ancestor or pre-
existing maize variety (Benz and Staller 2006, pp. 672, 673). In this scenario, new
landraces are generally seen as the product of technological innovation or social
reorganization and new varieties as primarily a product of cultural selection pres-
sure. The pioneering research on extant landraces in the 1950s and 1960s empha-
sized cultural selective pressure as a primary basis for phenotypic divergence, yet at
the same time referred to archaeological samples of maize macrobotanicals to
connect the various landraces to one another, and by extension provide a basis for
early biogeography.
3.3.8 Genetic Research and Paradigm Shifts
The previous evidence indicates that maize exhibits a complex array of phenotypic
and genetic diversity and that it is distinguished by having the broadest cultivation
range among all cultivated plants. Geneticists and archaeologists have to varying
degrees worked together and independently on questions surrounding the origins of
maize and the diversity of landraces. Archaeologists were initially limited to
interpreting the phenotypic characteristics of ancient cobs. Geneticists interpreted
the genetic consequences of conscious and natural selection by analyzing modern
maize landraces and more recently the teosintes. Recent innovative approaches in
molecular biology and genetics have incrementally increased our understanding of
the maize genome and provided a possibility for a more comprehensive understand-
ing of the domestication process. The long and complex history of genetic modifi-
cation outlined in this chapter has been shown by recent direct AMS dates to span
more than six millennia and encompass a wide range of morphological and genetic
traits. The transformation of teosinte into maize was a result of conscious selection
for certain characteristics such as row number and kernel size as well as uncon-
scious selection, that is, an adaptation by the crop to the different kind of selective
pressures associated with planting, harvesting, and ways of preparation for con-
sumption (Jaenicke-Despres and Smith 2006, p. 84).
The initial exploitation of teosinte appears to have been related to its sugary pith
and other edible parts as evident by the quids identified in some ancient sites
(Smalley and Blake 2003). Research in molecular biology undertaken in the
1990s (Doebley 1990a,b, 1994; Doebley et al. 1990; Doebley and Stec 1991,
1993) revealed that only few major quantitative trait loci (QTL) were involved in
the morphological differences between maize and teosintes (Camus-Kulandaivelu
et al. 2008, p. 1108). The tb1 gene is involved in plant architecture and has been
shown to be responsible for the reduced tillering of maize compared to teosintes
(Dorweiler and Doebley 1997; Doebley et al. 1997). Recent analysis of the patterns
of tb1 nucleotide variation among maize and teosintes (Z. mays ssp. parviglumis)
indicate a high recombination rate and the possibility of recurrent crosses with wild
individuals during the domestication process23 (Camus-Kulandaivelu et al. 2008;
see also Wang et al. 1999). Clark et al. (2004) demonstrated that the selective sweep
on tb1 59-non-coding region encompasses a 6090-kb region later shown to include
a regulatory region in this gene that plays a central role in the realization of the
cultivated phenotype (Clark et al. 2006).
Recent genetic studies have also demonstrated that although the morphological
characteristics, particularly ear morphology were useful for distinguishing the
various landraces, they were not indicators of phylogenetic relationships (Doebley
1994, pp. 106107, Fig. 8.2). Despite these problems, many in the field continue to
use such classifications to identify the biogeography and phylogeny of landraces.
The problem with phylogenetic inferences from phenetic analysis is that it creates a
predisposition to linearity, i.e., a tendency to perceive certain traits as primitive
and others as more advanced morphologically (Doebley 1994, p. 104). The
concepts surrounding what was primitive and advanced in maize morphology was
conditioned on the one hand by the archaeological maize recovered in archaic and
preceramic sites, and on the other by a preconception of a wild maize resembling
to varying degrees pod corn. For example, the four Mexican landraces: Palomero
Toluqueno, Nal-Tel Chapalole, and Arrocillo Amarillo, were categorized as
Ancient Indigenous, and were seen as primitive in that all were popcorns (Well-
hausen et al. 1952; Mangelsdorf 1974). Although popcorn landraces have been
shown to have an ancient distribution out of the Mexican heartland, the phenetic
characteristics as described by the early studies made a set of inaccurate assump-
tions regarding how conscious selection for particular traits would manifest them-
selves among different landraces. The hybridization hypothesis proposed by
Wellhausen et al. (1972, p. 153) also maintained that if one race was intermediate
between two other races, it must be a hybrid derived from those races. It was these
assertions which Mangelsdorf (1974) later summarized in this volume on maize
evolution and improvement and since most of these earlier publications were
readily available in Latin America and in some cases translated into Spanish, they
became integrated into archaeological interpretations and formed the basis
for which much of the later ethnobotanical research with plant microfossils was
carried out.
The recent genetic evidence has shown that such evolutionary changes due to
unconscious selection are initiated by the changes in the relationships between
human populations and a target species (Smith 2006; Doebley et al. 2006). The
selective pressures can be seen in terms of a causal relationship involving beha-
vioral change toward a maize landrace, selecting for certain traits which induce a
genetic response, and ultimately morphological change (Smith 2006, p. 16). While
it is true that in the case of maize, that the ear and kernels provide more reliable
traits for the classification of landraces than either vegetative (leaves) or tassels,
such traits do not necessarily provide reliable information about the phylogenetic
(historical) relationships (Doebley 1994, p. 102).
The early researchers were encouraged to use such morphological traits for
analysis because it was these parts of the maize plant which was most often
found preserved in archaeological sites (see, e.g., Mangelsdorf et al. 1967). More-
over, these traits were known to have considerable genetic to environmental
variance over time and space and therefore enabled the various researchers
involved in the initial classification of maize diversity into discrete landraces to
recognize so many different landraces (Mangelsdorf 1974, pp. 113115). Taxo-
nomic research revealed that traits that have large genetic and small environmental
variances, like those selected by the researchers of maize races, were found to
provide reliable and consistent phenetic classifications (Stuessey 1990). Their
classifications, however, were to encounter considerable difficulty in trying to
derive historical or phylogenetic relationships among the various landraces, and
this is because phenetic analyses can also be misleading if used to infer evolution-
ary relationships among maize races (Doebley 1994, p. 103; Doebley et al. 1994;
Doebley and Wang 1997; Wang et al. 1999; Camus-Kulandaivelu et al. 2008). John
Doebley (1994) used the eight-kernel row variety as a hypothetical example.
He noted that varieties with 10 and 12 rows all had a common ancestor with eight
rows of kernels. The hypothetical phylogeny would assume that the switch from
8 to 10 rows occurred independently on two different occasions. While subsequent
switches to 12 rows also occurred twice independently, which would suggest that
the varieties with 12 rows of kernels were not necessarily more closely related to
one another than they would be to other races of maize (John Doebley 1994, pp.
102105, Fig. 8.1). In other words, the assertion that row number accurately reflects
a phylogeny among two or more maize races can lead to considerable misinterpre-
tations regarding the phylogenetic relationships among maize races, because such
varieties may have evolved independently and not necessarily through conscious
selection (John Doebley 1994, p. 104). One might also erroneously conclude that
the occurrence of 12-rowed maize in two different regions represents the transfer of
12-rowed maize from one region to the other. These early efforts to attain a clearer
understanding of the early evolution and diversification of maize landraces were
initially limited to general comparative morphological studies, focused on modern
maize. Recent genetic research has shown that morphological traits associated with
different parts of the maize plant are limited to the extent to which they can trace
phylogenetic relationships across time and space.
One of the most effective approaches in molecular biology involves research at
the genetic level that allows botanists and archaeologists to understand and directly
document how genes affect the phylogeny of maize landraces (Matsuoka et al.
2002; Vigouroux et al. 2002, 2003; Camus-Kulandaivelu et al. 2008). It is in fact
understanding the phenotypic variation expressed by the different landraces
through anagenesis and cladogenesis which is the future for further exploring the
bottleneck phenomenon and exploring why certain landraces are maintained while
others disappear (Smith 2006; Pernales et al 2003a,b, 2005; Benz et al. 2007).
Geneticists demonstrated a relationship between the cupule and chaff morpho-
logy through a genetic study of the related grass teosinte (Dorweiler and Doebley
1997; Dorweiler et al. 1993). Some researchers emphasize that molecular data in
general provides the most abundant evidence regarding the evolutionary relation-
ships among maize varieties (Goodman 1978, 1994; McClintock 1978; Doebley
1994; Goodman and Stuber 1983; Doebley et al. 1986, 2006). This is particularly
the case with allozymes, as they are different allelic forms of the same enzyme and
are believed to be neutral in that they are essentially unaffected by either human or
natural selection (Doebley 1994). Their mutation rate was considered to be a
constant, and thereby provided a basis for considering time and allozymic variation
among maize varieties diverging from a common ancestor precisely, what was
being considered with regard to the spread of maize varieties (see Kimura 1986).
However, morphological traits, particularly the ear morphology, are under strong
conscious selection, and thus misleading when considering phylogenetic relation-
ships (Doebley 1994, p. 106; Doebley et al. 1997). Doebley and his various
collaborators demonstrated how previous hypotheses regarding the evolutionary
relationships of maize lineages were inconsistent with allozymic evidence and that
such molecular data provided a more reliable basis for considering spread and the
interrelationships of maize varieties. Genetic studies were also critical to providing
direct evidence documenting that Tripsacum was unrelated to maize evolution and
origins, that maize was monophyletic and originated from the wild grass teosinte, as
Beadle (1939, 1980) had suggested years earlier. Some of the maize research
coming out of molecular biology involved morphological traits directly affected
by human selection. These researchers revealed a single Mendelian locus, teosinte
chaff architecture (tga1), that controlled several aspects of chaff morphology, both
macroscopic and microscopic including the deposition of silica such as phytoliths
and epidermal cells (Dorweiler and Doebley 1997, p. 1314). Their research indi-
cates that the previously mentioned genetic locus, called tga1, controls the indura-
tion, orientation, length, and shape of the chaff and that the pleiotropic effects
suggested that tga1 may represent a regulatory locus (Dorweiler 1996; Dorweiler
and Doebley 1997). Benz (2110) later noted in his analysis of the earliest cobs from
Guila Naquitz that it was changes in the glume architecture which is one of the first
distinguishing characteristics which separated fully domesticated maize from its
wild progenitor teosinte (see also Staller 2003). These differences were dramatic
and essentially based on the effect of a single genetic locus. Researchers investigat-
ing the genetic changes involved in the evolution of the maize ear from the ear of
teosinte provided the evidence for which later microsatellite research, or simple
sequence repeat (SSR) of genes was based (Vigouroux et al. 2002, 2003; Matsuoka
et al. 2002). These researchers concluded that maize (Zea mays L.), the principal
domesticated crop of the New World, originates from one or more varieties of
teosinte (Zea mays ssp. parviglumis and Zea mays ssp. mexicana) (Matsuoka et al.
2002, Fig. 2).
The diverse mosaic of morphology displayed by maize landraces imply that
there is high genetic diversity among races, suggested to be related to a founder
effect, resulting from a population bottleneck followed by intense conscious selec-
tion for specific traits (Smith 2006, pp. 15, 16; Tanksley and McCouch 1997,
pp. 1063, 1064; Freitas et al. 2003, p. 906). However, the precision of the genetic
data of maize conflicts with this hypothesis (Eyre-Walker et al. 1998). Isozyme
studies have instead indicated that the high maize diversity may be related to a rapid
dispersal and evolution, but this conflicted with DNA evidence from ancient South
American maize cobs dating from 400 to 4500 B.P. (Goloubinoff et al. 1993). The
genetic diversity of the alcohol dehydrogenase 2 (Adh2) allele sequences obtained
from South American cobs by Freitas et al. (2003) suggest that maize diversity
remained more or less stable in the past 4,500 years, contradicting the premise of a
rapid evolution rate for maize landraces. However, Frietas et al. (2003, p. 906)
indicate that ancient maize races spreading from Mexico had a nucleotide substitu-
tion rate 130135 times higher than other grasses (Frietas et al. 2003). Thus, the
assertion that maize landraces evolved from multiple domestication events among
several wild ancestral populations, or domestication by a variable teosinte popula-
tion by repeated cross-hybridization between the crop and wild teosinte are unnec-
essary. Adh2 sequences reaffirm microsatellite data initially published by Matsuoka
and his associates (2002) for a single origin in highland Mexico and a subsequent
spread to various regions of South America in two distinct expansions (Freitas et al.
2003, pp. 904905). The first, associated with a highland culture that spread from
Central America through highland Panama into the Andes and the western coast of
South America, and a second lowland expansion from coastal Panama along the
northeast coast of South America (Freitas et al. 2003). There are very few direct
AMS dates associated with the earliest maize in Latin America, and using asso-
ciated dates they suggest an initial expansion between 7000 and 4500 B.P., and a
subsequent lowland expansion at around 2000 B.P., this corresponds with the spread
of maize landraces to the north into the American SW (Staller and Thompson 2002,
Table 9a; Jaenicke-Despres and Smith 2006; Jaenicke-Despres et al. 2003).
The compelling and detailed evidence derived from the genetic research on
maize in the past two decades and particularly in the last few years is shattering
the previous paradigms regarding its origin, spread, diversification, and even role of
maize in complex sociocultural development. Other scientific breakthroughs,
beyond direct chronometric dating techniques, such as stable carbon and strontium
isotopic studies, are also greatly revising our understanding of the role of maize in
the pre-Columbian diet, and its movements during prehistoric times in different
regions of the Americas.
Chapter 4
Ethnobotanic, Interdisciplinary
and Multidisciplinary Methodologies
4.1 Methodological and Technological Breakthroughs
This chapter is primarily focused on the methodological approaches and technolog-

ical innovations used by the archaeologists and ethnobotanists to answer the larger
questions on plant domestication, early agriculture, and human adaptation. The
research on maize has generally evoked the broader, more theoretical questions
surrounding early agriculture and its role in complex socio-cultural development.
However, the early archaeological research on plant domestication in the New
World was primarily focused on the origins of maize and the various roles of
maize in such developmental and evolutionary processes. Particular emphasis is
laid on ethnobotany, plant macrobotanical remains (kernels, cobs, etc., recovered
primarily from archaeological sites), microfossils (pollen and phytoliths, taken from
lakes and swamps as well as archaeological contexts), and paleodiet through bone
chemistry involving carbon and strontium isotope analysis. The scientific literature
comprising research from these disciplines has significantly influenced the archaeo-
logical reconstruction of the roles of maize in the ancient New World economies in
the past three decades. Such data have provided an ever-increasing detail on the
contextual associations, and the economic importance of maize throughout pre-
history. Most of the archaeological studies have been focused on issues of plant
domestication and early agriculture in the Americas. Therefore, discussion on maize
must necessarily be within the context of such multidisciplinary research. In fact,
few topics have generated as much theoretical speculation as the origin of agri-
culture and the role of maize in such adaptive and developmental changes.
4.1.1 Comparing Research on Old and New World Ancient

Economies
The early archaeological and biological research surrounding early plant domesti-
cation in the Old World have generally provided evidence that suggests an adaptive
J. E. Staller, Maize Cobs and Cultures: History of Zea mays L., 149
150 4 Ethnobotanic, Interdisciplinary, and Multidisciplinary Methodologies
shift to agricultural economies, arising from a single prehistoric event in which the
domesticated strains of cereal grains were developed in a single localized area
(Flannery 1972a, 2002; Hillman and Davies 1990, 1992; Zohary and Hopf 1993;
Zohary 2004; Brown 1999, 2006). The existing evidence suggests the possibility
that small-scale cereal cultivation could have occurred independently in a broader
region on the Near East during ca. 1210000 BP, when major environmental
changes associated with glacial retreat, rise in sea level, and geomorphology were
occurring, but the general tendency is to see such developmental processes
as occurring from a particular region or center (Braidwood and Reed 1957;
Bar-Yosef and Cohen 1992; Hillman et al. 1989). Some ethnobotanists have
suggested that only a few foraging societies in Fertile Crescent combined the
harvesting techniques, selective planting, and plant tending that resulted in more
productive domesticated strains, totally dependent upon humans for their successful
reproduction (Hillman and Davies 1992; Hillman 1996; Zohary 2004). These plants
and the associated cultivation practices were then seen as radiating from the centers
of domestication to other regions of the Indo-European continent (Harris 1989;
Bellwood 2005; Brown 2006). A general focus on the independent centers of
agricultural origin continues to influence the methodology and theory on domesti-
cation in New World prehistory as well (Smith and Yarnell 2009). However, human
and natural selection associated with plant cultivation in the New World is gener-
ally believed to have begun simultaneously in various regions. Consequently, there
has long been a strong focus on the earliest presence by ethnobotanists working in
both temperate regions and the Neotropics. This methodological and research focus
is, in part, related to providing direct evidence of a chronological base line for the
shift to food production, that is commonly known an agricultural or formative way
of life (Staller 2006c).
Almost a century ago, the archaeologist Herbert J. Spinden (1917) postulated the
existence of a formative stratum underlying the basis of civilization in the
Americas, and an important component was maize agriculture. Willey and
Phillips (1958) presented a historical-developmental interpretation of the formative
stratum defined as, by the presence of maize and/or manioc agriculture and the
successful socioeconomic integration of such an agriculture into well established
sedentary life (p. 144). This definition largely parallels V. Gordon Childs (1951b)
definition for cereal grains and the Old World Neolithic shift from food collection
to food production. Although the rates of domestication in many New World crop
plants are currently unknown or at best somewhat imprecise (see, e.g., Smith 1997a,
b, 2000; Matsuoka et al. 2001), the general tendency has been to assume, in contrast
to Old World domestication, that multiple domestication events occurred in differ-
ent regions of the Neotropics (Mangelsdorf 1959b, 1974; Mangelsdorf et al. 1978;
Sauer 1950, 1952). Many scholars believe that such evolutionary and developmen-
tal processes appear to have occurred simultaneously over large areas of Meso-
america and South America (Piperno and Pearsall 1998, p. 30). However, as more
ethnobotanic, archaeological, and chronological evidence regarding the shift to food
production are reported, there appeared to be an ever-increasing lack of consensus as
to where and when to draw the line between food gathering, management and
4.1 Methodological and Technological Breakthroughs 151
tending of wild plants, and food production (Ford 1981, 1985b; Terrell et al. 2003;
Staller 2006c).
The subsequent focus in New World archaeology has primarily been on agricul-
tural transitions rather than diffusion and migration as plausible explanations for the
integration of an agricultural economy over a vast geographic area (Brown 2006).
The most current research suggests that these processes generally occurred in
distinct localized regions, but that hybridization with related species and/or
human selection leading to morphological change subsequent to their initial dis-
persals occurred over a longer span of time in some food crops than in others
(Wilkes 1985; Smith 1997a,b, 2005a, 2006; Smith and Yarnell 2009). Methodologi-
cally driven analyses, designed specifically to uncover precisely where and particu-
larly when the food production originally occurred, has generated data sets that
focus almost exclusively on the earliest economic plants (particularly, maize) to the
exclusion of other wild plants in the paleobotanical inventory1 (Staller 2006c).
Future studies must incorporate all plants in the paleobotanic inventory, as was
done in the Tehuacan Valley and Oaxacan research if we are to understand the
adaptive processes associated with early plant domestication that eventually led to a
dependence upon certain food crops, economic and medicinal plants by ancient
societies in different regions of the world (Staller 2006c; Terrell et al. 2003). On the
other hand, the introduction of new approaches and methodologies in the recovery
of organic matter have also created an enormous potential for ethnobotanical
research in the humid lowlands of the Neotropics and provide data for our under-
standing of the early food production. The most recent data suggest that broader
distinctions need to be made between the beginning of plant cultivation and the
appearance of certain plant domesticates (see, e.g., Smith 1997a; Smith and Yarnell
2009).
The transitions between hunting and gathering and farming are for the most part
gradual over time and space in the New World when compared with the Middle
East or Fertile Crescent (Braidwood 1952, 1969; Braidwood and Reed 1957). One
of the major factors associated with this difference is the generally small body size
of herbivores and ungulates species in the Neotropics (Binford 2001). Amerindian
populations continued to derive most of their meat protein from wild resources
rather than major meat producing herd animals (Flannery 1972; Binford 1980,
2001). An exception in this regard was the societies of the high Andes of Peru
and Bolivia, where llamas, alpacas, and guinea pigs were domesticated. Dogs and
turkeys were domesticated in Middle America, but were not widespread meat
staples (Bellwood 2005). Another major difference between the ancient Old and
New World agricultural economies is a general lack of centricity in the
1
Important exceptions in this regard are the published reports by the Tehuacan and Oaxaca Valley
research (e.g., Mangelsdorf et al. 1967; MacNeish 1967b,c, 1992; Flannery 1973, 1986c). The
macrobotanical inventory from these projects still represents the most detailed record in archaeology
on the beginnings of agriculture (Benz and Staller 2006, 2009).
Neotropics. Rather than geographically circumscribed regions in which there is an

extensive macrofloral and faunal remains to indicate evidence for early agricultural
societies, evidence of plant domestication appears in rockshelters and caves in
semi-arid regions peripheral to rich river valleys. Scholarly debate along these
lines has somewhat clouded the conceptual distinction between where agriculture
first appeared as related to food production, as opposed to regions where individual
crop species were first domesticated (Staller 2006a, 2006c). Consequently, there
has also been an emphasis on early presence of food crops such as maize among
social and biological scientists working in this hemisphere. There is documented
evidence in certain regions where food crops were domesticated early on, that food
production based on a suite of domesticated food crops did not appear until much
later such as the late Woodland Period (AD 4001000) or only after the contact
period (Rose 2008, pp. 427433). This is particularly true for the Great Plains and
Eastern Woodlands of North America where large terrestrial mammals and birds
provided a significant proportion of protein to the ancient diet. More recent evi-
dence, however, suggests that the initial formation of a crop complex of as many as
five domesticated seed-bearing plants formed a coherent complex of low-level food
production as early as 3,800 years ago in the Eastern North America2 (Smith and
Yarnell 2009, Table 1).
Plant domestication and food production were not as centralized in the New
World. Evidence of distinct plant complexes in different regions of the Americas
suggests that food production developed independently and that agricultural econo-
mies and their associated food crops were later superseded by the introduction of
maize, beans, and squash from the Neotropics (Fig. 4.1a, b). Until about 3000 BC,
most Native societies were hunter/gatherers with a possible but disputed earlier
investment in horticultural activity claimed for some tropical regions. Dated macro-
scopic plant remains for domesticated staple food plants, as opposed to snack foods,
ceramic containers, and condiments, occur only after 4000 BC and are, for the most
part, a great deal later in time (Bellwood 2005, p. 149; see also Smith 1998, 2001;
Benz 2001; Piperno and Flannery 2001). archaeologists have long maintained that
the middle Mississippi drainage basin and its tributary valleys represent a subregion
of seemingly independent development of plant domestication (Fowler 1971; Ford
1985a). The analytical predisposition to the search for centers of domestication is
related, in part, to archaeological research in the Old World, where the Fertile
Crescent and Middle East were seen as the regions where the domestication of the
2
AMS dates and reanalysis of macrobotanical assemblages from a brief occupation at the Riverton
Site in Illinois documents the cultivation of domesticated bottle gourd (Lagenaria siceraria),
marshelder (Iva annua var. macrocarpa), sunflower (Helianthus annuus var. macrocarpus), and
two cultivated varieties of chenopod (Chenopodium berlandieri), as well as the possible cultiva-
tion of squash Cucurbita pepo and the perennial grass, little or foxtail barley (Hordeum pusillum)
(Smith and Yarnell 2009, pp. 65616563).
Fig. 4.1 (a) Maize (Zea mays L.) and varieties of squash (Curcurbita spp.) (b) Many varieties of
beans (P. vulgaris L.) are seeds with a hard outer seed coat to protect the embryo during dispersal.
Thus, beans require overnight soaking in water to soften the seed coat. Beans along with maize and
squash formed the primary food crops of ancient Mesoamerica. (Photograph by John Tuxill)
basic food crops that would later constitute the economic basis for sedentary village
agriculture would occur (Braidwood 1952, 1957; MacNeish 1992).
The fact that Native American agricultural economies did not include draft
animals, plows, or wheeled transport is another factor affecting the spread of
early agricultural economies in the New versus the Old World. archaeologists and
prehistorians have long emphasized how such technological innovations were
critical to understanding the seemingly different trajectories that early agriculture
took in the New World versus the Old World Neolithic and Bronze/Iron
Ages3 (Braidwood 1960; Bellwood 2005). At European contact, about half (proba-
bly more) of the land area of the New World was occupied by hunters and gatherers
rather than by agricultural societies (MacNeish 1992; Bellwood 2005). The only
highly productive New World food crop was maize, and the earliest domesticates
were mainly root crops, vegetables, fruits, and industrial plants (e.g., manioc,
beans, avocado, chili pepper, gourd, cotton) rather than productive food staples
(Iltis 2000, p. 37). It is for these reasons that scholars in the biological and social
sciences generally perceive widespread agriculture as appearing later in the New
World (Bellwood 2005, p. 146). The current consensus among archaeologists is that
plant and animal domestication began in some parts of the world at about the same
time, and that the changeover from hunting and gathering to food production was a
long process involving a complicated set of interacting variables (Binford, 1965,
2001; Ford 1981, 1985a; Smith 1998, 2006; Terrell et al. 2003). These interpreta-
tions were drawn from earlier theoretical model building, which sought to get away
from cultural historical reconstruction to view the development of complexity, early
agriculture, and the roles of food crops such as maize in ancient economies as a
cultural process (Binford 1964, 1965, 1968, 1989; Smith 1977; Flannery 1972a,b,
1973, 1986bd). The most recent attempts to understand these processes evoked
such factors as population pressure and adaptive changes to how societies practicing
some cultivation, particularly, maize, beans, and squash, adjusted to their environ-
ments over time (Flannery 1973, 2002; Smith 1998, 2001). These explanations
usually involve placing newly domesticated plants such as maize in their ecological
and cultural context. The chronological and contextual evidence from these later
studies have had a profound influence on subsequent approaches, in which data were
increasingly quantified on the basis of statistical analyses and was based on a more
interdisciplinary methodological framework (see e.g., Binford, 1989: 5558, 2001).
Scholars in the biological sciences as well as prehistorians have long assumed
that a dependence upon agriculture initially arose in the Neotropics, particularly in
Mesoamerica and NW South America (Sauer 1950, 1952; Mangelsdorf 1974;
Mangelsdorf and Reeves 1939, 1959b; Mangelsdorf et al. 1967; Lathrap 1970).
The most recent archaeological and ethnobotanical evidence suggests that regions
such as the Valley of Mexico and lowlands of the Peten were not necessarily where
the earliest evidence of domestication occurred. Moreover, the extent to which such
adaptive patterns gave rise to large-scale agricultural societies has been the focus of
much debate and archaeological research. With the advent of new technologies and
methods for uncovering the biological and technological traces of such activity in
the archaeological record, focus has in the past two decades shifted to the tropical
lowlands and mid-altitude regions of Middle America and northwestern South
3
The expansion of agricultural economies in some parts of the Old World is interpreted as a
migration or wave of advance of fully agropastoral food producing cultures extensively replacing
hunting and gathering societies as for instance in Neolithic Europe, and Iron Age central and
southern Africa (Childe 1950; Bellwood 2005; Brown 2006). The idea of an agricultural revolu-
tion was supported to some extent from linguistic evidence, which showed that in some cases such
economies were associated with certain language groups (see, e.g., Childe 1950).
America. In some of these regions, seasonal foragers continued to exist alongside

the agricultural economies up until the conquest period4 (Staller 2006c). These
regions are also characterized by complex biodiversity and broad undulating rivers,
where the primary suite of food crops, particularly maize, beans, and squashes,
appear to have been identified (Sauer 1952; Lathrap 1970; Pearsall and Piperno
1990; Piperno 1991, 1999; Piperno et al. 1985; Pope et al. 2001). The cultural
geographer Carl Sauer (1952) challenged the most conventional theories regarding
the origin of agriculture, instead proposed that it was associated with the tropical
lowlands, and arose from the necessity to procure seasonally restricted plant
resources by sedentary fishing societies (see also Lathrap 1970).
4.1.2 Paleoethnobotany: Methodological Approaches

to Domestication
Much of the research on early agriculture in the New World was inspired by
methodological and scientific approaches taken by researchers in the biological
sciences, particularly botany, and in the context of such studies originated the field
of ethnobotany. The decade of the 1980s was a productive period in the history of
ethnobotany. Methodological tools such as the scanning electron microscope
(SEM) and AMS dating and macrobotanical data from an increased number of
well-preserved prehistoric plant fragments provided researchers with the ability to
identify the presence of plants through microfossil analysis. The result was an
incremental increase in the scientific knowledge on the variety of domesticated
and cultivated plants and their history in ancient times. Considerations regarding
the preservation of macrobotanical remains in the archaeological record and the
more recent use of infrared spectroscopy5 in the identification of charred remains
have also provided valuable tools for the presence and identification of maize
varieties in archaeological contexts (Staller and Thompson 2002; Thompson
2006). Palynological studies of lake cores have been more widely applied in recent
years because, in contrast to macrobotanical remains, pollen survives well in humid
sediments and in lower elevations (e.g., Bush et al. 1989; Dull 2006; Pohl et al.
1996, 2007; Pope et al. 2001; Piperno et al. 2007). Phytoliths, microscopic pieces of
plant silica formed in cells are often preserved in archaeological and paleoecologi-
cal settings where pollen does not survive (Pearsall 1989, 2000; Piperno 1991;
4
For example, the earliest pottery recorded thus far in the New World comes from Colombia, yet
these technological developments did not spread to surrounding cultures until a millennia later
(Bonzani and Oyuela-Caycedo 2006; Staller 2006c).
5
Infrared spectroscopy offers the possibility for measuring different types of interatomic bond
vibrations at different wavelength frequencies. Such approaches are particularly concerned with
the analysis and identification of substances through the spectrum emitted from or absorbed by
objects and IR absorption spectra shows what types of bonds are present in the sample. Spectros-
copy approaches are used to identify and delineate archaeological remains through remote sensing
(e.g., Pope and Dahlin 1989).
Pearsall and Piperno 1990). Such methodological approaches have been used
extensively by paleoethnobotanists in the past 40 years to document ancient
maize in the Americas, but only recently has such research been initiated in regions
of Mesoamerica where teosinte is native (Piperno et al. 2007, 2009; Holst et al.
2007; Pohl et al. 2007). As revealed in the previous chapter, the reason that teosinte
was largely dismissed as a possible progenitor relates in part to the hard fruit cases
and ear morphology (Fig. 4.2). The teosinte spike holds the seeds or fruit cases.
Teosinte seed dispersal, unlike maize is not dependent upon human agents. Since
teosinte and the maize are both grass species, their stalks are very similar morpho-
logically. Wind spreads pollen from the tassels onto the silk. When teosinte is
grown in milpas they spread their pollen to the maize stalks making them more
drought and insect resistant. However, maize and the annual teosintes also resemble
each other in a number of anatomical features, most notably the tassel or male
inflorescence morphology6 (Fig. 4.3; compare to Fig. 2.13a).
Recent ground breaking research on the identification of plant microfossils from
carbon residues have been particularly valuable in the study of early maize because
they can be directly dated and statistically differentiate to specific maize landraces
(Staller and Thompson 2002; Thompson 2006, 2007; Hart et al. 2007a; Matson and
Hart 2009). How did these studies influence current debates? Particularly, the general
consensus among many archaeologists and historians on the antiquity and spread of
plant domestication, and the role of maize as a primary economic component
and catalyst to social complexity? The most recent debates surrounding the antiquity
and location of the original domestication event(s) have also been greatly influenced
by various methodological approaches and recent technological innovations (Fritz
1994). These innovations and breakthroughs include direct AMS radiocarbon dating
of macrobotanical remains, which was introduced in the previous chapter, and
now plant microfossils from food residues in ancient pottery (Long et al. 1989; Staller
and Thompson 2000, 2002; Hart et al. 2007a,b; Hart and Matson 2009).
In the past decade, direct dates on ancient cobs have indicated a more recent
spread of maize through much of the Neotropics (Blake 2006). AMS dates taken
directly from macrobotanical maize cob samples, recovered from the earliest levels
of the Tehuacan caves in highland central Mexico, and the Guila Naquitz rock-
shelter in Oaxaca have, in some specimens, produced younger dates by over two
millennia than the initial radiocarbon assays from associated archaeological strata
(Fritz 1994; Long and Fritz 2001; Blake 2006). Research (Michael Blake 2006;
Chisholm and Blake; 2006; Blake et al. 1992; Bruce Benz 1999, 2006; Benz and
Iltis 1990; Benz and Long 2000; Benz et al. 2006; Long et al. 2001) has indicated
that dates by association have been largely unreliable, particularly in those areas
and sites in the Neotropics where maize was believed to have originated. The most
6
Teosinte is much more environmentally and morphologically flexible than maize. Annual teosinte
has an architectural genetic locus called Teosinte Branched Locus (tb1), which makes the branch
resemble a branched teosinte plant (see Fig. 2.2b). When teosinte grows in full sunlight without
competition tb1 lateral branching is suppressed resulting in long singular branch tipped by male
inflorescences (see Iltis 2006, p. 2832, Figs. 4.34.7; see also Benz 2006, Table 2.1, Fig. 2.1).
Fig. 4.2 Teosinte spike and a cob of Hopi blue maize showing the differences in morphology and
ear size between contemporary teosinte spikelet and maize cob. Such morphological differences
confounded many researchers and provide some insight as to why it took scholars so long to
identify the progenitor of Zea mays L
recent radiocarbon evidence (conventional and AMS) indicates that direct dates on
macro remains and food residues provide far greater precision and remarkably
different chronologies than dates by association.
Guila Naquitz rockshelter is located 400 km northeast of the Balsas River
(Doebley et al. 2006). The three oldest known archaeological maize cobs Guila
Naquitz have in one case, two of the four morphological traits defining
Fig. 4.3 Teosinte male inflorescence or tassel. This feature is one of a number of anatomical
similarities that the teosintes share with Zea mays L
domesticated maize, while the third sample, has three of the four defining char-
acteristics by 5,450 years ago (see Staller 2003, p. 377; Benz 2001). Benz (2001, p.
2104) refers to these ancient cobs as domesticated Zea inflorescences, despite the
morphological changes and the tga1 mutation to soft glume architecture, they are in
this time period examples of teosinte still evolving into fully domesticated maize. It
was Dorweiler and Doebley (1997; Dorweiler 1996; Dorweiler et al. 1993) who
demonstrated the molecular relationship between maize and the cupule and glume
4.2 Interdisciplinary Approaches to Domestication, Agriculture, and Adaptation 159
morphology of the cobs. Their genetic research revealed a single Mendelian locus,
teosinte glume architecture (tga1), that controls several aspects of glume morphology,
both macroscopic and microscopic, including the deposition of silica in the form of
phytoliths and silicified epidermal cells (Dorweiler and Doebley 1997, p. 1314).
Teosinte is not native to this valley nor was it identified near the rockshelter7
(Piperno and Flannery 2001, p. 2102). Nevertheless, the morphological results
from the ancient cobs indicated that maize was not yet fully domesticated by
5450 B.P. in this region and that teosinte was brought into the valley (Piperno and
Flannery 2001; Benz 2001). Recent direct dating of seeds and other plant parts that
exhibit well-documented morphological characteristics, indicating they are domes-
ticated or dependent upon humans for their reproduction, is now being applied
throughout the Americas (Tables 3.1, 4.14.3). These AMS dates produce more
conservative timetables of domestication and agricultural origins and have consid-
erably revised earlier chronological frameworks based on dates by association
(Blake 2006; Benz and Staller 2006).
Having precise chronological information regarding plant domestication was
critical to archaeological model building, since these developmental processes were
visualized along a continuum (Smith, 1998, 2001). Under the new standard of
directly dated remains, we may infer that the early domestication of maize in
highland Mexico, and domestication of camelids in the Andes, appears (in the
archaeological record) between about 5,500 and 4,000 years ago, more recent, in
some cases by 2,000 years, than was previously assumed only a decade ago. These
data, as was discussed in some detail in the previous chapter, have had profound
implications as they indicate that all of the genetic mutations associated with fully
domesticated maize were undeveloped until ca., 4500 B.P. (Benz et al. 2006;
Jaenicke et al. 2003; Jaenicke-Despres and Smith 2006). These data also have
implications for interpretations regarding the early economic significance of
maize to New World prehistory. Some archaeologists have already begun to
explore other explanations for the seemingly rapid spread of this important New
World domesticate.
4.2 Interdisciplinary Approaches to Domestication,

Agriculture, and Adaptation
The methodological approaches and theoretical models presented in archaeology

regarding the origins of agriculture have generally emphasized analyses which view
this transformation in human adaptation in terms of a continuum, beginning with
7
This may indicate that teosinte was brought from its native habitat into this region by archaic
foragers, and that some of these morphological changes may have been related to adaptation to
such environs. Ongoing analyses continue to document changes in the morphology of maize and
the development of regionally distinct land races (Benz 2001; Benz et al. 2007; Latoumerie et al.
2006; Tuxill et al. 2009).
160
Table 4.1 Associated 14C Dates with Zea Pollen Samples

14 14
Country/region Site Dated C method Associated Zea C years B.P. Sample ID Reference
material number
Mexico/ Guila Organic Conventional Pollen ca. 9500 ? (Schoenwetter and Smith 1986, p.
Oaxaca Naquitz materials (teosinte) 6980 229; Piperno and Flannery 2001,
(Zone C-B1) p. 2102)
Guerrero/ Iguala valley Pollen AMS Pollen 6290 40 Beta-196250 (Piperno et al. 2007)
highlands residue
Tabasco/coast San Andres Organic AMS Pollen c. 6200 n/a (Pohl et al. 2007, p. 6870)
materials
Veracruz/ Pollen AMS Pollen 4150 50 Beta-130582 (Sluyter and Domnguez 2006,
coast fraction Table 1)
Veracruz/ Laguna Pollen AMS Pollen 4250 70 CAMS-1770 (Goman and Byrne 1998, p. 8486)
coast Pompal residue
Mexico Zoapilco ? Conventional Pollen 5090 115 I-4405 (Niederberger 1979, p. 132137)
Guatemala/ Sipacate Wood AMS Pollen 4600 Not given (Neff et al. 2002)
Pacific coast
Belize/ Cob swamp Wood Conventional Pollen 4610 60 Beta-56775 (Pohl et al. 1996, p. 360361)
Caribbean
Coast
Honduras Lake Yojoa Wood Conventional Pollen <4770 385 UGa-5380 (Rue 1989, p. 178)
El Salvador Ro Paz Lake AMS Pollen 3470 50 CAMS-44169 (Dull 2007, p. 131)
Valley sediment
Costa Rica Laguna Associated AMS Pollen 4760 40 not given (Arford and Horn 2004, p. 112)
Martnez charcoal
Lago Cote Associated AMS Pollen 3630 70 not given (Arford and Horn 2004, p. 112]
charcoal
Laguna Wood Conventional Pollen 2940 50 Beta-115186 (Clement and Horn 2001, p. 422)
Zoncho
4 Ethnobotanic, Interdisciplinary, and Multidisciplinary Methodologies
Panama Cueva de los Pollen Convencional Pollen 6860 90 ? (Piperno et al. 1985, p. 873)
Ladrones residue (date given, 4919 90 B.C.)
La Yeguada Pollen 4200 ? (Piperno et al. 1990)
Gatun Lake Charcoal? Pollen ca. 4000 UCLA-11354 (Piperno 1985, p. 17)
Colombia/ Hacienda El Pollen 6680 (Bray et al. 1987)
inland Dorado
Hacienda Pollen 5150 180 (Monsalve 1985)
Lusitania
Ecuador/ Lake Ayauchi Associated AMS Pollen 4570 70 Beta-20956 (Bush et al. 1989, p. 304)
Amazonia charcoal
Amazonia Lake San Pollen 4000 Phase (Pearsall 1999, p. 421)
Pablo
highlands/ Cotocollao Associated Conventional Pollen 3545 210 GX-4768 (Villalba 1988, p. 339)
Valley of Quito charcoal
4.2 Interdisciplinary Approaches to Domestication, Agriculture, and Adaptation
161
Table 4.2 Dates on materials associated with Zea phytolith samples
162
14 14
Country/Region Site Name Dated Material C Method Associated Zea C Years Sample ID Reference
B.P. Number
Mexico/Tabasco San Andres organic materials AMS phytoliths 6208 47 n/a (Pohl et al., 2007:6872)
Coast
Highlands, Iguala Xihuatoxtla charcoal AMS phytoliths 7920 40 n/a (Piperno et al., 2009:5021)
Valley, Guerrero
Guatemala/ Pacific Sipacate wood AMS phytoliths 4600 ? (Neff et al., 2002)
coast
Panama/inland Monte Oscuro bulk sediment AMS phytoliths 7500 70 Beta-74292 Piperno and Jones 2003:81)
Inland Cueva de los unknown Conventional phytoliths 6860 90 ? (Piperno and Flannery 2001: 873)
Ladrones (date given: 4919 90 B.C.)
Inland Gatun Lake charcoal? Conventional phytoliths, 4750 100 UCLA-1354 (Piperno 1985:15)
Inland Aguadulce unknown Conventional phytoliths 4500 ? (Piperno 1985, 1988)
Inland La Yequada unknown Conventional phytoliths 4200 ? (Piperno et al., 1990)
Inland Lake Wodehouse unknown Conventional phytoliths 3900 ? (Piperno 1994)
Ecuador/Coast Vegas site shell Conventional phytoliths 7150 70 Tx-3314 (Stothert 1985:618, 621)
coast Loma Alta unknown phytoliths 5000 ? (Pearsall 2003:224)
coast Loma Alta direct date on AMS Phytoliths in 4570 Beta-198623 (Zarillo et al. 2008)
starch grains residue
upper Amazon Lake Ayauch charcoal AMS Phytoliths 4470 70 Beta-20956 (Bush et al., 1989:304)
coast Real Alto unknown phytoliths 4450 ? (Pearsall 2003:225; Pearsall and
Piperno 1990:330)
coast La Emerenciana direct date on AMS phytoliths in 3860 50 Beta-125107 (Staller and Thompson 2002:44)
carbon residue residue
coast La Emerenciana direct date on AMS phytoliths in 3700 50 Beta-125106 (Staller and Thompson 2002:44)
carbon residue residue
coast La Emerenciana charcoal Conventional phytoliths 3775 165 SMU-2563 (Staller 1994; Staller and
Thompson 2002:44; Tykot and
Staller 2002:670)
Bolivia/highland Copacabana Direct date on AMS phytoliths in 2750 40 Beta-162147 (Chavez and Thompson 2006:
peninsula food residue residue Table 30.4)
Argentina/ highland Quebrada Seca wood Conventional phytoliths 4500 100 ? (Babot 2004)
4 Ethnobotanic, Interdisciplinary, and Multidisciplinary Methodologies
Table 4.3 AMS dates from La Emerenciana (OOSrSr-42)

Sample data Measured 14C 13 12
C/ C Ratio Conventional 14C
Age Age
(a) Beta-125106 3720 40 B.P. 25.8 o/oo 3700 40 B.P.
Sample A Cat. No. 5480
Analysis: Standard AMS
Material/pretreatment:
(organic material/acid washes)
(b) Beta-125107 3810 50 B.P. 21.9 o/oo 3860 50 B.P.
Sample B Cat. No. 5623
Analysis: Standard AMS
Material/pretreatment:
(organic material/acid washes)
hunting, gathering, and foraging at one end of the spectrum and resulting in fully
developed agricultural societies on the other (Flannery 1969, 1972b; Gebauer and
Price 1992; Smith 2006). Much of the archaeological research along these lines has
been methodologically driven to focus on the cultural contexts into which fully
domesticated plants were introduced to different regions of the Neotropics and the
conditions under which indigenous plants were morphologically and genetically
altered by prehistoric cultures (Ford 1985a). Maize, perhaps more than any other
cultigens, has received the most attention by archaeologists and ethnobotanists.
What archaeologists documented early on is where and when along the developmen-
tal continuum was maize integrated into a fully agricultural economy in different
regions of the Americas. They used various lines of evidence to determine if food
staples like maize were a necessary prerequisite for the development of an agricul-
tural economy and social inequality (Smith 1998, 2005b). What the archaeological
evidence suggested from the early studies at various sites throughout Mesoamerica
was that human societies existed for thousands of years on a hunting and gathering
life style before they became dependent upon certain food crops for their survival
(MacNeish 1967b, 1985). Approximately 6,000 years ago, some societies across
Mesoamerica, Central and Andean South America began to carry out subsistence
strategies that involved an increased dependence upon domesticated plants such as
maize, beans (Phaseolus vulgaris), squash (Cucurbita pepo), and the bottle gourd
(Lagenana siceraria)8 (Piperno and Flannery 2001; Benz 2001; Freitas et al. 2003;
Smith 1997a, 2001, 2006; Piperno et al. 2009; Ranere et al. 2009). Botanists and
archaeologists puzzled over the ancestry of maize for over 100 years. Part of the
reason for this is morphological, in that domesticated varieties of cereals, grasses,
and grains such as wheat, barley, and rice are nearly identical structurally to living
8
The most important food plants in the New World include arrowroot, achira, chilli peppers
(Capsicum spp.), Xanthosoma tubers such as cassava (Manihot esculenta), and sweet potatoes
(Piperno and Pearsall 1998). The common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) was first domesticated at
about 500 BC (Smith 2005a, Table 1). Bottle gourds and squash were domesticated early in the
Holocene by Native populations in the Neotropics (Smith 1997a, 2000).
wild species, but this is not the case with maize (Fig. 4.4). The principal difference
is that, in the domesticated varieties of cereal grains and grasses such as maize, the
edible seeds tend to remain fastened on the plant, while their wild progenitors have
shattering inflorescences shattering is a mechanism by which the seeds of the
plant are dispersed naturally (Iltis 2000, 2006). For grasses and large seeds, a
nonbrittle rachis, and loss of mechanical means of protection are but several of
the most conspicuous of the many genetic changes that brought them into a depen-
dent relationship with humans (Mangelsdorf 1974). How they were selected remains
a critical question. Improved methodological and genetic approaches have in the
analysis of the cultural ecology as well as technological innovations since the early
1970s, provided a basis for increasingly detailed paleoclimatic reconstructions.
Recent studies have shown that plants selected by ancient foraging populations
were changed morphologically and genetically long before such patterns became
apparent in the archaeological record (e.g., Smith 1997a; Smith and Yarnell 2009).
Such adaptive patterns were not only changing the plants associated with human
adaptive patterns, but in various ways transformed the ancient landscape (Terrell
et al. 2003).
Fig. 4.4 Maize cobs presented as the evolutionary sequence, resulting from management and
conscious selection of certain traits by Archaic and ceramic period occupants in the Tehuacan
Valley. The three cobs from left to the right are from San Marcos Cave, the final two right
Coxcatlan Cave. (a) Early cultivated Abejas Phase maize; (b) Chapalote variety from the Palo
Blanco phase; (c) Chalote variety from the Venta Salada Phase; and (d) Cinico maize from the
Venta Salada Phase (from Mangelsdorf et al. 1967, Fig. 103)
Archaeologists focused on the early food production generated various lines of

evidence to determine whether a dependence upon food crops led to population
increases which induced environmental stress that ultimately favored food produc-
tion and a dependence upon crops such as wheat or maize (Binford 1968; Flannery
1969). The management and cultivation of increasingly productive varieties of
maize created conditions where a greater amount of food could be produced per
land unit with the use of domesticated plants in general (at least in the short term),
and there is good archaeological evidence to suggest that increased population
pressure in some areas may have created the conditions which favored farming as
a preferred adaptation. Agriculture and increased dependence upon certain crops is
in this sense an adaptive response to either a reduction in the carrying capacity of
the local environment and/or an increase in the human population (Binford 1968).
More recently, scholars have presented evidence that genetic changes in plants
such as maize were critical to the shift towards an agricultural economy (Smith
2006; Jaenicke-Despres and Smith 2006; Doebley et al. 2006). Other archaeologists
and botanists believe that humans gradually came to be more and more dependent
on the harvest of a limited number of species as a form of specialization, and
therefore, domestication was seen as the foundation of civilization (Watson and
Watson 1969, p. 94). These researchers have uncovered evidence of highly
specialized technologies, such as storage and ways to process foods that was also
of foremost importance (Rouse and Cruxent 1963). In other words, some believe
that it was related to specific technological innovations that made agriculture
necessary for human survival in some regions.
Studies of ancient DNA associated with archaeological maize from northeast
Mexico and the American southwest indicate a possibility that scientists have the
technology to track human selection for specific attributes that are not observable
morphologically in the archaeological cobs (Jaenicke-Despres and Smith 2006;
Jaenicke-Despres et al. 2003; Vigouroux et al. 2002, 2003). The seeming absence of
any morphological indicators for human selection emphasizes the importance of
combining genetic and archaeological research to reconstruct conscious and uncon-
scious selection of crop plants since the beginning of the Holocene. Recent genetic
research which traces the temporal and geographical radiation of maize from
southern Mexico to the limits of cultivation in the Americas compare very closely
to large scale efforts by archaeologists to track the gradual expansion of maize
cultivation in different regions of the Neotropics to areas of the north (Matsuoka
et al. 2002; Freitas et al. 2003; Blake 2006; Doebley et al. 2006). All these forms of
plant manipulation were in use for thousands of years until societies created new
food plants through deliberate or conscious selection. When humans began to
consciously domesticate the landscape, they essentially created plant communities,
which were to become the dominant components in their ancient diets (Smith
2006).
In the past 30 years, anthropologists and archaeologists have increasingly
emphasized that the evidence indicated that domestication in general and the
early domestication of maize in particular should not be seen as a kind of sudden
innovation or idea, but that it was a gradual process which took place over hundreds
if not thousands of years in each of the separate regions of the Americas (Smith
1998; Bellwood 2005). This idea was in line with the thinking of many plant
geneticists such as Mangelsdorf and archaeologists such as MacNeish. archaeolo-
gists studying early plant and animal domestication in the Old and New World
indicate that the transition from hunting and gathering to food production was very
gradual in some regions and more rapid in others. Preagricultural cultures began to
depend upon domesticated food staples because of a whole host of interrelated
causes (Braidwood and Reed 1957, p. 19). What the research in the Tehuacan valley
showed was that there are many variables that needed to be understood before
ethnobotanists, archaeologists, and anthropologists were able to reconstruct the
conditions under which maize agriculture was first regarded as profitable and
under which maize became a primary food crop (MacNeish 1967b, 1985, 1992).
archaeologists began to search for sites in which various factors such as population
pressure, distribution of plants and animals, the rate at which the environment (or
generic changes) climatic changes, and technologies then available all played an
important part in making agriculture more important to human survival. Food
production resulted, in a number of effects, which led away from the mobile
lifestyles of hunting and gathering, to sedentary villages (Flannery 1972a, b,
1973; Kelly 1995). Higher than normal population concentrations means more
people than are generally possible to be sustained by the environments. Thus,
certain groups within the society become specialized upon exploiting specific
species found in those regions (Flannery 1969; see also Binford, 1962, 1965).
Early agricultural sites are generally distributed in a linear fashion along major
streams. Such settlement patterns show differences in the size and function of the
habitations, and usually have burial grounds in association. Such cemeteries often
functioned as territorial boundaries (Flannery 1972b). Several lines of evidence also
suggest that the Amerindian societies who first brought these species under domesti-
cation may not have been seasonally mobile hunter-gatherers of higher elevation
environments exclusively.9 These explanations support the fact that most early
research on the origins of agriculture and food crops like maize was carried out at
rockshelters and caves. Early maize and other domesticates recovered from upland
caves may reflect a transition to a farming way of life accomplished by societies
occupying more sedentary settlements in river valleys. In some cases, upland caves
containing domesticates may represent one component in the seasonal round of early
food production by societies occupying nearby river valleys; in others, they may
mark the subsequent expansion of food production economies out of rich highland
river valley resource zones into adjacent upland environments (Flannery 1986c).
The increased dependence upon plants, mainly food crops, resulted in other
changes in the archaeological record that involved technologies specifically geared
9
According to MacNeish (1978), the Pre-ceramic societies of the Tehuacan Valley lived in small
microbands that dispersed periodically. Some camps accommodated only a single nuclear family,
while others sheltered much larger groups for part of the annual cycle (see also MacNeish 1999).
to their processing and consumption (Binford 1980, 1989). In other words, tool kits
specialized at exploiting certain species of plants and/or animals (Fig. 4.5). The
metate in the milpa depicted in this figure is from an old village site called Mopila,
near Yaxcaba, Yucatan, Mexico. The village was abandoned in the early twentieth
century, ca. 1930. The Maya families now live in Yaxcaba, but the descendants
continue to cultivate maize there due to the highly fertile black soil enriched by
centuries of previous habitation. The metate may date to an even older period of
use. At nearby Mopila, there are the ruins of a church that dates back to the 1600s,
and the presence of an accessible cenote suggests the area was almost certainly
inhabited prior to Spanish arrival. Stone grinding and processing tools such as
manos and metates were particularly important indicators of a dependence upon
domesticated plants, particularly maize, and were often perceived as synonymous
with its presence (Lathrap et al. 1975). Ultimately, plant production and an agricul-
tural economy involves the deliberate manipulation or conscious selection of
plants, intervening in their life cycle to make sure that some useful parts are
available for consumption or for some other possible economic use (Rindos 1984;
Heiser 1988; Zohary 2004). These preceramic societies often select certain char-
acteristics, such as multiear stalks or larger kernels, more rows, and put those cobs
aside to plant for the growing season, so that they reproduce more productive maize
harvests (Mangelsdorf et al. 1967). The growing bodies of evidence in the last
40 years indicate that ancient foragers were domesticating not only plants, but also
the landscapes to which they were adapting, that is, they were consciously harvest-
ing certain food crops and in the process changing their surroundings (Terrell et al.
2003). The domestication and increased dependence upon maize and other plants
was part of a long continuum of human interaction with the natural vegetation that
started with the first settlements (Ford 1985a; Smith 1986; Smith 1997a, 2000,
2001, 2006). Biologists working on existing plant and animal populations and
interdisciplinary archaeological investigations at ancient sedentary settlements
have steadily intensified the search for evidence of plant and animal domestication.
In the past decade, the initiation of a variety of new research approaches taken by
biologists and botanists as well as archaeologists, have applied new standards of
evidence that has radically changed our understanding of the adaptive shift from
foraging to farming in such a brief period of time, that many researchers are
only now coming to terms with the implications of these more recent results (see,
e.g., Staller et al. 2006).
4.2.1 Plant Domestication and Cultivation
The recent published data on plant biology, genetics, and ethnobotany has changed
and continue to influence the way in which archaeologists consider human/plant
interaction with Zea mays L. and food crops in general in their interpretations of the
archaeological record. The current consensus from the archaeological and
biological sciences is that cultivation of wild plants and potential domesticates
Fig. 4.5 (a) Specialized tool kits involving grinding implements such as manos and metates at
archaeological sites were seen as indirect and sometimes direct evidence for the presence of maize.
(b) Metate in the Lol-Tun Cave in northern Yucatan, Mexico. A person holds the mano to show
how maize and other plants would have been processed using such grinding implements. Lol-Tun
cave is an important archaeological site with evidence of occupation extending back to the pre-
Classic period. (Courtesy of John Tuxill) (Photograph by John Tuxill)
that are undergoing genetic change were not always necessarily designed or geared
to produce stable crops (Wright et al. 2005). Most early cultivation appears to have
been aimed at producing seasonal supplements to broad-based vegetable diets as a
guarantee to a bountiful harvest (Smith 2006). Such human selection may have
eliminated the need for wide-ranging searches for additional foods. The very act of
gathering vegetable foods can lead to unintentional or unconscious tending of
plants accidental seed dispersal and trampling can benefit wild resources as
well (Rindos 1984, p. 9091; see also Terrell et al. 2003). Intensive gathering or
selecting of larger seeds at the expense of smaller ones can also have unexpected
genetic consequences, selecting against less desirable traits (Rindos 1984, p. 9091;
see also Terrell et al. 2003). These changes were in some cases maintained over
time, even when intensive human exploitation ceases permanently or for parts of
the annual cycle. For instance, such accidental genetic changes may have caused
the condensing of the lateral branches and tiny cobs of teosinte (Z. mays ssp.
parviglumis), the indigenous wild grass that is the ancestor of domesticated maize
(Galinat 1985, p. 257259; Brown 1999; Doebley et al. 1990; Camus-Kulandaivelu
et al. 2008). In many regions of the Americas, archaic and Preceramic hunters and
gatherers used fire to encourage the regeneration of grasses and edible plants
(Simmons 1996; Redman 1999; Dull 2007). For example, California Indians used
fire to eliminate plant competitors under edible acorn oak trees, also to encourage
growth of Corylus sprouts, which they prized for making their baskets (Ford 1985a,
p. 3). The setting of controlled fires for certain species is not generally considered to
be an example of deliberate plant production, but it does show how such activities
can have dramatic effects on the plant and animal species in the local ecologies
(Lewis 1972; Redman 1999). Slash and burn cultivation is the primary technique
used by early agricultural societies to cultivate domesticates such as maize, beans,
and squash (Fig. 4.6a). In tropical environments, the cutting and burning of old
growth forest resulted in dramatic ecological changes over relatively short periods
of time (Fig. 4.6b). Such environmental alterations and changes can be identified
and recorded using a variety of techniques, but such data does little to provide
information on how plants were originally manipulated by archaic societies or how
the various floral and faunal components of a given ecology result in an agricultural
economy.
Richard Ford (1985a, p. 34, Figure 1.1) observed that food production begins
with deliberate care afforded the propagation of a species, what is referred to as
cultivation. Cultivation does not imply full domestication, but does infer that the
life cycle of a plant has in some way been disrupted by human selection (Ford
1985a, p. 4; Rindos 1989, p. 111). Humans generally collect larger quantities of
food because it enables them to obtain its products with greater ease in the course of
their annual cycle (Binford, 1965). Cultivation proceeds in several ways; weeding,
pruning, and otherwise tending plants are commonplace in many parts of the world
(Weatherwax 1954; Ford 1985a). Tending is a casual rather than conscious activity,
usually removing competing vegetation around root plants, weeding the soil near
important medicinal species, as is done in the American SW and the Peruvian
Amazon and usually results in a higher yield and therefore increased food
Fig. 4.6 (a) Slash and Burn cultivation is widespread throughout Mexico and Central America. A
mature milpa is being burned in Northern Yucatan, Mexico. Such activities usually take place in
April (b) A milpa or cornfield after burning. The ash and other sediments provide nutrients to the
soil. When such milpas are located near bodies of water, the rain deposits such sediments and
microfossils of the plants that were cultivated can be identified in pollen cores (Courtesy of John
Tuxill) (Photograph by John Tuxill)
production (Ford 1985a, p. 4). Tilling the soil with digging sticks or simple hoes
tends to encourage the germination of naturally dispersed seeds (Fig. 4.7). Grub-
bing the earth with simple digging sticks or hoes can increase the moisture retention
or aerate the ground (Weatherwax 1954, pp. 6062; Ford 1985a, pp. 45). Many
foragers used digging sticks to obtain tubers, removing lateral roots or bulbs at an
early stage in growth. One way that archaeologists and biological scientists working
with the Tehuacan collections determined when and if such activities occurred, is
by looking at plant remains in the various archaeological deposits, and then
determining whether there was some selection occurring over time with certain
species such as maize (see, e.g., Mangelsdorf et al. 1967; Kaplan 1967; Smith 1967;
Benz 2001; Benz et al. 2006).
Domesticated plants are ultimately cultural artifacts in that they could not exist
in nature without human assistance (Ford 1985a, p. 6). All these forms of plant
manipulation and management were being carried out for thousands of years until
people created new food plants through deliberate or conscious selection (Heiser
1988; Smith 2000, 2001, 2006). When humans began to consciously domesticate
the landscape, they created plant communities that were essentially the dominant
component in their ancient diets (Smith 1986, 2006). Some of these plants became
totally dependent upon humans for their reproduction while others did not and
either became extinct or returned sometimes in modified form to a wild state. This is
particularly the case with members of the grass family and chenopods in the Eastern
North America (see, e.g., Smith and Yarnell 2009).
Research on the evolution of plants in the past century has been generally
focused on the appearance of new species arising from environmental and cultural
Fig. 4.7 Modern day Peruvian farmers using digging sticks to till the soil. Prehistoric farmers
throughout the Americas used such implements to till the soil before cultivation. Tilling the soil
with digging sticks or simple hoes tends to encourage the germination of naturally dispersed seeds
(Courtesy of University of Illinois-Chicago)
selection and at the molecular level the genetic changes which resulted in domes-
ticated plants (Ford 1985a, p. 11). The general genetic mechanisms underlying
mutation and genotypic variability in domesticated plants have been of greatest
scientific concern to researchers (Pickersgill and Heiser 1976; Doebley et al. 2006).
Genetic approaches to crop domestication traditionally begin with detailed analysis
of plant morphology or phenotype and extend back to how these traits are regulated
by genes (Doebley et al. 2006). Researchers working with landraces of various
kinds of food crops, on the other hand, employ a population genetic approach
beginning with genes and determine whether these genes were targets of selection
(e.g., Dorweiler and Doebley 1997; Dorweiler et al. 1993; Jaenicke-Despres et al.
2003; Gallavotti et al. 2004). Such research involves comparing genetically mod-
ified plants with their wild counterparts. The genes controlling morphological and
structural changes during domestication are referred to as transcriptional regulators
and it is this class of genes that play a central role in the domestication and regulate
the morphological development in plants (Doebley 1994; Doebley et al. 1983,
1984, 1997; 2006; Iltis 2006; Dorweiler and Doebley 1997; Dorweiler et al.
1993; Doebley and Lukens 1998). For example, research in molecular biology
documented that the genetic locus, called tga1, controls induration, orientation,
length, and shape of the glume architecture (Dorweiler 1996, p. 20). Perhaps the
most significant breakthrough has been through analytical techniques at the
molecular level of plant DNA (Matsuoka et al. 2002; Gallavotti et al. 2004). A
series of recently published reports from molecular biology and plant genetics have
also seriously challenged previous interpretations regarding the domestication and
spread of maize in the Neotropics. Analysis of microsatellites on ancient maize
DNA has demonstrated unequivocally that this event occurred in a single location
(Matsuoka et al. 2002). The locus of initial domestication is now considered to
have occurred in Balsas River drainage of Central Mexico. These data further
indicate that Z. mays L. had a single evolutionary progenitor, the wild grass teosinte
Z. mays spp. parviglumis and that its early spread out of Central America was along
a highland corridor (Matsuoka et al. 2002, p. 6083; see also Freitas et al. 2003).
Thus, the current consensus among geneticists and botanists is that the maize from
highland Mexico along a highland corridor:
Among archaeologists, there have been two models for the early diversification of maize.
According to one, because the oldest directly dated fossil maize comes from the Mexican
highlands, then the early diversification of maize occurred in the highlands with maize
spreading to the lowlands at a later date. The second model interprets maize phytoliths from
the lowlands as the oldest maize, and accordingly places the early diversification of maize
in the lowlands. Our data suggest that maize diversified in the highlands before it spread to
the lowlands (Matsuoka et al. 2002, p. 6083).
As noted in the previous chapter on the history of science surrounding the origins
of maize, a central issue was the virtual absence of teosinte in Preceramic highland
caves and rockshelters. It was at least in part the fact that teosinte was not exploited
by humans for food that called into question how maize was originally domesti-
cated, and how and when its evolutionary progenitor was first modified through
human intervention and natural selection (Iltis 2000, 2006; see also Smalley and
Blake 2003).
The innovative, and in some cases, iconoclastic published research from the
biological sciences, particularly the work of Hugh Iltis and John Doebley and their
associates, have redefined the way in which archaeologists interpret the domestica-
tion of maize. This particularly emphasizes its mutational properties and the rate at
which it was domesticated and then modified by human selection. It is becoming
increasingly apparent that these recently published results and those of various
plant geneticists from different parts of the world have revolutionized the way in
which the academic community has begun to rethink the biological evolution of
maize and its biogeography in the New World. These various lines of evidence have
also influenced the initial assumptions regarding the economic role of maize to
ancient hunters and gatherers and later agricultural societies. It is increasingly
apparent that these data have a multidimensional effect on the scientific community
and are constantly challenging archaeologists, biologists, and ethnobotanists to
reconsider previous assumptions about the evolution and role of maize in the
prehistoric past. The basis for much of the archaeological, botanical, and molecular
research on maize was derived at least in part by the pioneering research of
archaeologists and botanists in highland Mexico in the Tamaulipas caves, and the
Valley of Tehuacan and Oaxaca (Fig. 4.8).
Texas
SIE
R
RA
Gulf of Mexico
SIE
M
AD
RR
RE
MEXICO
AM
OR
AD
IEN
RE
Tamaulipas
TA
OC
L
CI
DE
N
TA
L
Tehuacan velley
Valley of Oaxaca
SIE R
RRA M SU
ADRE DEL BELIZE
Chiapas
SIE A
RRA DE OAXAC SI
ER
RA GUATEMALA
MA
Pacific Ocean DR
E
EL SALVADOR
Fig. 4.8 Map of Mesoamerica showing the location of the Tamaulipas cave, and the Tehuacan and
Oaxaca Valleys
4.2.2 Approaches to Domestication and Cultivation in the

Tehuacan Valley
The historical beginning of interdisciplinary research on early agriculture and on

plant domestication have been greatly influenced by scholarship in the biological
sciences and botany (e.g., Kaplan 1967; Smith 1967; Cutler and Whitaker 1967;
Mangelsdorf et al. 1967). As apparent in the previous chapter, the research on
teosinte, the progenitor of maize, had a profound influence on the archaeological
interpretations of early agriculture. This is in part because maize was the primary
economic staple in the nuclear areas of sociocultural development during the
contact period, and secondarily because its progenitor was seen as morphologically
different, and did not appear to have been consumed as a food crop. The interdisci-
plinary research on early agriculture in the New World not only influenced the
kinds of plants that would be the focus of attention, but what kinds of environmental
settings and prehistoric sites would be considered for such research.
It was a scholarly interest in the origins of maize that made the Tehuacan Valley
research possible. MacNeish (1961, 1962) initiated fieldwork at a series of caves
and rockshelters in the highland Tehuacan Valley of Puebla, Mexico, on the advice
of Paul Mangelsdorf. Little was known about the Preceramic cultures of Meso-
america or the beginnings of agriculture in the New World. The archaeological
research in the semi-arid highlands of northeastern Mexico focused on many dry
caves, because it was in these localities that plant parts along with the ancient tools
for gathering and processing were best preserved (Smith 1967, 1986; Mangelsdorf
et al. 1967). This is a region of the Americas that is known for its striking ecological
diversity. Neotropical diversity is created in part by the mountainous terrain and
valleys where, the altitude, rainfall, and soil differences create innumerable
regional variations in the local ecology and geology. The rich volcanic soils and
tropical ecology fostered an adaptation that was focused on the plant life from the
very early periods. The interdisciplinary research of MacNeish has produced
archaeological evidence of a sequence of adaptations, from hunting and gathering
to fully agricultural societies (MacNeish 1978, 1992). These studies documented in
considerable detail the gradual processes and adaptations that ultimately led to
sedentary villages and an agricultural way of life.
MacNeish (1961) chose to search for the origins of maize (Z. mays L.) in the
relatively small Tehuacan Valley because of the arid climate and its positive effects
on the preservation of faunal and macrobotanical remains. Preliminary excavations
unearthed fragments of basketry and plant materials in limestone cave deposits.
MacNeish (1947, 1958) already had recovered small 5,000-year-old cobs in cave
deposits in both the northeastern Mexican state of Tamaulipas and the southern
state of Chiapas (see Fig. 4.8). Indirect association through conventional 14C dating
of organic materials from the same stratigraphic layers generally determines the
antiquity of these archaeological cobs. The initial results suggested that these
earliest domesticates dated to between 7000 and 10000 B.P., which was roughly
contemporaneous with such developments in the Old World (MacNeish 1992,
p. 7778). The 7,000-year-old date became associated with the origins of maize
by many archaeologists and was the generally accepted chronology until the advent
of AMS dating. It should be noted that maize appeared relatively late in the
archaeological deposits in the Tehuacan Valley (Johnson and MacNeish 1972,
p. 17). Richard MacNeish (1967a, p. 3) maintained that research surrounding
early agriculture and the origins of plant domestication was best explored by
cooperative research between botanists and archaeologists. He hypothesized, on
the basis of the botanical and genetic evidence, that the earliest maize was of even
greater antiquity and would be found in the highland valley of Tehuacan, situated
between Tamaulipas and Chiapas (MacNeish 1967b, p. 1415). The maize cob
Coxcatlan Cave radiocarbon dated by association to 3610 BC [M-1089] indicating
that this highland valley had great potential for answering questions regarding the
origins of maize and early agriculture (see also Johnson and MacNeish 1972, p. 17).
In order to test this hypothesis, MacNeish (1967b, Fig. 2, 1978, Fig. 2.2) designed an
interdisciplinary methodological approach in the Tehuacan valley. This research
was focused on examining what variables ultimately led to the domestication of food
crops such as maize, and if these changes in adaptation provided the foundation for
later Mesoamerican civilization (MacNeish 1992).
The research in the Tehuacan Valley was regional in scope, involving a settle-
ment survey that located the remains of more than 450 pre-Hispanic sites over the
1,500 km2 (575 sq. miles) of the valley (MacNeish 1967b, p. 2224). Given the
primary goals of the project, excavations were focused on a series of 12 caves and
open-air rockshelters. On the basis of this archaeological research and stratigraphic
excavations, a large number of 14C dates were recorded and produced evidence of a
continuous occupation of the valley spanning 10,000-years (MacNeish 1967b,
p. 1819). Various archaeological projects over the past 50 years have documented
the gradual transitions in different regions as people moved from nomadic but
intensive exploitation of wild foods to settled cultivation, and ultimately to a

dependence upon a few domesticated plants. The Tehuacan cultural sequence was
the longest recorded in the New World at that time. On the basis of the artifacts (tool
kits), macrobotanical and faunal remains, the researchers were able to reconstruct
the seasonality of resource availability and the scheduling of resource extraction
(MacNeish 1978, pp. 146148, 152153). Seasonality and scheduling were found
to be critical data sets from which to reconstruct the annual preceramic subsistence
cycle. The Tehuacan research suggested that the problem confronting New World
hunters and gatherers about 8,000 years ago was how to cultivate and collect a set of
food plants that provided sufficient nutrition and a well-balanced diet through the
annual round (MacNeish 1978, 1992).
The results indicated that the early inhabitants of Tehuacan scheduled their
seasonal movements to coincide with the periodic availability of local plant and
animal species adapted to the riverbanks at the foothills to the mountains (MacNeish
1978, 1992). These Preceramic foragers hunted terrestrial mammals such as rabbits
and deer and the supplemented plants in the diet (Flannery 1967, pp. 134135).
During the MayOctober rainy season, edible plants were more abundant, and a
diversity of seeds, cactus fruits, and berries were exploited, in addition to the
bountiful seedpods of the mesquite tree. Small game, birds, and lizards, were
hunted and consumed at this time, and the band sizes of human groups was
generally larger. Although some fruits were still available during the early part of
the dry season (January to April), cactus leaves and deer apparently were the staples
during the dry season (Fig. 4.9a, b). The primary sources of meat protein among
Mesoamerican populations were deer and turkeys, while in the Central highlands
and along the Gulf and south Pacific coast they were aquatic resources (Chisholm
and Blake 2006; Parsons 2006). Although this way of life persisted for almost
6,500 years, from 8000 to 1500 BC, several important dietary changes did take place
(MacNeish 1967c). A wild ancestor of the domesticated squash was used
8,000 years ago, probably as a container or for its protein-rich seeds10 (Whittaker
et al. 1957; Culter and Whittaker 1967; Smith 2005a) (see Fig. 4.1a,b). The
radiocarbon and archaeological evidence indicates that squash was domesticated
about 4,000 years before maize. Squash was one of the so-called Three Sisters
cultivated by Native Amerindians, that is, the three main indigenous plants asso-
ciated with early agriculture: maize, beans, and squash, which were often cultivated
together in agricultural fields (Mt. Pleasant 2006).
It was only after this 6,500-year period that domesticated varieties of squash,
avacado, zapotes, chili peppers, and the earliest known maize appeared in the
Tehuacan Valley (Smith 1967, Table 26; Mangelsdorf et al. 1967, Fig. 96). The
archaeological evidence suggests that these early domesticates represented a minor
portion of the diet, which largely consisted of wild plants and animals (Flannery
1967, pp. 156162). It was also during the Coxcatlan Phase that storage
10
Archaeological evidence suggests that squash (Curcurbita pepo L.) may have been first
cultivated in Mesoamerica ca. 8,00010,000 years ago (Roush 1997; Smith 1997a).
Fig. 4.9 (a) Present day Mexican populations still depend upon hunting to varying degrees for
their meat protein. Yucatecan hunters take home their prize. Deer was and still is a major source of
meat protein (Courtesy of John Tuxill) (Photograph by John Tuxill). (b) Turkeys were essential to
the ancient Mesoamerica diet. They were often penned in and kept in villages as well as sold in the
Pre-Columbian markets. They along with migratory fowl were important sources of protein in the
ancient Mesoamerican diet. These turkeys were from Sayil, Yucatan (Courtesy of Michael
D. Carrasco) (Photograph by Michael D. Carrasco)
technologies begin to play a larger role in the subsistence round. Thus, these initial
experiments in cultivation that in some cases led toward plant domestication
occurred among a population that was largely mobile and remained so for
thousands of years (MacNeish 1978, pp. 146151). The Tehuacan research created
a set of ethnobotanical and archaeological data from which to analysis human/
environmental interaction over very long span of time, in a region where maize and
other crops appear very early in archaeological sediments (Smith 1967; Flannery
1967). In his report on field research, MacNeish (1967b, Fig. 2) maintained that the
archaic diet was primarily made up of plant resources (see also Callen 1967). Their
results indicate that the diet composed almost entirely of vegetables, fruits, nuts,
and berries, with very little meat protein, other than turkey and a native breed of
dog. Tropical lowland and highland zones traded products peculiar to each cacao
from the tropical lowlands and avocados from the highlands (MacNeish 1967,
1978). Later breakthroughs in stable carbon isotope and strontium isotope analysis
would provide more precise data regarding paleodiet and the role of certain plants,
such as maize in the prehistoric diet (e.g., Tykot 2006; Tykot et al. 2006; Burger and
van der Merwe 1990; Tykot and Staller 2002).
The research results on domestication with respect to maize (Z. mays L.)
suggests that this was achieved relatively late, about 5,400 years ago and even
then it was an unimproved variety, good only for chewing for the juices (Mangelsdorf
et al. 1967). Their excavation and survey results indicate that more productive
varieties had been developed and adapted to nearly all Mesoamerican climates by
1600 BC (Mangelsdorf et al. 1967, Fig. 103106; MacNeish 1978, p. 178). The
macrobotanical evidence from the various Tehuacan Cave sites indicate a gradual
increase in the overall proportion of both wild and domesticated plant foods being
harvested (MacNeish 1978, p. 179). The wild ancestors of the major Mesoamerican
cultigens maize, beans, and squash are all highland plants. Thus, it is not
surprising that the earliest archaeological evidence for Mesoamerican agriculture
has been found in highland valleys like Tehuacan and Oaxaca (Whitaker et al. 1957;
MacNeish 1961, 1962, 1967b; Flannery 1986). The dry caves in these upland valleys
are recognized for their superb archaeological preservation. Significantly, some of
the earliest sedentary villages in Mesoamerica are established in the coastal low-
lands, where the highland cultigens eventually were incorporated into a subsistence
economy that featured marine resources and lowland plants (Chisholm and Blake
2006). A single circular pithouse, the earliest in Mesoamerica when reported, was
identified in a 5,000-year-old level at an open air site in the region (MacNeish 1978,
p. 154). Data from the Tehuacan Valley uncovered very early evidence of cultivation
and the adaptations surrounding early plant domestication among societies that
remained residentially mobile for thousands of years (MacNeish 1985).
The Tehuacan sequence also reveals an increase in population and a decrease in
the residential mobility. Based on the size and number of sites, the total population
density for the Tehuacan Valley may have increased several fold during this period,
but sedentary villages only appeared 4,0003,000 years ago (MacNeish 1978,
pp. 154156). The occurrence of such sites coincides with the spread of more
productive maize varieties to different sites in the valley. The conventional 14C
dates for maize at Tehuacan appear in cave deposits dating to the end of the sixth
millennium BC (MacNeish 1967b, 1978). These early ears were no more than 3 or
4 cm in length, with no more than four to eight rows of kernels (see Fig. 4.4 see also
Fig. 2.7) (Mangelsdorf 1967, Fig. 103). The highlanders in the Tehuacan Valley
adopted maize in small-organized seasonally mobile societies rather than habita-
tions in sedentary villages (MacNeish 1978, pp. 154155). These groups added
maize to their diet without radically changing their social or economic behavior
(MacNeish 1978, 1985).
In the last 30 years, the antiquity of many of the proposed food crops in the
Americas, as well as their contexts of domestication, have been reexamined and
consistently produced more recent dates than had been initially published on the
basis of associated dates (Blake 2006, p. 68). The recent direct AMS dates on the
early maize cobs from the Tehuacan cave cluster around the mid-third millennium
BC is approximately two millennia younger than previously reported (Long et al.
1989; Benz and Long 2000; Blake 2006), and are generally consistent with the
reported increase in the population density and changes in settlement patterns
(MacNeish 1978, 1999). The AMS dates provide a revised timetable for the
arrival of maize and more productive varieties in the highland Tehuacan Valley
(Table 3.1).
The ground breaking research in the Tehuacan Valley fostered cooperation
among a diverse group of scientists from a variety of disciplines to the question
of the origin of maize and agriculture. The project brought together archaeologists,
zoologists, botanists, and geneticists to solve the mystery of the origin of maize and
in the process, gathered data that generated a cultural sequence of considerable time
depth. These data included Archaic occupations in those Preceramic periods when
the processes of domestication were changing this arid highland landscape. The
multidisciplinary research in the Tehuacan valley generated a large body of data
about prehistoric adaptations and interactions with plants and animals, and about
the genetic and morphological processes underlying conscious and unconscious
human selection (Mangelsdorf et al. 1967).
Research on early agriculture by MacNeish has spanned the tropical lowlands of
Belize to semi-arid highlands of northeastern Mexico, as well as cave sites in the
Andes mountains (MacNeish 1992; MacNeish et al. 1981). Since most of his research
was involved with dry cave sites, the excavations he directed have produced a large
body of data, primarily plant parts and ancient tools used for gathering and proces-
sing. This difficult research has documented the primary features associated with the
adaptive shift to a greater dependence upon domesticated food crops. His results
indicate that such developmental processes were for the most part gradual, that is,
spanned long periods of time and generally resulted in a shift in settlement toward
village agricultural life. There is little in the way of documented evidence to suggest a
great leap forward or a rapid transition as envisioned by some archaeologists and
theorists in the beginning of the last century. His results also indicate that each region
had its own inventory of native plants that varied slightly or greatly from that of other
zones (MacNeish 1978, 1992). Therefore, the first steps toward domestication
of plants were accompanied by regional trading of plants. By this means, selection
of desirable traits and hybridization were accelerated. Eventually, each region of
Mesoamerica emerged with a large set of native and imported plants that were
suitable to its altitude, rainfall, and soils. Viable combinations of food plants were
achieved in some precocious zones by 2000 BC and in most regions by about 1500 BC.
Botanists and geneticists working with archaeological collections provided an indis-
pensable foundation for further research on the potential progenitors of domesticated
plants as well as the early adaptive changes generally associated with an agricultural
economy (MacNeish 1978, 1992).
The introduction of methods and techniques initially developed in the biological

sciences and botany greatly influenced the archaeological research on early agri-
culture after the Tehuacan Valley project and particularly after publication of the
fieldwork by Flannery and his associates in Oaxaca in the mid 1980s. The use of
Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) and the identification of plant microfossils
had a major impact on the research surrounding early plant domestication, particu-
larly research involving the origins and spread of maize. The Tehuacan Valley
research was carried out before such technological breakthroughs, but the system-
atic and careful excavation and use of flotation, fine screens, and botanical identifi-
cation were considered major methodological breakthroughs at that time in
archaeology (Willey and Sabloff 1980). As evident from the previous chapter,
botanists and plant morphologists laid the foundation for later research by archaeo-
logists. They reported on the potential ancestors of an array of domesticated plants
and described their behavior and biogeography. Such research also provided a basis
for analyzing the mutational steps that led to domestication and specified the
associated phenotypic changes. They have also played an important role in recon-
structing the prehistoric environments and identified habitats where potential
domesticates survived and provided technical identifications of plant remains
recovered in ever increasing detail by archaeologists.
4.2.3 Approaches to Domestication and Cultivation in Oaxaca
Later interdisciplinary research in Oaxaca by the University of Michigan, Ann

Arbor on the early domestication and cultivation also provided important evidence
of early maize and the domestication of various food crops. Kent V. Flannery
directed the field research and had previously spent several field seasons as a faunal
analyst on the Tehuacan interdisciplinary team. Thus, the Oaxaca research was
modeled to varying degrees after the Tehuacan Valley research. The interdisciplin-
ary researchers in Oaxaca focused their efforts on a preceramic cave at Cueva
Blanca, and thus, with support from the Smithsonian Research Foundation and
National Science Foundation, The Prehistory and Human Ecology in Valley of
Oaxaca Project was initiated. Like the Tehuacan Project, the archaeological
research in Oaxaca was also first and foremost, focused on the origins of maize.11
The interdisciplinary research in Oaxaca was also regional in scope involving
survey and excavations at a number of sites. Caves and rockshelters were again a
focus of excavation because the low soil moisture provided ample macrobotanical
evidence of early domesticates and better preservation of the ancient plant remains
(Flannery 1986a, 1986d).
11
The research in Oaxaca produced an incredible body of macrobotanical data, including ancient
samples of major food crops such as maize.
The small Guila Naquitz Rockshelter12 was the focus of extensive excavations
since the ground surface remains included chipped stone flakes and half of a
projectile point, indicating the presence of preceramic occupation. Flannery and
his field crew carefully peeled away the layers of occupation floors, with the earliest
dating back to 87506670 BC (Flannery 1986d). Based on careful retrieval and
analysis of the floral, faunal, and artifactual remains found in the cave strata, they
concluded that the rockshelter was occupied during the dry season between August
and December.
The archaeological contents of the Oaxaca cave strata indicated that a diversity
of plant foods, such as acorns and the roasted beans of maguey plants (the source of
tequila and mescal as well as cloth) were exploited and collected from the surround-
ing thorn forest. In the course of their annual round plant foods, such as mesquite
pods and hackberries were brought back to the rockshelter (Smith 1986). A small
part of the Guila Naquitz diet, came from squash (Cucurbita pepo) and bean
(P. vulgaris) plants, which may have been tended or cultivated in the disturbed
terrain around the site (Flannery 1986a, p. 67). Consumption and cultivation of the
wild squash may have been a first step toward eventual domestication (Flannery
1986a, p. 89). A variety of nuts, seeds, fruits, and cactus eaten during late summer
and early autumn were supplemented by a small amount of venison and rabbit meat
(Flannery 1986c, pp. 313315). Although beer and rabbit bones appeared in small
numbers in their excavations, they nevertheless provided much of the protein
consumed by archaic and preceramic societies at the Guila Naquitz rockshelter
(Flannery 1986c, pp. 314). It appears that seasonally abundant plant foods may have
been collected from the immediate vicinity of the rockshelter (Flannery 1986c).
Neither maize cobs nor kernels were identified in these ancient levels (Flannery
1986a,Table 1.1). However, years later a direct AMS date on one of the early cobs
at Guila Naquitz produced the earliest assay recorded thus far in Mesoamerica at
5420 B.P. or dendrocalibrated at 2s age ranges to 43404228 CAL. BC (Piperno and
Flannery 2001, Table 1).
The Preceramic collecting strategy was interpreted as a broad spectrum adapta-
tion, associated with an increase of storage facilities to extend the seasonal avail-
ability of food crops such as maize and beans 13(Flannery 1986a, p. 1314; Binford
1980, p. 18, 1989). The greater dependence upon plant resources to the Preceramic
diet in these regions is related to biodiversity, the smaller body size of terrestrial
mammals in the Neotropics, and the semi-arid climate, which restricts the growing
season (Flannery 1986a; Binford 2001). Storage does not appear to become a major
12
The Guila Naquitz Rockshelter has a small overhang and artifactual surface remains diagnostic
of the pre-ceramic and archaic periods (Flannery 1986a). In the Native Zapotec language, Guila
Naquitz means, white cliff.
13
Binford (1980) and Flannery (1969, 1986a) emphasize a broad spectrum adaptation in associa-
tion with procurement strategies in the shift to agricultural production, in both the Old and New
World. However, the Neotropics are characterized by greater biodiversity and terrestrial mammals
of the smaller body size reflected by a greater dependence upon plant resources than is evident in
archaeological remains from the Old World (see Binford 1989, 2001).
factor in extending seasonal availability of plant resources until late in the

sequence, in association with the appearance of maize (Flannery 1986a, p. 13).
Archaeologists reported that the archaic occupants of Guila Naquitz were
organized into small groups, or microbands, composed of a series of mobile nuclear
families living in several different camps during the course of their yearly activities
(Flannery 1986c). The gradual process of interdependence between humans and
certain plants related to domestication was recorded in these data. The research also
provided valuable evidence on early maize morphology and taxonomy, as well as
specified the necessary phenotypic changes that resulted in the domestication process
(e.g., Benz 2001). They reconstructed prehistoric environments associated with the
various Preceramic layers, as well as, suggested habitats where potential domesticates
would have been exploited (Flannery 1973, 1986ac; Kirkby et al. 1986).
Flotation recovery has become widely employed throughout the Americas, and
dramatically increased the recovery of the fragmentary carbonized remains of both
wild and domesticated plants from caves and rockshelters, as well as open air
archaeological sites in river and stream valley alluvial (floodplain) settings
(Smith 1986; Pearsall 1989, 2000; Piperno and Pearsall 1998). Botanists and
archaeologists have benefited from the recovery of archaeological plant parts for
hypotheses testing issues surrounding crop evolution and biogeography. Interdisci-
plinary research at Guila Naquitz provided data on the collection and processing of
plant foods and the butchering and consumption of animals, stone tool manufacture,
the digging of pits to store acorns, the use of fire pits to prepare food, and even the
collection of leaves for bedding in the cave. The subsistence adaptation remained
stable and changed very little over the millennia of intermittent occupations (Flannery
1986c, pp. 315316). These research projects illustrate how archaeologists can
reconstruct the events of the past into a detailed picture of ancient life just before
the advent of agricultural economies in the highlands of ancient Mexico.
The methodological approaches and macrobotanical collections generated in
these two important archaeological projects provided a basis for later genetic
allozyme and DNA analysis, which resulted in the identification of the wild
progenitors of a number of important domesticated food crops (Smith 1997a;
Doebley et al. 2006). Allozyme and DNA analysis comparing modern domesticates
and wild populations from sites such as the Guila Naquitz rockshelter and Tehuacan
valley caves and rockshelters have provided evidence of the wild progenitors of
squash (Cucurbita pepo L.), common beans (P. vulgaris), Lima beans (P. unatis),
and maize (Z. mays L.) (Smith 2006). Because they were carried out near the region
that maize was first domesticated, their role in understanding the adaptations and
processes that underlay the domestication of Z. mays have made them critical to
archaeologists as well as scholars in the biological sciences. The present day
geographical range of these progenitor populations has, in turn, suggested possible
centers for the domestication of these crop plants different from those initially
identified on the basis of archaeological evidence.
The general focus of research in the highland Valleys of Tehuacan and Oaxaca
and the large body of macrobotanical remains have to some extent biased the
archaeological record with regard to early agriculture and the origins of maize
(Piperno and Pearsall 1998, p. 31). In the absence of any parallel evidence of early
crop food plants from lowland river valley sites, due largely to lack of preservation in
the tropical and subtropical soils, it was generally assumed that such plants were first
domesticated in upland environments in proximity to caves and rockshelters rather
than in the more fertile, better watered soils of riverine settings (Mangelsdorf 1974;
Smith 1977, 1986; MacNeish 1978). The more recent use of charred food residues to
the identification of early cultigens has been particularly critical to the identification
of maize in lowland and early coastal settings (Thompson 2006; Staller and
Thompson 2000, 2002; Thompson and Staller 2001).
Excavation in riverine settings has uncovered settlements with deep cultural
deposits that appear to have been occupied throughout, much if not all of the year,
over a long period, that is, sedentary villages (Flannery 1972; MacNeish 1992,
p. 286; Blake et al. 1992). These open-air settlements have produced evidence
of early domesticates as ancient and often of greater antiquity than those recovered
from upland caves and rockshelters, one notable exception in this regard is maize
(Piperno and Flannery 2001). What research in such arid upland valleys as Tehuacan
and Oaxaca demonstrated is that these caves and rockshelters primarily represented
seasonal camp sites of small family groups (MacNeish 1978, 1992; Flannery 1986b,
c). One of the more surprising findings of the Tehuacan and Oaxacan regional
surveys was that many early sedentary agricultural societies were still dependent
upon wild plants and animals at least to some extent for their subsistence (Flannery
1986c, 2002). This suggested that the transition to food production and a dependence
upon food crops was related to some extent on the environmental setting and
seasonal availability of resources (Binford 1964, 1965, 1968; Flannery 1986a).
Advances in the analysis of plant remains from archaeological sites reopened the
consideration of the temporal, environmental, and cultural context of agricultural
origins in the Americas (Ford 1985a; Flannery 1986c; Smith 1986; MacNeish
1992). The results produced a large body of evidence on early foraging adaptations,
plant cultivation, and early agriculture, in a more humid upland valley setting
(Kirkby et al. 1986, p. 48). The research in the Tehuacan valley and Oaxaca
generated a considerable body of the primary data on early plant domestication
and agriculture in Mesoamerica. These data essentially formed the basis of much of
the archaeological theory and model building on the origins of agriculture as well as
the origins of a number of important food crops such as maize up to the present
(e.g., Benz 2001; Benz and Long 2000; Smith 1997b, 2000, 2005a; Piperno and
Flannery 2001; Blake 2006; Smith and Yarnell 2009). These important interdisci-
plinary projects established the need for detailed information on plant morphology,
particularly early cultigens, as well as large well-preserved macrobotanical remains
as critical data for understanding the early agriculture and the process of domesti-
cation (Ford 1985a). Consequently, as more archaeological projects incorporated
research from ethnobotanists and plant morphologists, and more type collections
were generated with flotation recovery, there was an incremental increase in
knowledge regarding the morphology of cultivated and domesticated plants and
their wild progenitors. The selection process that transformed certain species such
as maize into economically productive landraces is as yet not well documented by
social and biological scientists (Wilkes 1989, p. 441). The general assumption, until
the maize varieties studies initiated by Mangelsdorf (1974) over 40 years ago was
that there was a conscious selection to ever more productive landraces (e.g.,
Wellhausen et al. 1952). However, the conscious and unconscious maintenance
of landraces by indigenous farmers over long periods of time challenged their
overall assumption of increased grain yield as apparent in the ear of the plant,
and how this was reflected in the phylogenetic relationships of the various landraces
(Fig. 4.10). The previous chapter made quite clear the problems inherent to using
Fig. 4.10 The general tendency for indigenous farmers to select for ever more productive land-
races is complicated by recent linguistic and ethnographic evidence, which indicates the human
selection for maintaining, kernel color, and shape, as evident by this nal teel variety from the
northern Yucatan. The cob has orange-red colored kernels and measures about 10 cm in length
(Courtesy of John Tuxill) (Photograph by John Tuxill)
morphological traits of the ear, kernel shape, etc., to reconstruct phylogenies (see,
e.g., Doebley 1994; Iltis and Doebley 1980).
These data underscore the need for more exacting standards of evidence of plant
domestication throughout the Americas (Smith 2001, 2006). In a landmark study,
Harlan (1975) and others have identified both the range of likely morphological
markers of domestication in seed plants and the specific human actions that caused
these morphological and genetic changes (Dorweiler 1996 Dorweiler et al. 1993;
Jaenicke-Despres et al. 1993; Doebley et al. 1997; 2006; Gallavotti et al. 2004).
These changes from the morphology of wild forms are primarily greater seed size,
thinner seed coats, and loss of natural seed dispersal mechanisms such as nonbrittle
rachis in maize (Iltis 2006; Doebley et al. 2006).
These changes, when documented by SEM or other microscopic analysis in
specimens constitute the primary and essential class of evidence for the domestica-
tion of seed plants in the Americas. The Tehuacan Valley and later Oaxaca research
projects established that these processes occurred from the beginning of the Holo-
cene and continued after the appearance of sedentary villages, consequently much
subsequent research on the origins of food production was focused on sites dating to
before 1500 BC where the Amerindian societies brought plants under domestication,
and advances in the analysis of plant remains from archaeological sites reopened
consideration of the temporal, environmental, and cultural context of agricultural
origins in the Americas. The major focus of the literature surrounding early plant
domestication and agriculture in the Americas has been centered on maize. As
evident from previous chapters of this book, such research was largely inspired by
the perception among scholars and scientists that it provided the economic basis for
the rise of civilization in the New World.
4.3 Ethnobotanical Approaches to Early Agriculture

and Biogeography
Technological innovations such as scanning electron microscopy (SEM), digital

enhancement through optical stereology, and accelerator mass spectrometer 14C
dating (AMS) of plant microfossils in residues are dramatically changing our
understanding of the chronology and biogeography of early agriculture in the
Americas. These techniques and technologies have also expanded those regions
of the Americas where archaeologists and ethnobotanists have been able to look for
evidence of such domesticates and have been particularly influential in our previous
understanding of the spread and antiquity of maize in the Neotropics. In the past
30 years, archaeologists and paleobotanists have looked for evidence of such plants,
particularly maize, in the coastal regions and tropical forest lowland settings.
Intense research for evidence of early agriculture in the coastal and tropical lowland
environmental zones of Mexico and the southcentral Andes is relatively recent,
4.3 Ethnobotanical Approaches to Early Agriculture and Biogeography 185
when compared to the early studies focused on the macrobotanical remains in the
Mexican highlands, Neotropics, and American SW (e.g., Sauer 1952; MacNeish
1948, 1958, 1962; Cutler 1952). A number of archaeological sites with associated
dates and purported evidence of early plant domestication and spread of agriculture
in the Neotropics have been sampled for microfossil remains of plants. These data
include pollen extracted from sediments and carbon residues in pottery, desiccated
coprolites (coprolites can also contain phytoliths, but their preservation in tropical
regions are rare), phytoliths from archaeological sediments, and starch grains,
usually identified on the surface of ancient processing tools and is not a new
technique in archaeology (Ugent et al. 1984, 1986; see also Thompson 2005,
2006, 2007). However, the identification of food crops such as maize and manioc
from the edges of grinding stones (primarily, manos and the surfaces of ancient
metates) is more recent (Rossen et al. 1996; Chandler-Ezell et al. 2006). The vast
majority of site microfossil data reported thus far consist of pollen cores and
phytoliths from archaeological soils at sites in Mexico, Guatemala, Belize, Costa
Rica, Panama, Colombia, and particularly Ecuador.
Despite the relatively poor preservation in such tropical environmental settings,
paleoethnobotanists have documented the presence of food plants, particularly
economic staples, through the identification of microfossils such as pollen, phyto-
liths, starch residues and remote sensing (e.g., Pohl et al. 1996; Piperno and Pearsall
1998; Rahman et al. 1998; Hastorf 1999; Hastorf and DeNiro 1985; Pope and
Dahlin 1989; Pope et al. 2001; Perry et al. 2006, 2007). This renewed interest in
these environmental settings and their associated cultural contexts for domestica-
tion and early plant cultivation has also spread to other regions of the Middle
America (Horn 2006; Horn and Kennedy 2001; Dull 2006). The questions sur-
rounding ethnobotanical approaches in lowland Neotropical settings, however,
goes beyond the problem of preservation to most recently discussing and addressing
the strengths and limitations of such approaches14 (Reber and Evershed 2004;
Haslam 2004; Rovner 2004; Holst et al. 2007). Most microfossil data refer to the
presence and absence in archaeological sites, thus equating higher numbers of
pollen, phytoliths, and particularly starch grains with artifact use, or importance
to ancient diet can be problematic at best, since such approaches are generally used
to document presence/absence (see Haslam 2004).
When such new technological innovations and approaches were first being
developed, they were believed to have the ability to address some of the major
scientific questions surrounding plant and animal domestication, and the role of an
agricultural economy in the development of social inequality (Rovner 1971, 1983;
Pearsall 1979, 2000; Piperno and Pearsall 1998; Hastorf 1999; Perry et al. 2006,
2007; Zarillo et al. 2008). In recent years, questions have arose surrounding
ethnobotanical approaches using microfossils, because of context, where they are
14
Haslam (2004:1717) states that the range of starch residue preservation on such grinding stones
is between 75% and 80% for buried artifacts and 35% for surface finds according to his experi-
ments.
found, and how they are analyzed and differentiated from other domesticates and
their wild progenitors (see, e.g., Staller and Thompson 2001; Staller 2003; Rovner
2004; Rovner and Gyuli 2007). Others have provided evidence which indicates that
organic residues, such as starch grains and lipids breaks down starches usually in a
short period of time (>100 years) depending upon the soil environment where they
are found (Haslam 2004, pp. 17201722) and Reber and Evershed (2004, p. 401)
state that organic residues even common lipids degrade rapidly and differentially
depending upon the buried environment (see also Evershed et al. 1992). They
caution that identifying starchy grains, maize lipids from other lipids, and lipids
from other starchy grains is problematic, and may be related to the abundance of
nonspecific species compounds. Haslam (2004) goes into considerable detail to
show how they survive best in soils with high clay contents, and in sheltered
environments like caves and rockshelters precisely those environments where
macrobotanical remains are best preserved. Maize produces a great deal of starch
residues. Root crops like manioc do not, and when they do, they are very small so
they are not easily identified and are often confused with transitory starch grains in
the process of decomposition. There are therefore contextual issues in rainy
environments they move around, nor are looking for root crops on stone implements
very good indicators of what is being processed (Haslam (2004), p. 1727). Reber
and Evershed (2004, p. 400) mention that there are no species-specific biomarkers
for starchy grains though there are plant biomarkers (see also Evershed et al. 1992).
Babot (2003) points out that some starch residues may be damaged, presumably due
to processing, making their identification problematic. Researchers are still study-
ing the extent to which this may also be related to the decomposition and transitory
starches, thus, decomposition and damage to starch grains in archaeological soils
may also be related to soil chemistry or decomposition rather than on how the plant
was processed (see Haslam 2004). These methodological constraints with regard to
identification and protocol have encouraged ethnobotanists to apply multiproxy
methodological approaches in the identification and documentation of food plants
in ancient archaeological sites.
Ethnobotanists have long maintained the necessity for interdisciplinary
approaches (Ford 1985a, b) using a diversity of methodologies for evidence
gathering, citing that the long term emphasis by some scholars of early agriculture
upon macrobotanical remains are placing disproportionate reliance on such data
(e.g., Fritz 1994; Smith 1997b, 2000, 2001, 2005a; Parsons 2006). Moreover, ethno-
botanists have thus far generated important ecological and environmental data
obtained from where ancient societies often cultivated crops using such approaches.
Sediments from these off-site contexts, that is lake and sediment cores, were found
to contain identifiable microscopic indicators of human modification of the surround-
ing vegetation that reflect evidence of former land clearance and agricultural plots
(e.g., Colinvaux and Bush 1991). These interdisciplinary approaches to early plant
domestication and the early development of food production provided increasing
lines of robust evidence, and data in tropical areas of the hemisphere where there
is incredibly high species diversity and subsistence alternatives may favor a diverse
array of adaptations where organic remains may be modified by paleoclimatic
or environmental conditions. Such modifications provide important clues regarding

human adaptation and plant domestication (e.g., Colinvaux 1993; Colinvaux
et al. 1996a, b, 1997). However, recent genetic research and direct AMS dates
of carbon residues have challenged previous phylogenies and early associated
dates obtained from pollen and phytolith research (Tables 4.1, 4.2). This is particu-
larly true with regard to the identification of maize and the ability to differentiate
Z. mays L. microfossils from other wild grasses (Staller 2003; Rovner 2004; Staller
and Thompson 2000, 2002; Matsuoka et al. 2001; Freitas et al. 2003; Vigouroux
et al. 2002, 2003; Holst et al. 2007).
4.3.1 Classes of Ethnobotanical Evidence
Ethnobotanical evidence involving plant microfossils associated with tropical food

production are primarily of four types: (1) Botanical remains from archaeological
deposits, both macrofossil (seeds, tubers, wood, plant remains, and plant fragments)
and microfossil (pollen, phytoliths, and starch grains); (2) Vegetational records
obtained from perennially humid regions in the Neotropics (primarily pollen and
phytolith evidence), from lake cores, also from bogs and swamps, usually
with associated evidence of archaeological remains in the immediate vicinity;
(3) Evidence of plant microfossils in charred organic residues or starch grains
from ancient ceramic pots or processing tools; and (4) Molecular markers that
provide evidence that extant crop plant species are genetically derived from a
particular wild ancestor.
The genetic evidence has been found to be very detailed in terms of the
phylogenetic relationships between domesticated and wild plants, and in recent
years, particularly with respect to maize origins, have set the limits of where a
particular crop plant was originally cultivated or modified by human and natural
selection, and if these modifications occurred more than once in prehistory (see,
e.g., Matsuoka et al. 2002; Jaenicke-Despres et al. 2003; Jaenicke-Despres and
Smith 2006). Some ethnobotanists asserted that the records of changes in vegetation
from cores and sediments in the Neotropics at the close of the Pleistocene can serve
as proxies for the resource density and distribution over time and provide a basis for
estimating the degree of dependence on certain food crops during the late Pleisto-
cene and early Holocene periods (Pearsall and Piperno 1998, p. 31). Different
classes of botanical remains provide different kinds of evidence. Differences in
the character of the different classes of plant remains relate mainly to the deposition
and preservation of such microfossils and how analysts evaluate such data as
indicators of early agriculture. Contradictions among various lines of ethnobotani-
cal evidence as indicators for the antiquity of agriculture in the Neotropics are, in
large part related to the recovery bias and chronological ambiguities regarding the
associated dates (Smith 1998; Staller and Thompson 2002; Rovner 2004). Some
ethnobotanists have suggested that recovery bias was reflected in the excellent
preservation of organic materials in dry caves, as is evident from the previous
discussion of the research in the Tehuacan Valley and Oaxaca. However, the
paleoethnobotanical recovery bias can also be related to the focus on subsistence
plants to exclude other plants in the archaeological remains. Although more recent
evidence has indicated that such data can serve as an inferential evidence of the
presence of certain food crops and agricultural activity, recent questions regarding
their identification and differentiation from other related species and/or with wild
progenitors, and contextual integrity have arose, particularly regarding associated
dates versus directly dated microfossils derived from sediment and lake cores
(Smith 1998, 2001; Staller 2003; Staller and Thompson 2001; Rovner 2004;
Piperno et al. 2007; Holst et al. 2007). Contextual issues related to the recovery
of macrobotanical remains in dry caves is related to the fact that undigested food
and organic remains in general are potential foods for burrowing animals and
therefore can be repositioned in archaeological deposits.
4.3.2 Pollen Analysis and the Spread of Early Cultigens
Ethnobotanical approaches involving plant microfossils are generally based on

paleoclimatic and paleoecological reconstruction, initially dealing with geological
time scales, and in the case of food crops, from the early Holocene (Horn 2005,
Fig. 27-4; see also Schoenwetter and Smith 1986; Wright et al. 1984; Sluyter and
Dominquez 2006). Fossil pollen analysis involves the study of morphologically
distinct microscopic pollen grains, which refer to ancient plant assemblages
(Fig. 4.11). Occurrence is directly measured by the presence and/or ubiquity of
particular microfossils at archaeological sites over time. However, the shift to
interdependence on certain food crops is generally associated with the landscape
modification related to the increase in cultivation yields (Pearsall 1994, p. 269).
Ethnobotanic evidence from pollen analysis on the spread of maize and other food
crops from southeastward Mexico have exponentially increased in recent years with
the identification of fossil pollen from lake and sediment cores as well as archaeo-
logical soils. The spread of early domesticates in cases where the progenitor was
known has made such reconstructions relatively straight forward compared to
maize (see Sluyter 1997; Sluyter and Dominguez 2006).
The quantitative standards for differentiating maize from other wild grasses
were initially established by Whitehead and Langham15 (1965). Subsequently,
Sluyter (1997) conducted experiments to neutralize the effects of mounting medium
15
Whitehead and Langham (1965) established the various size ranges for maize, teosinte, as well
as gamma grass or Tripsacum using modern specimens mounted in silicone oil. Whitehead and
Sheehan (1971) also developed protocols for identification of maize pollen using measurement.
Later, Sluyter (1997) conducted experiments in an attempt to normalize the effects of microscopic
slide mounting media in order to facilitate comparative analysis of maize pollen grains mounted in
silicone oil, glycerine jelly, and a new type of acrylic resin mounting medium.
Fig. 4.11 SEM image of miscellaneous pollen from common plants such as sunflower (Helianthus
annus), praire hollyhock (Sidalcea malivflora), and morning glory (Ipomea purpurea). Cross-
pollination in maize occurs when wind-borne pollen is carried from the tassels of one plant to the
silks of another and affect the phenotypic characteristics of the maize plant
on the size of pollen analyzed from slide samples. A somewhat limited understand-
ing of the distributions of pre-Columbian populations of teosinte complicates the
archaeological and paleobotanical reconstructions of early agriculture and the
spread of maize from sedimentary pollen. In the modern period, subspecies of
teosinte range as far south as the Gulf of Fonseca in northern Nicaragua (Iltis and
Benz 2000; Matsuoka et al. 2002). If the Pre-Columbian teosinte populations had a
geographic range that closely reflects what exists in the present, then pollen analysis
in the regions of Central and South America should be less problematic, however,
the lack of preservation of pollen in some of these regions requires other approaches
such as starch grain and phytolith analysis be employed (see, e.g., Pearsall 1979;
Holst et al. 2007; Piperno et al. 2009).
A primary concern for pollen analysts working in areas where teosinte is known
to have ranged is whether ancient maize pollen may in fact represent the teosinte
pollen (Dull 2006, pp. 358359). Ancient maize microfossils can hypothetically
produce pollen grains that are in the size range of modern teosinte (Mangelsdorf
1974; Mangelsdorf et al. 1978; Beadle 1981). Pollen grains extending back to the
middle Holocene have been identified as maize (Rust and Leyden 1994; Pope et al.
2001). The relatively large size of maize pollen grains compared with most other
pollen makes documenting their presence in sediment samples easier, but some
researchers have suggested that the size of maize pollen may be related to cob size
(Galinat 1961; Mangelsdorf et al. 1978; Beadle 1981). Given that the early maize
cobs found in caves in the Tehuacan Valley and Guila Naquitz rockshelter, were
relatively small compared to later domesticated samples, the probability that pollen
grain sizes overlap with teosinte subspecies would hypothetically be increased, thus
making such data at best problematic for scholars studying the origins of the food
crop (Dull 2006, p. 359; Sluyter and Dominquez 2006). Moreover, some maize
varieties are selected to maintain small cob size and particular kernel color (see
Fig. 4.10). More recently, researchers have found that pollen grains from teosinte
overlap in size with those of maize to a much greater degree than had been
previously reported, making the differentiation of wild (teosintes) and domesticated
maize in palynological studies difficult. Holst and her associates (2007, pp. 17608
17609, Table 1) recently examined a large number of modern pollen grains and
starch granules of teosinte (wild Zea spp.), maize (Z. mays L.), and closely related
grasses in the genus Tripsacum to assess whether existing protocols were useful for
studying the origins and early dispersals of maize. Their research later indicated
that there is no valid method for separating maize and teosinte pollen on a
morphological basis. Thus, analysis of fossil pollen data pertaining to the origins
and early spread of maize is no longer tenable using existing protocols, since pollen
grains of fully domesticated maize (Z. mays L.) can overlap in size with those of the
teosintes (Z. mays ssp. parviglumis Iltis and Doebley), (Zea perennis Hitchc.),16 and
other Zea subspecies (Mangelsdorf 1974, pp. 182183; Horn 2006, pp. 368; Holst
et al. 2007). This is also the case with Tripsacum and teosinte and maize, as these
are the three New World grasses that have the largest long axis pollen diameters
(Dull 2006, p. 358). Pollen researchers distinguish Zea from other grass genera on
the basis of the maximum length diameter of the grain using light microscopy and
more recently SEM analysis.
Although large maize pollen size is advantageous when counting and identify-
ing grains under a microscope, this size difference directly affects the dispersal of
the grain and may affect its representation in pollen records. Since maize is wind
pollinated, its comparatively heavy pollen grains do not generally travel far under
normal atmospheric conditions; and some researchers have reported that over
90% of maize pollen grains would disperse within 60 m of the parent plant, or
only common in lake core sediments if maize were cultivated in the immediate
vicinity of the lake shore (Raynor et al. 1972, p. 425; Islebe et al. 1996). Robert
Dull (2006, p. 359) has observed that there is no single standard for maize pollen
identification, that is accepted and practiced by all pollen analysts in the pub-
lished literature on fossil Zea pollen. This has resulted in multiple Zea pollen
identification procedures and has also made some claims on maize pollen,
particularly those in the very early archaeological deposits are questionable or
problematic at best. Many archaeologists have rather unwittingly accepted the
past and recent claims of the antiquity of maize, and consequently an agricultural
16
The teosinte subspecies Zea mays ssp. parviglumis was initially identified by Iltis and Doebley
(Iltis 2000). The perennial teosinte subspecies (Zea perennis Hitchc.) was identified by
Mangelsdorf and Reeves (Mangelsdorf 1974).
economy on the basis of pollen data that were based on questionable Zea pollen
identification criteria (Robert Dull (2006, p. 359). Horn (2006, p. 368369) has
suggested that the reliability of pollen-based reconstructions on the spread of food
crops such as maize would be greatly enhanced by controlled studies in which
fossil pollen cores would be prepared and measured in the same laboratory using
the identical chemical procedures, mounting medium, microscope, and measuring
system. Although such standardization in methodological procedure would pro-
vide much greater reliability in the pollen identification particularly maize pollen,
they would not resolve the problem of differentiating maize pollen from those of
other related grasses.
Robert Dull has posed the important question of whether scholars can assume
that the existing biogeography of the teosintes clearly reflect their prehistoric
distribution that it may be inappropriate to use the modern distributions of the
teosintes, Tripsacum, and other related grasses (cf. Horn 2006, p. 369). This is
particularly problematic in Tabasco and the Veracruz lowlands where Colonial and
modern European landscape alteration, particularly the introduction of cattle, have
dramatically transformed the landscape.
As more reference collections of various wild grasses are Cataloged and ethno-
botanists learn more about the modern biogeography of maize and its relatives, it
may be necessary to reconsider earlier identifications of maize pollen and to
reassess its relative antiquity in different regions of Mexico and Central America.
All such ethnobotanical evidence with regard to maize assumes that large grass
pollen grains, which have been shown to have considerable overlap in size range
with maize pollen, represent maize. Thus, recently published associated radiocar-
bon and directly AMS dated microfossils asserted to represent that maize are
somewhat problematic (e.g., Pope et al. 2001; Arford and Horn 2004; Sluyter and
Dominguez 2006). The pollen evidence of maize in highland Oaxaca at Guila
Naquitz is dated to about 6980 B.P. (Schoenwetter and Smith, 1986, p. 229). Piperno
and her associates (2007, p. 11874) obtained similar dates for pollen cores taken in
the central Balsas River drainage (Table 4.1).
The maize cobs from Oaxaca do not have all of the morphological character-
istics of domesticated maize (Benz 2001; see also Staller 2003). Previous and
more recent pollen core studies indicate the presence of Z. mays L. pollen on the
Gulf Coast of Veracruz and Tabasco, Mexico between 5000 and 7000 CAL B.P.
(Goman and Byrne 1998; Pope et al. 2001; Pohl et al. 2007), in the Peten
lowlands of Guatemala and Belize at ca., 5500 and 4600 CAL B.P. (Pohl et al.
1996), and in central Honduras by 4500 CAL B.P. (Rue 1987). Dated early pollen
records from the Pacific coast region of Costa Rica record the maize pollen at ca.
5500 CAL. B.P. (Arford and Horn 2004; cf. Dull 2006, Fig. 26-2). This is not to
imply that the application of sedimentary pollen core analysis or phytoliths from
archaeological sediments cannot provide compelling evidence to our understand-
ing of early maize biogeography when maize pollen occurs with other agricultural
indicators such as charcoal (evidence of slash and burn) and plant species adapted
to disturbed environmental settings, these data taken together provide evidence of
early agriculture as well as maize cultivation (Fig. 4.11).
4.3.3 Phytolith Analysis and Maize Biogeography
Various specialists in the biological sciences and paleobotany have, until the
recent evidence from molecular biology, promoted the hypothesis of multiple
domestication events for maize in different regions of the Neotropics. These studies
have promoted the belief that modern maize lineages evolved from a variety of wild
grass progenitors at different times in prehistory. However, this is untenable with the
advent of the recent results from molecular biology. Recent genetic research has
indicated that paleobotanists are now able to identify distinct maize lineages or
clades statistically (Thompson 2006, 2007; Hart and Matson 2009). These
techniques initially involved testing both macrobotanical samples and plant micro-
fossils, and comparing them to modern reference samples. These data will, in the
near future, permit specialists to retrace the evolutionary relationships of distinct
races of maize through time and space, and ultimately answer the important ques-
tions on how and where the various clades or landraces diversified. Phytolith
analysis on the origin of maize and its dispersal to different regions of the Neotropics
now comprises a significant and widely cited literature. Opal phytoliths are com-
posed of amorphous silica exuded by plants (Staller and Thompson 2002, p. 34).
Plants in the natural world take up monosilicic acid from the soil in the process
of obtaining nutrients through their roots. While most nutrients are absorbed as
organic compounds used by the plants, silica is not. Plants deposit silica within and
between cells in a variety of forms (Thompson 2006). Ethnobotanical studies
involving plant microfossils were initially concerned with the classification of
phytolith taxonomies as indicators of past environments (e.g., Rovner 1971,
1983; Piperno 1985, 1988, 1991). One of the critical aspects of any analysis of
opal phytoliths is the development of taxonomy, by which to classify the various
microfossils. Comparing phytolith assemblages recovered from modern lineages of
maize, archaeological cobs, as well as food residues requires a phytolith taxonomy
flexible enough to allow description of the types of phytoliths recovered from
the maize chaff from a number of genetic and environmental backgrounds (see
Thompson 2006, 2007). Several phytolith taxonomies have been generated on the
basis of morphological features, plant type, and tissue of origin. In an effort to
develop a taxonomic scheme useful in classifying the disaggregated assemblages of
phytoliths, Mulholland and Rapp (1992) classified phytoliths recovered from
Graminae based solely on their morphological characteristics. This classification
scheme proved effective in describing phytoliths recovered from sediments and
plants, allowing the statistical comparison of assemblages. This microfossil
research was later modified into a functional classification scheme, incorporating
more three-dimensional variation observed through analysis of literally thousands
of maize cob phytoliths (Thompson 2006). Mulholland and Rapp (1992) initially
generated the taxonomy for the identification of the silica bodies associated with
grasses based on a three-dimensional morphology observable through microscopy.
Phytolith categories were generally broken down into subcategories through more
detailed analysis of morphological traits. Thompson redefined the subcategory of
rondels published by Mulholland and Rapp (1992) somewhat differently and in

greater detail (Thompson 2007; Thompson and Staller 2001).
Lipids have also been used to analyze food residues, as have carbon isotopes,
and both methodological approaches have been used to trace the presence of maize
(Hastorf and DeNiro 1984; Heron et al. 1991; Letts et al. 1994; Reber and Evershed
2004; Reber et al. 2004). Food residue analysis has been conducted in various ways
to derive information about the uses of pottery and the existence of plants in
archaeological contexts. Maize flour has been shown to contain abundant silica
bodies from maize chaff. Maize cob chaff can be found in food residues of ancient
pottery, resulting in more reliable, if not unquestioned, cultural context (Staller
2003; Thompson and Mullholland 1994; Thompson and Staller 2001). Rovner
(1983) reported early on that a method of phytolith recovery called dry ashing
involved the incineration of the portion of the plant from which the phytoliths were
to be obtained, that is the glumes and cupules of the maize plant produce abundant
silica. Thus, opal phytoliths can withstand the heat of cooking, and may therefore
be derived from carbon residues sometimes present in ancient cooking pots
(Thompson 2006, p. 83).
Methodological approaches developed by Thompson and Mulholland (1994)
and associated with the identification for rondel phytoliths produced by maize
inflorescences, that is the cob chaff assemblage have generated profiles identified
in food residues in ancient pottery (Thompson 1993, 2005, 2007; Thompson et al.
1995; Hart and Matson 2009). The methodology involved in the identification of
cob phytoliths (rondels) from carbon residues in pottery has been used in archaeo-
logical contexts in both North and South America with some success (see, e.g.,
Reber 2006; Thompson 2005, 2006, 2007; Thompson et al. 1995; Staller and
Thompson 2000, 2002; Hart et al. 2003, 2007a). Dorwieler and Doebley (1997)
have demonstrated that silica deposition in the chaff (cupules and glumes) of maize
cob is under genetic control including subspecific variation in deposition (see also
Dorweiler 1996; Dorweiler et al. 1993; Thompson 2007; Staller and Thompson
2002, Table 2). Since silica deposition from maize cob cupules and chaff phytoliths
differs on a subspecific basis, these characteristics have been used to identify maize
at the subspecies level, in other words, differentiate different landraces as well as
maize from its progenitor teosinte as has recently been demonstrated by various
ethnobotanists and archaeologists (Thompson 2007; see also Chavez and Thomp-
son 2006; Hart et al. 2003, 2007a; Laden 2006; Lusteck 2006; Hart and Matson
2009). Since the tga1 gene has major effects on phytoliths present in the flowering
parts of the plant, and, unlike maize, would show a wide range of different variants
among teosinte, the rondel profiles should be distinctive between teosinte vari-
eties. Thus, the configuration of the rondel profiles of teosinte samples should
reflect their biological classification (Hart and Matson 2009, p. 75). The protocol
for phytoliths assemblage profiles from maize and non-maize grass inflorescences
developed by Thompson (2007) are based on the comparison of archaeological
phytolith assemblage profiles with modern phytoliths from maize cob cupules
and chaff, in which silica deposition differs on a subspecific basis (Thompson 2007;
see also Dorweiler and Doebley 1997; Dorweiler et al. 1993). The methodology
employed by Thompson use over 200 variables that are categorized and classified
using multivariate statistical analysis and can differentiate between maize and non-
maize grasses as well as maize and teosinte (Thompson 2007; Hart and Matson 2009).
Pearsall and Piperno (Pearsall 1978, 1979; Piperno 1984, 1988) initially reported
a three dimensional morphology classification technique based on the identification
of phytolith forms reported to be only produced by maize, and focused on extra
large crosses from the leaves of grasses. The classification and protocol developed
by these researchers was initially based on the leaf phytoliths identified in archaeo-
logical sediments rather than on the cob phytoliths or rondels from carbon residues
in ancient pottery.17 Their pioneering research with plant microfossils was first and
foremost focused on maize biogeography. Using cross-shaped phytoliths, described
as unique to maize, they identified maize microfossil in early archaeological
contexts in lowland Central America and Northwestern South America (Pearsall
1992, 1999). Fundamental to the interpretations regarding early spread of maize
into South America is the rapid radiation of this cultigen into lowland Central
America. Piperno and Pearsall (1998) report a very rapid spread from its origin in
Southwestern Mexico to the lowlands of Central America, and is well established in
coastal Ecuador by the early formative pottery culture of Valdivia by 5400 B.P.
(Pearsall 1999, 2002, Pearsall and Piperno 1990, 1993; Piperno et al. 1985). Their
research indicated that maize spread early on into South America and is based on
relatively few phytolith forms, recovered from archaeological soils at a variety of
early pottery sites in this region, particularly at Real Alto, Loma Alta, and the site of
San Isidro. In phytolith assemblages, obtained from archaeological soils, any silica-
producing, existing or ancient plant in the vicinity of the site must be considered as a
potential source for a portion of the recovered assemblage. The identification of
phytolith assemblages in food residues, however, provides greater contextual reli-
ability as one could reasonably expect to identify only plants that were actually
cooked or processed in the pots, greatly reducing the number of plants which need to
be examined in a given study (Thompson 2007; Staller and Thompson 2002).
Furthermore, methodological and contextual weaknesses inherent to their approach
have been a subject of contention by various researchers specialized in the origins
of maize (see, e.g., Fritz 1994; Smith 1998; Rovner 2004; Russ and Rovner 1992;
Staller 2003). For example, some ethnobotanists have stated that phytolith
typologies utilizing the three dimensional morphology technique for cross-bodies
could not be replicated but can be misinterpreted statistically with other grasses18
17
Pearsall and Piperno previously focused on bilobates, cross-bodies, and critical cross-body
variants or subtypes, thought to be exclusive to maize but have more recently been found to be
present in other grasses (see e.g., Pearsall and Piperno 1993, pp.1415, Tables 14; Piperno and
Pearsall 1993, Table 7).
18
Wild grass reference data published by Piperno (1988, Table 3.3) also appears to indicate a lack
of replicative precision. The mean values for Variant 1 crosses the four Panama populations of
Cenchrus echinatus range 13.314.0 microns while those from the Belize population has a mean
value of 15.1, significantly outside and above the range maximum of the four Panama replicates
(see Piperno 1988, p. 76).
(Dolittle and Fredrick 1991; Rovner 1995, 2004; Rovner and Russ 1992; Russ and
Rovner 1989). Dolittle and Fredrick (1991, pp. 182183) report that they could not
find cross-bodies in their reference samples, stating that the definition provided by
Pearsall obfuscates rather than clarifies the identification of bilobate and cross
phytoliths (see also Staller 2003, p. 374). Pearsall and Piperno (1990, pp. 330
331) noted the statistical overlap in their discriminant-function values from the
Validivia site of Real Alto and attributed this to the presence of a specific wild
grass, Cenchrus echinatus. This wild grass is found in coastal Ecuador that is still
used in some areas as roof thatch. They state that the decay of roof thatch from
C. echinatus easily could mask light maize occurrence resulting from decay of
husks or cob residue (Pearsall and Piperno 1990, p. 131). Pearsall (2000) subse-
quently modified the three dimensional morphological algorithm when it was found
that some cross variants could statistically overlap with wild grass species (see also
Piperno et al. 2001). Piperno et al. (2004) later reported that only one of their
subtypes, variant one cross phytoliths, provided a clear distinction between maize
and other wild grasses. Variant 1 cross-bodies are reported to have the largest sized
mean width of the eight variant types identified by these researchers in various
publications. The implication is that as in maize pollen, the size is the primary
characteristic defining maize leaf phytoliths.19 In response to these problems in the
classification of phyotliths from archaeological soils, Pearsall et al. (2003) identified
maize microfossils using rondels or cob phytoliths from archaeological soils (rather
than from carbon residues in pottery) and most subsequent research by these
ethnobotanists and their associates has involved cob phytoliths from either archaeo-
logical soils or starch grains in residues or on grinding stones (see also Pearsall 2003;
Piperno 2006; Chandler-Ezell et al. 2006; Zarillo et al. 2008).
Another perhaps more serious problem regarding the use of bilobates and cross-
body variants and more recently wavy top rondels, cob phytoliths from archaeo-
logical soils has to do with contextual reliability and relative antiquity as measured
by associated dates rather than direct dates (Staller 2003, p. 374; Thompson and
Staller 2001, pp. 89; Staller and Thompson 2002, p. 34; see also Fritz 1994; Smith
1998; Blake, 2006). Since such leaf and cob phytoliths are derived from archaeo-
logical sediments and dated by association, the 14C dates reported thus far from
many sites, have now been shown to be in some cases several thousand years earlier
than the directly dated macrobotanical remains reported from the sites such as Guila
Naquitz (see Tables 3.1, 4.2). The mixing of sediments and movement of phytoliths
19
Piperno (1988) made similar claims for mean values of cross-body and bilobate phytoliths of
South American maize. With respect to Variant 1 cross-bodies which are reported to have the
largest sized mean width of the eight variant types, Piperno states: It is clear that from these data
and analysis of single specimens of many races. . .that the production of numerous Variant 1
crossbody shapes with mean sizes between 12.7 and 15 um is a fundamental characteristic of
Central and South American maize leaves. (Piperno 1988, p. 78). This would imply that mean
size values for primitive maize are as large or larger than the mean value for modern maize.
Piperno et al. (2009, p. 5023, Table 1) make similar claims for their phytolith assemblages from
Central Balsas at Xihuatoxtla rockshelter.
in archaeological soils appears to also pertain to the macrobotanical remains from

such contexts. The disparity between directly dated macrobotanicals and such
remains by association has been a matter of some concern to researchers attempting
to understand the biogeography of maize (Blake 2006, Tables 4.1, 4.4, Figures 4.1,
4.3 Benz and Staller 2009). Zarillo et al. (2008, p. 5007) report finding rare
carbonized maize kernels in lower levels of the Early Formative site of Loma
Alta in coastal Ecuador and obtained a 2730 CAL B.P. [Beta-103315], which they
interpreted as too young20 (see Table 3.1). They state that, there was some mixture
of small remains between the occupation layers (Zarillo et al. 2008, p. 5007). In
order to alleviate these contextual and chronological concerns some researchers are
now dating starch grains from grinding stones (Zarillo et al. 2008, Table 1; Perry
et al. 2006, 2007; Chandler-Ezell et al. 2006). The possibility of multiple domesti-
cation events is no longer tenable since the publication of the maize DNA research
by Matsuoka and his associates (2002). Although these authors have placed the
origins of maize at about 9,000 years ago, the earliest direct dates on maize
macrobotanical remains are dated to c. 5400 B.P. (c. 6200 CAL B.P.) (Matsuoka
et al. 2002, p. 6084; see also Piperno and Flannery 2001, Table 1). Michael Blake
(2006) has demonstrated in considerable detail using the existing radiocarbon
evidence the inconsistencies regarding the earliest presence of maize, based on
dates by association (see also Bruhns 1994; Fritz 1994; Smith 1998). Since rondel
phytoliths in carbon residues can be directly dated, they provide more precise
chronological information on the spread of maize than can be obtained from
associated dates of phytoliths found in archaeological sediments (Tables 4.3, 4.4)
(see, e.g., Staller and Thompson 2002; Chavez and Thompson 2006; Hart et al.
2003). Moreover, rondel phytoliths can also be taken from dental calculus of ancient
skeletons, providing another independent line of evidence and basis for contextual
Table 4.4 Calibrated conventional and AMS dates from La Emerenciana

Sample data Corrected 14C Age B.P. Calibrated
14
C 1-d Age Range B.C.
Beta-125106 3720 40 B.P./3700 40 B.P. 21371979 cal B.C.
Beta-125107 3810 50 B.P./3860 50 B.P. 22402201 cal B.C.
14
C No. SMU-2225 (charcoal) 3707 148 B.P. 22882245 cal B.C.
14
14
14
Note: SMU conventional and Beta AMS dates are corrected for 13C/12C fractionation and
calibrated using Calib 4.1.2 (Struiver et al. 1998), with a minus 24-year Southern Hemisphere
atmospheric sample adjustment and are at the one sigma range. All 14C assays are taken from
Stratum 5 (Floor 2) except the 3361 246 B.P. (SMU-2241) date, which is from the uppermost
layer Stratum 6
20
The site of Loma Alta pertains to the Valdivia culture and has Early Formative Period occupa-
tions spanning to between 5350 and 4240 years ago with some of the earliest ceramics along the
eastern Pacific. However, Loma Alta is multicomponent, with a large Guangala Phase (c. 2350
1500 B.P.) site on its eastern periphery (see Staller 2001a, Table II).
integrity (Ugent 1994, pp. 217218; Thompson and Staller 2001, pp. 89; Staller and
Thompson 2002, pp. 3536, 3840; see also Pearsall et al. 2003).
4.3.4 Interdisciplinary Approaches to the Analysis

of Phytolith Assemblages
Direct AMS dating of food residue samples routinely includes carbon isotope
analysis, which has proven useful in recognizing the remains of different types of
C4 grasses in such residue samples (see, e.g., Hastorf and DeNiro 1984; Kelly et al.
1991; Staller and Thompson 2002; Hart et al. 2007b). Since grasses breathe in
different ways, they accumulate d 13C from the atmosphere differentially (Kelly
et al. 1991). The amount of d 13C deteriorates at a known rate after death, resulting
in what are referred to as C3 and C4 plants. C3 plants accumulate relatively less
d 13C during their lives than do C4 plants (Schwarcz 2006; Morton and Schwarcz
2004). The amount of d 13C present can be measured after carbonization of plant
remains, and is not affected by charring (DeNiro 1987). Morton and Schwarcz
(2004) developed an algorithm for estimating the percentage of C4 plants in a
cooking residue sample that assumed a direct linear relationship. Using large
number of residue samples on pot sherds from southern Ontario, they concluded
that C4 plants, specifically maize, were not commonly found in the cooking pots.
However, in contrast to the 13C/12C ratios from the cooking pots, human bone
collagen suggested maize was significant to the diet. They hypothesized that maize
was eaten in other ways besides being cooked in pots. John Hart and his collabora-
tors (2007b) have, however, challenged the assumption of a linear relationship
between the d 13C/12C values and the percentage of C4 plants cooked in the pot
because in several previous analyses, maize cob phytoliths (rondels) were identified
in the residues even though the 13C/12C values were very low (see, e.g., Staller and
Thompson 2002, p. 38, Table 9a; Hart et al. 2003, Table 1). Hart et al. (2007,
pp. 809811, Fig. 6a,b, 7) have shown that with 60% maize in the cooking pot, the
13 12
C/ C values ranged from about 28 to 14 in their samples depending on
whether the maize is dry or fresh, or if it is cooked with deer meat, wild rice, or
Chenopodium. When the maize is dry (flour), its value of about 28 would lead
to the conclusion that little if any maize was cooked in the pot, while in the case of
fresh (fresh kernels) maize its value of about 14 would indicate that maize
constituted between 60% and 90% of the food being processed (Hart et al. 2007,
pp. 809811, Fig. 6a,b, 7, Table 1). Ironically, in either of these scenarios, one
might note the same numbers and types of maize phytoliths in the carbon residues
(Hart et al. 2007b). These researchers conclude that phytoliths are important in
documenting the presence of maize in the cooking pot, but that the issue of how
much maize was being cooked, let alone how significant it was in the diet based on
stable isotope measurements of cooking residues alone (Hart et al. 2007b, p. 811).
While phytoliths, pollen, and starch grains can document the presence of maize,
only coprolites and microfossils from dental calculus or carbon residues of cooking
pots or ollas are direct indicators of what was actually being processed and/or
consumed (Thompson 2005; Staller and Thompson 2002, p. 37). Food residue
phytolith assemblages are culturally created artifacts, unique in their characteristics
and analysis of the charred encrustations on the interiors of ancient pottery,
coprolites, or calculus deposits removed from teeth provides a set of approaches
and challenges that are different from those faced when using assemblages of
phytoliths from sediments (Thompson 2006, 2007).
Recent research by John Hart and R. G. Matson (2009) using cob phytoliths and
testing the Thompson protocol have demonstrated that they can statistically dis-
criminate between maize and non-maize types. These authors also stated that they
found the Thompson (2007) protocol based on 209 variables rather cumbersome.
Moreover, Hart and Matson (2009, p. 75) found that it is not primarily focused on
looking at maize and non-maize grasses and that the Thompson references are
primarily geared to comparison with modern maize profiles. This is a critical point
because the utility of this protocol would be infinitely more valuable if it is able to
make such distinctions rather than solely identify maize microfossils from other
grass phytoliths. Applying statistics using Euclidean distance scaling and discrimi-
nant function analysis, they reduced the variables to seven, including three sets of
morphological size variables (Hart and Matson 2009, pp. 7779, Tables 24). They
conclude that the seven variables identified by their stepwise discriminant analysis
produced results largely similar to those in the original cluster analysis using 209
variables (Matson and Hart 2009, p. 81). The implications of these results are that
the Thompson (2007) protocol for rondel phytoliths can be replicated, which was
not the case for earlier methodologies with cross-types (see Doolittle and Fredrick
1991; Staller 2003; Rovner 2004). Hart and Matson (2009, p. 82) caution that their
statistical protocol should not necessarily be used as a replacement for the initial
protocol using cluster analysis with 209 variables.21 These authors are now in the
process of carrying out blind tests to determine if other ethnobotanists can replicate
their statistical analysis. If proven successful, such data will have broader implica-
tions for the analysis of cob phytoliths from food residues in ancient pottery for our
understanding of the origins and biogeography of early maize.
4.3.5 Ethnobotanic Approaches to the Origins of Maize:

Central Balsas
Recent cob phytolith research has been suggested to be effective in discriminating

the female reproductive structures of maize, teosinte, and Tripsacum (Pearsall et al.
2003; Piperno 2006). These researchers have now focused on the ruffle and wavy-
21
Hart and Matson (2009:83) also state that these statistics further support direct dates of
2270 35 B.P. at the Vinette site in New York State the earliest recorded date on maize
microfossils in NE North America. They assert that they also support a continual presence of Zea
mays L. in this region thereafter (see Hart et al. 2007a).
top cob phytoliths found in maize husks and tassels and to a lesser extent on other
structures, as well as or in combination with starch grain analysis in their most
recent fieldwork (Pearsall et al. 2003; Piperno et al. 2001; see also Pearsall 2003;
Chandler-Ezell et al. 2006). Piperno (2006, p. 56) independently examined a
broader array of morphological characteristics to identify large-sized cross-bodies
and using discriminant function analysis, classified eleven assemblages of archaeo-
logical phytoliths as either pertaining to maize or wild grass, maize and non-maize
grasses22 (Piperno 2006, pp. 145148). The most recent ethnobotanical research has
found that cob phytoliths and starch grains protocols are more productive than
pollen in discriminating the teosintes from maize and therefore have application to
the study of its origins and early maize biogeography (Piperno et al. 2007, 2009;
Holst et al. 2007). The utility of such methodological approaches has been said to be
related to human selection involving the improvement of plant productivity, food
quality, and to facilitate food preparation (Holst et al. 2007, p. 17612). It is already
known that tga1 gene for soft glume architecture, plays an important role in
phytolith formation and morphology in both wild and domesticated Zea, and is a
factor for the morphological differences in such microfossils (Dorweiler 1996;
Dorweiler and Doebley 1997; Dorweiler et al. 1993; Thompson 2006; Piperno
2006; Hart and Matson 2009). The most recent research has, in part by necessity,
applied multiproxy microfossil protocols to investigate the earliest stages of maize
domestication and dispersals (e.g., Piperno et al. 2007, 2009). The necessity for
applying multiproxy approaches is related in part to previously mentioned issues
regarding the classification, identification, and replication of leaf phytoliths assem-
blages pertaining to maize from archaeological sediments (see, e.g., Doolittle and
Fredrickson 1991; Staller 2003; Rovner 2004; Rovner and Gyuli 2007), as well as
the more recent innovations regarding the identification of rondel phytoliths from
carbon residues in ancient pottery, dental calculus and coprolites (Mulholland 1989;
Thompson 2005, 2007; Thompson and Mulholland 1994; Staller and Thompson
2002; Hart and Matson 2009; Hart et al. 2007a).
Recent research from the Iguala River Valley in Central Balsas at the Xihuatoxtla
rockshelter has reported evidence of maize (Z. mays L.) and squash (Curcurbita
argyrosperma Huber) dated by association to c.a. 8700 CAL B.P. (Piperno et al.
2009, p. 519; Ranere et al. 2009, Figs. 1, 2). The associated date is the earliest yet
recorded for maize in the Neotropics. The identification of these cultigens involved
the application multiproxy methodological approaches; analysis of starch grain from
ancient grinding stones and cob phytoliths from archaeological sediments (Piperno
et al. 2009; Ranere et al. 2009; see also Piperno 2006; Piperno et al. 2007; Pearsall
22
Piperno (2006) reduced the morphological variables to three length, width, and aspect ratio,
correlating width and aspect ratio at 87%, thus the independent variable with regard to the
morphological characteristics are not entirely independent since the aspect ratio is length divided
by width. Moreover, botanical size measurements even at the microfossil level are highly
susceptible to systematic error due to ecological factors. It has been demonstrated that size
measurements often do not replicate even within a single taxon, since Darwinian natural selection
favors variation rather than bell-shaped curves (Rovner and Gyulai 2007, pp. 155157).
et al. 2003). They report no evidence of pollen in their archaeological excavations,

although pollen cores were taken from nearby lakes (Piperno et al. 2007, 2009).
Starch grains were reportedly recovered from 19 grinding stones and 3 chipped stone
tools, and cob phytoliths were the dominant starch type in every tool, accounting for
90% of all grains recovered (Piperno et al. 2009, Table 1; Figure 1). Eight of the
grinding stones from which maize starch was recovered were securely stratified deep
in preceramic levels, well below an associated date of 4730 B.P. (5590 5320
CAL B.P.) on charcoal (Piperno et al. 2009, p. 5021, Table 1). The early radiocarbon
assay was also indirect and yielded an age of 7920 40 B.P. (8700 CAL B.P.), the
earliest associated date from highland Mexico reported thus far in the literature
(Table 4.2). Detailed study of their results indicates that the 7920 B.P. (8700 CAL B.P.)
date in Layer D is only 16 cm below the 4730 B.P. sample from Layer C, i.e., 49 cm
versus 65 cm below surface (Ranere et al. 2009, Fig. 3). Moreover, in stark contrast
to the deep cave deposits in Tehuacan and Oaxaca, the layers representing
the archaic period occupations at Xihuatoxtla rockshelter from which these dates
were derived, were only 812 cm (Layer C) and 810 cm thick, respectively
(Ranere et al. 2009, p. 5016, Fig. 3). Above both these occupation layers (Layer
B), a silty clay of angular roof-fall was reported (Ranere et al. 2009, p. 5016).
Angular roof-fall was also encountered in Layer C, where the associated date of
4730 B.P. was derived. Layer A contained bottle glass and pottery sherds as well as
obsidian blades. Maize starch grains, contemporary with or below the 14C 7920 B.P.,
were recovered from both sediments and stone tools throughout the sequence,
including those below the associated charcoal sample. Piperno et al. (2009) appear
to emphasize the presence and absence of typologically distinct forms in their strata
rather than ratios of phytoliths forms. Thus, the presence of a few ruffle or wavy
top rondel phytoliths is interpreted as an evidence of maize. Although this is not
stated in their published reports, this appears to be related in part to the assumption
that sediments dating to the early Holocene should not contain large quantities of
maize microfossils, and teosinte phytoliths would not be expected because as has
been demonstrated in Tehuacan and Oaxaca, the wild grass is rarely if ever found in
highland rockshelters or caves. The mean averages for rondel phytoliths and starch
grains pertaining to maize are statistically close if not identical to modern maize and
squash microfossils.
Recent research by Hart and Matson (2009) has demonstrated and various
ethnobotanists have reported that there should be relatively little variation in
maize rondels and teosinte phytoliths when maize was first domesticated. This is
because the rondel phytolith size is believed to have reference to the cob size since
phytoliths are indirectly formed in the cells of plants, and thus conform to varying
degrees of the growing cell. Geneticists have indicated that the pleiotropic effects
suggest that tga1 may represent a regulatory locus. Dorweiler (1996, p. 20) states:
We have investigated several features of glume development to understand how tga1
controls glume induration (hardening). We compared the effects of the maize and teosinte
alleles in the maize inbred W22. In this background, increased induration of the glumes in
teosinte homozygotes (tga1 + teosinte/tga1 + teosinte) is attributable to a thicker abaxial
mesoderm of lignified cells. Silica deposition in the abaxial epidermal cells of the glumes is
also affected. The standard W22 line (Tga1 + maize/Tga1 + maize) has high concentra-
tions of silica in the short cells of the epidermis of the glume, but the long cells have
virtually no silica. In contrast, teosinte allele homozygotes deposit silica in both the short
and long cells of the glume epidermis. Silica deposition also appears to be affected by
genetic background. The teosinte background modifies the phenotype of tga1 plants
towards a more uniform distribution of silica, whereas the maize background modifies
the phenotype of tga1 plants toward concentration of silica in the short cells.
This was consistent with results obtained through analysis of the deposition of
silica in the glumes of the three types. Dorweiler and Doebley (1997, pp. 1320
1321) state:
The effects of tga1 on silica deposition have some archaeological relevance. Long after most
plant material has decomposed, the insoluble silica crystals from within the cells, called
phytoliths, remain. Phytolith size and three-dimensional structure can be analyzed to deter-
mine the species, and relative proportions of plants that were growing in a particular area at a
given time. . . There is even some evidence. . . that maize and teosinte may be distinguishable
by the relative proportions of each phytolith type (Piperno 1984). . . Our results showing the
effects of tga1 and genetic background on the deposition of silica in the glume indicate that it
will be important to analyze glume phytoliths in an archaeological context.
As the macrobotanical evidence from Tehuacan and Oaxaca has shown, the
earliest cobs were very small in some cases no more than 5 cm in length (see Benz
2001; Iltis 2006). Surprisingly, recent results from central Balsas indicate that the
microfossils approximate and are in some cases indistinguishable from modern
maize23 (see Piperno et al. 2009, pp. 50225024). The research in Central Balsas
distinguished maize and teosinte grain starch granules upon infraspecific distinc-
tions made on size of the grains. They state that maize grains are slightly larger than
teosinte irregular in shape and facet maize granules are irregularly shaped and
present compression facets (Piperno et al. 2009, pp. 50225024). Evidence doc-
umenting the use of teosinte grains is derived from an unspecified number of cob-
type, and wavy and ruffle-top rondel phytoliths from Zones D and E as well as
approximately 200 stratigraphically associated starch grains from ground and
chipped stone tools (Piperno et al. 2009, pp. 50225024). Surprisingly, no macro-
botanical evidence, i.e., charred cobs, stems, fruit cases, or other recognizable plant
parts were recovered for either teosinte or maize, this is in stark contrast to the caves
and rockshelters in Tehuacan and Oaxaca (see, e.g., MacNeish 1967c; Mangelsdorf
et al. 1967; Smith 1986; Smith 2000). These data suggest otherwise, as it is evident
that there was no long-term occupation at this locality. The associated dates and the
context of the findings described by these authors pose problems similar to those
discussed in some detail in previous chapters, but nevertheless, require some
explanation, as do the preservation of starch grains in these shallow deposits in
23
Maize and teosinte inflorescences are also distinguished on the basis of morphology, certain of
short-cell phytoliths (rondels and surface sculpturing) and the relative proportion of larger cross-
body phytoliths. Maize and teosinte stalks are distinguished based on the occurrence of deeply
notched bilobate phytoliths and morphological characteristics seen in maize but not teosinte
(Piperno et al. 2009, p. Table 1).
the time range discussed by these authors, particularly since the average annual
rainfall presented by these researchers is relatively high compared to other regions
where such research has been carried out24 (see Haslam 2004).
It is evident from the relatively shallow deposits and absence of macrobotanical
remains that hunters and gatherers who periodically occupied this rockshelter
during their annual round were few in number and the duration of occupancy
short. The stone tools and grinding implements, as well as the charcoal found in
these sediments could hypothetically have been charcoal residues from the angular
blocks and cobbles of roof-fall reported from the dated layers analysis. This begs
numerous questions regarding the site formation processes since the possibility of
migration of the materials in such contexts cannot be dismissed. It is possible that
the direct dates recorded may reflect the soot and charcoal collected on the roof over
years of brief occupation at this locality and provides little in the way of compelling
evidence for the presence of maize two millennia earlier than the earliest directly
dated cobs from other rockshelter and caves in highland Mexico (Benz and Staller
2009; see also Smith 2001, 2005a). These results speak of the importance of
applying interdisciplinary evidence that provides greater chronological precision
and the need for independent lines of evidence that speak more directly to the
paleodietary importance of these cultigens.
4.3.6 Isotope Analysis, Paleodiet, and Geochemical Approaches
Recent innovations in stable carbon isotope analysis of ancient skeletons have

provided direct evidence of diet and consequently have had important implications
for our understanding of the roles of ancient cultigens to pre-Hispanic economies.
Stable carbon isotope analysis has its basis in radiocarbon dating (Lippy 1955), but
the significance of such data to archaeological reconstruction and the role of
domesticates to ancient economies is more recent (e.g., van der Merwe and Vogel
1978; White and Schwarcz 1989). Isotope research involves careful analysis of the
chemical pathway and differential fractionation of atmospheric carbon as a product
of photosynthesis (Calvin and Benson 1948; Tykot 2006). Subsequently, research-
ers identified multiple photosynthetic pathways, commonly referred to as C3, C4,
and CAM (crassulacean acid metabolism)25 (Ransom and Thomas 1960; Hatch and
Slack 1966). The discovery that carbon isotope values provided paleodietary
information was developed in association with stable carbon isotope analysis of
marine plants and animals (see Parker 1964). Nik van der Merwe and J.C. Vogel
(1971) tested an Iron Age Khoi skeleton from the Transvaal of South Africa and
24
Rainfall averages between 1,000 mm and 1,400 mm annually and is highly seasonal, with 90%
falling between June and October; thus, the area has a marked 78-month dry season (Ranere et al.
2009, p. 5014; see also Piperno et al. 2007).
25
The earliest 14C dating of bone involved demineralization of bone and extraction of humic and
fulvic acids to produce much more accurate dating results on bone collagen, and this was the
specific sample material tested by Vogel and van der Merwe (1977).
reported that paleodietary study on human skeletons could provide dietary infor-
mation. Their pioneering research with bone collagen (protein made of multiple
amino acids), carbon isotope values indicated a dependence upon sorghum (or other
C4 plants) in the Transvaal Lowveld (van der Merwe 1982). Most of the previous
published syntheses on isotopic analysis regarding paleodiet in the New World have
focused on maize (see, e.g., Tykot and Staller 2002; Chisholm and Blake 2006;
White et al. 2006; Gil et al. 2006). The general emphasis on maize is related in part
to the discovery that grasses from hot or arid environments follow the Hatch-Slack,
or C4 photosynthetic pathway, whereas the majority of plants from temperate
regions, be they wild or domestic, show the Calvin-Benson, or C3 pathway
(Schwarcz 2006, p. 315; see also Sage et al. 1999). Average ratios for d13C of C3
plants is around 26, whereas C4 plants have d13C values averaging around
12, with a pure maize diet at 7 (see Tykot and Staller 2002, p. 669). The
distinction in the photosynthetic pathway generates strikingly different signatures
in d13C/12C ratios with C4 versus C3 plants as well as provides researchers with
information on other biochemical properties, including proteins that were con-
sumed by ancient peoples (Tykot 2006, Fig. 10.110.2; Tykot and Staller 2002,
p. 669). Carbon and nitrogen isotopic ratios in human bone may be used to
reconstruct prehistoric diet because of differential fractionation of atmospheric
carbon dioxide during photosynthesis and nitrogen during fixation or absorption
(Sage et al. 1999; Katzenberg 2000; Tykot 2006; Tykot and Staller 2002). Isotope
analysis provides another line of quantitative evidence to complement ethnobota-
nic, ethnohistoric, and archaeological data about paleodiet and therefore has direct
reference to the economic importance of food plants like maize to ancient New
World economies (Tykot 2006; Schwarcz 2006; Tykot and Staller 2002; see also
Ubelaker et al. 1995; Ubelaker and Bubniak Jones 2002).
Recent isotopic research has enabled researchers to identify the presence of
maize in various contexts. As mentioned above, isotope signatures have been used
with residues in pottery to detect what kinds of plants were cooked or stored, with
directly AMS dated residues, tooth calculus as well as ancient skeletons found in
archaeological sites (Thompson 2006, 2007; Staller and Thompson 2000, 2002;
Hart and Matson 2009; Hart et al. 2007a, b; Howie et al. 2009). Most isotopic
analysis has involved ancient skeletons from archaeological sites. Ancient bone
preserves at least two important molecules whose isotopic composition can be
measured: collagen, the most abundant protein in living bone, and the carbonate
(CO3) molecule, which forms as bone mineral, hydroxyapatite26 (Schwarcz 2006,
p. 316). In addition, ancient bone contains lesser amounts of cholesterol and lipids,
non-collagenous proteins whose d13C values are also inherited from the diet
(Schwarcz 2006, p. 316). Stable isotope analysis of nitrogen developed in the
early 1980s provided quantitative evidence of clear differences in the effects of
The d13C value of CO3 in hydroxyapatite (HA) of bone (d13Cap) is believed to represent the total
26
d C of the diet, that is, all the C atoms that are consumed and contribute to caloric value Collagen,
13
which is a protein found in bone, whose amino acids are present in the diet and represent the most
widely used methodology in paleodiet studies (Vogel and van der Merwe 1977).
trophic levels, particularly marine ecosystems (DeNiro and Epstein 1981). Such
recent biochemical research has also increased our understanding and interpretation
of nitrogen isotope ratios, and the effects of climate and environment on both plant
and animal values, and trophic level increases in both terrestrial and marine
ecosystems (Tykot 2006, pp. 133134, Fig. 1, 2; see also DeNiro and Schoeninger
1983; Jakes 2002; Staller et al. 2006). These and other recent innovations in
biochemical research on stable carbon isotopes have provided direct evidence on
ancient diets and consequently have provided an independent line of evidence of
the role of domesticates like maize to the rise of New World civilizations (see, e.g.,
Tykot 2002; Tykot and Staller 2002; Tykot et al. 2006; White et al. 2000; Chisholm
and Blake 2006; Vierra and Ford 2006; Finucane 2009). The analyses of stable
carbon isotopes, as in the case of analysis of carbon residues, are methodological
approaches that actually provide direct evidence of what was consumed. Analysis
of carbon and nitrogen ratios found in bone collagen and direct AMS dating of
isotopes and ancient bone provide the most compelling evidence available at
present to our understanding of variability in diet among and between ancient
cultures, and are now documenting with increasing precision such dietary variation
to further our understanding of the role of maize in the development of complexity
and biogeography (see, e.g., Tykot 2006; Schwarcz 2006; White et al. 2006).
Another important isotope approach, developed more recently, involves oxygen
and strontium isotopes found in soils (Barba and Ortiz 1992; Ortiz and Barba 1993;
Price et al. 2000, 2002; Dahlin et al. 2007, 2009). Strontium in soils have different
isotopic ratios (87Sr/ 86Sr) making it possible for researchers to identify if plants
such as maize or animals were brought to different regions or represented exotics
in a given area (Benson et al. 2006; Freiwald 2009). Oxygen isotopic values relate
directly to the local climate, temperature, and humidity (Kolodny et al. 1983; Luz
et al. 1984) and are thus data that refer to the seasonality of various species, and their
consumers, as well as provide insights into climate and mobility with appropriate
changes in dietary patterns (Schoeninger et al. 2000; White et al. 2000). Isotopic
ratios of strontium, which does not isotopically fractionate like biological C, N, and
O, directly represent the geographic area of food production/acquisition, and thus
the mobility of dietary resources and/or their consumers (Ericson 1985, 1989; Price
et al. 2002). Strontium isotope analysis has been applied to identify nonlocal species,
be they human or animal, and with reference to humans as a basis for tracing ancient
migrations and pilgrimages or verifying the presence of foreign or nonlocal artisans
and craft specialists at major Mesoamerican centers such as Teotihuacan and Tikal
(Price et al. 2002; Hodell et al. 2004), as well as to the identification of activity areas
and ancient markets (Barba et al. 1987; Barba and Manzanilla 1987; Ortiz and Barba
1993; Dahlin and Ardren 2002; Dahlin et al. 2007, 2009; Freiwald 2009).
Recent pioneering geochemical research on archaeological soils have demon-
strated that trapped chemical compounds are directly associated with specific kinds
of activities, often activities that were performed repeatedly in a given locale, and
that such traces can be identified even beneath earthen and stucco floors even when
such activities are not present or visible archaeologically or architecturally (Barba
et al. 1987; Barba and Manzanilla 1987; Manzanilla 1987, 1996; Manzanilla and
4.4 Multidisciplinary Approaches to Maize Biogeography 205
Barba 1990; Dahlin et al. 2007, 2009). Soil phosphorus (P concentrations) present
in archaeological sites are chemically identified concentrations of organic matter,
and have thus far, been found to provide answers for a whole host of questions
surrounding ancient economies, and the presence of food crops like maize, and even
provide direct evidence of ancient markets (Dahlin et al. 2007, 2009). As organic
materials are processed, consumed, and disposed, phosphorous constituents
released from the organic matter become fixed and adsorbed in soil particles on
the surface, where they can remain for centuries (cf. Dahlin et al. 2009; see also
Barba and Ortiz 1992; Parnell et al. 2001, 2002a, 2002b). Modern-day activities
associated with high levels of such organic soil concentrations include gardening,
waste disposal, and sweeping, which tend to push organic material to the periph-
eries of concentrated activity areas (Parnell et al. 2001; Dahlin et al. 2007, 2009).
Thus, high concentrations of phosphorus in soils and on floors may be associated
with prehistoric food preparation, consumption, storage, and disposal (Barba and
Ortiz 1992; Fernandez et al. 2002). Interdisciplinary evidence combined with
oxygen and strontium isotope analysis and the identification of mineral and phos-
phorus concentrations from soils have the potential to also identify ritual and
funerary activities areas and spaces (Barba et al. 1995; Manzilla 1997). Many
metallic ions can also remain stable in soils for long periods in the form of adsorbed
and precipitated ions on clay surfaces, or as insoluble oxides, sulfates, or carbonates
(Lindsay 1979; Wells et al. 2000). Trace metal extraction and ICP/MS or AES
(inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry or atomic emission spectroscopy)
analyses of soil and floor samples at various Mesoamerican sites such as Piedras
Negras, Cancuen, and Aguateca, Guatemala, have provided evidence of a whole
host of activities, that are often not visible archaeologically (Cook et al. 2006;
Parnell et al. 2002b; Terry et al. 2004; Wells et al. 2000).
The methodological approaches to isotopic and biochemical analysis of residues in
bone, tooth calculus, residues in pottery as well as in soils and stucco floors suggest
that such data can provide precise information on what was consumed, paleodiet, the
movements of consumables, and human and animal populations as well as distinguish
patterns of heavy use areas involved in food preparation, consumption, and disposal.
The geochemical signatures of organic residues and minerals in soils and ancient
architecture appear to have the capacity to identify such activity even from relatively
low use areas and not just high traffic areas that were deliberately kept clean, as is
common in ceremonial centers and plazas (see, e.g., Dahlin et al. 2009). Such data are
also having a profound effect on our perceptions of the organization and structure of
ancient New World economies, and the role of maize within and on such sociocultural
developments and forms of social organization.
4.4 Multidisciplinary Approaches to Maize Biogeography
Multidisciplinary research was conducted at the late Valdivia earthen mound at La

Emerenciana in El Oro Province, Ecuador has uncovered evidence of early agricul-
ture and the presence of maize (Fig. 4.12). The research involved both regional
Fig. 4.12 Provinces of coastal Ecuador showing the various archaeological sites pertaining to the
Valdivia culture, which have been the subject of microfossil research on early maize and also late
Valdivia sites with ceramic affinities to what has been identified in the Arenillas River Valley at La
Emerenciana, in El Oro Province. Chronology of coastal Ecuador based upon uncalibrated
radiocarbon dates
settlement survey and large-scale excavations and multidisciplinary lines of evi-

dence have been documented and indicate the presence of maize between 4200 and
3800 B.P. (Staller 1994, 1996, 2003, 2007a; Staller and Thompson 2000, 2002;
Tykot and Staller 2002; Ubelaker and Bubniak Jones 2002). Valdivia occupations in
this region correspond to the final portion of the Early Formative Period (Fig. 4.13).
The southern coast of Ecuador represents a barrier island estuarine environment of
slow moving undulating rivers and a progradational geomorphology (Staller 1994,
2000, 2001a,b). The Guayas Estuary is a conduit for a variety of smaller coastal
streams that empty into the main estuary channel, the Canal de Jambel. The Ro
Arenillas and Buenavista are located in the southern portion of the Guayas Estuary in
the Gulf of Guayaquil (Staller 1994, 2000). Coastal El Oro represents an ecotone or
transitional environmental zone. Some ecologists have maintained that ecotones are
potentially suitable for agricultural innovation by early agriculturalists (Harris 1972).
Coastal El Oro represents the southernmost extent of the moist tropical environ-
ments in the Guayas Basin, and the northernmost extent of the dry desert coasts of
Peru. The Pampas de Cayanca and adjacent coastal savanna near Huaquillas are the
driest areas of coastal El Oro (Fig. 4.14), with an average annual rainfall of only
129 mm at Zorritos, just across the Peruvian border. The areas to the southeast
extending to the political border with Peru are drier and therefore experience an
increase in evapotranspiration behind the mangrove forest, creating slightly greater
salt accumulation on the intertidal salt flats, than in the area between the Ro
Arenillas and Buenavista. The lowlands along the Ro Buenavista are periodically
flooded, forming a complex network of freshwater swamps. Explorations along the
immediate margins of the Ro Buenavista indicate the presence of late Valdivia
sites located upstream about 5 km inland and sherds collected by local villagers
suggest such sites extend to the foothills of the Andes, which are 15 km from the
coast (Staller 1994). La Emerenciana is situated on the landward edge of the salitral
or intertidal salt flats along the western banks of the Ro Buenavista directly
adjacent to the existing stream channel (Fig. 4.15). The prehistoric midden is on a
fossil beach ridge about 2 km south of the active shoreline (Staller 1994, p. 202).
The fossil beach ridge under La Emerenciana is one of a series of such topographic
features and represents the earliest and highest of the ridges identified in survey in
this area of southern Ecuador (Staller 1994, p. 202). Large-scale aerial photos
indicated that the site was within immediate access of the mud flats, lagoons,
ponds, and mangrove forest as well as fresh water swamps and salt marshes on
both sides of the Ro Buenavista between Puerto Jel and the town of Santa Rosa
(see Fig. 4.14). The close proximity of the Ro Buenavista also makes this location
favorable for seasonal cultivation, although the overall setting implies an economic
focus based on resources from the estuary and mangrove forest (Staller 1994,
p. 202). The climate of coastal El Oro is classified as semi-arid, and distinguished
by a marked annual variation of wet and dry seasons (Ferdon 1950; Parker and Carr
1992). The region has a 9-month long dry season restricting plant cultivation, and
the societies in this region have depended to a great extent on hunting terrestrial
mammals and exploitation of maritime and aquatic resources from the coastal
lagoons and streams (Fig. 4.16). The mangrove forest along the Ro Arenillas
Fig. 4.13 Chronology of coastal Ecuador based on uncalibrated radiocarbon dates
provides a shelter for breeding and is an important spawning ground for a number of
species of fish, shrimp, and crustaceans (Parker and Carr 1992, p. 18).
Late Valdivia occupations in coastal El Oro Province are distinguished by the
presence of the earliest stirrup-spout and single spout bottles identified thus far in
the Andes (Staller 1994, 1996, 2001b). Certain vessel forms and their associated
stylistic attributes, such as open bowls and red on white banded motifs, are
emblematic of the earliest pottery complexes of southern highland Ecuador and
northern Peru as well as the Initial Period of pottery along the coast (Fig. 4.17a, b).
Stirrup spout and single spout bottles are important to archaeological reconstruction
because they are diagnostic of later Andean effigy and funerary vessels, and their
distinctive shape and presence have been used to trace the spread of pottery
technology in the Andes and other regions of the Americas (Ford 1969; Estrada
et al. 1964; Meggers et al. 1965; Lathrap 1970, 1974; Lathrap et al. 1975; Holm
1980; Coe 1994b; Bruhns 1994; DeBoer 2003; Lunniss 2008). The research in
Fig. 4.14 Southern coastal Ecuador showing the study area and the various toponyms of the
region. This region of the Ecuadorian coast represents a dry tropical estuary protected by barrier-
islands largely made up of mangrove trees and xerophytic vegetation. Massive shell mounds, some
reaching 3040 m in height, were identified near the Peruvian border before recent shrimp
farming. Such shell middens and faunal remains from excavations even at more inland sites
from various time periods suggest a long-term dependence upon aquatic and maritime resources.
southern El Oro Province represents the earliest presence of such bottle forms, as
well as pedestal bowls, and these formal and stylistic patterns appear to have
influenced later ceramic traditions (Staller 1994, 1996, 2007b; see also Holm
1980; DeBoer 2003; Lunniss 2008). There is archaeological evidence to indicate
that such ceramics and stylistic patterns spread with maize and Spondylus and
Strombus shell objects in the context of a religious cult (Staller 2007b; see also
Collier 1946; Collier and Murra 1943; Hocquenghem 1993). Thorny Oyster (Spon-
dylus spp.) is currently perceived as synonymous with the Andean word mullu,
Blower (2001) presents ethnohistoric and ethnographic evidence indicating it was a
form of mullu, possibly the most important element in sacrificial offerings left at
huacas (Blower 2001, pp. 209; Hocquenghem 1993; Hocquenghem et al. 1993).
Spondylus has a multifaceted role in Andean cosmology. It has female symbolic
associations, it is a symbol of sexuality, fertility (both agricultural and human),
and rain, and it was often offered at huacas especially springs and rivers as a
sacrificial offering (Murra 1975 (1972); Paulsen 1974; Davidson 1981; Hocquen-
ghem 1991, 1993; Burger 1992; Pillsbury 1996; Reinhard 1998). There also appears
to be an interrelationship between Spondylus and concepts surrounding the vagina
dentada, female sex, water, fertility, and mullu (Pillsbury 1996, pp. 323, 331333;
Hocquenghem 1993, pp. 702703; Blower 2001, pp. 218). The archaeological
research from this region of coastal Ecuador has generated evidence of early
Fig. 4.15 Topographic map of La Emerenciana. Portions of the earthen mound had been modified
by shrimp pond construction. The site is situated on a fossil beach ridge on the inter-tidal mud flats
or salitral. The beach ridge is one of several identified in regional survey, and rises 2.5 m above sea
level. Large-scale excavations involving vertical trenches and meter excavation units were focused
over the course of several field seasons upon the NW platform mound. A smaller SE earthen
mound is situated under the buildings, south of the site datum
agriculture and the presence of maize, and the ceramic diagnostics pertaining to the
Valdivia occupations in this region have provided compelling evidence of being a
major source region for the spread of ceramic technology to surrounding regions of
the Andes and the origins of Andean civilization (Staller 2001a,b, 2007a,b).
Fig. 4.16 Most habitations in this region of coastal Ecuador were made of cane with thatch roofs.
Traditional habitations located in the midst of the lagoons are generally situated on natural hills or
rises, and built on logs made from red mangrove (Rhizophora spp.). One reason for this adaptive
pattern is that the region is subject to the sometimes-catastrophic effects of El Nino Southern
Oscillation (Photograph by John E. Staller)
Specifically, the spread of various ceramic vessels associated with the consumption
and preparation of maize and Thorny Oyster (Spondylus princeps) and Strombus
conch (Strombus galeotus), shell species that play a central role in ancient Andean
religious belief from the beginnings of complex sociocultural development to the
arrival of the Spaniards (Staller 1994, 2007b; Lunniss 2008; see also Hocquenghem
1991; Hocquenghem et al. 1993; DeBoer 2003).
4.4.1 Ethnobotanic and Isotopic Research at La Emerenciana
Archaeological excavations on the earthen mound at La Emerenciana involved

the documentation of the architectural details and archaeological features associ-
ated with an earthen ceremonial mound on the NW sector of the site (Fig. 4.18)
(Staller 1994, pp. 249283). Excavation at the earthen mound at La Emerenciana
was by natural stratigraphic layers in intervals corresponding to the vertical and
horizontal extent of the layers and differentiated on the basis of the physical
properties of the strata following the conformities and contours of the sediments
(see also Staller 1994, 2001b). Two living floors were identified and all of the
residue samples that produced evidence of maize, as well as the skeletons from the
burials were taken from either floor one or two (Staller 1994, 2001b; Staller and
Thompson 2002; Tykot and Staller 2002; Ubelaker and Bubniak Jones 2002).
Carbon residue samples from the late Valdivia pottery at La Emerenciana have
produced the earliest directly dated microfossil evidence for maize in the Andes
(Staller and Thompson 2002, Table 9a; Thompson and Staller 2001). A total of ten
sherd samples were analyzed and microfossil samples were also taken from the
Fig. 4.17 (A) Diagnostic vessel shape categories based on reconstruction of excavated ceramic at
La Emerenciana and materials from excavations and regional survey at other Valdivia sites. The
stirrup and single spout bottles represent the earliest identified thus far in the Andes. (a) These
ceramics represent various utilitarian wares that functioned either as serving vessels or were used
for processing food and drink. (b) These ceramics are interpreted as ritual vessels associated with
high status individuals that include composite forms, that is vessels made up of distinct component
parts, such as the bottle forms and pedestal bowls. Most early Valdivia pottery is coiled.
dental calculus of two of the La Emerenciana skeletons (Fig. 4.19). The dental
samples provide an independent line of evidence that indicate maize was actually
consumed by Valdivia occupants of the site. In combining multiple lines of
evidence to answering questions directed at the presence and consumption of
maize, these data directly address some of the methodological and contextual
concerns outlined in previous chapters regarding the recovery of plant microfossils
from archaeological soils. Since only small amounts of carbon were required for
processing, two of the organic residue samples were directly AMS dated (see
Tables 4.3 and 4.4). The 13C to 12C ratios of 21.9 and 25.8 would normally
suggest that maize played a minor to insignificant role in the diet if not for the fact
that rondel phytoliths were identified on the dentition of two of the La Emerenciana
burials and the food residues analyzed from archaeological features also pointed to
C4 plant consumption (Staller 2003; Staller and Thompson 2002). Given the recent
research by Hart et al. (2007b) on stable isotope analysis of cooking residues, the
isotopic signature could be explained on the basis of containing green or fresh
kernels. Kernels would have been kept moist in such constricted containers until
they spouted and it would have been the spouted kernels (joras) that would have
been used to make the beer. These results support previously published by the
author that the stable isotope and ethnobotanical results as reflecting the primary
consumption of maize as a vegetable (rather than a flour) and in the form of a
fermented intoxicant, that is maize beer or chicha (Staller 2003, 2006b, 2008b,
2007a, b; Staller and Thompson 2002; Tykot and Staller 2002).
Thompson also used paper chromatography to trace the chemical composition
for the presence of phenolic compounds in the charred botanical samples (Staller
and Thompson 2002, p. 40, Fig. 10). Amino acid composition of charred remains
was compared using a modification of the technique developed by Ugent
(1994, pp. 217218). Thus, opal phytolith analysis obtained from carbon isotopes
was compared to results on the chemical composition of the phytolith (Staller and
Thompson 2002).
These different analytical laboratory techniques verified the presence of maize at
La Emerenciana, and assessed its importance to the ancient subsistence economy.
Archaeological features identified on the earthen mound in association with the
primary occupation layer (Floor 2) were either architectural features associated
with the construction of retaining walls funerary deposits or represented the mate-
rial remains of ritual offerings (Table 4.5, Fig. 4.15). The ceremonial mound
appears to have been kept meticulously clean, and there was no evidence whatso-
ever of domestic activities. Seven of the ten sherd samples are from the late
Valdivia living floor 2 (Stratum 5) (see Tables 4.5 and 4.6) (Staller and Thompson
2002, Fig. 6). One of the residue samples was taken from a constricted jar with red
<
Fig. 4.17 (Continued) Composite vessels are characteristic of many later and contemporaneous
early ceramic traditions in highland and coastal Ecuador and the earliest pottery in coastal Peru.
(B) Sherds from stirrup spout vessels associated with late Valdivia occupations in coastal El Oro
Province. Evidence of single and stirrup spout pottery was identified in nine of the eleven Valdivia
sites identified in regional survey
Fig. 4.18 Excavations on the NW sector of La Emerenciana showing the various units, trenches,
and stratigraphic profiles. All three burials and samples from archaeological features involved in
residue analysis were taken from trenches C and D
on white banded decoration on the body and broad line incisions on the rim exterior
(Fig. 4.20). The constricted jar from feature 65 was in a clay-lined pit and appears to
have been left as a ritual offering. It showed the strongest evidence for maize and
Fig. 4.19 Distribution of Archaeological features at La Emerenciana: Trench and unit excavations
showing horizontal distribution of archaeological features and the locations of the various late
Valdivia burials and those features from which carbon residues from pottery were taken are
highlighted
was deposited upside down in the clay-lined pit and smashed in place and then the
pit was sealed by a hard packed clay (Staller and Thompson 2002: 44, Table 9a).
Three food residue samples from other archaeological features on the mound show
clear evidence of maize opal phytoliths are all associated with the living floor
2 occupations (Fig. 4.21a, b). All four of the late Valdivia burials from La
Emerenciana were upright bundle burials, fully articulated primary interments
that were interred in burial pits lined with what is interpreted as junco grass (Staller
1994, pp. 304312; Ubelaker and Bubniak Jones 2002). Such burial patterns are
consistent with contemporaneous internments at preceramic sites in coastal Peru
(see Staller 1994). The burials are all stratigraphically associated with Stratum 5
(floor 2), the gray ash layer (see Staller and Thompson 2002, Table 6). Burial 1 was
an incomplete skeleton, with the upper torso and the cranium missing, while the
dental calculus from Burials 2 and 4 produced maize phytoliths, the subadult Burial
3, did not (Staller and Thompson 2002). Each of the ten samples was composed of
less than 0.1 g of food residue. Table 4.5 provides information on the provenience
of the food residue samples and Table 4.6 a detailed description of the stratigraphic
layers in which the Valdivia burials were placed. Figures 4.18 and 4.19 show their
relative locations in the excavations (see also Staller and Thompson 2002).
Ethnobotanic evidence generated from the pottery residues at La Emerenciana
documenting the presence of maize, is complemented and supported by stable
isotope results from three of four burials uncovered in the earthen platform mound
Table 4.5 Proveniences of La Emerenciana food residue samples

A. Catalog No. 5480 B. Catalog No. 5485
Provenience: N37W122 trench D Provenience: N38W122 trench D
Stratum: 5 Stratum: 5
Feature: 1 (South platform) (pottery Feature: 70 (offering of an upright olla found on
smashed on north edge of the platform) the surface of the middle smashed olla filled with
shell, faunal, and organic remains)
C. Catalog No. 5623 D. Catalog No. 5430
Provenience: N41W122 Trench D Provenience: N41W126 Trench C
Feature: 65 (pit offering with smashed Feature: 47 (post impression with smashed and
and upturned constricted jar) burned pot at the base)
E. Catalog No. 5618 F. Catalog No. 4268
Provenience: N41W122 trench D Provenience: N37W124 Cut 3
Feature: 137 (storage pit) Sherd from surface of stratum 5
G. Catalog No. 5546 H.Catalog No. 5534
Provenience: N44W122 trench D Provenience: N34W122 trench D
Feature: 114 (clay lined offering pit) Feature: 90 (clay lined offering pit)
I. Catalog No. 4135 J. Catalog No. 5429
Provenience: N40W116 Cut 5 Provenience: N42W123 Cut 6
Feature: 56 (mounded offering of shell, Feature: 117 (Burial pit, burial 4)
faunal remains, and smashed pottery)
and these data indicate that maize was a minor component of the diet (Tykot and
Staller 2002). Analysis of over fifty formative skeletons from other Valdivia sites
such as Real Alto and Loma Alta, as well as the type site and later formative period
sites indicated that maize does not become essential to the diet until the Late
Formative Period (see Fig. 4.13) (see van der Merwe et al. 1993). Numerous
microfossil researches have been carried out in this region of Ecuadorian coast,
and many of these studies have provided important data on maize biogeography and
the role of maize in early pottery cultures in this area of the Neotropics (Pearsall
1978, 1999, 2002; Pearsall et al. 2003; Pearsall and Piperno 1990; Chandler-Ezell
et al. 2006). The stable isotope results represent quantitative data sets which speaks
directly to diet and thus its early role in the Valdivia subsistence diet. The stable
isotope residues of the pottery residues appear to support previous research with
Valdivia skeletons, as well as burial remains from other formative sites from Andean
South America (Tykot and Staller 2002: Table 3, Figure 5; see also van der Merwe
et al. 1993; Tykot et al. 2006). Maize does not appear to have played a major dietary
role in the Andean economy until much later than had been previously reported
using approaches with associated rather than direct dates with evidence for maize.
The multidisciplinary evidence generated by the research at La Emerenciana and
its ceramic and skeletal collection is compelling in that it provides independent
lines of internally consistent data that together, speak directly of the importance of
applying multidisciplinary methodological approaches to our understanding of
Table 4.6 Primary stratigraphic layers at La Emerenciana, El Oro province, Ecuador

Stratum Depth Horizon Color Description
6 055 cm. A 10yr 5/310yr 5/4 Brown fine silty loam, loosely
consolidated in the upper levels
more dense in the lower levels,
with evidence of bioturbation.
Artifact and shell remains in
the uppermost levels (Living
Floor 3) (fluvial deposit)
5 1593 cm. B 10yr 6/110yr 5/1 Homogeneous gray ashy loam,
loosely packed, very fine
texture, the consistency of talc,
fine quartz inclusions with
artifact and shell remains in the
uppermost levels of the stratum.
(Living Floor 2).
(ethnostratigraphic)
4 3692 cm. C 10yr 8/3 White dune sand, finely textured
very loosely consolidated, with
calcium carbonate inclusions in
the upper levels. (eolian
deposit)
3 78145 cm. Bwn 7.5yr 6/47.5yr 7/4 Pink quartz sand finely textured
well consolidated, free of
inclusions. (Living Floor 1)
(ethnostratigraphic)
2 64134 cm. Bwk 2.5y 8/62.5y 8/8 Yellow sand finely textured,
loosely consolidated, with
calcium carbonate and small
(3 mm 1 cm.) beach pebble
inclusions. (eolian deposit)
1 97 cm C 5y 8/25y 8/4 Olive white sand, finely textured,
moderately packed with small
(3 mm2 cm) beach pebble and
calcium carbonate inclusions.
(fluvial deposit)
Note: All soil colors are classified using the Munsell Soil Color Chart 1975 Edition. Depths are
given as below datum, and indicated as minimum and maximum levels which of course varied in
different areas of the excavations. (after Staller 1994, Table 14)
maize biogeography and economic importance (Benz and Staller 2006; see also
Staller et al. 2006). The archaeological, ethnobotanical, isotopic, and settlement
pattern data are consistent in breath and scope to what has been presented in the
early pioneering research on maize origins and spread, and at various levels directly
challenges earlier and subsequent microfossil research on the antiquity and role of
maize to Early Formative Period cultures of coastal Ecuador27 (Meggers 1966;
27
The archaeological soils of coastal Ecuador have not been conducive to the preservation of
pollen or macrobotanical remains (see Pearsall 1978; Pearsall and Piperno 1990). Some maize
macrobotanicals have been identified, but with few exceptions, most are from more recent
archaeological contexts (see Zevallos et al. 1977; Staller 1994; Pearsall 2003).
Fig. 4.20 One of the residue samples was taken from this constricted jar, which was placed upside
down in a pit Feature 65 and smashed in place as part of a termination ritual offering. Red on white
banded pottery styles are later integrated into a wide variety of the earliest ceramic traditions
identified archaeologically in highland Ecuador and northern highland and coastal Peru.
Fig. 4.21 (a) Rondel cob phytoliths identified in food residues from late Valdivia pottery at La
Emerenciana, Ecuador. The image shows a decorated rondel in planar view and at 1,000X
magnification. (b) Tilted rondel shows the constriction in the middle of the phytolith, and the
projections from one face and is at 1,000X magnification. (Courtesy of Robert G. Thompson)
Meggers et al. 1965; Lathrap et al. 1975; see also Pearsall 1978, 1999, 2002;
Pearsall and Piperno 1990, 1993; Piperno and Pearsall 1998). Ethnobotanical
remains from carbon residues in excavated late Valdivia pottery, and stable isotope
analysis of human collagen and apatite from pre-Hispanic burials provided
quantitative data sets for the role and importance of maize and its early introduction
to this region of the Neotropics (Staller 2003, 2007a,b). Settlement pattern data
provide additional independent lines of evidence supporting the interpretations
regarding the dietary significance of maize and its role in the ancient economy
(Staller 2000). Settlement patterns of all prehistoric sites in the study area indicated
the existence of a two-tiered hierarchy of site size and function including sites with
artificial earthen mounds and occupations situated further inland from the coast
along the coastal streams beginning in the formative periods (Fig. 4.22a, b) (Staller
1994, 2000). Early formative settlement patterns in the region are primarily located
along the fossil beach ridge and around the lagoons with only three of the nine
identified situated along the Arenillas River. These patterns are consistent with a
broad spectrum subsistence adaptation, as suggested by the stable carbon isotope
evidence (Tykot and Staller 2002), and mentioned by various scholars for other
regions of the Americas for early agricultural societies. Furthermore, the Late
Formative Period settlement patterns show a clear shift to riverine locations and
direct access to alluvial soils, typical of agricultural societies in other regions of the
Neotropics. Moreover, there is a significant increase in the number of sites and site
size, although La Emerenciana was the largest pre-Hispanic site identified for any
time period in this region (Staller 1994). Changes in earthen mound architecture
between Early and Late Formative sites indicates a shift from earthen mound sites
with two oval mounds delimited by retaining walls for the Valdivia settlements, to
groupings of four circular earthen mounds in the Late Formative Period patterns
(Staller 2000; see also Lunniss 2008). An increase from nine early formative to
twenty-four late formative period settlements, further supports the multidisciplin-
ary evidence from La Emerenciana that the adaptive shift to agriculture did not
occur until this time in this region of coastal Ecuador. The settlement data also
indicate an increase in carrying capacity associated with an agricultural economy in
the Late Formative Period and such evidence is consistent with settlement patterns
of early agricultural sites throughout the Americas. These settlement results are also
consistent with the stable isotope evidence on paleodiet from other regions of the
Andes (Tykot and Staller 2002: Table 3, Figure 5; Tykot et al. 2006) which indicate
that maize was a minor component in the diet until about 300 B.C. in Peru and 1000
800 B.C. in coastal Ecuador (see also van der Merwe et al. 1993).
4.4.2 Advantages to Multidisciplinary Approaches
The ever intensifying pace of field and laboratory research in the social and
biological sciences in the last three decades has, as evident in this and previous
chapters of this book, produced a wide variety of scientific evidence bearing
particularly on the issue of the origins, spread, and economic role of maize in the
New World prehistory and the rise of civilization. The previous chapters make
clearly evident that despite the intensity of such research, there still remains
significant disagreements over the chronology, contextual integrity, and the posi-
tive identification of maize pollen as well as opal phytoliths from archaeological
Fig. 4.22a (a) Early Formative Period settlement patterns in southern coastal El Oro Province,
Ecuador. All Valdivia settlements in this region correspond to the final portion of the culture
sequence and are dated between 2200 and 1450 B.C. on the basis of 14C dates and stylistic attributes
of the ceramics. (b) Late Formative Period settlement patterns in southern coastal El Oro Province,
Ecuador. In contrast to other regions of coastal Ecuador, occupations pertaining to this time period
correspond chronologically to between c. 1400 and 500 B.C. There was no evidence of Machalilla
occupations and all Valdivia/Machalilla transitional pottery was dominated by red on white
slipped banded wares, similar to what has been reported by archaeologists in the nearby southern
highlands of Ecuador
sediments as well as macrobotanical remains. Food residue analysis appear to

alleviate much of the chronological and contextual issues that have typically
surrounded analysis of plant microfossils from lake cores and archaeological
soils, and collagen and isotope analysis of ancient skeletons directly address the
question of the role of maize in such ancient economies (Thompson 2006, 2007;
Tykot 2006; Tykot et al. 2006; Tykot and Staller 2002; Holst et al. 2007). When
such lines of evidence are combined with regional settlement patterns of the
Formative Period sequence, they provide a robust body of multidisciplinary data
from which to address these important scientific questions surrounding Z. mays.

(Staller 2003; Staller and Thompson 2000, 2002; Tykot and Staller 2002; Tykot
et al. 2006).
Despite the enduring controversy over the phylogeny, origins, chronology,
macrobotanical identification, and routes of dispersal of maize, most scholars of
Andean prehistory would agree that the pre-Hispanic subsistence patterns indicate
considerable chronological and spatial variability, particularly when terrestrial,
marine, or riverine fauna were regularly available for exploitation (Staller 2000;
Staller and Thompson 2002). A general review of the radiocarbon evidence by
Michael Blake (2006) has indicated that many of these discrepancies regarding the
early presence of maize are related to whether dates were associated or direct. His
research has indicated that when reviewing the earliest associated dates from both
the highland and lowland regions of the Neotropics, they are generally more ancient
than directly dated macrobotanicals or macrofossils. On the other hand, in areas of
the Americas where maize appears later, direct dates tend to be older than dates by
association (Blake 2006; see also Hastorf et al. 2006; Chavez and Thompson 2006;
Hart et al. 2003, 2007a). These published reports emphasize the importance of
direct dating of maize macrobotanicals and microfossils. The evidence from La
Emerenciana and regional settlement data from coastal El Oro Province reaffirms
the advantages of direct dates from residues, particularly in light of the fact that
many of the associated dates published from this region are as much as 3,000 years
older (e.g., Pearsall 1999, 2002, 2003, Pearsall and Piperno 1990; Pearsall et al.
2003; Piperno et al. 2009).
The ethnohistoric accounts clearly indicate that European perceptions of the
New World and the various plants and animals which existed in this hemisphere at
that time were largely conditioned by sixteenth century perceptions based on what
was known at that time from pre-Linnaean herbals. Those documents convey a very
different perception of the origin and to a lesser extent the role of maize in the New
World economies. In fact, many Europeans thought that maize came from the Far
East. It is apparent from the analysis of the history of science surrounding the
origins of maize and from subsequent archaeological research and theory on its role
in ancient New World economies that these earlier perceptions may have played a
larger role in our current worldwide reliance on maize than had been previously
supposed or even considered. Over the past 30 years, the methodological and
technological breakthroughs in the study of maize origins and biogeography have
greatly expanded our understanding of its role and early spread, this is particularly
true for the research from molecular biology. The diverse and different data sets
generated by these more recent approaches, have provided a more comprehensive
and complex synthesis to our understanding of early plant and animal domestica-
tion, and particularly to the role of maize in such developmental processes. These
recent data have considerably set the limits for how future scholars will pursue
research and scientific questions surrounding the antiquity and location(s) of where
early domestication event(s) occurred and how these developmental processes were
related to the spread of maize to different regions of the Americas. It is evident from
the previous analysis that direct dating of macrobotanical remains and plant
microfossils should be a prerequisite for future studies, particularly in light of the

discrepancies that have appeared in the published literature in the past three decades
regarding the earliest presence of maize.
As evidence in the previous chapter and again above, these recent archeobota-
nical advances in the study of pollen, opal phytoliths from archaeological soils, and
more recently from carbon residues in ancient pottery has dramatically modified
our understanding of the biogeography of and antiquity of maize in the Americas
(Thompson 2006, 2007; Thompson and Staller 2001a,b, 2003; Staller and Thomp-
son 2000, 2002; Chavez and Thompson 2006; Sluyter and Dominguez 2006;
Lusteck 2006; Hastorf et al. 2006). It is now readily apparent that when maize
cobs or microfossils are dated by association, as in the case of pollen and phytoliths
from archaeological soils, the chronologies and presence of maize is quite different
than when samples are directly AMS dated as in the case of macrobotanicals or food
residues from ancient pottery (see, e.g., Long et al. 1989; Benz and Long 1999;
Blake 2006; Thompson 2006, 2007; Thompson and Staller 2001a, b, 2003; Staller
and Thompson 2000, 2002; Chavez and Thompson 2006).
Data from the biological and molecular sciences has clearly had a profound
influence on archaeologists and ethnobotanists working on domestication and
origins of maize. The morphological difference between maize cobs and teosinte
spikes appears to have had a major role in explaining why it took scholars so long to
establish these evolutionary relationships. One of the most significant break-
throughs has been molecular research on maize DNA as these studies have set the
limits on what can be said scientifically with regard to early maize morphology and
biogeography. The maize genome project and the breakdown of microsatellites at
the level of DNA have not only produced compelling evidence for the origins of
maize, but the research on su1 and tga1 genes have had on maize morphology has
been startling and iconoclastic on a number of different levels (Dorweiler 1996;
Dorweiler and Doebley 1997; Doebley et al. 1987, 1990, 1997, 2006; Matsuoka
et al. 2002; Whitt et al. 2002; Freitas et al. 2003; Jaenicke-Despres et al. 2003;
Jaenicke-Despres and Smith 2006). The earlier genetic studies involved in under-
standing the molecular basis for maize morphology have now made it necessary for
scholars to rethink their previous perceptions of the bottleneck phenomenon and the
role of human selection to the creations of the incredible diversity of maize land-
races existing in the present day (Doebley and Wang 1997, Doreweiler 1996;
Dorwieler and Doebley 1997; Dorweiler et al. 1993; Eyre-Walker et al. 1998;
Benz 2001; Staller 2003; Thompson 2006, 2007; Hart and Matson 2009; Hart
et al. 2007a, b; Hart and Matson 2009). The breakthroughs in recent research on
maize are truly remarkable and most scholars are only recently beginning to absorb
the implications of these data. It is my hope that this book will provide readers and
scholars who are interested in this fascinating and remarkable plant, a basis for
beginning to appreciate the broader implications of what this research tells us about
early agriculture and plant domestication.
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Index
A Annual teosintes, 100, 106, 129, 156

Accelerator Mass Spectrometer 14C dating Anthers, 130
(AMS), 155157, 159, 163, 174, 178, 180, Anthropology, 3, 4, 88, 94, 98
184, 187, 191, 196, 197, 203, 223 Apatite, 218
Accountants, 53 Aquatic resources, 35, 40, 41, 175, 207
Adaptation Arawakan, 9, 22, 23, 51, 72, 80. See also
archaic, 164, 178 TanoArawak
early, 149, 182, 186 Archaeology, 2
human, 90, 149, 163, 186 Archaic, 3, 87, 100, 102, 108, 112, 118, 123,
plant, 88, 139, 143, 149, 173, 177, 142, 144, 164, 169, 177, 178,
178, 182, 186 181, 200
Agave, 44, 72, 73, 100 Asia, 2, 17, 20, 22, 27, 51, 80, 91, 95
Agricultural economy, 2, 88, 91, 112, Atole, 73
151, 163, 165, 167, 169, 185, 219 Auxiliary catalyst, 72
Agriculture, 1, 2, 4, 3641, 8592, 98, Ayllu, 49, 56, 58, 82
112, 117, 123, 135, 137, 138, 149, 150, Aztec, 10, 12, 3540, 4345, 59,
152155, 159167, 173175, 178, 6269, 71, 72, 81, 82
181, 182, 184188, 191, 210, 219, 223 Aztlan, 36, 68, 69
Agronomy, 235, 236
Alcoholic beverages, 71, 74. See
also Beer; Chicha; Fermented B
intoxicants; Tesquino Balche, 73
Allele. See su1 allele for starch Beans, 24, 31, 35, 3943, 45, 52,
Allelic variation, 92, 127128, 145, 146 63, 70, 72, 73, 81, 87, 90, 107,
Amaranth, 35, 37, 40, 43, 65, 66 152155, 163, 169, 175, 177, 180, 181
Amazon, 32, 74, 114, 169 Beer, 23, 32, 47, 49, 51, 53, 55, 56, 58,
Amerindian, 8, 14, 15, 33, 95, 113, 151, 166, 7072, 7478, 81, 82, 180, 213
175, 184 Beer, maize, 23, 47, 50, 53, 55, 56, 58,
Anagenesis, 5, 142, 145 7081, 83. See also Chicha; Tesquino;
Andean civilization, 4558, 210 Tezvin
Andes, 16, 39, 45, 5155, 58, 71, 7480, Bible, 14, 80
82, 83, 114, 126, 140, 147, 151, 159, Biogeography, 1, 5, 6, 19, 123, 127, 128,
178, 184, 207, 208, 210212, 219 132, 137, 140, 142, 143, 172, 179, 181,
257
258 Index
184187, 190197, 199, 204, 206211, Chinampas, 3740, 66, 81

216, 222, 223 Chontal Maya, 4043, 61
Bread, 24, 25, 27, 29, 30, 32, 34, 35, 43, Chromosome, 99, 105107, 118,
55, 62, 63, 66, 67, 80, 88 121, 122, 128, 132
Chroniclers, 3, 14, 15, 2325, 29,
32, 35, 40, 50, 53, 55, 58, 65,
C 6975, 77, 81, 82
C3 Clades, 192
diet, 203 Cladogenesis, 5, 145
foods, 197 Clergy, 8, 17
photosynthetic pathway, 131, 203 Climate, 3, 41, 66, 131, 174, 177,
C4 180, 204, 207
diet, 203 Codex
foods, 196 codices, 58
photosynthetic pathway, 131, 203 Dresden, 59, 60
Cacao, 18, 34, 35, 40, 41, 44, 177 Cognate, 114
Calabash, 30 Colonial
Calculus, 196, 197, 199, 203, 205, 213, 215 accounts, 14, 15, 68
Calendar, 66, 70, 75 government, 139
Cuzco, 52, 56, 75, 7779 officials, 9, 10, 14, 16, 45
Mesoamerican, 70 Columbus, C., 8, 9, 14, 20, 23, 31, 32
solar, 56 Conquest, 710, 16, 17, 19, 35, 36, 4345,
Carbon residues, 5, 6, 126, 156, 185, 187, 48, 53, 55, 7274, 155
193, 195, 197, 199, 200, 204, 215, 218, Conquistadores, 9, 12, 14, 15, 35, 36,
223 46, 81
Carrying capacity, 165, 219 Conscious selection, 5, 86, 92, 95, 112,
Cassava, 2325, 2932 127, 128, 132, 137, 138, 140, 142145,
Catholic Church, 12 165, 167, 170, 183. See also
Catholicism, 7, 62 Unconscious selection; Human selection
Central America, 5, 20, 3245, 51, 81, Contact period, 8, 37, 40, 41, 68, 173
99, 112, 147, 170, 172, 191, 194 Conversion, religious, 9, 113
Ceramic Cooking, 24, 32, 53, 193, 197, 212
bottles, 212 Coprolites, 102, 104, 185, 197, 199
griddles, 34 Coricancha, 16, 56, 77
residues, 187 Corn, 19, 21, 27, 114117, 131. See also
technology, 87, 210 Indian Corn; Korn; pod corn
vessels, 34, 211 Cornstalk, 31, 71, 72
Chaldeans, 14 Cortes, H., 10, 72
Charles V Cortez, H., 82
Holy Roman Emperor, 1013 Cosmology, 23, 55, 89, 209
King of Spain, 10, 11, 13 Costa Rica, 26, 32, 81, 185, 191
Chiapas, Mexico, 41, 73, 174 Coxcatlan Cave, 102, 103, 107, 124,
Chicha, 47, 5258, 71, 7480, 213. 164, 174
See also Maize beer Crassculacean acid metabolism (CAM)
Chicomecoatl, maize goddess, 64 Cross-body, 201
Chile, 8, 18, 43, 47, 52, 55, 65, 72, Cult, 49, 56, 63, 80, 209
100, 126, 138, 141 Cultivation, 3, 16, 26, 31, 3643, 47,
Chili peppers, 175 49, 68, 73, 81, 100, 114, 115, 117, 137,
Index 259
143, 150, 151, 154, 165, 168185, highlands, 220

188, 191, 207 lowlands 74
Culture, ethnic identity, 82 El Riego, 107
Cupules, cupulate fruitcase, 3 Encomiendas, 41, 43, 70, 81
Curcurbit, 17, 35, 43, 153, 199 Espanola, 31
Cycad, 106 Ethnobotany, 4, 86, 121, 167
Ethnohistoric
accounts, 3, 7, 14, 15, 17, 31, 55, 56,
D 66, 74, 79, 80, 83, 95, 115, 222
Darwin, C., 117, 138 documents, 16
Darwinian, 89 relaciones, 15
Daz, 28, 34, 42. See also Bernal Daz del scholars, 26
Castillo Ethnohistory, 3, 4, 783
Daz del Castillo, B., 9, 2829, 34, Europe, 1, 8, 1013, 1522, 24, 25, 31,
35, 39, 42, 43 54, 71, 90, 91, 94, 95
Dietary, 131, 175, 203204, 216, 219. European
See also Paleodiet aristocracy, 8, 12, 14, 36
Dispersal, seed dispersal, 98, 156, New World contact, 31, 154
169, 184 Evolution, 3, 6, 88, 102, 119, 127, 132,
DNA 137, 139, 144146, 170, 172, 181
ancient, 146, 165, 172
markers, 127
F
microsatellites, 172, 223
Fermentation, 32, 33, 51, 71, 72, 107, 118
Doebley, J., 6, 97, 106, 112, 121, 122,
Fermented beverages, 73. See also
128, 129, 141146, 157, 158, 165, 169,
Intoxicants
171, 172, 181, 184, 193, 199, 201, 223
Fermented intoxicants, 51, 56, 58, 71,
Domestication, 26, 85, 86, 89, 9193, 95,
72, 74
97, 98, 102, 108, 112, 114, 115,
Flannery, Kent V., 3, 6, 8890, 94, 100,
117119, 121123, 126129, 133,
102, 124, 150152, 154, 159, 163, 165,
137, 141, 143, 146, 149152,
166, 175177, 179182, 196
154187, 192, 196, 199, 222
Flour, 6, 33, 35, 43, 44, 63, 66, 72, 77,
Dominican, 16, 26
87, 107, 112, 125, 132, 193, 197, 213
Dorweiler, J., 6, 92, 106, 142, 143, 145,
Folk taxonomy, 114, 117, 138, 139
146, 159, 171, 184, 193, 199, 201, 223
Formative
Drought, 24, 38, 44, 66, 82, 87, 97, 156
concept of, 8690
Duran, D., 63
definition, 88, 89
Franciscans, 16, 17, 41, 81
Fruitcase, 3, 96
E Fuchs, L., 19, 2729
Ears, 3, 18, 24, 35, 45, 64, 65, 99, 104, Fungi, 69, 130
106, 107, 114, 123, 127, 177. See also
Maize ears; Ear morphology
Ear morphology, 22, 98, 104, 122, 127, G
135, 136, 142, 143, 145 Genetic
Early Formative Period, 125, 194, 196, founder effect, 95
207, 217, 219 bottleneck, 95, 145, 146, 223
Ecuador phenomenon, 142
ceremonial centers in, 56, 58, 205 drift, 95
260 Index
Geochemical, 202205 K
German, 19, 27, 29, 80 Kiche Maya, 72
Glume, 6, 92, 96, 103, 105, 115119, Kernel, 5, 2224, 28, 3134, 44, 45, 51,
129, 146, 159, 171, 193, 199, 201 62, 63, 65, 66, 70, 71, 73, 77, 78, 83,
Grain, 13, 19, 22, 24, 25, 27, 40, 44, 47, 97, 98, 104, 105, 107, 113, 114, 117,
53, 62, 64, 7072, 80, 81, 83, 87, 8993, 118, 121, 122, 125127, 129, 131134,
100, 102, 113118, 150, 163, 183, 136, 138, 139, 142145, 149, 167, 177,
185191, 195, 196, 199201 180, 183, 190, 196, 197, 213
Greek, 12, 19, 27, 29 Korn, 19, 80
Griddle, 32, 34
Guaman Poma, 49, 50, 52, 5458, 75,
76, 82 L
Guarani, 115 La Emerenciana, 196, 207, 210219
Guila Naquitz, 6, 91, 124, 127, 146, Landraces, 22, 70, 71, 90, 92, 96, 107, 117,
156, 157, 180, 181, 190, 191 118, 127, 128, 131147, 156, 171, 182,
Gulf Coast, 35, 37, 40, 41, 45, 69, 72, 183, 192, 193. See also Clades
81, 191 Late Formative Period, 219, 220
Latin, 17, 19, 24, 27, 29, 80, 95, 123, 126,
135, 137140, 144, 147
Linguistics (historical linguistics), 1, 98,
H
114, 136
Habsburg
Linnaean taxonomy, 19
House of, 13
Linnaeus, C. (Carl von Linne), 19, 31, 113
Herbal (Pre-Linnaean herbals), 19, 20, 23
Lipids, 186, 193, 203
Hieroglyphic writing, 17
Lippy, W., 202
Huaca, 56, 58, 7477, 79, 82
Human selection, 6, 69, 73, 127, 134, 138,
146, 151, 165, 169, 172, 178, 183, 199, M
223 MacNeish, Richard S., 2, 4, 93, 102, 103,
Husk, 78, 104, 114, 195, 199 107, 122124, 135, 153, 154, 163, 166,
173178, 182, 185, 201
Macrobotanical, 5, 6, 93, 102, 107, 110,
I 111, 126, 127, 137, 142, 155, 156, 174,
Iltis, H., 1, 2, 3, 6, 92, 94, 99, 100, 102, 177, 179, 181, 182, 185, 186, 188, 192,
106, 118, 119, 121, 122, 124, 129, 130, 195, 196, 201, 202, 221223
132, 134, 154, 156, 164, 171, 172, 184, Maize. See also DNA
190, 201 antiquity, 5, 107, 127, 184, 190, 223
Inca, 10, 12, 16, 35, 36, 46, 47, 4958, beer, 23, 50, 51, 53, 55, 56, 58,
7479, 82 7081, 83
Indian corn, 19, 80, 117 biogeography, 141, 191196, 199,
Indigenous 205211, 216, 217
culture, 14, 51, 70, 80, 95 chaff, 192
classification, 19, 31, 80 genetic variation, 92, 117
economies, 4, 26, 39, 45, 82 macrobotanical remains, 93, 102, 107,
Inflorescence, 93, 96, 106, 118, 129, 132, 196, 221, 222
134, 156, 158, 164, 193 microfossils, 123, 126, 144, 149, 156,
Intoxicants, 47, 51, 56, 58, 7174, 81, 213 179, 189, 194, 195, 198, 199, 201
Isotopes, 4, 149, 177, 193, 197, 198, microsatellite analysis, 172
202205, 213, 215, 216, 218, 219, 221 morphological variation of, 123
Index 261
origins of, 1, 2, 6, 86, 94100, 104, 108, P

109, 112, 118, 119, 128, 134, 135, Paleodiet, 4, 149, 177, 202205, 219
149, 173, 174, 179, 181, 196, 222 Pepper, 17, 18, 34, 35, 43, 51, 65, 71,
races, 2, 142, 144146 72, 75, 76, 154, 175
tassels, 96, 132 Peru
Maize beer, 50, 51, 53, 55, 56, 58, coastal, 48, 81, 213, 218
7081, 83 highland, 111
Maize ear, 18, 24, 35, 44, 63, 99, 104, Phenotype (phenotypic), 6, 78, 98, 117,
106, 114, 123 118, 127, 131, 134, 136139, 142, 143,
Maize God (young Maize God), 5961, 145, 171, 179, 181, 189, 201
64, 66, 82 Photosynthesis, 202, 203
Mangelsdorf, P. C., 2, 4, 5, 15, 9295, 97, Phylogeny, 5, 95, 98, 99, 102, 119,
99103, 107, 109, 112, 114122, 129, 123, 128, 132, 133, 137, 142, 143,
131, 132, 134137, 139142, 144, 150, 145, 222
154, 164, 166, 167, 170, 173, 177, 178, Phytolith, 46, 93, 126, 146, 149, 155,
182, 189, 190, 201 159, 162, 172, 184188, 191202, 213,
Mangrove, 207, 209, 211 215, 218, 219, 223
Manioc, 2326, 32, 40, 48, 49, 88, 150, Pod corn, 103, 105, 109, 112, 114119,
154, 185, 186 132, 137, 144
Mano, 28, 32, 167, 168, 185 Pollen
Maritime resources, 32, 69, 81, 209 analysis, 188191
Mass spectrometer, 184 core, 170, 185, 190, 191, 200
Maya (Mayan), 15, 17, 30, 3237, 42, grains, 188191
51, 5860, 62, 67, 69, 71, 73, 78, 82, Popcorn, 27, 29, 30, 32, 78, 100, 104,
134, 167 121, 132, 136, 141, 142, 144
Metate, 28, 32, 33, 87, 167, 168, 185 Popol Vuh, 32, 59
Microfossil analysis, 155 Preceramic period, 178
Microsatellite genotyping, Pulque, kinds of, 67, 7173
Milpa, 32, 38, 62, 97, 156, 167, 170
Mita, 49, 52, 55, 56
Molecular, 6, 85, 91, 93, 99, 112, 122124, Q
128, 131, 141143, 145, 146, 158, 171, Quechua, 50, 76
172, 187, 192, 222, 223
R
N Rachis, 96, 117, 164, 184
Nahuatl (Nahua), 38, 43, 51, 68, 71 Rome, 12, 14
Neotropics, 2, 6, 25, 47, 58, 83, 86, 90, Rondels, 192, 193, 195, 196, 198,
107, 112, 114, 127, 137, 140142, 200202, 212, 217
150152, 154, 156, 163, 165, 172, 180,
184, 187, 191, 192, 199, 216, 219, 222
New World S
agriculture, 151 Sapa Inca, 57, 78, 79
plants, 24 Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM),
106, 155, 179, 184, 189, 190
Sedentism, 90
O Seed dispersal, 98, 156, 169, 184
Oaxaca, valley of, 125, 172, 173, 177, Setaria, 100, 102
179184, 188 Silica, 4, 146, 155, 159, 192194, 200, 201
262 Index
Spain (New Spain), 813, 15, 17, 20, 24, Tenochtitlan, 35, 36, 39, 40, 43, 67, 68, 74
25, 41, 43, 47, 54, 137 Teosinte branched-1 (Tb1), 129, 143
Spondylus oyster shell, 41, 209. See also Teosintes, 2, 3, 5, 72, 92, 96100, 102,
Thorny Oyster 104109, 112, 117123, 125130, 132,
Squash, 17, 24, 31, 40, 45, 65, 70, 90, 138140, 143, 145, 146, 156159, 169,
107, 152154, 163, 169, 175, 177, 172, 188191, 193, 199201, 223
180, 181, 199, 200 Tesquino, 71, 72, 74
Stable carbon isotope analysis, 202 Tezvin, 67, 70, 73
Starch grain analysis, 93, 199 Tga1, 92, 129, 146, 159, 171, 193, 199,
Strombus conch, 211 200, 201, 223
su1 allele for starch, 126 Thorny Oyster, 41, 209, 211
Subsistence, 3, 4, 17, 31, 32, 58, 82, 90, Three sisters, 175
95, 126, 141, 163, 175, 177, 181, 182, Tripsacum, 94, 105109, 112, 118124,
186, 188, 213, 216, 219, 222 129, 130, 146, 188, 190, 191, 198
Tularosa cave, 125, 126
Turkey (also Turky), 2022, 35, 43, 45,
T 63, 151, 175, 176
Tano-Arawak, 19, 22, 23, 51, 72, 80
Tamaulipas, 102, 123, 124, 172174 U
Tassel, 96, 98, 106, 121, 129, 130, 132, Unconscious selection, 5, 95, 144
135, 144, 156, 158, 189, 199
Taxonomy, 19, 107, 127, 128, 132, 133,
181, 192 W
Tehuacan valley, 72, 91, 103, 105, 107, Wave of advance, 91
109, 122, 124, 125, 127, 151, 164, 166, Wheat, 13, 19, 2125, 30, 35, 47, 70,
170, 172179, 181, 182, 184, 188, 190 80, 86, 87, 163, 165

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Maize Cobs and Cultures: History of Zea mays L.

Maize Cobs and Cultures:

ISBN: 978-3-642-04505-9 e-ISBN: 978-3-642-04506-6

Library of Congress Control Number: 2009938015

# Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2010

This book is a product of long-term research interest in maize and domestication

Chicago, September 2009 John E. Staller

1 An Introduction to Maize Cobs and Cultures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

2 Ethnohistory: Impressions and Perceptions of Maize . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

3 Scientific, Botanical, and Biological Research on Maize . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85

3.2 Archaeological, Botanical, and Biological Research

4 Ethnobotanic, Interdisciplinary, and Multidisciplinary

4.3.5 Ethnobotanic Approaches to the Origins of Maize:

Hypothesis, which assumes multiple origins or domestication events and pursued

2.1 Ethnohistoric and Ethnographic Perceptions of Maize

varying degrees by sixteenth century European perceptions and cultural biases

The original documents of the agreement or collaboration between the Spanish

2.1.1 Consequences of Conquest and Empire

of constructing an American Isthmus canal in Panama as early as 1520 (Haskin

2.1.2 Western Perceptions of New World Cultures

habitable world or oecumene to be 180 or half the earths circumference, thus

2.2 Using Sixteenth Century Accounts

2.2.1 Early Pre-Linnaean Botanicals

2.2.2 Earliest Sixteenth Century Accounts

Fig. 2.5b (Continued)

Fig. 2.9 The earliest printed

2.3 Central America and Mexico

Hidalgo, and its southward control extended to approximately the Mexico-Guate-

2.3.1 Sixteenth Century Agriculture and Plant Cultivation

incorporated as part of greater Tenochtitlan. It also had pyramids, palaces, and

2.3.2 Maize and the Chontal Maya

2.3.3 Storage and Redistribution: Mesoamerican Accounts

The importance of maize to the Spaniards is clearly evidenced in these accounts.

2.4 First Impressions of Andean Civilization

a form of reciprocity to subject communities primarily involved the manufacture of

2.4.1 Storage, Tribute, and Redistribution in the Andes

2.4.2 Maize and Andean Political Economy

2.5 Maize and Ancient Religion

Fig. 2.22a (a) Maya

Fig. 2.22b (Continued)

2.5.1 Maize and Religious Uses and Rites

Fig. 2.23b (Continued)

(Chicomecoatl) has metaphorical reference to the catastrophic destruction brought

2.5.2 Maize: Religious Significance to Mesoamerican Civilization

2.5.3 Early Accounts on Maize Alcohol Consumption

2.5.4 Maize Beer and Pulque in Mesoamerica

2.5.5 Maize Beer in Ritual and Religion in the Andes

2.6 Maize Ethnohistory: Summary and Conclusions

3.1 Introduction on a History of Science on Maize

This chapter takes an historical approach to maize research. It is focused on early

3.1.1 Comparing and Contrasting Old and New World

The archaeological, botanical, and biological research on maize in American

germinate. The gradual interdependence and changes in the adaptation associated

and the successful socioeconomic integration of such an agriculture into well-

3.1.2 Research on the Rise of Early Agriculture

such as demographic change in prehistoric Europe (Richards 2003), as well as for

The underlying presumption of a multiple origin model was to have a pro-

3.2 Archaeological, Botanical, and Biological Research

3.2.1 Early Botanical and Biological Research

extent to which archaeologists were predisposed to look to the other sub-fields

habitable world or oecumene to be 180 or half the earths circumference, thus